17 Drag and Lift

17.1
OBJECTIVES

A moving body immersed in a fluid experiences forces caused by the action

of the fluid. The total effect::)f these forces is quite complex. However, for
the purposes of design or forthe analysis of the behavior -of a body in a fluid,
two resultant forces-drag Lnd lift-are the most important. Lift and drag
forces are the same regardl~s of whether the body is moving in the fluid or
the fluid is moving over thelJody.
Drag is the force on a I-ody caused by the fluid which resists motion in
the direction of travel of the body. The most familiar applications requiring
the study of drag are in the t-ansportation fields. Wind resistance is the term
often used to describe the tf'fects of drag on aircraft, automobiles, trucks,
and trains. The drag force llUSt be opposed by a propulsive force in the
opposite direction to mairita.n or increase the velocity of the vehicle. Since
the production of the propu:sive force requires added power, it is desirable
to minimize drag.
Lift is a force caused :Jy the fluid in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of travel of the bo~. Its most important application is in the design
and analysis of aircraft winss called air/oils. The geometry of an airfoil is
such that a lift force is prod:Jced as air passes over and under it. Of course,
the magnitude of the tift mu~ at least equal the weight of the aircraft in order
for it to fly.
The study of the perfo""'mance of bodies in moving air streams is called
aerodynamics. Gases other han air could be considered in this field, but due
to the obvious importance cI the applications in aircraft design, the majority
of work has been done witt air as the fluid.
Hydrodynamics is the name given to the study of moving bodies immersed in liquids, particulLrly water. Many concepts concerning lift and
drag are similar regardless <f"whether the fluid is a liquid or a gas. This is not
true, however, at high veloeities where the effects of the compressibility of
the fluid must be taken into 3.ccount. Liquids can be consi ered iocompressible in the study of lift am drag. Conversely, a gas sllch as air is readilly
compressible.
Much of the practical jata concerning lift and dTag has been generated
experimentally. We will r<=port some of these da~a here to illustrate the
concepts. The. references jsted at the end of this chapter incLud~ more
comprehensive treatments ::Jf the subject.
467

Chapter 17 Drag and L ift

468

After completing this chapter , you should be able to:

1. Define drag .
2. Define lift.
3. Write the express ion for computing the drag force on a body moving
relative to a fluid .
4. Define the drag coefficient .
S. Define the term dynamic pressure .
6. Describe the stagnation point for a body moving relati"Ve to a fluid.
7. Distinguish between pressure drag and friction drag .
8. Discuss the importance of flow separation on pressure drag.
9. Determine the value of the pressure drag coefficieat for cylinders ,
spheres, and other shapes.
10. Discuss the effect of Reynolds number and surface geometry on the drag
coefficient.
11. Compute the magnitude of the pressure drag force OWl bodies moving
relative to a fluid.
12. Compute the magnitude of the friction drag force on ~ mooth spheres.
13. Discuss the importance of drag on the performance of ground vehicles.
14. Discuss the effects of compressibility and cavitation on drag and the
performance of bodies immersed in fluids.
15. Define the lift coefficient for a body immersed in a fit' id.
16 . .Compute the lift force on a body moving relative to a fluid .
17. Describe the effects of friction drag, pressure drag , and induced drag on
airfoils.

17.2
DRAG FORCE
EQUATION

I:)

DRAG FORCE

Drag forces are usually expressed in the form

FD

drag = C D (pv 212)A

(17-1)

The term CD is the drag coefficient, a dimensionless fac_or. Its magnitude

depends primarily on the physical shape of the object Lnd its orientation
relative to the fluid stream. The quantity pv212 is the dY:lamic pressure as
defined below. The term v is the velocity of the free slream of the fluid
relative to the body. The term A refers to a characteristic= area of the body,
either the surface area or the maximum cross-sectional an-a perpendicular to
the direction of flow as discussed in Sections 17.3, 17.5, and 17.8 .
. You can visualize the influence of the dynamic pr.essure on drag by
referring to Fig. 17.1 , which shows a sphere in a fluid ta"eam . The streamlines depict the path of the fluid as it approaches and flows around the
sphere. At point s on the surface of the sphere, the fluid 3tream is at rest or
"stagnant" The term stagnation point is used to descLbe this point. The
relationship between the pressure P.f and that in the unListurbed stream at
point I can be found using Bernoulli's equation:
PI

+ .!!.!. = P.~
2g

17.3 Pressure Drag

FIGURE 17.1 Sphere in a

Stagnation point

fluid stream showing the stagnation point on the front surface

and the turbulent wake behind.

469
Sepa ation point

Turbulent waKe

Solving for Ps, we get

Ps

= PI + ')'vrl2g

But, since p = ylg, we have

Ps = PI

+ pvrl2

(17-3)

The stagnation pressure i: greater than the static pressure in the free stream
by the magnitude of the cynamic pressure pvrl2. The kinetic energy of the
moving stream is transfoaned into a kind of potential energy in the form of
pressure.
The increase in pr~ sure at the stagnation point can be expected to
produce a force on the ::Jody opposing its motion, that is, a drag force .
However, the magnitude ::>fthe force is dependent not only on the stagnation
pressure but also on the pressure at the back side of the body. Since it is
difficult to predict the acklal variation in pressure on the back side, the drag
coefficient is typically us;;!d.
The total drag on a :Jody is due to two components. (For a lifting body
such as an airfoil , a fhid component exists as described in Section 17.8.)
Pressure drag (also calloo form drag) is due to the disturbance of the flow
stream as it passes th~ bDdy, creating a turbulent wake. The characteristics
of the disturbance an~ de;>endent on the form of the body and sometimes on
the ReYJ.il.o1c1snllmber of ow and the roughness of the surface. Friction drag
is due to Sihearjog stres~s in the thin layer of fluid near the surface of the
body caned the boundar: layer. These two types of drag are described in the
foDowiDg s:ec(iQns.

17.3
PRESSURE DRAG

As a uid stream flows a:-ound a body, it tends to adhere to the surface for a
portion of the llength of fle body. Then at a certain point, the thin boundary
layer separates from the:surface, causing a turbulent wake to be formed (see
Fig. 17.1). The pressun in the wake is significantly lower than that at the
stagnation point at the t-ont of the body. A net force is thus created which
acts in a direction oppo~ ite to that of the motion. This force is the pressure
drag.
If the point of seIBration can be caused to occur farther back on the
body, the size of the wake can be decreased and the pressure drag will be
lower. This is the reaso for streamlining. Figure 17.2 illustrates the change

Chapter 17 Drag and Lift

470
FIGURE 17.2 Effec t of
streamlining on the wake.

Separation poi nt

in the wake caused by the elongation and tapering of the tail of the body.
Thus, the amount of pressure drag is dependent on the for:-n of the body, and
the term form drag is often used.
The pressure drag force is calculated from Eq. (17 -1) in which A is
taken to be the maximum cross-sectional area of the body perpendicular to
the flow. The coefficient CD is the pressure drag coefficient.
As an illustration of the importance of streamlining, Ihe value of CD for
the drag on a smooth sphere moving through air with a Re ynolds number of
approximately 105 is O.S . A highly streamlined shape like that used in most
airships (blimps) has a CD of approximately 0.04, a reduction by more than a
factor of 1O! (See Reference 2.)

17.3.1
Properties of Air

Drag on bodies moving in air is often the goal for drag afl alysis. In order to
use Eq. (17- 1) to calculate the drag forces, we need to k:1oW the density of
the air. As with all gases, the properties of air change dl:lstically with temperature. Also , as altitude above sea level increases, the -density decreases.
Appendix E presents the properties of air at various tem-peratures and altitudes.

17.4
DRAG COEFFICIENT

The magnitude of the drag coefficient for pressure drag depends on many
factors, most notably the shape of the body, the Reynolds number of the
flow, the surface roughness, and the influence of other bodies 9r surfaces in
the vicinity. Two of the simpler shapes, the sphere and the cylinder , are
discussed first.

17.4.1
Drag Coefficient for
Spheres and Cylinders

Data plotted in Fig. 17.3 give the value of the drag coefficient versus Reynolds number for smooth spheres and cylinders. For spheres and cylinders,
the Reynolds number is computed from l h~ familiar loo~ing relation

NR

= puD
g

vD

(17-4)

lJ

However, the,diameter, D, is the diameter ofth~ body itself, rather than the
diameter of a flow conduit, whi h fJ repres~nted earlrer_
Note the very high values of CD for low ey olds oumbers, over 100
for a smooth sph ~~ at NR = 0.10. This corresponds to motion through very

17.4 Drag Coefficient

FIGURE 17.3 Drag coefficients for spheres and cylinders.

471

8
6

8
6 I\,

I\.

"

4
2
10

'""'"

Sfhere

r'\.

'\.

r\..

8
6

'\.

"

10

8
6

'"

"'
Cylinder

'\..
I"---.. I--....

-.....;::

i'--

-.;;;;;

t--- :--

8
6

..........

f':

8
6

4 68

10- 1 2

4 68

10
F.eynolds number, NR

(a) CD 's. N R for lower values of N R

10

10
8
6

8
6

4-

4
Squap- cylinder

8'
6

1'-..

=.

!--t-

-r-- :-

--=

Cyll@:er

8
.........

'"'"

1-

r--

- 6....

Sphere

2
I

1\

rT

1'-

1,.;:

4 68 3 2
10

4 68
2
104
Reynolds number, NR

(b ) CD vs. N R for higher values of N R

viscous fluids. It drops mpidly to a value of about 4 for N R = 10 and then to

1.0 for NR = 100. The 'ralue of CD ranges from about 0.38 to "0.46 for the
higher Reynolds numbe~s from 1000 to 105
For cylinders, CD:::::: 60 for the very low Reynolds number of 0.10. It
drops to a value of [0 foo N R = 1.0 and to a value of 1 . 0 for N R = 1000. In the '
higher ranges of ReynoWs number, CD ranges from about 0.90 to 1.30 for NR
from 1000 to 105

Chapter 17 Drag and Lift

472

For very small Reynolds numbers (N R < 1.0 approximately) , the drag
is almost entirely due to friction and will be discussed late r. At higher Reynolds numbers , the importance of flow separation and .he turbulent wake
behind the body make press ure drag predominant. The fo llowing discussion
relates only to pressure drag.
At a value of the Reynolds number of about 2 x 105 , the drag coefficient for spheres drops sharply from approximately 0.42 to 0.17. This is
caused by the abrupt change in the nature of the bcundary layer from
laminar to turbulent. Concurrently, the point on the sphe-e where separation
occurs moves farther back, decreasing the size of the wake . For cylinders, a
sirpilar phenomenon occurs at approximately NR = ~ X 105 where CD
changes from about 1.2 to 0.30.
Either roughening the surface or increasing the tUlbulence in the flow
stream can decrease the value of the Reynolds number at which the transition from a laminar to a turbulent boundary layer OCClrs, as illustrated in
Fig. 17.4. This graph is meant to show typical curve sha)es only and should
not be used for numerical values .
FIGURE 17.4 Effect of turbulence and roughness on CD for
spheres .

2\

~\

f-- "'

0.1

1\ !

f---- - =--= ~

Reynolds number, NR

Golf balls are dimpled to optimize the turbulence of the air as it flows
around the ball and to caUs.e the abrupt decrease in tte drag coefficient to
occur at a low velocity (low Reynolds number), resultillg in longer flights. A
perfectly smooth golf Ilall could be driven only about 100 yd by even the best
golfers, whereas the familiar dimpled design allows the average golfer to far
exceed this distance. Highly skilled professional golfers can make 300-yd
drives .(Reference ~).

17.4.2
Drag Coefficients
for Other Shapes

Also shown in Fig. 17.3 is the drag coefficient for a squcre cylinder with a flat
side perpendicular tothe flow for Reynolds numbers fiom 3.5 x 1()3 to 8 x
104 The values range from approximately 1.60 to 2. 1)5, somewhat higher
than for the circular cylinder. Significant reductions car. be obtained by small

17.4 Drag Coefficient

473

to moderate corner radiibringing values of CD down to as low as 0.55 at high

Reynolds numbers. Ho.vever, the values tend to be highly affected by
changes in Reynolds nunbers for such designs . Testing is advised.
Figure 17.5 gives (ata for CD for three versions of elliptical cylinders
for Reynolds numbers from 3.0 x 104 to 2 X 105 . These shapes have an
ellipse for a cross section with different ratios of cross-sectional length to
maximum thickness, sonetimes called fineness ratio. Also shown for comparison is the circular qlinder that can be considered as a special case of the
elliptical cylinder with c fineness ratio of 1 : 1. Note the dramatic reduction
of drag coefficient to atout 0.21 for the elliptical cylinders of high fineness
ratio.
FIGURE 17.5 Drag coefficients for elliptical cylinders
and struts.

1.4

\,4

1.3

\.3

1.2
1.1

1: 1 Cylinder ~~ 1.2
r--i-

J.l

1.0

\.0

0.9

0.9

~
v
'0

0.8

0.8

:Bv

0.7

0.7

0.6

0.6

01)

f!

0.5
C==>2:1 Ellipse

0.4
0.3

C=::::>4:1 Ellipse

0.2

0
10 4

1.5

srut

--

==

5 6 7 8 9

0.5
0.4
0.3

--

3:1Navy~

0.1

==
~~
==
==
==

0.1
5

10

1.5

56789

o
10

Reynolds number, NR

But even more ~eduction in drag coefficient can be made with the
familiar "teardrop" siape, also shown in Fig. 17.5. This is a standard shape
called a Navy slrul thet has values for CD in the range of 0.07 to 0.11. Figure
17.6 on p. 476 shows the strut geometry. (See Reference 1.)
Table 17.1 lists values of the drag coefficients for several simple
shapes. Note the orientation of the shape relativ~ to the direction of the
oncoming flow. The CD values for such shapes are nearly independent of
Reynolds numbers be::ause they have sharp edges that cause the boundary
layer to separate at tre same place. Most of the testing for these shapes was
done in the range of Reynolds numbers from 104 to 105
For the square cylinder, semitubular cylinders, and triangular cylinders, the data are fo) models that are long relative to the major thickness

Chapter 17

474
TABLE 17.1
cients

Typical drag coeffi-

Drag and Lift

17.4 Drag

C o ~ffic i e n t

475

Note: Reynolds numbers are based on the length of the body parallel to the How direction
except for the semitubuJar cylinders, for which the characteristic length is the diameter.
Data adapted from EugeBe A. AvaIJone and Theodore Baumeister Ill, eds., Marks' standard
handbook for mechanicd engineers. 9th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill. 1987), Table 4, and
W. F. Lindsey, Drag ofcylinders of simple shapes, Report No. 619 (National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautcs, 1938).

dimension. For short cylinders of all shapes, the modified flow around the
ends will tend to decrease the values for CD below those listed in Table t 7.1.
the computation f the Reynolds nUliI1ber for the shapes shown in
Table 17.1 uses the renglh of the body paralfel to the flow as the characteristic dimension for the bqgy. The formula the becomes
NR = pvL = vL
p.,

(17-5)

Chapter 17 Drag and Lift

476

FIGURE 17.6 Geometry of

the Navy strut.

----~+-rrr_-+--------r_------~------_+--~--~~-----D

Hr--------------------L------------------~~

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 17.1

Solution

xlL

0.00

.0125

.025

.040

.075

.100

.125

.200

riD

0.00

.260

.371

.525

.630

.720

.785

.911

xlL

.400

.600

.800

.900

1.00

riD

.995

.861

.562

.338

0.00

Compute the drag force on a 6.00-ft long square bar with a cress section of 4.00 in x
4.00 in when the bar is moving at 4.00 ft/s through water at 40'F. The long axis of the
bar and a flat face are placed perpendicular to the flow.
We can use Eq. (17-1) to compute the drag force:
FD

= C D (pv1./2)A

Figure 17 . ~ shows that the drag coefficient depends on the Reynolds number found
from Eq . (17-5).

vL
NR = - V

where L is the length of the bar parallel to the flow: 4.0 in or ) .333 ft. The kinematic
viscosity of the water at 40F is 1.67 x 10- 5 fe/so Then

= (4.00)(0.333) = 80

N
R

1.67

10- 5

104
X

Then, the drag coefficient CD = 2.05. The maximum area pelpendicular to the flow,
A, can now be computed. A can also be described as the pnjected area seen if you
look directly at the bar. In this case, then, the bar is a rectang e 0.333 ft high and 6.00
ft long. That is,
A

= (0.333 ft)(6.00 ft) = 2.00 ft 2

17.5

Friction Drag on Spheres in Laminar Flow

477

The density of the air is 1.9.1 slugsfft3. Equivalent units are 1.94 lb s2fft4. We can now
compute the drag force:

FD

17.5
FRICTION DRAG.
ON SPHERES IN
LAMINAR FLOW

= (2.05)(1/:)(1.94 lb s2fft4)(4 .00 ftfs) 2(2.00 ft2)

63 .6 lb

An exception to the method of analysis just presented for computing friction

drag is used for spheres moving at low velocities in a viscous fluid, which
results in very low Reynolds numbers. An important application of this
phenomenon is the jalli'lg ball viscometer, discussed in Section 2.6.4. As a
sphere falls through a viscous fluid, no separation occurs, and the boundary ---layer remains attached 10 the entire surface. Therefore, virtually all the Qr~g
is due to friction rather than to pressure drag.
In Reference 8, George G. Stokes presents important resean; h on
spheres moving through viscous fluids. He found that for Reynolds numbers
less than about 1.0, the relationship between the drag coefficient and Reynolds number is CD = ?A/NR . Special forms of the drag force equation can
then be developed. The general form of tbe drag force equat~on ~s
2

FD

PD )
= CD ( 2
A

Letting CD = 24/NR and letting NR = vDp/JL, we get

C = ~ = 24JL
D

NR

vDp

Then, the drag force becomes

F
D

24JL (PU )A
uDp 2
2

12JLvA
D

(17-6)

When computing friction drag, we use the surface area of the object. For a
sphere, the surface area is A = 7TD2. Then

FD

- 12JLuA .:. . . 12JLv(7TD2) - 12

D
7TJLV

(17-7)

To correlate drag in the low Reynolds number range with that already
presented in Section !7 A dealing with pressure drag, we must redefine the
area to be the maximum cross-sectional area of the sphere, A = 7TD2/4.
Equation (17-6) then b~comes

ST()J(ES' S flAW

FD

= 12~VA

e~V)(7T~2)

= 37TJLvD

(17-8)

This form fOT tbe drag on a sphere in a viscous fluid is commonly called
Stokes's law. As shewn in Fig. 17.3, the relation CD = 241NR plots as a
. straight line fO-T the low Reynolds numbers.

Chapter 17 Drag and Lift

478

17.6

VEHICLE DRAG

Decreasing drag is a major goal in designing most kinds-of vehicles, because

a significant amount of energy is required to overcome d:-ag as vehicles move
through fluids . You are familiar wit h the streamlinea shapes of aircraft
bodies and the hulls of ships. Race cars and sports car s have long had the
sleek styling characteristic of low aerodynamic drag. More recently, passenger cars and highway trucks have been redesigned to <..ec rease drag.
Many factors affect the overall drag coefficient fe.- vehicles, including
the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
U.
13.
14.

17.6.1

Automobiles

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 17.2

Solution

The shape of the forward end, or nose, of the veh).cle

The smoothness of the surfaces of the body
Such appendages as mirrors , door handles, antenIBs, and so forth
The shape of the tail section of the vehicle
The effect of nearby surfaces, such as the ground bt: neath an automobile
Discontinuities, such as wheels and wheel wells
The effect of other vehicles nearby
The direction of the vehicle with respect to prevai. ing winds
Air intakes to provide engine cooling or Y~ ntilatio b.
The ultimate purpose of the vehicle (eritieal fQr ~Q=n mercial trucks)
The accommodation of passengers
Visibility afforded to operators and pitssengers
Stability and control of the vehicle
Aesthetics (the attractiveness of the design)

The overall drag coefficient, as defin~<iLn Eq. (17-1) ba:.ed on the maximum
projected frontal area, varies Widely fof passenger cars... Reference 5 lists a
nominal mean value of 0.4.5, with ~ range of 0.30 to 0.60. Experimental
shapes for cars have shown values as Iow as 0.175. An 2]Jproximate value of
0.25 is practical for a "low drag" design.
The basic principles of dra-g Feduction for automo:Jiles include providing rounded, smooth contoHrs for th forward part; elirrination or streamlining of appendages; blending of changes in contour (sJch as at the hood!
windshield interface); and rounding of rear corners.
A prototype automobile body has an overall drag coefficient of 0.35. Compute the
total drag as it moves at 25 mfs through still air at 20C. Tle maximum projected
frontal area is 2.50 m2
We will use the drag force equation:

FD = CD (p~2)A
From Appendix E, p

FD

= 1.204 kg/m3 Then

= O.J$

[(1. 2i(25)2] (2.50) = 329 kg mfs2 = 329 N

17.6 Vehicle Drag

17.6.2
Power Required to
Overcome Drag

479

Power is defined as the rate of doing work . When a force is continuously

exerted on an object while the object is moving at a constant velocity, power
equals force times velocity . Then, the power required to overcome drag is
P D = FDv

Using the data from Example Problem 17.2, we get

PD

(329 N)(25 m/s)

8230 N m/s

8230 W

8.23 kW

In U .S . Customary System units, this would convert to 11.0 hp, a sizable

power loss.

17.6.3
Trucks

The shapes commonly used for trucks fall into the category called bluff
bodies. Reference 5 indicates that the approximate contribution of various
parts of a truck to its btal drag are
70 percent-the design of the front
20 percent- the design of the rear
10 percent-friction drag on body surfaces
As with automotiles, rounded smooth contours offer large improvements. For trucks with box-shaped cargo containers, designing corners with
a large radius can assist in keeping the boundary layer from separating at the
corners, consequently reducing the size of the turbulent wake behind the
vehicle and reducing d ~ag. In theory, providing a long, -streamlined tail similar to the shape of an aircraft fuselage will reduce drag. However, such a
vehicle would be too long to be practical or useful. Newer large highway
trucks have drag coefficients in the range from 0.55 to 0.75 .

17.6.4
Trains

Early locomotives hac drag coefficients in the range of 0.80 to 1.05 (Reference 1). High-speed, itreamlined trains can have values of approximately
0.40. For long passenger and freight trains, skin friction can be significant.

17.6.5
Aircraft

As with automobiles, wide variations in the overall drag coefficients of aircraft are to be expected with changes in tfie size .and s ap~!Q aecomm<ldat~
different uses. For subsonic aircraft, the typj~al FOunded r fai rly blUDt-nos~d
design with smooth blends at wings and tail slruct ur~s ang a long-tapered tail
section results in dra~ coefficients f ~pl?rQximateJy 0.1 2 to O. ~ . At super
sonic speeds, the nose is usually snarp to diminish the effec of the shock
wave. Operating at mlch lower speed ~, the aiFsfiip (dirigible or b imp) ha~ a
drag coefficient in the range of 0:04.

17.6.6
Ships

The total res'staAce to troe moti0n of floating ships through water is due to
skin friction , presslJu,e 0r Fmm drag, and wave-making resistance . Wavemaking resistance, a Ja:rge contributor to the total resistance, makes analyzing drag on ps i:!e different from analyzing drag on ground vehides or
aircraft. RefereRce 1 die nes the total ship resistance, R1,f ' as the force required to overco e a l orms 0f drag. To normalize the values for different

Chapter 17 Drag and Lift

480

sizes of ships within a given class, values are reported as the ratio R 1.J11 ,
where 11 is the displacement of the ship. Representative values of R,.J11 are
given in Table 17.2. The resistance values can be combined with the speed of
the ship (u) to compute the effective power required to propel it through the
water:
(17-9)

TABLE 17.2 Resistance of ships

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 17.3

Solution

Assume that a tugboat has a displacement of 625 long tons (I long ton = 2240 lb) and
is moving through water at 35 ft/s. Compute the total ship resistance and the total
effective power required to drive the boat.
From Table 17.2, we find the specific resistance ratio to be R,,111
total ship resistance is
11
RIS

0.006. Then, the

= (625 tons)(2240 Ib/ton) = 1.4 x 106 Ib

= (0.006)(11) = (0.006)(1.4 x 106 lb) = 8400lb

The power required is

PE
Using 550 lb-ftls

= RlSv =

= 1.0 hp,

= 0.294

x 106lb-ft/s

we get

PE

17.6.7
. Submarines

(8400 Ib)(35 ft/s)

= (0.294

x 106)/550

= 535 hp

A floating submarine's resistance can be computed in the same way as can a

ship's. However, when completely submerged, none (')f the submarine's
motion causes surface waves, and the computation of re5istance is similar to
.that for an aircraft. The hull shape is similar to the shape of an aircraft
fuselage, and skin friction plays a major role in the total resistance. Of
course, the total magnitude of the drag for a submarine is significantly
greater than that for an aircraft, because the density of water is far greater
than that of air.

17.8

481

Lift and Drag on Ai rfoi ls

17.7
COMPRESSIBILITY
EFFECTS AND
CAVITATION

The result s reported in )ection 17.4 are for conditions in which the compressibility of ihe fluid (~sually air) has little effect on the drag coefficient.
These data are valid if the velocity of flow is less than about one-half the
speed of sound in the flllid. Above that speed for air, the character of the
flow changes and the drag coefficient increases rapidly.
When the fluid is <- liquid such as water, we need not consider compressibility since liquids are very slightly compressible. However, we must
consider another phenomenon called cavitation. As the liquid flows past a
body, the static pressuredecreases. If the pressure becomes sufficiently low,
the liquid vaporizes, fo rming bubbles. Since the region of low pressure is
generally small, the bubbles burst when they leave that region. When the
collapsing of the vapor bubbles occurs near a surface of the body, rapid
erosion or pitting results. Cavitation has other adverse effects when it occurs
near control surfaces 0 : boats or on propellers. The bubbles in the water
decrease the forces ex~rted on rudders and control vanes and decrease
thrust and performance of propellers.

17.8
LIFf AND DRAG
ON AIRFOILS

We define lift as a force acting on a body in a direction perpendicular to that

of the flow of the fluid We will discuss the concepts concerning lift with
reference to airfoils. T:1e shape of the airfoil comprising the wings of an
airplane determines its performance characteristics.
The manner in which an airfoil produces lift when placed in a moving
air stream (or when moving in still air) is illustrated in Fig. 17.7. As the air
flows over the airfoil, it achieves a high velocity on the top surface with a
corresponding decreas~ in pressure . At the same time the pressure on the
lower surface is increa~ed. The ~t result is an upward force called lift. We
express the lift force It as a function of a lift coefficient CL in a manner
similar to that presented for drag:
(17-10)

LIFT FORCE

-4

FIGURE 11.7 Pressure distribution on an airfoil,

(\
-3
Pressure on airfoil
Dynamic pressure '"

p
pu2

'\

-2

i'--.

'"

-1

o
+1

Upper surface

r--..
i""'--

r-

"'""< V
i""'-

i"'---,

~egative pressure)
~ Lower surface

t ~~t
I
t ~
C---t--

I
Flow

I-- ~

"-.

lift

(positive pressure)

482

Chapter 17 Drag and Lift

The velocity u is the velocity of the free stream of fluid loelative to the airfoil.
In order to achieve uniformity in the comparison of one shape with another,
we usually define the area A as the product of the span of the wing and the
length of the airfoil section called the chord. In Fig. 17 8, the span is band
the chord length is c.

'----/

FIGURE 17.8 Span and chord

lengths for an airfoil.

Span

b
.
Aspect raho = c

The value of the lift coefficient CL is dependent ::m the shape of the
airfoil and also on the angle of attack. Figure 17.9 sho.vs that the angle Qf
attack is the angle between the chord line of the airfoil.and the dir~ction .of
the fluid velocity. Other factors affecting lift are the R ynolds numher"'; the
surface roughness, the turbulence of the air stream, the ratio of th~ velPcity
of the fluid stream to the speed of sound, and the aspect -atio. Aspect ratio is
the name given to the ratio of the span b of the wing to Be chord kngth c. It
is important because the characteristics of the flow Lt the wing tips are
different from those toward the center of the span.

FIGURE 17.9 Induced drag.

N~

(X

force on airfoil

=Angle of attack
FDi - inducd drag

Flow

17.8 Lift and Drag on Airloils

483

The total drag on an airfoil has three components. Frictio"n drag and
pressure drag occur as described before. The third component is called
induced drag, which is a function of the lift produced by the airfoil. At a
particular angle of atta( k, the net resultant force on the airfoil acts essentially perpendicular to the chord line of the section, as shown in Fig. 17 .9.
Resolving this force inb vertical and horizontal components produces the
true lift force FL and th( induced drag Fm. Expressing the induced drag as a
function of a drag coeficient gives
Fm = C Di (pv 212)A

(17-11)

It can be shown that C:J; is related to CL by the relation

ci

CD; = 7T(b/c)

(17.... 12)

The total drag is then

(17- 13)

Normally, it is the tota_ drag which is of interest in design. We determine a

single drag coeffieient CD for the airfoil, from which the total drag can be
calculated using the rel-ation

FD

= CrApv2 /2)A

(17-14)

As before, the area A :s the product of the span b and the chord length e_
We use two m~t ods to present the performance characteristics of
aiffoil profiles. In Fig. 17.10, the values of CL, CD, and the ratio of lift to drag

FIGURE 1'1.10 Ai
mance curves..

il P!ITfor-

CL

CD

FJFD

2.00 0.4"0

1 I. CD/
~~\~~t I

35
1.50 0.30 f-30

CLI /
j

25 I--FLIFl
1.00 0.20 -20

"

/"

rr--.. v/

I1

'\)<

15,
0.50 0.10 1-\

)/
/
V V-'
/

-,/ I

'{

----5

10
(X,

degrees

-i

'"

~
15

20

r---

25

3o

484

Chapter 17 Drag and Lift

FL/FD are all plotted versus the angle of attack as the ab~cissa. Note that the
scale factors are different for each variable . The airfo I to which the data
apply has the design ation NACA 2409 according to a s) stem established by
the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics . NAC:A Technical Report
610 explains the code used to describe airfoil profiles. :~ACA Reports 586,
647, 669, 708, and 824 present the performance chara::teristics of several
airfoil sections.
The second method of presenting data for airfo Is is shown in Fig.
17 .11. This is called the polar diagram and is constrl cted by plotting CL
versus CD with the angle of attack indicated as points on the curve.
FIGURE 17.11 Airfoil polar
diagram.

19.60 =(1

1.50

1~7

1.00

0.50

It

112.3

r.---r---20.4 0

.............

r-.
124.40

8.20

t 4.10

t-20
0

o
_4 0

0.10

'---

0.20

0.30

o.40

CD

In both Fig. 17.10 and Fig. 17.11 it can be seen tlwlt the lift coefficient
increases with increasing angle of attack up to a poi.t where it abruptly
begins to decrease. This point of maximum lift is called ate stall point; at this
angle of attack, the boundary layer of the air stream separates from the
upper side of the airfoil. A large turbulent wake is creatoo, greatly increasing
drag and decreasing lift.

REFERENCES
1. Avallone, Eugene A., and Theodore Baumeister Ill,

eds. 1987. Marks' Standard Handbookfor Mechanical

Engineers. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
2. Daugherty, R. L., and J. B. Franzini. 1985. Fluid Mechanics With Engineering Applications. 8th ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
3. Dunlop Sports Company. 1982. MAXFLI DDH: The
Technical Story. Greenville, SC: Dunlop Sports Company.

4. Lindsey,W. F. 1938. Drag c Cylinders of Simple

Shapes~ iReport
o. 6. 9. NatkJllaiJ Advisory COOl.mi ~
tee for Aer:ooaUJti<:s.
5. Morel, T., and C. Dalton, eds . 1979. Aerodynamis of
Transportation. New York: 'ifl:e American SocietY0f
Mechanical EAgineers.
6. Prandtl, L. 19i2. Essentials ofYiuid Dynamics. New
York: Hafner Pulblishimg Co.
7. SiUfU, B ~l. 1988. Tecltno!.()~ Keeps 18-wheelers

Practice Problems
Truckin'. Mechanical Engineering Maga zine . 110
(8):30-33.
8. Stokes, George G . 1901. Mathema ti.cal and Physical;
Papers. Vot. 3. London: Camlbridge University
Press.

485
9. Streeter, V. L. 1985 . Fluid Mechanics. 8th ed. New
York : McGraw-Hill .
10. von Mises, R . 1959. Theory of Flight. New York:
Dover Publications . (First published in 1945 by the
McGraw-Hill Book Co. , New York.)

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
17.1M A cylinder 25 mm in diameter is placed pe rpendicular to a fluid stream with a velocity of 0.15 m/soIf
the cyclinder is I m long, calculate the total drag
force if the fluid is (a) water at 15C and (b) air at
10C and atmospheric pressure.
17.2M As part of an advertising sign on the top of a tall
building, a 2-m diameter sphere called a "weather
ball" glows different colors if the temperature is
predicted to drop, rise, or remain about the same .
Calculate the [or-ee on the weather ball due to
winds of 15, 30, 60, and 120 km/h if the air is at
Oc.
17.3M DeTermifig thlI terminal velocity (see Section
2.6.4) of q 7J-mm diameter sphere made of solid
aluminum ($pecijic weight = 26.6 kN/mJ ) in free
fall in (a) cas12r oil at 25C, (b) water at 25C, and
(c) air iil2(fC an d standard atmospheric pressure.
Consider the effect of buoyancy.
-1.~ Calculate the moment at the base of a flagpole

caused by a wind of 150 km/h. The pole is made of

three sections, each 3 m long, of different size
Schedule 80 steel pipe. The bottom section is 6-in,
the middle is 5-in, and the top is 4-in. The air is at
OOC and standard atmospheric pressure.
17.SM A pitcher throws a baseball without spin with a
velocity of 20 m/s. If the ball has a circumference
of 225 mm, calculate the drag force on the ball in
air at 30C.
17.6M A parachute in the form of a hemispherical cup,
1.5 m in diameter, is deployed from a car irying
for the land speed record. Determine the force
exerted on the car if it is moving at 1100 km/h in
air at atmospheric pressure and 2ooC.
17.7M Calculate the required diameter of a parachute in
the form of a hemispherical cup supporting a man
weighing 800 N if the terminal velocity (see Section 2.6.4) in air at 40C is to be 5 m/so
17.8M A ship tows an instrument in the form of a 300
cone, point first, at 7.5 m/s in sea water. If the

base of the cone has a diameter of 2.20 m, calculate the force in the cable to which the cone is
attached.
17.9M A highway sign is being designed to withstand
winds of 125 km/h. Calculate the total force on a
sign 4 m by 3 m if th(! wind is flowing perpendicular to the face of the sign. The air is at -100C.
Compare the force calculated far this prob(em
with that for Problem 16.4. Discuss the reasons
for the differences.
17.10M Assuming that a semitrailer behaves as a square
cylinder, calculate the force exerted if a wind of20
km/h strikes it broadside. The trailer is 2.5 m by
2.5 m by 12 m. The air is at OC and standarr;/
atmospheric pressure.
17.11M A type of level indicator incorporates four hemispherical cups with open fronts mounted as shown
in Fig. 17.12. Each cup is 25 mm in r;/iameter. A
motor drives the cups at a constant rotational
speed. Calculate the torque th(lt the ",otor must
produce to maintain the motion at 40 rlmin when
the cups are in (a) air at 300C and (b) gasoline at
25C.
17.UM Determine the wind velocity required to overturn
the mobile home sketched in Fig. 17.13 ifit is 10 m
long. Consider it to be a square cylinder. The air is
at ooc.
17.13M A bulk liquid transport truck incorporates a cylindrical tank 2 m in diameter and 8 m long. For the
tank alone, calculate the pressure drag when the
truck is traveling at 100 km/h in still air at 00(:.
(Note: For Problems 17.14 through 17.19, the air is at
- 20F and its density is 2.80 x 10- 3 slugs/ft3.
17.14E A wing on a race car is supported by two cylinqrical rods, as shown in fig. 17.14. Compute th!! cirag
.
forte exerted on the car due to these rods when
the car is traveling through still air at -20F at a
speed of 150 mph.

Chapter 17

486
FIGURE 17.12

Drag a nd Lift

Problem 17 .11 .

FIGURE 17.13

Problem 17.12.

HI.~--- 2.5 m ----l~~1

_ .----

--y--

2.5 m

3m

75 mm tyP. - - - - - . j

Practice Problems

487

FIGURE 17.14 Problems

17. 14 and 17. 15.
2.0-in diameter

17.15E In an attempt to decrease the drag on the car

shown in Fig. 17.14 and described in Problem
17. 14, the cylindrical rods are replaced by elongated elliptical cylinders having a length to breadth
ratio of 8: 1. lly how uch will the drag be reduced? Repeat for tM Nau strut.
17.16E The fuu r desigw s hown- in f ig. 17. 15 for the cross
seotion of an mg_ cy flasher lighting system for
polioe vefficie; M - ~ ~valuated . Each has a
leng h of<iO ill and Width Qf9.00 in . .~ompare the
drag forc~ ex e
~h Qrop-os@
u design when
the vehicle mov
t 100 ffiph through still air at
- 20F.
17.17E A four-wheel drive utility vehicle incorporates a
roll bar that extends above the cab and is in the
free stream of air. The bar, made from 3-in Schedule 40 steel pipe, has a total length of 92 in expos~d
to the wind. Compute the drag exerted on the vehicle by the bar when the vehicle travels at 65 mph
through still air at - 20F.
17.18E An advertising sign for the ABC Paper Company is
shown in Fig. 17.16. It is made from three flat
disks, each with a diameter of 56.0 in. The disks
are joined by 4.50-in diameter tubes measuring 30
in between the disks. Compute the total force on
the sign if it is faced into a tOO-mph wind. The air
is at -20F.

17.19E An antenna in the shape of a cyiindrical rod projects from the top of a locomotive . If the antenna is
42 in long and 0.200 in in diameter, compute the
drag force on it when the locomotive is traveling at
160 mph in still air at - 20F.
17,20E A ship tows an instrument package i~ the form ofa
hemisphere with an open back at a velocity of 25.0
ftls through seawater at 7rF. The diameter of the
hemisphere is 7.25 ft. Compute the force in the
cable to whic the package is attached .
17.21E A flat rectangular plate, 8.50 x 11.00 in in size, is
inserted into lake water at 60F from a boat moving at 30 mph . What force is required to hold the
plate steady relative to the boat with the flat face
toward the water?
1'i.22E The windshield on an antique Stutz Bearcat automobile is a flat circular disk approximately 28 in
in diameter. Compute the drag caused by the
windshield when the car travels at 60 mph in still
air at 50F. The density of the car is 2.42 x 10- 3
slugs/ft 3

11.23E Assume that curve 2 ~n Fig. 17.4 is a true representation of the performance of a golf ball with a diameter of 1.25 in. If the Reynolds number is 1.5 X
105 , compute the drag force on the golf ball and
compare '1 to the drag force on a smooth sphere of
the same diameter whose drag coefficient con-

488
FIGURE 17.15

Chapter 17

Drag and Lift

Problem 17.16.
: ,1.

Flow
";-"

9.00-in
square

Flow

(a)

(b)

Flow

(c)

(e) Pictorial of light assembly mounted on the car

"<

square

489

Practice Problems
FIGURE 17.16 Problem 17.18.
K - --

H-- -

56-in di ameter
typical

./""--

forms to curve 1. The air is at 50F. The density of

the air is 2.42 x 10- 3 slugs/ft 3 and the dynamic
viscosity is 3.68 x 1O- 7 Ib-s/ft2.
17.24E In a falling ball viscometer, a steel sphere with a
diameter of 1.200 in drops through a heavy syrup
and travels 18.0 in in 20.40 s at a constant speed .
Compute the viscosity of the syrup . The syrup has
a specific gravity of 1.18. Note that the free body
diagram of the sphere should include its weight
acting down and the buoyant force and the drag
force acting up. The steel has a specific gravity of
7.83. See also Section 2.6.4.
17.2SE Compute the power required to overcome drag on
a truck with a drag coefficient of 0.75 when the
truck moves at 65 mph through still air at 50F.
The density of the air is 2.42 x 10- 3 slugs/ft3, and
the dynamic viscosity is 3.68 x 10- 7 Ib-s/fe. The
maximum cross section of the truck is a rectangle
8.00 ft wide and 12.00 ft high.
17.26E A small, fast boat has a specitJ.c resistance ratio of
0.06 (see Table 17.2) and displaces 125 long tons.
Compute the total ship resistance and the power
required to overcome drag when moving at 50 ftls
. in seawater at 77F.
17.27E. A passenger liner displaces 8700 long tons. Compute the total ship resistance and the power required to overcome drag when moving at 30 ftls in
seawater at 7rF.

1~.28M

r .29M

r.30M

l'.31M
17.32M

4.50-in diameter
typical

Assume that Fig. 17.10 shows the performancl} of

the wing on the race car shown in Fig. 17.14. Note
that it is mounted in the inverted posit ion. so the
lift pushes down to aid in skid resistance. 'Compute the downward force exerted on the lr i:Jy the
wing and the drag when the angle of lttlc'k is set
at 15 and the speed is 25 mls. The chord length is
780 mm and the span is 1460 mm.
Calculate th e total drag on an airfo;.r Jha~ has a
chord length of2 m and a span of 10 m . The airfoil
is at 3000 mflying at (a) 600 kmlh and (b) 150 km/h.
Use Fig. 17.10 for CD and ex = 15.
For the airfoil with the performance characteristics shown in Fig. 17.10, determine the lift and
drag at an angle. of attack of lOO. The airfoil has a
chord length of 1.4 m and a span of6.8 m. Perform
the calculation at a speed of200 kmlh in the standard atmosphere at (a) 200 m and (b) 10000 m.
Repeat Problem 17.30 if the angle of attack is the
stall point, 19.6.
For the airfoil in Problem 17.30, what load could
be lifted from the ground at a takeoff speed of 125
km/h when the angle of attack is 15? The aids at
300C and standard atmospheric pressure .

11.33M Determine the required wing area for a 1350-kg

airpiane to cruise at 125 km/h if the airfoil is set at
an angle of attack of2.5. The airfoil has the characteristics shown in Fig. 17./0. The cruise altitude
is 5000 m in the standard atmosphere.