Sedimentology (1996) 43, 133-155

Sedimentology of a lacustrine fan-delta system, Miocene Horse

Camp Formation, Nevada, USA
BRIAN K . H O R T O N " and JAMES G. SCHMITT
Department of Earth Sciences, Montana State University, Bozeman, h4T 5971 7, U S A

ABSTRACT

A 1600-m-thick succession of the Miocene Horse Camp Formation (Member 2)

exposed in east-central Nevada records predominantly terrigenous clastic
deposition in subaerial and subaqueous fan-delta environments and nearshore and
offshore lacustrine environments. These four depositional environments are
distinguished by particular associations of individual facies (14 defined facies).
Subaerial and subaqueous fan-delta facies associations include: ungraded, matrixand clast-supported conglomerate; normally graded, matrix- and clast-supported
conglomerate; ungraded and normally graded sandstone: and massive to poorly
laminated mudstone. Subaqueous fan-delta deposits typically have dewatering
structures, distorted bedding and interbedded mudstone. The subaerial fan-delta
environment was characterized by debris flows, hyperconcentrated flows and minor
sheetfloods; the subaqueous fan-delta environment by debris flows, high- and
low-density turbidity currents, and suspension fallout.
The nearshore lacustrine facies association provides examples of deposits and
processes rarely documented in lacustrine environments. High-energy oscillatory
wave currents, probably related to a large fetch, reworked grains as large as 2 cm
into horizontally stratified sand and gravel. Offshore-directed currents produced
uncommonly large (typically 1-2 m thick) trough cross-stratified sandstone. In
addition, stromatolitic carbonate interbedded with stratified coarse sandstone and
conglomerate suggests a dynamic environment characterized by episodic
terrigenous clastic deposition under high-energy conditions alternating with periods
of carbonate precipitation under reduced energy conditions. Massive and normally
graded sandstone and massive to poorly laminated mudstone characterize the
offshore lacustrine facies association and record deposition by turbidity currents
and suspension fallout.
A depositional model constructed for the Horse Camp Formation (Member 2)
precludes the existence of all four depositional environments at any particular time.
Rather, phases characterized by deposition in subaerial fan, nearshore lacustrine
and offshore lacustrine environments alternated with phases of subaerial fan-delta,
subaqueous fan-delta and offshore lacustrine deposition. This model suggests that
high-energy nearshore currents due to deep water along the lake margin reworked
sediment of the fan edge, thus preventing development of a subaqueous fan-delta
environment and promoting development of a well-defined nearshore lacustrine
environment. Low-energy nearshore currents induced by shallow water along the
*Present address: Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.
(

' 1996 International Association of Sedimentologists

133

134 B. K. Horton and J. G. Schmitt

lake margin favoured development of a subaqueous fan-delta whose clastic i n p u t

overwhelmed lake-margin sediment-reworking processes a n d inhibited development
of a nearshore lacustrine environment.
INTRODUCTION
A fan-delta is an alluvial fan deposited directly
into a standing body of water (McPherson et al.,
1987; Nemec & Steel, 1988). Although alluvial fan
and lacustrine deposits are commonly associated
with each other (e.g. Link & Osborne, 1978;
Tucker, 1978; Ballance, 1984; Golia & Stewart,
1984), documented examples of lacustrine fandelta deposits (e.g. Gloppen & Steel, 1981; Nemec
et al., 1984; Billi et al., 1991) are relatively
uncommon. In fact, most lacustrine delta deposits
of ancient and modern systems are dominated by
facies indicative of fluvial deposition (e.g. Link &
Osborne, 1978; Sneh, 1979; Dunne & Hempton,
1984; Link et al., 1985; Frostick & Reid, 1986;
Chough et al., 1990; Changsong et al., 1991;
Glover & O'Beirne, 1994) and may be classified as
deposits of braid deltas (McPherson et al., 1987).
One reason for the lack of documented lacustrine
fan-delta deposits, particularly those dominated
by facies indicative of mass-flow processes, may
be related to inherent difficulties in the distinction between subaerial and subaqueous fan
deposits. Recognition of an ancient subaqueous
fan deposit relies upon distinctions between
facies of subaerial and subaqueous affinity. Some
workers suggest that a facies assemblage characteristic of a shoreline or beach environment
may serve as an important stratigraphic marker
between subaerial and subaqueous fan-delta
deposits (e.g. Wescott & Ethridge, 1983; Bourgeois
& Leithold, 1984; Link et al., 1985; Colella, 1988;
Pivnik, 1990; Renaut & Owen, 1991).
This study focuses on interfingered coarsegrained siliciclastic alluvial fan and finer grained
carbonate and siliciclastic lacustrine strata of the
Miocene Horse Camp Formation of east-central
Nevada (Fig. 1). The excellent exposure of these
units provides an opportunity to document the
sedimentary processes and palaeoenvironments
of a coarse-grained alluvial fan and adjacent lake
basin. In particular, because this close association
of subaerial fan and lacustrine deposits suggests
the possibility of subaqueous fan deposition,
detailed facies analysis was undertaken in order
to distinguish characteristic facies associations
of the constituent depositional environments.
Four facies associations are attributed to unique
depositional processes within subaerial fan-delta,
('

Pliocene-Quaternary alluvium

Miocene Horse Camp Formation

(Members 3 and 4)
o Miocene Horse Camp Formation
(Member 2)
Miocene Horse Camp Formation
(Member 1)
Oligocene volcanic rocks
Paleozoic sedimentary rocks

normal fault
ticks on hanging
wall (upper plate)

transverse fault
arrows show
relative offset

Fig. 1.Location map of Horse Camp Formation, eastcentral Nevada. SWPR, southern White Pine Range;
HR, Horse Range; NGR, northern Grant Range; RV,
Railroad Valley; CSFZ, Currant Summit fault zone;
NRRF, northern segment of Ragged Ridge fault; RRF,
Ragged Ridge fault; RVF, Railroad Valley fault. After
Moores et al. (1968).

subaqueous fan-delta, nearshore lacustrine and

offshore lacustrine environments. This investigation indicates that detailed facies analysis
facilitates a distinction between subaerial and
subaqueous fan deposits in a single stratigraphic
sequence and, in general, provides a better understanding of the depositional processes of subaerial fan environments, lacustrine environments
and their transitions.

1996 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimmtology, 43, 133-155

Lacustrine fan-delta system 135

GEOLOGICAL SETTING

The southernmost exposures of the Horse Camp

Formation (Fig. 2) are the product of prolonged
deposition along the southern margin of a
Miocene extensional basin. Basin subsidence and
Horse Camp deposition occurred during eastwest extension and synchronous uplift of the
White Pine Range to the north and Grant Range to
the south (Walker et al., 1992; Brown, 1993; Lund
et af., 1993; Horton, 1994). The northern and
southern basin margins correspond to the Currant
Summit and Ragged Ridge fault zones, respectively (Fig. 1). These east-striking basin-margin
structures are interpreted as transfer faults or
accommodation faults that separate areas of differential extension (Schmitt et al., 1993). Subsidence of the Miocene extensional basin was
controlled by these two transverse faults and an
inferred, north-striking, west-dipping normal
fault (northern segment of the Ragged Ridge fault)
in the Horse Range to the east (Fig. 1).From latest
Miocene to Holocene time, the basin-fill sequence
(Horse Camp Formation) was uplifted and tilted
to the east as part of the rising footwall of the
west-dipping Railroad Valley fault (Fig. 1). The
subsiding hangingwall of this fault defines a
modern basin, Railroad Valley, to the west
(Fig. 1).
The Horse Camp Formation is a 3000-m-thick
sequence of conglomerate and sandstone with
minor amounts of mudstone, carbonate, megabreccia and volcanic tuff breccia (Moores, 1968).
The maximum possible age of the Horse Camp
Formation is constrained by the age of the
youngest underlying Oligocene volcanic unit
(4"Ar/3"Ar date of 26.2 f 0.5 Ma for biotite and
sanidine of the Shingle Pass Formation; Taylor
et a f . , 1989). A camel skull of Barstovian age in
the lower half of the formation (T. Fouch, pers.
comm., 1991) and gastropods and ostracods of
Barstovian-Clarendonian age in the upper strata
of the formation (Van Houten, 1956; Moores,
1968) reveal a Miocene age, roughly 25-20 Ma to
10-5 Ma, for the Horse Camp Formation.
Moores (1968) divided the Horse Camp Formation into four unconformity-bounded members.
Member 1 contains a 300-600-m-thick sequence
of conglomerate and sandstone deposited within
a system of alluvial fans along the northern,
western and southern margins of the basin
(Brown, 1993; Fig. 1). Member 2 contains a 15002000-m-thick sequence of conglomerate, sandstone, mudstone and carbonate deposited within
a fan-delta system along the southern basin

margin and a nearshore to offshore lacustrine

system in the central and northern part of the
basin (this study; Fig. 1).Members 1 and 2 comprise -2500 m of the Horse Camp Formation.
Poorly exposed conglomerate and sandstone of
Members 3 and 4 account for <500 m of the Horse
Camp Formation and represent alluvial deposition in the central and eastern parts of the basin
(Moores, 1968; Fig. 1).

FACIES ANALYSIS

Facies analysis of Member 2 of the Horse Camp

Formation utilizes variations in grain size, primary sedimentary structures, grading and matrix
content (Table 1).These facies are characteristic
of fan-delta and lacustrine depositional environments dominated by sediment gravity flows. Most
facies have characteristics that could have been
produced by either a subaerial or a subaqueous
mode of deposition. This quality does not suggest
that a single facies has subaerial and subaqueous
components that can be correlated laterally.
Rather, the subaerial and subaqueous versions
of an individual facies type have similar, but
discernible, physical characteristics.

Facies Gmu

Ungraded, m a trix-s upported conglomerate

This facies consists of ungraded to weakly
inversely graded, poorly to very poorly sorted,
matrix-supported, granule-boulder conglomerate
(Fig. 3a,b). Typical clast sizes are 1-30cm in
diameter, but outsized clasts (>50 cm) are common. Outsized clasts commonly project above the
tops of beds. The matrix consists of mud or
muddy sand. Facies Gmu lacks internal stratification. Moderately to poorly developed, coarsetail inverse grading is rare. Beds of Gmu are
10-200 cm thick and can be traced laterally for
tens of metres. Most Gmu boundaries are planar
and nonerosional, although some basal load structures (similar to Fig. 3c) are present in intervals
with interbedded mudstone (Fm).

Interpretation
Facies Gmu is attributed to deposition by subaerial or subaqueous plastic debris flows
(Gloppen & Steel, 1981; Neinec & Steel, 1984;
Shultz, 1984; Ghibaudo, 1992). The lack of basal
scour or clast imbrication indicates laminar

1996 International Association of Sedirnentologists, Sedimentology, 43, 133-155

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Lacustrine fan-delta system 1 3 7

Table 1. Lithofacies of Member 2, Horse Camp Formation. Facies codes are modified from Miall (1977) and
Waresback & Turbeville (1990).
Facies
Gmu
Gmn
Gcu

Gcn
Gh
Sm

Description

Interpretation

Poorly sorted granule-boulder conglomerate:

matrix support, no grading or poor inverse grading
Poorly sorted granule-boulder conglomerate;
matrix support, normal grading
Poorly sorted granule-boulder conglomerate;
clast support, no grading or poor inverse grading
Poorly sorted granule-boulder conglomerate:
clast support, normal grading
Moderately sorted granule-pebble conglomerate:
clast support, no grading, horizontal stratification
Medium- to very coarse-grained sandstone;
no grading or poor inverse grading, no
stratification, outsized granule-pebble clasts
Fine- to very coarse-grained sandstone; normal
grading, no stratification, basal granulepebble clasts
Fine- to very coarse-grained sandstone;
no grading, horizontal stratification

Sn

Sh

Sr
St
Frn
Clm

Vtb
Vmb

Very fine- to coarse-grained sandstone:

no grading, ripple cross lamination
Very fine- to coarse-grained sandstone:
no grading, trough cross stratification
Massive or poorly laminated mudstone;
no grading, mudcracks
Massive or laminated carbonate; stromatolitic
hemispheroid laminations, secondary ooids
and pisoids, coarse sand-pebble lenses
Rhyolitic-dacitic tuff breccia: angular clasts,
no bedding or flow structures, rare xenoliths
Megabreccia of Oligocene volcanic rock; jigsaw
and crackle brecciation, mixed with
substrate sand and mud, folded substrate

(nonturbulent) flow during sediment transport

(Enos, 1977). The sediment support mechanisms
of these viscous debris flows were matrix strength
and dispersive pressure (Lowe, 1979, 1982).
Debris was deposited en masse (cohesive freezing) when the applied shear stress decreased
below the yield strength of the material (Lowe,
1979). The Gmu deposits that exhibit an upward increase in matrix content and contain

Plastic debris flows

Pseudoplastic debris flows
Plastic or pseudoplastic
clast-rich debris flows;
hyperconcentrated flows
Hyperconcentrated flows;
high-density turbidity currents
Sheetfloods: wave-driven
traction
Hyperconcentrated flows;
high-density turbidity
currents
Hyperconcentrated flows:
high- or low-density
turbidity currents
Sheetfloods: wave-driven
traction; high- or lowdensity turbidity currents
Migrating wave and
current ripples
Migrating dunes or bars
Waning flood flows;
suspension fallout
Carbonate precipitation
and binding of calcareous
sediment by algal mats
Pyroclastic flows;
pyroclastic debris flows
Rock avalanches

basal load and flame structures and abundant

interbedded mudstone (Fm) are interpreted as
products of water admixture and associated
decrease in matrix strength during transport,
rapid escape of pore fluid from a saturated
substrate during deposition and post-debris
flow suspension fallout, processes suggestive of
deposition in a subaqueous environment (Nemec
& Steel, 1984).

Fig. 2. Logs of measured stratigraphic sections of the southern exposures of the Horse Camp Formation (Member 2).
Inset (see Fig. 1):location of dip-corrected sections. All correlations are based upon laterally continuous lithostratigraphic units, typically sandstone, carbonate or volcanic units, except the lowest correlation between Sections 5-8
and the correlation linking Sections 3-5 which are air-photograph-based strike correlations projected across covered
intervals. Horton (1994) presents more detailed versions of the nine stratigraphic sections.
(

1996 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 43,133-155

138 B. K. Horton and J. G. Schmitt

I(,

1996 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 43, 133-155

Lacustrine fan-delta system 139

Facies Gmn

Norm ally graded, m a trix-supported

conglomerate
Normally graded, moderately to poorly sorted,
matrix-supported, granule-boulder conglomerate
(Fig. 3a,c) is the most abundant facies of the study
area. Clasts 5-20 cm in diameter are abundant.
Outsized clasts (>50 cm), usually found at the
base of individual beds, are uncommon. The
matrix is composed of mud or muddy sand. This
facies lacks internal stratification but contains
coarse-tail normal grading. Beds of Gmn are
2-50 cm thick, extend laterally for tens of metres
and have planar, nonerosional bases. Some distinctive beds of this facies (Fig. 3c) are characterized by horizontally aligned clasts, an upward
increase in matrix content, and bases with load
and flame structures. These beds are commonly
interbedded with mudstone (Fm).

Interpretation
Facies Gmn is interpreted as deposits of subaerial
or subaqueous pseudoplastic debris flows (Shultz,
1984; Pivnik, 1990). Nonerosional bases indicate
laminar flow (Enos, 1977), but abundant normal
grading and common horizontal alignment of
clasts suggest occasional turbulent flow during
transport (Nemec & Steel, 1984; Rust & Koster,
1984). These dilute (less viscous) debris flows
probably had low matrix strength and low dispersive pressure during transport (Shultz, 1984).
Therefore, the Gmn deposits of pseudoplastic
debris flows are generally thinner, finer grained
and better graded than the Gmu deposits of plastic debris flows. The Gmn beds that contain horizontally aligned clasts, an upward increase in
matrix content, load structures, flame structures
and interbedded mudstone are attributed to subaqueous deposition (Nemec & Steel, 1984; Pivnik,
1990). These subaqueous deposits record the
effects of increased turbulence and decreased
matrix strength associated with water admixture
into moving debris flows, syndepositional escape

of substrate pore fluids and post-debris flow

suspension fallout.

Facies Gcu
Ungraded, clast-supported conglomerate
This facies comprises ungraded to inversely
graded, moderately to very poorly sorted, clastsupported, granule-boulder conglomerate (Fig.
Sa,b,d,e). A muddy sand matrix (typically
20-50% of the deposit) surrounds the clastsupported framework. Gcu deposits are unstratified and lack clast imbrication. A few beds exhibit
moderately to poorly developed, coarse-tail
inverse grading. Gcu beds are 2-200 cm thick,
extend laterally for tens of metres and commonly
have planar, nonerosional bases. There are two
distinct forms of facies Gcu: (1)a 2-20-cm-thick,
moderately sorted, granule-pebble conglomerate
(Fig. 3a,b,d) commonly interbedded with ungraded to normally graded sandstone (Sm, Sn)
and (2) a 20-200-cm-thick, poorly to very poorly
sorted, cobble-boulder conglomerate rarely exhibiting a lenticular geometry and erosional base
(Fig. 3e).

Interpretation
Facies Gcu is interpreted as deposits of subaerial,
plastic or pseudoplastic, clast-rich debris flows
(Shultz, 1984; Waresback & Turbeville, 1990) or
subaerial hyperconcentrated flows (Smith, 1986;
DeCelles et al., 1991). Thick Gcu beds with
cobble-boulder clasts are interpreted as plastic or
pseudoplastic, clast-rich debris flows. The sediment support mechanisms of these debris flows
include matrix strength, dispersive pressure
(Lowe, 1979, 1982) and, due to high clast concentration, buoyancy (Hampton, 1979). Thin Gcu
beds dominated by granule-pebble clasts are
interpreted as the deposits of hyperconcentrated
flows. Turbulence, dispersive pressure and buoyancy are the sediment support mechanisms in
hyperconcentrated flows (Smith, 1986). The presence of considerable matrix, great lateral extent of

Fig. 3. Conglomerate facies types. (a) Facies Gmn with top-only normal grading overlain by facies Gcu and facies
Gmu. Facies Sm and Sh separate conglomerate facies. (b) Facies Gcu overlain by two beds of facies Gmu. Note thin
interbeds of facies Sm, Sh and Fm. (c) Facies Gmn: lower bed has poorly developed normal grading, upper bed has
clast-rich base. Note 80-cm-wide load structure and 10-em-high, sandstone-filled flame structure (right) of lower bed
and outsized clast of upper bed. (d) Facies Gcu interbedded with facies Sm and Fm. (e) Facies Gcu within finer
grained conglomerate and sandstone facies. Note lenticular shape and erosional base. Arrow points to hammer.
(6Facies Gcn: note upward increase in matrix content. (g) Facies Gcn with basal inverse grading and thin interbeds
of facies Sm and Fm. (h) Facies Gh and interbedded facies Sh. Note uniform grain size. Knife in (a), (b),(d), (0-(h)
is 8 cni long. Hammer in (c) and (e) is 28 ern long.
(

1996 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 43, 133-155

140 B. K. Horton and J. G. Schmitt

beds and lack of traction-produced sedimentary

structures in Gcu deposits suggests that the
deposits are not the product of fluid gravity flow.
The rare examples of cobble-boulder Gcu deposits with lenticular geometries and erosional bases
are interpreted as the deposits of clast-rich debris
flows which stopped flowing in small, ephemeral
distributary channels on a subaerial fan.

Facies Gcn

Normally graded, clast-supported

conglomerate

accounts for normal grading throughout most of

the deposit) and dispersive pressure generated in
a basal tractive layer (which accounts for basal
inverse grading). A Gcn bed directly overlain by
ungraded to normally graded sandstone (Sm, Sn)
is interpreted as an ideal depositional sequence of
a sand-gravel high-density turbidity current (see
fig. 11A of Lowe, 1982). Such deposits are
uncommon because the sand within a turbidity
current usually bypasses the site of gravel
deposition (Lowe, 1982).

Facies Gh

This facies is composed of normally graded,

moderately to poorly sorted? clast-supported,
granule-boulder conglomerate (Fig. 3f,g). Coarsetail normal grading characterizes most deposits,
but distribution normal grading (clasts and matrix
fine upward) occurs in a few beds. A muddy sand
matrix comprises 20-50% of individual Gcn
deposits. Gcn beds are unstratified and lack clast
imbrication. Beds of Gcn are 2-50 cm thick, can
be traced laterally for tens of metres, have planar,
nonerosional boundaries and are commonly
interbedded with ungraded to normally graded
sandstone (Sm, Sn). Granule-pebble Gcn beds
commonly contain horizontal clasts and display a
basal zone (lower 1-10 cm) with inverse grading
(Fig. 3g).

Interpretation
Facies Gcn is attributed to deposition by subaerial hyperconcentrated flows (Smith, 1986;
Waresback & Turbeville, 1990) or subaqueous
high-density turbidity currents (Lowe, 1982;
Chough et al., 1990). Abundant normal grading,
common basal inverse grading and common horizontal clast orientation are indicative of clast
interactions within a fluid-rich or cohesionless
flow. However, the laterally persistent bedding,
matrix-rich nature and lack of traction-produced
sedimentary structures in facies Gcn suggest that
the deposits are not the product of fluid gravity
flow. In hyperconcentrated flows, sediment is
supported by turbulence, dispersive pressure and
buoyancy (Smith, 1986). More turbulent hyperconcentrated flows probably deposited normally
graded Gcn beds, while less turbulent hyperconcentrated flows resulted in ungraded Gcu
deposits. Basal inverse grading is the result of
dispersive pressure generated by abundant clast
interactions (Lowe, 1979). Lowe (1982) states that
gravelly high-density turbidity currents carry
sediment by turbulent suspension (which

Horizon tally stratified conglomerate

Ungraded, horizontally stratified, moderately to
well-sorted, clast-supported, granule-pebble conglomerate (Fig. 3h) is a relatively uncommon
facies of Member 2. A sand matrix comprises 1040% of individual Gh deposits. Facies Gh exhibits
horizontal to gently inclined (<15")stratification
and poor imbrication. Beds of Gh are 1-50cm
thick, extend laterally for tens of metres and have
subplanar, slightly erosional to nonerosional
boundaries. A few distinctive beds of this facies
have tightly packed, well-sorted (similar grain
size and shape), subhorizontally aligned clasts
(Fig. 3h). These distinct, texturally uniform beds
are always interbedded with low-angle or horizontally stratified sandstone (Sh), ripple crosslaminated sandstone (Sr), trough cross-stratified
sandstone (St) and stromatolitic carbonate (Clm).

Interpretation
Facies Gh is interpreted as deposits of subaerial
sheetfloods or wave-driven bedload traction.
Sheetfloods were characterized by upper-flowregime plane-bed conditions and deposited on
low-relief fan surfaces (Waresback & Turbeville,
1990). Sheetfloods contained outsized clasts
( > 2 0 cm in diameter) and were associated with
debris flows and hyperconcentrated flows (facies
Gmu, Gmn, Gcu and Gcn). The distinct, texturally
uniform Gh beds are similar to wave-reworked,
gravelly beach deposits of lacustrine systems
(Tucker, 1978; Dunne & Hempton, 1984) and
marine systems (Wescott & Ethridge, 1983;
Bourgeois & Leithold, 1984; Nemec & Steel, 1984)
and represent tractional deposition beneath
shallow-water, wave-driven currents. In contrast
to Gh sheetflood deposits, these beds lack outsized clasts, have very well-defined low-angle or
horizontal stratification, and are interbedded with
sandstone (Sh, Sr, St) and carbonate (Clm).

1996 International Association of Sedimentologists, Ssdimentologv, 43, 133-155

~ ( ' ~

Lacustrine fan-delta system 141

Facies Sm

Massive sandstone
This facies includes ungraded to poorly inversely
graded, massive (unstratified), moderately to
poorly sorted, medium- to very coarse-grained
sandstone (Fig. 4a,b) with a few granule-pebble
outsized clasts. Sm beds are 0.5-15 cm thick, can
be traced laterally for several to tens of metres and
have subplanar, nonerosional or slightly erosional
boundaries. Uncommon dewatering structures
include dish and pillar structures and ball and
pillow structures. Some Sm deposits contain subvertical root casts 0.1-1 cm in diameter and
2-10 cm in length (Fig. 412).

Interpretation
Facies Sm is attributed to deposition by subaerial
hyperconcentrated flows (Smith, 1986) or subaqueous high-density turbidity currents (Lowe,
1982; Chough et al., 1990; Higgs, 1990). In both
cases, sand was rapidly deposited directly from
turbulent suspension with insufficient time for
bedform development (Lowe, 1982; Smith, 1986).
This lack of bedform development accounts for
the absence of complete turbidite sequences that
contain overlying horizontally and ripple crosslaminated sandstone (divisions B and C of
Bouma, 1962). The Sm beds with dewatering
structures and interbedded relations with mudstone (Fm), sandstone (Sn, Sh, Sr, St) and carbonate (Clm) are interpreted as subaqueous deposits.
Sm deposits with root casts are interpreted as
products of post-depositional homogenization by
plant growth processes.

Facies Sn

Norm ally graded sandstone

This facies is characterized by normally graded,
unstratified, poorly to well-sorted, fine- to very
coarse-grained sandstone (Fig. 4a,b) with
granule-pebble clasts commonly present at the
base. Beds of Sn are 0.5-15 ern thick, laterally
continuous for several to tens of metres and have
subplanar, nonerosional or slightly erosional
boundaries.

Interpretation
Facies Sn is interpreted as deposits of subaerial
hyperconcentrated flows (Smith, 1986) or subaqueous high- or low-density turbidity currents
(Lowe, 1982; Chough et al., 1990; Ghibaudo,
('

1992). In hyperconcentrated flows, sedimentation

from turbulent suspension produces normal grading, but high clast concentration generates dispersive pressure and buoyancy which prevent
bedform development. Therefore, deposition by
hyperconcentrated flows accounts for normal
grading and lack of cross-stratification in Facies
Sn (Smith, 1986). Deposition of Sn beds from
sandy, high- or low-density turbidity currents
occurs by rapid, grain-by-grain suspension sedimentation (Lowe, 1982; Ghibaudo, 1992). An
absence of overlying horizontally and ripple
cross-laminated sandstone (divisions B and C of
Bouma, 1962) suggests rapid deposition of the
sand fraction prior to bedform development. Sn
beds associated with mudstone (Fm), sandstone
(Sm, Sh, Sr, St) and carbonate (Clm) are attributed
to subaqueous deposition.

Facies Sh

Horizon tally stratified sandstone

This facies is composed of ungraded, low-angle
( 4 5 " )or horizontally stratifiedllaminated, poorly
to well-sorted, fine- to very coarse-grained sandstone (Figs 3h and 4a,b,d,e).Facies Sh beds are
0.5-200 cm thick and extend laterally for tens to
hundreds of metres. Basal boundaries are erosional and define shallow, broad scours (typically
5-30 cm deep and 0.5-20 m wide). Stratification
is commonly at a very shallow angle (<So) to the
erosional base. Low-angle to concave-upward
scours are also common within Sh beds. Some Sh
beds pass laterally into sandstone with poorly
developed trough cross-stratification (St). Four
distinct varieties of facies Sh include: (1) a
20-200-cm-thick, well-sorted sandstone interbedded with mudcracked mudstone (Fm); (2) a
0.5-5O-cm-thick, moderately sorted sandstone
with outsized granule-pebble clasts (Fig. 3h)
that is always interbedded with subhorizontally
stratified conglomerate (Gh); (3) a 0.5-15-cmthick, moderately sorted sandstone interbedded
with Sm and Sn sandstones (Fig. 4a,b); and
(4) a 1-50-cm-thick, well-sorted sandstone with
abundant dewatering structures (Fig. 4d,e).

Interpretation
Facies Sh is interpreted as deposits of subaerial
sheetfloods, wave-driven bedload traction and
high- or low-density turbidity currents. Subhorizontal stratification in sheetflood deposits is the
result of upper-flow-regime plane-bed conditions
during deposition of sand (Sh; Fed0 & Cooper,

1996 Iiiteriiatiorial Association of Sedimentologists, Sedirnentology, 43, 133-155

142 B. K. Horton and J. G. Schmitt

(;

1996 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 43, 133-155

Lacustrine fun-delta system 143

1990) and granule-pebble gravel (Gh; Waresback
& Turbeville, 1990).Thick sheetflood deposits are

commonly interbedded with mudstones (Fm) that

have abundant mudcracks. Sh beds associated
with carbonate (Clm) and subhorizontally stratified conglomerate (Gh) are interpreted as shallowwater, wave-reworked deposits (tractional deposition beneath wave currents) similar to
those described for lacustrine and marine systems
(Link & Osborne, 1978; Reineck & Singh, 1980;
Wescott & Ethridge, 1983; Dunne & Hempton,
1984; Pivnik, 1990; Casshyap & Aslam, 1992). Sh
beds associated with sandstone (Sm, Sn) and
containing dewatering structures are attributed to
tractional deposition at the base of high- or lowdensity turbidity currents (Lowe, 1982; Chough
et a]., 1990; Higgs, 1990; Pivnik, 1990; Ghibaudo,
1992). Although complete turbidite sequences are
not present, these Sh occurrences are considered
analogous to division B of Bouma (1962).

Facies Sr

Ripple cross-lam in a ted sun d s ton e

This ripple cross-laminated, well-sorted, very
fine- to coarse-grained sandstone facies (Fig. 4fl is
uncommon and exclusively interbedded with
sandstone (Sm, Sn, Sh, St), mudstone (Fm), carbonate (Clm) and horizontally stratified conglomerate (Gh). Beds of Sr are 0.5-30 cm thick, extend
laterally for several to tens of metres and have
slightly erosional basal boundaries. Climbing
ripple geometries are common. Flaser bedding is
developed where interbedded siltstone (Fm) is
common. Observed ripple foresets dip 15-30" in a
single direction or, less commonly, in opposing
directions (Fig. 40. Asymmetrical and symmetrical straight-crested ripple marks are common on
bedding surfaces. Sr deposits have an average
ripple wavelength of 5 cm and amplitude of
0.5 cm.

Interpretation
Ripple cross-lamination of facies Sr is attributed
to ripple migration and deposition (Miall, 1977;
Reineck & Singh, 1980). Asymmetrical and symmetrical ripple marks attest to both unidirectional

and bidirectional currents. Unidirectional and

bidirectional currents produced ripple geometries
in which foresets dip in a single direction and
opposing directions, respectively. The small
wavelength and amplitude of the ripple bedforms
suggest deposition in shallow water (Tucker,
1978; Martel & Gibling, 1991). Climbing ripple
geometries suggest a high sediment supply
(Reineck & Singh, 1980).

Facies St

Trough cross-stratified sandstone

This trough cross-stratified, moderately to wellsorted, very fine- to coarse-grained sandstone
facies (Fig. 4g) is uncommon and typically occurs
as a single set or coset within sandstone (Sm, Sn,
Sh, Sr). St beds are also interbedded with carbonate (Clm) and horizontally stratified conglomerate
(Gh). Gently curving, erosional bounding surfaces
define 0.4-2.2-m-thick sets of tangential trough
cross-strata that persist laterally for 5-50 m. Individual foresets dip 15-35" in the same direction
(to the north-west) and can be traced laterally for
1-8 m.

Interpretation
Facies St is interpreted as the depositional product of migrating dunes under lower-flow-regime
conditions (Miall, 1977). A common association
with ripple cross-laminated sandstone (Sr) and
carbonate (Clm) is interpreted to be the result of
shallow-water deposition. The large set thickness
of trough cross-strata suggests that migrating bedforms were subaqueous dunes or bars several
metres in height.

Facies Fm

Massive to poorly laminated mudstone

This facies is composed of ungraded, massive or
poorly laminated (0.5-10-mm-thick laminations)
mudstone (Fig. 4h). Facies Fm commonly contains mudcracks. Individual Fm beds have nonerosional bases and extend laterally for several to
tens of metres. There are two distinct occurrences
~

Fig. 4.Sandstone and mudstone facies types. (a) Facies Sm and Sn with interbedded facies Fm. (b) Facies Sn and Sm
with thin bed of poorly laminated facies Sh. Note basal inverse grading and top-only normal grading in Sn beds.
(c) Subvertical root casts in facies Sm. Knife is parallel to bedding. (d) Flame structures in facies Sh. ( e ) Ball and
pillow structures in facies Sh. [fl Facies Sr: foresets dip left. (g) Facies St and cap of facies Sh, Gh and Clm. Base of
photograph is approximate base of set. (h) Facies Fm overlain by facies Sm. Coin in (a), (b) and (d) is 2.1 cm in
diameter. Knife in (c), (e) and (f) is 8 cm long. Hammer in (g) and (h) is 2 8 cm long.
(

1996 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 43, 133-155

144 B. K.

Horton and J. G. Schmitt

of facies Fm: (1)individual, laterally discontinuous ( < l o r n ) Fm beds within conglomerate- and
coarse sandstone-dominated sequences (Figs
3b,d,g and 4a); and (2) numerous, laterally continuous (10-30 m) Fm beds within mudstone- and
fine sandstone-dominated sequences (Fig. 4h).

Interpretation
Facies Fm is interpreted as deposits of subaerial
waning flood flows (Miall, 1977) and subaqueous
suspension (with minor traction) sedimentation
(Ghibaudo, 1992). Fm deposits from waning flood
flows are thin ( < 5 cm) and laterally discontinuous
( < l o m). In contrast, Fm sequences deposited
from suspension fallout and traction are thicker
(0.1-10 m) and have greater lateral continuity
(10-30 m). These subaqueous sequences may
represent late-stage deposition by low-density
turbidity currents.

Facies Clm

Laminated or massive carbonate

The laminated (0.2-5-mm-thick laminations) or
massive carbonate facies commonly occurs as
thin (1-50 cm), laterally discontinuous (0.520 m) units within thin-bedded sandstone (Sm,
Sr, St) and conglomerate (Gh) sequences (Fig. 5a).
This facies also occurs as thick (5-30 m), laterally
continuous (50-500 m) carbonate sequences with
minor interbedded clastic sediments. Laminations are more common in these thick carbonate sequences. Carbonate laminae geometries
include convex-upward laterally linked hemispheroids (1-100 cm wavelength, 0.5-40 cm
amplitude) and crinkly to planar, subhorizontal
laminations (Fig. 5b,c). Although most Clm beds
lack fossils, abundant pelecypod fragments and
algal (charophyte) stems were found in a few
massive carbonate layers. A few irregular zones
( - 1 m thick and 2 m wide) containing ooids and
pisoids are present within the 5-30-m-thick carbonate sequences. The well-rounded but moderately spherical ooids and pisoids are of variable
size (1-20 mm in diameter), contain poorly
defined laminations ( < 3 mm thick) and typically
have carbonate intraclast nuclei (Fig. 5d).

Interpretation
Facies Clm is attributed to calcium carbonate
precipitation due to photosynthetic uptake of CO,
andlor nearshore wave agitation and warming
(

(Eugster & Kelts, 1983; Platt & Wright, 1991).

Laminated Clm structures are interpreted as stromatolites resulting from trapping and binding of
calcareous sediment by charophyte algal mats
(Dean & Fouch, 1983). Stromatolites associated
with shallow-water deposits (Gh, Sh, Sr, St), presence of fossils, lack of evaporite facies and lack of
brecciation suggest that facies Clm is a product of
carbonate precipitation within a water column
rather than pedogenic (caliche) or vadose zone
(calcrete) carbonate precipitation (e.g. Goudie,
1983). However, the few irregular ooid-pisoid
zones of facies C1.m (Fig. 5d) are not associated
with scours or traction-produced sedimentary
structures and therefore are interpreted as the
product of post-depositional carbonate precipitation (Read, 1976). Inverse grading in these zones
(Fig. 5d) also suggests a secondary, vadose zone
origin for the ooids and pisoids (Dunham, 1969).
Thus, carbonate facies Clm contains a record of
initial carbonate precipitation in a nearshore
environment with limited, post-depositional
solution and reprecipitation, including ooidpisoid formation, within the vadose zone.

Facies Vtb

Volcanic tuff breccia

This massive, poorly sorted rhyolitic-dacitic
facies contains resistant angular clasts (0.1-40 cm
diameter) within a less resistant matrix (<l-mmdiameter grains). Both clasts and matrix contain
about 20% subhedral to euhedral phenocrysts by
volume. Clasts and matrix have similar phenocryst compositions and abundances (typically
50-70% quartz, 10-30% plagioclase, 10-20%
sanidine and <5% biotite). Quartz phenocrysts
are commonly shattered. Although some clasts
are in contact with each other, most are separated
by a few millimetres of matrix. Facies Vtb typically contains 60% matrix and 40% clasts. Friable
tuff clasts, rounded Palaeozoic carbonate clasts
and large clasts (40-100 cm diameter) of bedded,
Miocene Horse Camp sandstone (Sm) are present
in matrix-rich varieties of facies Vtb. Although
outcrops of facies Vtb are laterally continuous for
tens to hundreds of metres and roughly parallel to
the underlying and overlying strata, the facies
lacks bedding structures and contains no compaction or flow foliations resulting from flattened
pumice fragments, elongate vesicles and aligned
phenocrysts. Facies Vtb is uncommon and typically associated with mudstone (Fm) and massive
and normally graded sandstone (Sm, Sn).

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Laczistrine fan-delta system 145

Fig. 5 . Laminated or massive carbonate facies (Clm). (a) Facies Clm interbedded with facies Gh and Sh. Note several
<I-cm-thick, subhorizontal beds of facies Clm. Knife is 8 cm long. (b) Convex-upward laterally linked hemispheroid
geometry of facies Clm. (c) Planar, subhorizontal, 0.2-5-mm-thick laminations of facies Clm. (d) Ooids and pisoids
of facies Clm. Note well-rounded, moderately spherical grains and poor sorting. Coin in (b)-(d) is 2.1 cm in
diameter.

Interpretation
Facies Vtb is interpreted as tuff breccia deposits
emplaced during pyroclastic eruptions. The presence of shattered crystals suggests emplacement
at an elevated temperature. A high matrix content,
poor sorting, a lack of stratification, bedding or
flow structures, and preservation of friable tuff
clasts and subhedral to euhedral crystals indicate
limited traction and turbulence within the flows.
A high sediment concentration during flow may
have prevented tractive and turbulent suspension
processes (Cole & DeCelles, 1991) and promoted
an en masse mode of deposition (Smith, 1986).

Shattered crystals, high matrix content and

poor sorting suggest that facies Vtb is not the
product of remobilized cold-state volcaniclastic
sediment gravity flows (compare with Cole &
Stanley, 1994). The few matrix-rich deposits
containing sandstone and carbonate clasts may
reflect mixing with water and entrainment of
substrate sediments as pyroclastic flows transformed into pyroclastic debris flows (Cole &
DeCelles, 1991). Intercalation with sandstone
(Sm, Sn) and mudstone (Fm) suggests that
facies Vtb was typically deposited and preserved
under low-energy conditions in a subaqueous
environment.

K 1996 International Association of Sedirnentologists, Sedimentology, 43, 133-155

146 B. K. Horton and J. G. Schmitt

Fig. 6. Volcanic megabreccia (Vmb) facies. (a) Asymmetric fold in deformed substrate zone of facies Vmb. Black line
defines folded bedding. (b) Mixed zone (MZ) and resistant, overhanging breccia sheet (BS) of facies Vmb. Arrow
points to hammer. (c) Jigsaw (JB) and crackle (CB) breccias of facies Vmb. Arrows define contact. (d) Comminuted slip
surface (arrows) from upper left to lower right separates upper crackle breccia (CB) from underlying jigsaw (JB) and
crackle (CB) breccia zone. Hammer in (a)-(d) is 28 cm long.

Facies Vmb
Volcanic bedrock megabreccia
This megabreccia facies is composed of a resistant
sheet of brecciated Oligocene volcanic bedrock
that is mixed to varying degrees with underlying
sediments. Facies Vmb contains: (1)a basal zone
of deformed substrate (Fig. 6a); (2) a mixed zone
that incorporates both substrate sediments and
clasts broken from the base of the breccia sheet
(Fig. 6b); and ( 3 ) an upper breccia sheet of resistant Oligocene volcanic rock (Fig. 6b). The breccia
sheet consists of clasts (1-30 cm diameter) of
volcanic rock (Fig. 6b-d) separated by either
minor amounts of sand and mud matrix (clastrich crackle breccia) or significant amounts of
matrix (matrix-rich jigsaw breccia; Yarnold &
Lombard, 1989; Brown, 1993). Comminuted slip
surfaces (1-5-mm-wide fractures along which
there has been limited movement; Yarnold &

Lombard, 1989; Brown, 1993) commonly separate

these two breccia types and are necessary for
internal rotation and translation within the
breccia sheet (Fig. 6d). Asymmetric to overturned
folds (1-10 m wavelength,<5 m amplitude) are
common in the basal zone of deformed substrate
(Fig. 6a). Facies Vmb has an irregular distribution
that ranges from 1 to 1 0 m thick and tens to
hundreds of metres in lateral extent. This facies is
incomplete in some areas because the breccia
sheet and mixed zone are missing and only a
disrupted zone is present. Although facies Vmb is
uncommon, occurring only at two stratigraphic
levels in the measured sections (within the lower
100 m of Sections 8 and 9 and -1200 m level of
Sections 5 and 6, Fig. Z), it is associated with most
facies identified in this study. Facies Vmb is
similar to lower megabreccia deposits within the
Horse Camp Formation (Member 1) described by
Brown (1993).

d , 199fi International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedmmtology, 43, 133-155

Lacustrine fan-delta system 1 4 7

Interpretation

Facies Vmb is interpreted as megabreccia deposits

of pre-existing volcanic bedrock emplaced during
rock avalanches (Yarnold, 1993). Therefore, this
facies is not directly related to volcanic eruptions.
Rock avalanches moved downslope as rapid
inertial granular flows (Yarnold, 1993). Active
particle layers that facilitated sliding along the
base of the rock avalanche (Campbell, 1989;
Brown, 1993) are probably preserved as mixed
zones that contain particles derived from the
substrate and breccia sheet (Fig. 6b). Simple shear
along the base of the sheet accounts for asymmetric to overturned folds in the deformed substrate zone of facies Vmb (Fig. 6 4 . Jigsaw and
crackle breccia reflect differing degrees of brecciation within the landslide mass (Fig. 6c,d).
Comminuted slip surfaces separate jigsaw and
crackle breccias (Fig. 6d) and may represent
accommodation surfaces permitting differential
deformation within the breccia sheet (Brown,
1993). The lateral discontinuity of breccia sheets
of facies Vmb suggests that the sheets broke up
into discrete masses during rock avalanche
movement.

FACIES ASSOCIATIONS AND

DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS

Facies analysis has facilitated identification of

four common facies associations within Member
2 of the Horse Camp Formation. These facies
associations are indicative of subaerial fan-delta,
subaqueous fan-delta, nearshore lacustrine and
offshore lacustrine depositional environments
(Figs 2 and 7).

Subaerial fan-delta facies association

This facies association consists of 10-200-cmthick beds of ungraded (Gmu, Gcu) and normally
graded (Gmn, Gcn) conglomerate and 1-15-cmthick beds of ungraded (Sm) and normally graded
(Sn) sandstone (Fig. 7 4 . Beds are laterally continuous for tens of metres and have planar, nonerosional boundaries defined by abrupt grain-size
differences or thin sandstone beds (Fig. 8). Facies
Grnn and Gcn are the primary facies of the subaerial fan-delta facies association (Fig. 7a). Discontinuous, horizontally stratified conglomerates
(Gh) and sandstones (Sh) are rare. This facies
association is distinctive in that it contains large
clasts and channel-fill conglomerates (facies Gcu).
(

0
M S P C E

M S P C B

M S P C B

S CPB

Fig. 7.Detailed stratigraphic sections of facies associations. (a) Subaerial fan-delta facies association (460470 m level, Section 6). (b) Subaqueous fan-delta facies
association (262-272 m level, Section 6). (c) Nearshore
lacustrine facies association (0-7 m level, Section 4).
(d) Offshore lacustrine facies association (schematic
section generalized from 100 to 200 m level, Section 1).
Key as in Fig. 2.

This facies association is the result of deposition by sediment gravity flows on a subaerial
fan-delta. Deposition was characterized by plastic
and pseudoplastic debris flows (Gmu, Gcu, Gmn),
hyperconcentrated flows (Gcn, Sm, Sn) and minor
sheetfloods (Gh, Sh). The subaerial fan-delta
deposits lack features such as well-developed
sorting, stratification, imbrication, scours and
rounded clasts that are common in deposits of
stream-dominated alluvial fans (e.g. Evans, 1991;

1996 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedirnentology, 43, 133-155

148 B. K. Horton and J. G. Schniitt

Fig. 8 . Repetitive sequence of laterally continuous beds of subaerial fan-delta facies association. (Left) Laterally
continuous beds of conglomerate and sandstone on the scale of a single outcrop. Hammer is 28 cm long. (Right) View
to the north-west near Section 6 showing the lateral continuity of subaerial fan-delta deposits on a scale of up to
hundreds of metres. Total stratigraphic thickness in the photograph to the right is -50 m.

Ridgway & DeCelles, 1993). Lenticular conglomerates are rare and limited to the south-eastern
exposures of the Horse Camp Formation (Sections
6-9, Fig. 2) and probably represent deposition in
small stream channels of the proximal fan-delta
above the intersection point.
The presence of only a few stream-channel
deposits, the wide lateral extent and tabular
nature of beds, and persistently repetitive
sequence of beds (Fig. 8) representing individual
sedimentation events suggest that the subaerial
fan-delta was dominated by episodic, relatively
low-concentration, unconfined sediment gravity
flows that were able to spread out into tabular
sheets over a smooth, nonchannellized fan surface below the intersection point (Whipple &
Dunne, 1992). Therefore, the subaerial fan-delta
facies association is similar to deposits of
mass-flow-dominated alluvial fans leg. Larsen &
Steel, 1978; Gloppen & Steel, 1981; Nemec &
Muszynski, 1982; Nemec et al., 1984; Palmer
& Walton, 1990; Whipple & Dunne, 1992). An

abundance of angular clasts, large clasts (several

metres in diameter) and carbonate clasts susceptible to chemical weathering suggests that
sediment underwent limited weathering and
transport prior to deposition on the fan-delta. A
lack of mudstone (Fm), carbonate (Clm), dewatering structures and mudcracks indicates subaerial
deposition of this facies association (Fig. 7a).

Subaqueous fan-delta facies association

The subaqueous fan-delta facies association contains ungraded (Gmu) and normally graded (Gmn,
Gcn) conglomerate, ungraded (Sm) and normally
graded (Sn) sandstone, and massive to poorly
laminated (Fm) mudstone (Fig. 7b). Beds are 0.5100 cm thick, persist laterally for tens of metres
and have nonerosional, subplanar to undulatory
boundaries commonly defined by thin sandstones or mudstones. Normally graded, matrixsupported conglomerate (Gmn) is the most
common facies (Fig. 7b). Horizontally stratified

7) 1996 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 43, 133-155

Lacustrine fan-delta system 149

conglomerate (Gh) and sandstone (Sh) are rare.
Matrix-supported conglomerate (Gmu, Gmn) and
mudstone (Fm) commonly have mudcracks. This
facies association is distinguished from the subaerial fan-delta facies association by the presence
of syn- or post-depositional disruption features
(dewatering structures, intrastratal contortions
and distorted beds) and abundance of thin interbeds of sandstone (Sm, Sn, Sh) and mudstone
(Fm).
Subaqueous sediment gravity flows dominated
the depositional environment of the subaqueous
fan-delta facies association. The laterally continuous, uniformly thick beds of this facies association are the product of episodic deposition of
sediment gravity flows on the low-relief, subaqueous surface of a fan-delta. Plastic and
pseudoplastic debris flows, high- and low-density
turbidity currents, and suspension fallout characterized deposition in this subaqueous setting.
Well-defined, nonerosional bed boundaries are
the result of draping by mud (Fm) or sand (Sm,
Sn, Sh) under waning flow conditions. The common occurrence of conglomerates draped by thin
(<lo cm thick) sandstone or mudstone layers
suggests that en masse deposition of subaqueous
debris flows was often followed by tractivesuspensional deposition by turbidity currents
(Ghibaudo, 1992). A lack of complete Bouma
sequences (ripple-cross laminations, lower-flowregime plane beds and mudstone caps are missing) suggests that these turbidity currents were
deposited rapidly from turbulent suspension with
insufficient time for bedform development. Distorted beds and dewatering structures of this
facies association are typical of a subaqueous
setting in which a saturated substrate was commonly loaded by rapid deposition of an overlying
bed (e.g. Postma, 1983, 1984). The presence of
mudcracks and interbedded mudstone (Fm) and
sandstone (Sm, Sn, Sh) indicates that successive
sediment gravity flow events were punctuated by
development of relatively low-energy conditions
in a shallow subaqueous environment susceptible
to periodic desiccation.

Nearshore lacustrine facies association

Stratified sandstone (Sh, Sr, St) and granulepebble conglomerate (Gh), carbonate (Clm), and
minor amounts of massive and normally graded
sandstone (Sm, Sn) and conglomerate (Gmu,
Gmn, Gcu, Gcn) characterize this facies association (Fig. 7c). Most beds are 1-50 cm thick,
laterally continuous for several to tens of metres

and have subplanar, nonerosional boundaries.

However, trough cross-stratified sandstones (St)
have erosional set boundaries and set thicknesses
of up to 2 . 2 m. Stratified coarse sandstones (Sh,
Sr, St) and conglomerates (Gh) are intimately
associated with 1-30-cm-thick layers of stromatolitic carbonate (Clm). Carbonate layers exhibit
extreme lateral variations in thickness and clastic
content. The nearshore lacustrine facies association is distinctive in that it contains carbonate
and stratified sandstone and conglomerate.
This facies association is representative of
deposition in a wave-influenced, shallow-water,
nearshore lacustrine environment. High-energy,
traction transport resulting from unidirectional
currents and oscillatory wave currents led to
deposition of well-sorted, texturally uniform,
low-angle to horizontally stratified coarse sandstone (Sh) and granule-pebble conglomerate (Gh)
as well as migration and deposition of ripples (Sr)
and dunes (St). Precipitation and binding of
carbonate associated with episodic terrigenous
clastic deposition produced stromatolitic carbonate (Clm) and interbedded, stratified sandstone
(Sh, Sr, St) and conglomerate (Gh). Therefore, this
dynamic nearshore lacustrine environment promoted deposition of carbonate during low-energy,
quiet-water conditions and deposition of coarse
clastic sediment during episodic, high-energy
conditions. However, the presence of a few thick
(5-30m) carbonate units (-1000m level of
Sections 5-7, Fig. 2 ) suggests that there were
several prolonged intervals of limited clastic
sedimentation in the nearshore lacustrine
environment.

Offshore lacustrine facies association

Massive and normally graded very fine- to
medium-grained sandstone (Sm, Sn) and massive
to poorly laminated mudstone (Fm) compose this
facies association (Fig. 7d). Beds are 0.5-15 cm
thick, laterally continuous for tens of metres and
have subplanar, nonerosional boundaries. In
general, sandstones and mudstones of this facies
association are well sorted and lack sedimentary
structures. However, there are a few rare examples of ripple cross-laminated sandstone (Sr).
Normal grading in sandstones is poorly developed and uncommon. Volcanic tuff breccias (Vtb)
are well preserved in this facies association.
Suspension sedimentation and turbidity current deposition characterized the depositional
environment of the offshore lacustrine facies
association. Massive and normally graded

f> 1996 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 43, 133-155

150 B. K. Horton and J. G. Schmitt

w.

DEEP WATER PHASE

*\

Fig. 9. Environmental reconstruction in which relatively deep water in the nearshore lacustrine environment
promotes high-energy wave reworking processes and prevents formation of a subaqueous fan-delta.

sandstones (Sm, Sn) are depositional products of

high- or low-density turbidity currents. Massive
to poorly laminated mudstone (Fm) was deposited during suspension fallout with minor tractional transport. The preservation of pyroclastic
flow deposits (Vtb) attests to the lack of reworking
processes in the environment. These facies and
inferred depositional processes are representative
of low-energy conditions in an offshore lacustrine
environment.

ENVIRONMENTAL RECONSTRUCTION

Prolonged deposition in fan-delta and lacustrine

environments of a Miocene extensional basin
was recorded by facies associations within the
southern exposures of Member 2 of the Horse
Camp Formation (Figs 1 and 2). Facies associations indicative of deposition by numerous types
of sediment gravity flows on subaerial and subaqueous parts of a fan-delta are more common to
the south-east (Fig. 2 ) . The nearshore and offshore
lacustrine facies associations are more common to
the north-west (Fig. 2). The distribution of the
four facies associations within Member 2 deposits
suggests deposition in a fan-delta that was shed
from the south-east and graded to the north-west
into a nearshore to offshore lacustrine system
(Figs 9 and 10). Unique aspects of these ancient
depositional systems include the dynamic nature

of the nearshore lacustrine environment and the

transition between the subaerial and subaqueous
environment.

Subaerial-subaqueous transition
Stratigraphic occurrences of the nearshore lacustrine facies association (Fig. 7c) are exclusively
situated between subaerial fan and offshore lacustrine facies associations (Fig. 2). The nearshore
lacustrine facies association is not found interbedded with the subaqueous fan-delta facies
association. Therefore, during phases in which
the nearshore lacustrine facies association was
deposited, the nearshore lacustrine environment
existed as a transition zone between subaerial fan
and offshore lacustrine environments (Fig. 9).
Stratified coarse clastic sediments of the nearshore lacustrine facies association were preferentially deposited during phases in which the lake
margin was characterized by high-energy wave
currents able to rework grains as large as 2 cm in
diameter. These nearshore high-energy wave conditions required relatively deep water or a steep
gradient near the lake margin (Fig. 9) in which the
energy of onshore-directed waves was focused
along the shoreline. A lack of mudcracks indicates few phases of desiccation. Limited desiccation may have been related to relatively deep
water and few shoreline fluctuations in the
nearshore environment.

1996 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedirnentology, 43, 133-155

Lacustrine fan-delta system 151

SHALLOW WATER PHASE

Fig. 10. Environmental reconstruction in which relatively shallow water near the lake margin precludes reworking of
subaqueous fan-delta deposits by high-energy wave processes. Key as in Fig. 9.

The subaqueous fan-delta facies association is

exclusively found interbedded with subaerial fan
and offshore lacustrine facies associations (Fig. 2).
The nearshore lacustrine and subaqueous fandelta facies associations are not in close proximity
to one another. Thus, during phases of subaqueous fan-delta deposition, the subaqueous
fan-delta environment served as a transition zone
between subaerial fan and offshore lacustrine
environments (Fig. 10). Relatively shallow water
or a shallow gradient near the lake margin during
subaqueous fan-delta sedimentation (Fig. 10)
induced a dampening of wave energy resulting in
a lack of wave-driven sediment transport along
the shoreline. Common mudcracks in the subaqueous fan-delta facies association suggest
phases of desiccation that may have been related
to relatively shallow water depths and frequent
variations in the shoreline position. Very shallow
water depths along the lake margin may have
inhibited the development of Gilbert-type foreset
beds (e.g. Billi et al., 1991).
The two environmental reconstructions (Figs 9
and l o ) represent temporally distinct sedimentary
phases during deposition of Member 2 of the
Horse Camp Formation. In general, Fig. 9 represents conditions during deposition of the upper
half of Member 2 and Fig. 10 represents conditions during lower Member 2 deposition
(Fig. 2). Possible controls on alternations from
one sedimentary phase to the other include
'(

tectonically induced variations in sedimentation

rates and/or climatically induced lake-level variations. A phase characterized by the presence of a
subaqueous fan-delta environment may have been
due to (I) higher sedimentation rates and resultant progradation of the subaerial fan into the lake
or (2) overall higher lake levels and an effective
drowning of the subaerial fan. Conversely, a
phase in which subaqueous fan-delta deposition
was supplanted by deposition of the nearshore
lacustrine facies association may reflect (1)
reduced rates of sedimentation and aggradation or
retrogradation of the subaerial fan or (2) overall
lower lake levels and subaerial exposure of the
entire fan.
This study identifies several distinct characteristics of subaqueous and subaerial deposits of a
mass-flow-dominated fan-delta system. The subaqueous fan-delta facies association of the Horse
Camp Formation (Member 2) exhibits dewatering
structures (load, flame, and ball and pillow structures), intrastratal contortions and distorted
bedding reflecting an inherent instability on
subaqueous fan-delta surfaces related to rapid
deposition on a substrate characterized by high
pore-fluid pressures (Postma, 1983, 1984). Other
indicators of subaqueous fan-delta deposition in
the Member 2 sequence include an abundance
of interbedded mudstone and matrix-supported
conglomerates with normal grading, upward
increases in matrix content and sandy caps. These

, 1996 lnternational Association of Sedimentologists, SedimeiIfOlOgy, 43, 133-155

1 5 2 B. K. Horton and J. G. Schmitt

features have also been noted in other studies of

subaqueous fan-delta deposits (e.g. Larsen &
Steel, 1978; Gloppen & Steel, 1981; Nemec &
Steel, 1984; Nemec et al., 1984; Pivnik, 1990).
Intuitively, shoreline facies should serve as ideal
stratigraphic indicators separating subaerial and
subaqueous deposits of a single fan-delta
(McPherson et ol., 1987). In this study, however,
the nearshore lacustrine facies association (Fig.
7c) serves exclusively as a transition between
facies associations representative of the subaerial
fan and offshore lacustrine environment (Fig. 9)
and is not found situated between subaerial and
subaqueous fan-delta facies associations (Fig. 10).

Nearshore environment
Facies characteristic of high-energy depositional
processes are uncommon in deposits of nearshore
lacustrine environments (e.g. Tucker, 1978;
Dunne & Hempton, 1984; Link et al., 1985). However, the Horse Camp Formation (Member 2) contains a facies association representative of a
nearshore lacustrine environment (Fig. 9) in
which high-energy wave-induced currents were
responsible for tractional reworking of grains as
large as 2 cm in diameter. In fact, low-angle to
horizontally stratified sandstone (Sh) and conglomerate (Gh) and large-scale (typically 1-2 m
thick) trough cross-stratified sandstone (St) of the
nearshore lacustrine facies association (Fig. 7c)
are more similar to nearshore marine deposits
(e.g. DeCelles, 1987; Pivnik, 1990; Casshyap &
Aslam, 1992) than other lacustrine deposits (e.g.
Hardie et a]., 1978; Link & Osborne, 1978). However, Member 2 nearshore deposits lack the welldefined, 2-25-m-thick, progradational sequences
composed of horizontally and cross-stratified
sandstone and conglomerate commonly found in
nearshore marine systems (e.g. DeCelles, 1987;
Pivnik, 1990). Frequent lake-level fluctuations
and associated reworking of previous deposits
may account for the lack of progradational lacustrine shoreline sequences (Renaut & Owen, 1991).
The high-energy conditions of the nearshore
lacustrine setting (Fig. 9) depicted in this study
are probably the result of a large fetch and
powerful, wind-driven wave currents. Traction
transport and bedform migration beneath these
wave-induced currents account for deposition of
much of the nearshore lacustrine facies assemblage (including facies Gh, Sh, Sr and St). Despite
the high-energy conditions required for reworking
of coarse clastic sediment, there is also evidence
for intermittent low-energy conditions in the

nearshore lacustrine environment. Specifically,

laminated and massive carbonate (Clm) are the
result of subaqueous precipitation and binding of
carbonate under reduced energy conditions. The
stratified coarse clastic facies and interbedded
carbonate facies of this ancient nearshore lacustrine sequence are comparable to similar modern
facies along the margin of Walker Lake, a 200-km2
lake within a pull-apart basin in western Nevada
(Link et al., 1985). The margins of Walker Lake are
bounded by alluvial fans and fan-deltas that are
fringed by carbonate and stratified coarse clastic
deposits of a nearshore lacustrine environment.
These nearshore lacustrine facies are best developed on the deeper west margin of the lake (Link
et al., 1985), similar to the reconstruction in Fig. 9
for Member 2 of the Horse Camp Formation.
CONCLUSIONS
1 Exposures of the Miocene Horse Camp Formation (Member 2) in east-central Nevada provide a cross-section through a subaerial fan-delta,
subaqueous fan-delta, nearshore lacustrine and
offshore lacustrine system developed along the
southern margin of an extensional basin. Four
distinct facies associations recorded processes
characteristic of these particular depositional
environments.
2 Deposits of the subaerial and subaqueous
components of a mass-flow-dominated fan-delta
system are distinguished by facies analysis. Both
facies associations of the fan-delta system contain
ungraded and normally graded, matrix- and clastsupported conglomerate (facies Gmu, Gmn, Gcu,
Gcn), ungraded and normally graded sandstone
(facies Sm, Sn), and massive to poorly laminated
mudstone (facies Fm) deposited by sediment
gravity flows. However, the subaqueous fan-delta
deposits are unique in that they contain abundant
interbedded mudstone indicative of subaqueous
suspension fallout and dewatering structures and
distorted bedding related to rapid deposition on a
saturated substrate. Contrary to other studies, the
subaerial and subaqueous fan-delta deposits of
the Horse Camp Formation are not separated by a
shoreline facies assemblage.
3 The nearshore lacustrine facies association of
horizontally stratified (facies Sh), trough crossstratified (facies St) and ripple cross-laminated
(facies Sr) sandstone and horizontally stratified
conglomerate (facies Gh) recorded tractional
deposition beneath high-energy, shallow-water
currents. Laminated (stromatolitic) and massive

1) 1996 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 43, 133-155

Lacustrine fan-delta system 153

carbonate (facies Clm) indicate carbonate precipitation and binding probably related to algal
processes during quiet-water periods. Highenergy currents of the nearshore lacustrine
environment produced large-scale (typically
1-2 m thick) trough cross-stratified sandstone
deposited as subaqueous sandbars and horizontally stratified pebble conglomerate that accumulated along a high-energy shoreline. Such
deposits are comparable to some nearshore
marine sequences.
4 The offshore lacustrine facies association is
characterized by massive (facies Sm) and normally graded (facies Sn) sandstone and massive to
poorly laminated mudstone (facies Fm) deposited
from turbidity currents and suspension fallout.
Volcanic tuff breccias were preferentially preserved in the low-energy offshore lacustrine
environment.
5 Environmental reconstructions of the fan-delta
and lacustrine depositional systems provide
insight into the nature of transitions between
the subaerial fan and lacustrine environments.
The depositional processes of the subaerialsubaqueous transition zone are largely controlled
by the water depth or gradient along the lake
margin (which are controlled by sedimentation
rates and lake levels). Deep water or a steep
gradient along the lake margin facilitated highenergy wave currents and remobilization of fan
sediments. These conditions were favourable to
deposition of the nearshore lacustrine facies association. Shallow water or a gentle gradient
along the lake margin led to reduced wave energy,
thus promoting preservation of the subaqueous
fan-delta facies association.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was supported by a National Science

Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship,
research grants from the American Association
of Petroleum Geologists, Geological Society of
America, Sigma Xi, and Montana State University
Department of Earth Sciences (Donald L. Smith
Memorial Scholarship), and funding from the
United States Geological Survey. We thank R.
Cole and S. Chough for their insightful comments.
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Manuscript received 2 June 1994; revision accepted

3 July 2995

,c I 1996 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 43, 133-155