/K-^

-BOOK

TEXT

GEOLOGY

MINING
FOR

OF

THE

USE

MINING

OF

STUDENTS

MINERS.

AND

BY

JAMES
PROFESSOR
DIRKOTOK
MEMBER
MEMBER

OF
OF

OF
OF

THE

FELLOW

OF

INSTITUTION

THE

CHARLES

GEOLOGICAL
OF
OF

OF

AND

MINING

OF

GEOLOGY

SCHOOL

INSTITUTE

PRESIDENT
INSTITUTE

MINING

AND

UNIVERSITY

AMERICAN

LATE

TOftb

MINING

OTAGO

THE

PARK,

OF

NEW

METALLURGY

MINING
OF

SOCIETY
THE

MINIS

ENGINEERS
LONDON

ZEALAND

ENGINEERS.

MINING

Jlluetrationean" 3 platee.

78

GRIFFIN
EXETER

"

COMPANY,

STREET,

STRAND.

1906.

[AllRigkt%Reserved.]

LIMITED,

Fa?

Digitized
by

PREFACE.

It
as

of

is

only

of

sufficient

in

recent

importance

distinct

academic

when

career

able

to

relation

academies

always

occupied

The

issued

lectures
exhaustion

of

to

the

present
The

the

in

matter

and

Valuation
of

requirements
in

Mining,
The

in

forms

the

genesis

of

the

been

and

in

its

In

the
has

the

added

form.

cally,"
Economi-

"The

to

the

author

enlarged

and

of

The

1902.

Considered

for

was

series

of

and

Valuation,"

have

no

geology

encouraged

Minerals

his

place.

end

revised

curriculum

new

tion
Examinawith

comply

the

associate-diplomas

Geology.

ore-deposits

problems.

is that

"

Mines

Metallurgy,

perplexing
teacher

of

Ore-

industry.

the
has

this
and

Ores

on

"Mine-Sampling
and

in

subject

comprises

at

in

Nature,

economic

pages

as

possessing
in

the

respected

publication

"

chapters

new

Europe,

form

matter

same

of

part

time

of

treated

was

most

at

occur

mining

following

little

that

the

and

Bulletin

in

bearing

of

prominent

they

as

Continental

of

mining,

dignity

Colleges

it

undergraduate,

true

economics

mining

of

young

the

and

the

for

regarded
the

to

long enough

taught

ore-bodies

of

grasp

the

to

the

Schools

Mining
For

been

elevation

its

principles

the

to

personal experience
least

the

subject, being

introduction

an

in

has

Geology

warrant

communities.

subordinate

Mining

to

department

English-speaking
as

that

years

The

is

chief

to

surrounded

by

difficulty encountered

generalisations

sufficientlydefinite

subject

have

be

not

yet been

many

by

the

crystallised

universally accepted

first

as

principles.
The
on

The

publication

of

Genesis

of

the

late

Professor

Ore-Deposits
1

^fil

'/'O

in

Posepny's
1888

may

classic
be

paper
said

to

PREFACE.

VI

have

marked

economic
has

the

beginning

geology. Since

been

of

the

in

era

new

historyof
the subject

the literature of

that date

writingsof Vogt, Stelzner,Beck,

de Launay,Van Hise,Rickard, Becker, Emmons, Gregory,Kemp,
Foster,
Chamberlain,Lindgren,
Weed, Spurr, Sir C. Le Neve
enriched

S. Herbert
The

the

by

Cox, Grenville Cole,and other distinguished

geologists.

American

School

has

endorsed

not

the

views

extreme

of

theories of Sandberger,but gradually

Posepny,or the fascinating
the two, with
between
developeda conceptionlyingsomewhere
distinct leaningtowards
the teachingsof the former.
a
With
that

respect to Mine
hard

no

and

English,and
has
all

been
were

within

fast rules

German

associated

in mine

agreed

to

as

small

certain

experienceand
Students

and

be

can

Valuation,it is manifest

laid down.

the

American,

Of

whom

mining engineerswith

author

the

examination, it is noteworthy that

although differing
prime essentials,

limits in matters

Differences in minor
in

Sampling

details must

of

procedureand

always

exist where

routine.
men

vary

temperament.

readingfor

advanced

fertile field of reference

in such

work

and

excellent

will find

honours

works

of Ore-Deposits,
publishedby the American

Tlie Genesis

as

Institute

of

Mining

Engineers; the treatises on Ore-Depositsby Stelzner,Beck,

and
Phillips,
Louis; The Sampling and Valuation of Mines,
by Rickard ; the splendidMemoirs and Reports of the Geological

Survey of
through

the United

the

Transactions

Engineers,of
Institution of
Institute
author
in many
of these

of

are

States ; and

the

the valuable

of the

Institution

American
of

papers

Institute

scattered
of

Mining

Mining Engineers, of

and of the New

Zealand
Mining and Metallurgy,
Mining Engineers. The acknowledgments of the

due

to

placesfor

the

writers

much

of

valuable

these

papers

assistance

and

in the

to

friends

preparation

pages.
THE

Univeksity, Dunedin,
March

the

N.Z.,

1906.

Digitized
by

AUTHOR.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

I.

Introductory.

The

and

Scope

Re-forming

Rocks

Plutonic

"

of

Classification

"

Classification

Classification

of

Basis

The

Gold

Deposits"

Beaches"

Sand

blowing
Gold

Placers

Bog

Gypsum
"

Age

"

Inclined

Dykes

and

Varieties

of

Unstratified

Deposits

"

and

of

Effects
"

of Utah"

Lake

and

Formation

of

Deposits

Coprolite
of

Replacement
"

Gash

Volcanic

Beds

Deposits
Veins

"

Seams

"

True

"

"

Shales

Copper
Beds

Gypsum

Origin

"

Intrusive

"

of

Prussia"
"

Beds

Bedded

Copper

of

"

Occurrence

Faults

Mansfeld

Sandstone

Lead

Superior

Veins

of

posits
De-

of

of

Examples

"

Sand

Borax

"

Dip

Irregularities"Bending
Reefs"

Iron

"

and

Mode

"

Tin

Massive
Salt

"

Dry-

"

Alluvial

of Stream

America

Waters

Extent

"

of

Sapphire"

Beds

of

"

"

and

Black

"

Placers

Origin

"

Deposits" Strike

Banket

Rand

Deposits

Contact

"

"

Descending

Superficial

"

Associates

Tin

Ruby,

Faulting

Position"

Sandstones

Silver

"

of

graphy,
Petro-

of

Placers

Cement

Gold

Russia

Thickness

Origin

Coal

Classification
Lacustrine

Stream
in

of

"

Igneous

Influence

Deposits.

Victoria"

"

Stratified

Beds

their

Conglomerates
"

Action

of

Coal"

"

"

Iron"

Inclination

Deposits

Gold

Platinum

"

Sulphur"

"

of

Alluvial

of

Placers, Diamond,

Gem

"

"

"

Placers

Platinum

"

Forms

of Alluvial

Origin

"

Leads

Deep

Placers

Mineral

Placers"

River

of

The

Importance

"

Morphological

Placers"

Time

II.

of

"

The

"

"

Rocks

Rocks

CHAPTER

Destroying

Alteration

"

Igneous

Igneous

"

Geological
Overflow
Igneous Rocks"

of

Bosses
in

in

Earth

Sedimentary

Contents

Origin

Minerals

and

Metals

"

Dykes

Rocks

Dyke

"

mostly

Fossil

"

of Water

Action

Crust

"

Life

Distinctive

by

Rocks

The

"

Earth's

The

"

of the

Geological Structure

"

Sedimentaries

of

Alteration
marked

Geology

Geological Time

of

Beginning
and

of

Purpose

Stockwork

Fahlbands
Fissure

"

pregnations"Segrega
Im-

Veins,

"u
t
Digitized
^by

VU1

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
Ore

Veins"

III.

Filling, Age Structure,

Pay Shoots, etc.

their

Wall

Movements,

page

Fillingof Cavities and Veins

Originof Vein Cavities" Age of Veinof
Width
Lodes
Inclination Depth
filling"
Length" Stroke
Horses in Veins" Outcropsof Veins
Arrangementof Lode Matter
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Condition

of Metallic Contents

Shoots

Position of Valuable

"

Wall

Contents

of
Pay
Vertical
Distribution
of Ores
Country Productive Zones
Veins
of
Enrichment
of
Veins in
Secondary
Impoverishment
Indicator Beds
Depth
Paragenesis Temperaturesin Deep
Rock
Mining" Recording
Temperatures"Limits of Deep Mining
Metasomatic Replacement,
"

Gold

"

Bonanzas

"

"

Movements

Influence

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

59

......

IV.

CHAPTER
The

Definition of Faults"
Faults

Trough
GraphicMethod,
"

Dynamics

with
parallel

Faults

Faults

"

Beds.

Bed"

Dip

Rules for Inclined

Lodes

Faults"

Step

Zimmerman's

"

93

.......

CHAPTER
Ore

and

Lodes

of

Deposits

V.

Genetically

Magmatic SegregationChromite in Peridotite

Native Copper Platinum Metals
Nickel Iron
Ores formed by
After-action
Action
of
Solfataric
Eruptive
Ascending Alkaline
Waters
Fumarolic
Contact Metamor phic Deposits Regional
.105
MetamorphicDeposits"Meteoric Waters" Organic,

Genetic

Classification"

Considered.

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

CHAPTER

Theories

EruptiveProcesses Theory
Summary,
"

of

VI.

Vein

Formation.
Secretion

of Lateral

"

Ascension

of Solutions

"

Digitized
by

.129

CONTENTS.

IX

CHAPTER
Ores

Minerals

and

VII.

Economically.

Considered

page

Alum

"

Aluminium

Antimony

"

Arsenic

"

Asbestos

"

Asphaltum

"

"

Cement"
Borax
Chromium"
Coal" Cobalt
Baryte8"Bismuth
Copper Cryolite Diamond
Fireclay Fluorite Gold Graphite
Iron
Lead
Gypsum
Magnesite Manganese Mica
denum
MolybNickel
Petroleum
Oil Shale
Phosphate RockPlatinum"
Slate
Quicksilver Silver
Sulphur Talc Tin
.142
Tungsten" Zinc,
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

CHAPTER
Mine-sampling

"

"

"

VIII.
Ore-valuation.

and

Record of Samples
Sampling Equipment Sampling Intervals
Breakingthe Sample" Sampling Reduction of Sample Assay of
Samples" CalculatingValue Future Prospects Sample Values
and Mill Values
SamplingDumps and Heaps,
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

CHAPTER
The
Valuation

of Metal

Examination
Mines

of Alluvial Ground,

Index,

Valuation

and

Mine"
.

IX

Developed Mines

"

Classification of Ore in

and

Valuation

of

Mines.

Going

of Coal

Concerns

Areas

"

"

tion
Valua.196

.214

Digitized
by

186

Digitized
by

MINING

GEOLOGY.
CHAPTER

I.

INTRODUCTORY.
The
:
Earth

Scope and Purpose of Geology GeologicalStructure of

The Action
of Water
in
Beginning of GeologicalTime
Destroyingand Re-forming The Earth's Crust mostly Sedimentary
The
Alteration of Sedimentaries
Fossil Contents
GeologicalTime
marked
Overflow Rocks
by Distinctive Life" Origin of IgneousRocks
Plutonic
Bosses
Alteration of Igneous Rocks
Metals
Dyke Rocks
and Minerals in Igneous Rocks"
The
Influence of Dykes" Classification
of IgneousRocks
Importanceof Petrography.

Contents

"

the

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

The

and

Scope

geology is undertaken

Purpose
by two

who,
patientinvestigator
hope of material gain,is

composed

of

mineral

of the
investigation

of

Geology."

The

classes of student.

study

There

of

is the

in the interests of pure science,without

that a rock is
content
not only to know

matter, but

extends

and
origin,
composition,

his researches
structure

to

the

of the rock.

who
views a mineral
from a commercial
utilitarian,
and is willingto undergo a special
of
course
standpoint,
valuable
order
t
he
from the
to be able to distinguish
trainingin
Then

there

base and
The

is the

worthless.

science may

therefore

be divided

into Theoretical

Geology,

of the rocky crust of

the originand structure
investigates
the earth ; and Economic
or
Mining Geology,which bears more
on
mining,and the developmentof the mineral industry.
directly
which

knowledgeof

to understand

should

the fundamental

the

prepare

course
systematic

of the
principles

second, and for this

himself

for

his

firstis necessary

mining student
professionby going through a
reason

every

in Gfeneral Geology.

that many
of the
eminent
most
to observe
satisfactory
guished
mining engineersin Europe, America, and Australia are distinmodern
anatomy is to the
geologists.What
surgeon, so
is geology to the mining profession.
It is

GEOLOGY.

MINING

Geological Structure

Earth."

of the

The

of the

crust

thereof minerals and metals,and fore

great repository
will afford
brief consideration of its originand structure
a
better understanding
in which ore-bodies and
of the manner

earth

is the

occur.
mineral-deposits
of
Geologicaltime
Geological Time.
Beginning
conditions which
back to the firstbeginningof the physical
"

the earth.

prevailupon

Accordingto
celestial bodies
of

mass

and

astronomers
at

the

of its

now

necessary

the earth,like
physicists,

present time,

glowingincandescent

the radiation

clear,it will be

this

of the earth to its present form.

the evolution

tp trace

To make

dates

gases

existed

once

as

many
nebular

swinging through

heat, this globe,in the

By
space.
of countless

course

cool for a thin skin or crust to form on

sufficiently
ages, became
continued
radiation of the heat,the
the outer surface.
the
By
became

crust

itself to

thicker

thicker,and, in attempting to adapt

the smaller dimensions of the molten mass
below, became

crumpled and
a

and

rucked

up into

ridgesand

like
valleys,

the skin

of

dried-up
apple.
In the

became

scarred

and

gnarled igneous crust

of the

enough to permit the condensation

which enveloped the earth.
The waters

vapours

hollows,and formed
the

the

of time

course

cool

the firstseas

that

ever

watery

settled in the
existed on the face of

globe.
restless waters of the new-born
at once
seas
began to wear
the dry land,and the streams
to deepen
the valleys
draining

The

away
and widen

their channels.

without

beds

denuded

material

spreadout

was

on
rockyfloor of the seas, thus marking the
beginning of the conditions of sedimentation that have existed

in

and
layers

The

interruption
up

sediments

The

the

Action

were

to the

water
presentday. These ancient fresh-

the firstrecords of

of Water

in

time.
geological

Destroying and Re-forming.

"

From
that date up tillnow, water
has continued
to be the most
a
nd
in
the
surface of the
powerfulagency
sculpturing
modifying
earth.
In wasting and erodingthe dry land, in transporting
the
eroded

material,in sortingand

spreadingit out,
unceasingthroughoutall time.
portionof the originaligneous crust,or even

the

action

of

has been

water

No
formed

sediments,has

ever

been

stillexist,buried beneath

may
The

of the firstand patches

found ; but shreds

of later times.
deposits

the

fixed
of matter
a
forming the earth is practically
quantity; hence it is evident that all the depositsand beds now
forming the surface of the earth must have been derived from the
amount

destruction

of the first igneous crust, or

of

rocks
sedimentary

later date.
Digitized
by

of

INTRODUCTORY.

dry land has

the material to form new
been denuded by water, yielding
deposits
continual
in seas and lakes.
Through the
crumplingof the crust
in course
of time became
of the earth, these deposits
dry land,
the
t
o
of
in
their
were
erosion,
and,
again
turn,
subjected
agents
still
This
material
to
form
strata.
newer
o
r
deposits
yielding
older
formations
material
the
action is stillgoing on, the
providing
Ever

beginning of geologicaltime

since the

for the younger.

material
The same
different

appearedre-sorted

has

have

of the older formations

denudation, or

in different

easy to understand

It is now

geological
ages.

the

been

removed
by
entirely
isolated
represented
onlyby

are

forms, in
how

some

this

lasting
ever-

remnants

of small extent.

mostly Sedimentary."

Crust

Earth's

The

An

tion
examina-

of the crust of the earth shows that it is composedprincipally

that is,rocks occurringin parallel
beds or
of stratified rocks
layers. A studyof the materials forming these rocks,and of their
"

that
fossil contents, shows us
gradualdepositof sediments on
some

accumulation

called

sometimes

are

the

and

Water

valleysand
The

on

some

our

or

main
of

lake, in

they
factors,
namely,
the cementing
as

"

induration,alteration,or

fair

meta-

subjected.
the same
transporting,
eroding,

all time

what

the

growth and

the

clastic rocks

character

the material has been

shores is

sea

by

we

see

now

example

in

going on

of what

took

our

placein

time.
geological

shales ; while

shores

the

formed

sands

The

of

amount

sortingpower, and

gravelson

borne

material, the

through
possessed

has
and

earliest

the

to which

morphism

"

the

of

texture

medium,

have

or
sedimentary
is dependenton three

of

structure
physical

formed

been

the floor of

from solutions,
or
by
by precipitation
of animal or vegetableorganisms.

cases

The

have

they

the

Alteration

conglomerates;the

sandstones ; the
littoral shell-beds

distant

more

and

of Sedimentaries.

subjectto all the

been

formed

muds

coral reefs became

The

"

later movements

water-

became

stones.
lime-

older sedimentaries
which

have

affected

They have been indurated by the great

superincumbentstrata, plicatedand contorted by

of the

the crust

earth.

weight of
and altered by the simultaneous
entanglement in great earth-folds,
thermal
action of pressure, heat, and circulating
Thus
waters.
limestones
have been changed to marbles, sandstones to quartzite,
mudstones

Fossil

and

Contents.

existingstrata
remains

of

shales to slates
"

contain

plantsand

schist.

or

Examination
a

of

shown

indistinct

few

animals

has

very

and

that

the

earlier

badly preserved

primitiveand lowlytype.

GEOLOGY.

MINING

Beds higherin the succession are found to contain

varied assemblageof plantand animal remains, many

complexstructure,such
saurians,palms,and
contain, besides
mammals

higher

highly

lizards,

deposits
younger
remains
of many

or

fishes,the

livingat the presenttime.

representatives
a gradualsuccession of life in time

have

words, there has been

lowlyto the
Geological Time

from

and

molluscs

which

In other

The

of

bird-like

molluscs,fishes,
huge

as

tree-ferns.

large and

the

forms.
highlyorganised

more

marked
shown

has
investigation
beds.

only in certain

distinctive forms.

Such

Distinctive

by

that certain

fossils

Geologistshave

organic forms

termed

are

taken

haustive
Life." Exoccur

characteristic

or

of these

to

advantage

justas historic time is divided

periods,
into periodsby succeeding
dynastiesor empires. These periods
a
nd
used for convenience of description
are
are
purelyempirical,
and study.
time embraces
three great periods,
which are further
Geological
divide

time
geological

subdivided

as

shown

into

below

"

Recent.

.Pleistocene,
TERTIARY,

or

Cainozoic

Pliocene.
Miocene.
Eocene.

(
SECONDARY,

or

Mesozoic

"

Cretaceous.
Jurassic.

Triassic.

Permian.*^
Carboniferous.

PRIMARY,

or

Devonian.

Palajozoic

Silurian.
Cambrian.

Laurentian.1^
Such
cover

terms
vast

reference
whereas

as

Permian, Devonian, etc.,are

When

aeons.

that

and

names,

is said to be of Miocene

rock

to the table will show

time

age,

it is

comparativelyyoung ;
Silurian
of
of
extreme
is
one
a
antiquity. For
age
these time periods
of close investigation,
sometimes
are
rock

purposes
stillfurther subdivided

by geologists.
Throughout
Origin of Igneous Rocks.
shell or crust of the earth has been subjectto
"

overflow

evidence

all time

the outer

the intrusion and

from below; and there is abundant

magmas
these igneous intrusions or outbursts
were
more

of molten
that

frequent,more

violent,and

more

widespreadin

earlier than

in

INTRODUCTORY.

volcanic

frequency of

Yet, notwithstandingthe

geologicaltimes.

later

outbursts,the fact remains

probablynine-tenths of
of sedimentary
or
are

that

rocks

forming the crust of the earth

origin.
aqueous
Although subordinate in extent and mass, the eruptiverocks
of oreplay an important part in the distribution and occurrence
metalliferous
and
mineral
Not
bodies
only are they
deposits.

the

themselves, but

in

fracturingof

the

fissures which

have

crack

rock

volcanic

caused

has

therebyforming
theypenetrated,
been filledwith mineral matter.
subsequently

which
issues from a
igneous magma,
overflows the surrounding country, is called a
Such
if they cool
overflow
lava.
magmas,

and

vent

or

intrusion

rocks, which

Rocks.

Overflow

their

cases

many

or

An

"

glassyin structure; or, if they cool less rapidly,

of
there developsa number
consist of a glassybase, in which
minerals,either as grainsor crystals.
cool in
which
The portionsof the magma
Dyke Rocks.
termed
cracks and vents are
dykes. In the majorityof cases,
of the
the existence of dykes is onlyrevealed by the denudation
surroundingcountry.
and under great pressure, the
cooled slowly,
Dykes necessarily
latter being due to (a) the weight of the surroundingand overlying
included
the
internal
of
stress
rocks; (b) the
gases and
of the
steam
(c)the stress due to the molecular movement
; and
constituents
during the process of cooling; and (d)gravitational

rapidly,are

"

stress.

which

Magmas
assume

cool

reach

the

example,often

in the form

occurs

bosses

These

are

crust, and hence

is held to indicate a land surface

of bosses.
to

deep-seated

occupy

their appearance

long subjectedto
more

at

the surface

They

erosion.

entirely
so

than

rocks.

that, according to

see

we

eruption,cooling,and
volcanic

glass,an

boss.
crystalline
rather

cases

Granite,for

bosses."

"

in structure, even
crystalline
completely
Thus

termed

generallybelieved

cavities in the

dyke

most

"

presentsurface by denudation,are

are

in

Magmas projectedfrom below into the

the form of huge, dome-shapedmasses, which
surface,but were
exposedat the
subsequently

Bosses.

adjoiningrocks,in
not

pressure,

structure.
crystalline

Plutonic
did

slowly,under

than

Alteration

The

chemical

of

sedimentaries,are

pressure,

the

the
same

ordinarylava, a
difference is

varying conditions

one

magma

may

of

become

dyke rock, or a highly

constitution
of physical

composition.

Igneous Rocks."
subjectto alteration.

All

igneous rocks,

Pressure

like

in the presence

MINING

of

has

superheated steam

GEOLOGY.

caused

often

rearrangement of the

constituents ; while the circulation of thermal waters has led to the

elimination of some,
and the substitution of other, constituents
of

found

secondaryorigin. Moreover, it is
morphism may cause altered lavas and
structure

Metals
rock

unlike that induced

not

and

Minerals
date

of recent

commercial
metals

value.

have

Traces
found

been

of economic

tuffs to

assume

meta-

schistose

in altered sedimentaries.

to contain

in modern

volcanic

No

of
deposits

metalliferous

and
gold,silver,

of

intense

Igneous Rocks."

in

is known

that

base

of the

most

lavas ; but the onlyminerals

with these rocks are
sulphur

importanceassociated

and

both of secondary
origin.
gypsum,
The Miocene andesitic lavas and tuffs of the Sierra Nevada

and Banat
in
districts in America; Transylvania
and
Hauraki
and
of
Sumatra
in Malaysia
Borneo
;

CrippleCreek
Hungary ; of
Peninsula
of

in New

flow of andesite

contains

the

near

other

The
the

veins

Of

distribution

of

gold
althoughthere
of

and

also the matrix

Dykes.

of

country, which
Intrusive

fair to

are
granite,

in

and

some

contents

as

the contact

near

coincidence ; and
which

way
are

secular

the

and

the

clear

very
with the presence

softer and

fractured

foldingof

the

of tin and

by

the

boss

may

have

been

the

yieldingsedimentaries
earth.

that,

and

its

tiltedand fractured

lateral stresses

crust of the

conclude

us, the vein

of the boss.

to

have
possibly

more

copper.
is too frequent

compelledto

are

we

the

neighbourhoodof

granitebosses

and

is not

connected

againstwhich

adjacent

often impregnated
are
granite,
with sedimentarystrata ; and in

intrusion of the boss may

surroundingrocks; or the

crushed

or

the

for the circulation

tracks

those of

The
the

fissures in

rocks,in
sedimentary
traversed by valuable veins

mere

the intrusion of the

that

assume

channels

association of tin veins

a

potent influence

deposits.Many valuable
vicinityof dykes; and
knowledge concerningthe origin

the

cases

selves
often them-

not

waters.

bosses,such

tin-stone

to be

diamonds, opals,

in the

occur

then became

of mineral-laden

The

is

metalliferous

copper

seems

are

exercised

they have

originatedfractures
dyke-material

with

of

rocks

Dyke

"

is little definite

vein-matter,it

other

which

stones.
precious

Influence

metalliferous ; but
on

are

Zealand

occurrence

copper, an
therefore of great scientific interest.

times
some-

are

in New

Heads

Manukau

native

Volcanic tuffs and lavas

and

lead,and zinc

of copper,

ores

large grainsof

and

rare

veins
gold-and silver-bearing

Zealand, contain

great value, in which

present.
A

and

initiated

anvil
were

by

Igneous magmas

the
are

INTRODUCTORY.

charged with
most

of the

and

water

water

and

During the

gases.

the

there

on,
steam

were

is

and

steam,

evidence

much

gases

afterwards

cooling,

highlyheated

as
expelled

gases are
later

and, as will be shown

support the belief that
dissolved metals,which

of

process

laden

were

in the
deposited

to

with
of

zone

fracture.

Classification of

igneous

rocks

Igneous Rocks.

For

"

be classified in three

may

as

groups

follows

our

presentpurposes,

tinguisha
disand easily
principal

:
"

Altered
Class.

A.
B.
C
L,.

Volcanic

Basic,

Type.

Basalt.

Diabase.

Andesite.

Diorite.

Intermediate,

I "a)Trachvte-

Acidic
Acidic,

( Syenite.

^ (fe)
Rhyolifce

types which have provedthe

diorite,andesite,and granite.
The

} Granite.
are
productive

most

Importance Of Petrography. Petrographywas

branch
of general geology. Of late years
narrow
into
minute

distinct science,which

concerns

and
structure, composition,

itself

nomenclature

diabase,

formerlya

"

the

or

Holocrystalline
Type.

it has

veloped
de-

with
chiefly
of

igneous
and
of
the
rocks,
although
generalisations petrography
crystalline
little bearing upon
the phenomena of structural
have
geology,it is needful that every geologistshould have an
and

intimate

knowledgeof

Valuable
rocks that

minerals
it

seems

its leading
features.
are

so

associated
frequently

to
impossible

exists
geneticrelationship
reallyis has yet to be
deposits.

between

with

avoid the conclusion

What

them.

determined

in

the

this

that

igneous
a

close

relationship

majorityof

ore-

known
to separatein the
Rock-forming constituents are now
of the
in a definite order, and the investigation
coolingmagma
laws governing magmatic differentiation promisesto throw much
lighton the genesisof ore-deposits.

Digitized
by

CHAPTER

CLASSIFICATION
Contents

"

Basis

Gold

Deposits
Superficial
Beaches"

Sand

Black

blowing
Origin of

Placers

"

"

Extent

of

Tin

Stream

"

Waters

Origin of

"

of Alluvial

"

Placers

Dry-

"

Gold

Stream

"

"

"

and

Intrusive

of

Deposits
"

their

Sulphur

"

Inclination

"

Inclined

"

and

Dykes

Gypsum

"

Beds

Bedded

Age

"

"

Borax

"

Dip

"

"

"

Salt

"

Beds
Examples of
of Occurrence
Mode

Faults

Placers

Cement

Associates

"

"

Strike

Deposits
"

Gold

Lacustrine

"

"

of

Formation

Placers

of Victoria"

Leads

Classification

Morphological

"

Platinum
Tin
Gem
Russia
and
America
Iron
in
Sand
Placers
Ruby, Sapphire Massive Deposits Bog Iron

Platinum

Thickness

DEPOSITS.

River

"

of Alluvial

Placers, Diamond,
of Descending
Action
Stratified

Placers

Deep

Forms

Alluvial Gold

Placers"

Classification

of
"

"

MINERAL

OF

The

II.

"

Beds-

Origin and
Faulting
Irregularities

Coal"

Position

Effects

of

"

"

"

"

Rand
Banket
Mansfeld
Varieties of Coal
Reefs
Bending of Seams
Prussia
Silver
of
of
Lead
Shales
Sandstone
Sandstones
Utah
Copper
Lake
Beds
of
Copper Conglomerates
Superior Coprolite
Gypsum
Beds
Unstratified Deposits Deposits of Volcanic
Origin Stockwork
Deposits Contact and Replacement Deposits Fahlbands
tions
ImpregnaTrue Fissure Veins.
SegregatedVeins" Gash Veins
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

in

so

that

"

Basis

The

Classification.

of

different

and

forms,
many
the attempts of different

founded

natural

upon
In any

success.

"

"

it must

case,

under

so

writers

to

basis,have

depositsare found
varying conditions,

Mineral

"

not

many
formulate

classification,

attended

been

be remembered

that

with

much

classification

only an empiricalarrangement intended to facilitate the study

and investigation
of mineral
deposits.
The majorityof the classifications hitherto
proposed are based
either (a) morphological,
or
(b)geneticconsiderations,or (c)
upon
is

of the

combination
The

first

principlesof
The

understood.
formulated

that

will

ore

deposition are

diverse

most

authorities

eminent

two.

; and

theories

it is doubtful

satisfyall

the

are

if

still

theory

conditions

imperfectly
advanced
by

still

and

has

yet been

explainall

the

facts.
The
Until

basis

then,

for

natural

outward

classification has

form

and
8

mode

of

still to
occurrence

be

discovered.
seem

to

10

GEOLOGY.

MINING

Class

I.

SUPERFICIAL

DEPOSITS.

(a) Fragmentary.
Definition
of Placer Deposits. These embrace alluvial deposits
all
of
lake deposits,
or
kinds,whether beach sands, river gravels,
d
rifts
loose
o
f
glacier
platinum,
containing
particles gold,tin-ore,
alluvial
iron ores, or preciousstones.
include
the
also
deep
They
South
of California,
leads,or deep placers,
Victoria,and New
Wales, which are often covered with a sheet,or sheets of basalt.
"

Gold

Placers.

gold is concentrated is
termed
the pay-washis
or
pay-wash, pay-dirt,
pay-streak.When
covered by a considerable depth of gravel-drift
other
or
cover, it is
termed a deep-lead.
Methods
to their
of working Placers. Alluvial drifts,
according
That

drift in which

the

portionof

the

"

are
situation,

worked

(1) By ground

follows

as

:
"

gravitationsluicingwith

or

not

under

water

under

water

pressure.
with
(2) By hydraulickingthat is,groundsluicing
"

pressure.
and elevating
with water under pressure.
(3) By hydraulicking
This method
of the
is only resorted to when
the configuration
to construct
a tail-race
or too costly,
ground renders it impossible,
for
Blue

or

sluicing.It is worked with

gravitation
and
other
claims in New
Zealand.
Spur

much

success

at the

when the material is mainly

(4)By bucket and suction dredges,
maritime
on
sea-beaches,
partlybelow water-level,
as, for example,
and river-flats.
lakes,river-beds,
lagoons,
Gold
Placers.
Familiar examplesof gold-bearing
Examples of
"

the

gravelsare

Victoria,West Australia,KlonZealand, and Altai Mountains, in Central

alluvial drifts of

New
dyke, California,

Siberia.
beach-sands containing
ironsand,
Gold-bearing
mostlymagnetite,
occur

and

alongthe
the Gold

Among

shores of Westland

Coast

the

Southland,in New

Zealand,

Africa.

that at Cape Nome, in

gold discoveries,
important. A sloping
planeor tundra extends

later alluvial

Alaska, is the most

from

of West

and

sea

succession

back
of

to

beds

upturned edgesof

the
of

foot of the

mountains.

and
sand, gravel,

the Palaeozoic basement

It consists of

clay restingon
rock.

The

the

surface is

CLASSIFICATION

covered

with

layerof

to

is found

concentrate

tundra
from

appear

tundra

and

moss

11

DEPOSITS.

MINERAL

decayingvegetablepeaty

depth of 18 inches or 24 inches. The gold-bearing

along the beach, being apparentlya rewash or
and sand.
of the tundra gravels

matter
matter

The

OF

gravels bear

their bedded

in
deposited

lake-basin

or

evidence

no

and

water-worn

in

shallow

glacierorigin,but

of

character
sea

to have

estuary of

the

near

been
a

largeriver.
Glacier
found

Drifts, Country that

was

"

contain

to

classes of

two

"

masses,

other

the

classes

2."

water.

moraines.

(b) Glacier

gravels.
drained

often mixed

worn

The

at

one

trans-

Face.

ice.

first forms

and
gravels

Section of Glacier

(a) Glacier

river which
are

{d)Glacier

the latter water-

Fig.

by

by

Terminal

"

(c)Glacier tunnel.

(a) Moraines.
rock.
(b) Basement

ported by ice, the

is
by glaciers

overrun

matter
transported

Section of Glacier above

Fig. 1.

morainic

once

sands

tumbled

deposited

Valley.

(c)Basement rock.
(d) Glacier river.
the

certain

bottom

of

points.

the

When

glacier.Both
the

country is

the glacier
gravelsand morainic matter contain gold.
gold-bearing,
formed
moraines
The
are
by ice which cannot separate the gold
from the rock debris ; hence the goldis scattered through it just
the
the glacierhappened to drop it. The glaciergravels,
on
as

12

MINING

other

GEOLOGY.

hand, beinglargelya

gold in

Many

of the

moraines,contain

of the

terraces in New
gold-bearing
of the Rocky Mountains
bear
higher valleys
river origin,while some
are
composed of a

gravelsand

morainic

the

form.

concentrated

more

rewash

Zealand and
evidence of
rewash

of

in the

glacierglacier

matter.

Position of Pay- Wash,

has shown that alluvial gold
Experience
is deposited
in the course
of the
alongthe inner side of the curves
river. Any stratum
of good gravel in the oppositebank
was
"

laid down
evidently

at

previoustime,under

some

similar conditions.

The

accompanying diagram (fig.

3) shows the distribution of the
pay-wash. The gold is coarsest at the head of the bar, gradually

becoming finer
dirt is too

and

scarcer,
So
to
poor
pay.

Fig. 3." Plan of

the

will
pay-streak

and

spreadingout below,

long as

the

until the

river retains its course,

of gravels.
River-course,
showingposition

continue

form

to

as

the bar is extended

from

year to year.
size of the gravelseems
to show that the
The average uniform
gold is only depositedwhere the current has a certain medium
velocity.At the points where the bends in the river are made
is generally
deeper
permanent by rockybanks,the pay-gravel

more

and

of

greaterextent
richest

The

river,as

scour

of

gold does

elsewhere.
collect in the

not

but
be expected,
might naturally

ledgesbelow.
occur

than

The

in narrow,
the water

reason

for this may

that

too

where

pot-holesgenerally
the

and
velocity
parts
great to permit the permanent

rock-bound
are

be

in the
deep pot-holes
the bars or rockyon

lodgment of the goldparticles.

the gold is
Position of Gold in Drifts. In alluvial deposits
found in a layerof pay-washrestingeither on the slate or schist
bottom, or on a false-bottom.In river and creek workings,the
"

CLASSIFICATION

OF

MINERAL

the slate bottom

on
pay- wash lies invariably
of old lake basins it frequently
rests on
a

clayor

there
on

In

cement.

often

Buller

two

occur

Placers.

in the

false-bottom

alluvia
stiff

of

ness,
the drift is of considerable thickstreaks

more

typicalsection
Zealand,is shown

"

River, in New

of

pay-wash resting

(a) Terrace gravels.

River-ClianneU.

river claims of the

in the

followingdiagram.

'

(c) Slate floorrock.

(b) Pay-wash.
It

"

does not
old channel
bed
or

bearing wash

of the

of Gold-drifts in River Claim.

Fig. 4." Section

Old

or

; but

false-bottoms.

successive

River

where

cases

13

DEPOSITS.

sometimes
in the

occur

happens
present

that

the

gold-

but in
river-channel,

The

followingfigureshows a
Central Otago, New
Zealand.1
section of the Manuherikia
old river-bed was -excavated in mica-schist,
The
and the gravels
which fillit have been saved from destruction by the rim of schist.
The old river-wash is being worked
and the
by ground-sluicing,
recent gravelsin the present river-bed by bucket-dredges.
an

by.
Valleyin

near

Valley,showing old river-channel

wash.
(AfterPark.)
gold-bearing
containing
(c)Recent gravels.
{a) Mica-schist.
(d) Older gravels.
(b) Pliocene lacustrine beds.

Fig. 5." Section of Manuherikia

Lacustrine
the next

Placers.

"

typicalexample of

payablepay-wash restingon
figure.2

Throughout
1

J.

Loc.

the

Manuherikia

basin

false-bottom
the

Explorations,1888-89,
Park, Geological
cit.,
p. 21.

lake

taining
con-

is shown

lacustrine
p. 24,

beds

beds

in
have

N.Z.
Wellington,

14

MINING

been

tilted almost
of

Sand

Beaches.

of alluvial

form

and Southland

ties
difficul-

the
edge,therebygreatlyincreasing
pay-washwith success.

on

workingthe

Black

GEOLOGY.

The

"

washing

the sea-beaches

mining pursuedon
Zealand.

in New

derived from

beach

of

sands

is

of Westland

black sand is principally

netite
mag-

The

rocks.
of the neighbouring
disintegration

the

and is found confine particles,

centrated
excessively
with the black sand in layersalong the sea beach, the
removing the lighter
laving action of the retreatingwaves
particles
The

gold

occurs

quartz sand.

of

of Victoria.

Deep-Leads
of

are
a

in

great extent

class of

and

also
deposit

The

"

buried

placersof

this state

may be taken as typicalof

in California.
They consist of gold-

value.
found

They

Fig. 6.

Section

"

Wash.
showing Lacustrine Gold-bearing

(AfterPark. )

(d)Carbonaceous sands.
wash.
(e) Gold-bearing
Stiff
(g)Schist
(/)
clay.

(a) Recent gravels.

(b) Gray quartz sands.
(c)Ferruginousquartz sands.

bearinggravelscovered by a singleflow of basalt,or by a

of thin flows separated
by beds of gravel.
The

into which

higherlands.

depth as

channels.
lava

In

which

The

to

cause

some

cases

the

magma

stream.

area

when
valleys
the

was

fissures
tively
compara-

igneous magma

of the

diversion

the

built up great basaltic

valleysand watercourses.
the

ancient

and

streams

invaded

by

the

plateauxon

down
river-valley

which

spread itself
generally
This caused

over

seem,

river-system.

to

the

poured was
gravelsin

or

of

miles

of square
sites of the

lava

new

floods

river-

wide,
thin

diversion
partial
compel the river to find

only a temporary

it would
river,insufficient,
outlet in another

the

the

to

into

overflowed the district for hundreds

and

Where

crater-vents

filled with
generally

were

narrow

the floor of ancient river-valleys

poured from

the lava streams

situated in the
such

lies on

gold-bearing
pay- wash

succession

of the
a

new

CLASSIFICATION

Where
it may
the

succession

be inferred that

the

of material

MINERAL

gravelbeds

of

thin

maintained

river, which

accumulation

OF

flows

its

had

15

DEPOSITS.

and

only

basalt

flows

originalwatershed

reached

such

occurs,

diverted
temporarily
a

heightas

to

CAMP
DQVtTVM

the

until

com-

MILL

ST*"tT

.Shaft \

Fig. 7." Cross-section of Ballaarat

Goldfield,
showing deep-lead
underlyingbasalt. (AfterR. Brough Smyth.)

choke
pletely
to

command

the old

up
a

outlet

new

valley,
whereby the
through

some

waters

low saddle

enabled

were
or

pass into

neighbouringwatershed.
Since the emission

of the basalts the

country has been dissected

wnrTi

tiki

Fig. 8." Section of Deep-leadBallaarat Goldfield,

showing succession
lava flows and river-gravels.
(AfterR. Brough Smyth.)

by

and

streams

valleys.It

sculpturedinto

is noticeable

that

the
the

and
existingridges,
plateaux,
new

river-courses

coincident with the old, which

still lie buried

graveland

basalt

pointswhere

crossed

the

by

except at the

newer

transverse

of

under
their

seldom

are

their load of

course

has been

streams.
^

16

MINING

GEOLOGY.

removed
the
has in some
cases
process of denudation
Thus
the
floor
the ancient river-valley.
barriers which
bounded
This

of the old

its cap of hard

hills which
formed

with
valley,

while the
ridges,
down

and
valleys

into

forms

basalt,now

flat-topped

have

the barriers

been

worn

watercourses.

ebb

Fig. 9.

"

Section

effects
Greenock, showing protective
(AfterR. Brough Smyth.)

of Mount

of basalt cap.

(c) Wash-dirt underlyingbasalt.

(d) Existingwatercourse.

(a) Wash-dirt.

(b)Existingwatercourse.
The

base of the buried

in the basement

Fig. 10.

The

gravelsrestingin

of Deep-Lead in
wash.
gold-bearing

Section

"

Victoria

generallylies at

rockygutter or

channel

the
cut

District,
showingposition
Daylesford
(AfterR. B. Smyth.)

deep-leads,
accordingto
by shafts,or

Cement
become

of
deep-leads

rock.

of

worked

the

pay-washin

from

Placers.

consolidated

"

the

of

the

Gold-bearinggravels

have

contour

ground,are

adit-levels.

into hard

cements,

or

even

sometimes

conglomerates,

the

carbonate
of lime, or
cementingaction of iron peroxide,
silica deposited
from waters which
at one
time circulated through

by

them.
Cemented
the

Silurian up to
recent and younger
The
measures

geologicalformations from
the present day. The most
important are of

placersare

in all

Tertiary
age.

quartz grits and

of the

found

Miocene

conglomerates which
brown

coals of New

bearingthroughout Otago, Westland, and

few places
are
they rich enough to be worked

form
Zealand

Nelson

; but

the
are

coal-

gold-

only in

for their goldcontents.

18

MINING

Placers.

Dry-blowing

GEOLOGY.

As

"

result of

the

long-continued

the surface of the flat country around

disintegration,
has
become
covered
Kalgoorlie
by a depositof red sandy loam,
beneath which there is often blue clay. This material,which occurs
with
is mixed
most
frequentlyat the head of shallow gullies,
fragmentsof iron-stone and a littlequartz derived from the goldbearinglodes in the vicinity.
The gold in.this loose surface material is obtained,in the absence

sub-aerial

of

method

the

by

water,

blowing,which

peculiarto Australia,known as drtjof screening,

shaking,and dry-blowing,

consists

(PlateI.).
of Alluvial

Forms
which
of

been

have

found

the

ounces,

Gold.

Exceptingthe largernuggets,

"

shapes and

of all

sizes,up

gold generallyassumes

coarse

to

thousands

bean-shaped

form.
The

finer

gold occurs

small

as

heavy shots,but

more

which
flakes,ranging from the smallest particle,

thin

in water, to pieceslike bran.

In river claims,where the

goldhas

been

derived

piecesof

with

gold-bearinglodes,fragments of quartz
the precious
metal are often met with.

Associates
alluvial

of Alluvial

Gold.

gold in all countries is

"

The

almost

from

of

constant

magnetitesand, the

often

as

floats

dation
the denu-

adhering

associate of

agencieswhich

led to the concentration of the gold having also collected the more
abundant
magnetite. It is found that whatever heavy ores or
minerals
are

associated with

are

also found
In

with it in the

in
Collingwood,

native

lead,in
the

years in
abundant

the form

New

author, and submitted

to

that the lead

In

of

shot,have
the

with
sluice-boxes,
up

skeleton

gold in the original

country-rock
a
lluvial
drifts.
resulting
Zealand, considerable quantitiesof

of round

to choke

as

the

is almost

gold.

been
In

found

for many
places it is so

ripples.Samplescollected by

the

chemical

the

examination,disclosed the fact

chemically
pure,

and sometimes

encloses

gold.

the alluvial gold,besides magnetite,

Collingwood,
is associated with gray-coloured
grainsof osmium, iridium,and
of platinum for every
ounce
platinum; in Orepuki,with one

Takaka,

hundred

near

ounces

of

gold;

known
garnets, locally

as

on

the West

rubies ; and

Coast

and

in Central

in the fiords with

Otago

with

large

of scheelite and

magnetite.
Throughout Australia the alluvial gold is often associated
with
sands containing topaz, zircon, spinel,rubies, and
gem
masses

garnets.

Origin of Alluvial Gold.

weatheringand

denudation

of

Alluvial

gold originatedfrom the

veins
gold-bearing
country containing
"

"

o
"

Digitizedby

Digitizedby

CLASSIFICATION

in

ages, followed

countless

during

leads,or channels,by
Some

had

been

in
deposited

through

the

the

of the

concentration

gold

gravel drifts

in

by

19

DEPOSITS.

MINERAL

process of natural sluicing.

of occasional
thought that the occurrence

writers have

largenuggets

OF

was

situ from

evidence

an

that alluvial

there is very little evidence

but
gravels,

gold

solutions circulating
gold-bearing
to

support

this contention.
It has been

shown, experimentally,
by various supportersof this
theory,that decomposingorganicmatter, such as wood, and some
of gold from
are
capableof causingthe precipitation
sulphides

base

All this is doubtless true, but

its solutions.
the

confront

theoryare

in extent

In

defined

many

others,but

disseminated

throughoutgravelsthat

thickof great ness.

in narrow,
fairlywell-

over

or

near

an

are

miles,and

many
square
the
gold occurs
placers

leads,on

difficulties that

enormous.

Alluvial gold is found

continuous

the

In
impervious floor or bottom.
throughouta great thickness

it is scattered
rarely,

more

and sands.
gravels
It is impossible
to conceive the originof the vast volume
of
solutions necessary to providethe gold,
or the barriers
gold-bearing
solutions
leads
the
to narrow
winding in a
capableof confining
of the

through the drifts.

authors of the precipitation
theorymaintain

tortuous

course

The

that alluvial

and '"sometimes occurs

in masses, or
purer than vein-gold,
unknown
Recent
dimensions
in
of
vein-gold.
tion
investiganuggets,

gold is

by
far

gold weighing
years

entirely
disprovedthe first contention,so
is concerned ; and the discovery
of a mass
of
near
some
Coolgardie,
oz., in a quartz-vein

Zealand

New

as

has

the author

ago,

303

discredit

throws

on

the

assumption contained

in the

second.
was
gold discovered in the provinceof Auckland
It
at
found
Coromandel.
of poor quality,
alluvial gold,
was
being
of
when
with
silver.
a
largeproportion
Subsequently,
alloyed

The

first

gold-bearingveins

goldwas

tliat the
the
In
vein

same

as

were

discovered in the district,

it

of poor quality,
being in fineness and
the alluvial gold.

the
placergold is practically

of variation

to which

found

tion
composi-

and California,
the quality
of
Australia,

Western
Victoria,
and

was

gold

in different

same

within

parts of the

the
same

the

limits
vein is

subject.
With

the

more

of

occurrence

the

exact

gold and

conclusion

knowledgewe
formation
that

of

alluvial

concerningthe
unable to
we
are
gold-drifts,
derived
gold was originally
now

possess,

escape
rock or veins,by a succession of natural operafrom gold-bearing
tions
of stream-tin.
identical with those that led to the production

20

MINING

GEOLOGY.

Stream-Tin.

Origin

of

Stream-Tin.

denudation

and
disintegration

surface

Stream-tin

"

of

originated from
lodes,or
tin-bearing

the
of

containingtin-impregnations.
The Tin Placers of Malaysia. The tin-fields of Malaysiaare
belt extending southward
great extent and value,the tin-bearing
and Siam, through the Malay Peninsula,to
from Burmah

graniticmasses

"

of

the

outlyingislands

and

of Banca

off the south- cast

Billiton,

coast

of Sumatra.
The

the floor of the

on
gravelsare deposited
tin-bearing

which

intersect this rich

of metalliferous

zone

valleys

country.

The

The
features throughout are almost the same.
geological
basement
which
rock is granite,
is variouslyoverlain by gneiss,
and
limestone.1
Tin-stone has been
sandstone
schist,slatyshales,
and
found in situ in veins traversing
both the graniteand slates,
disseminated
the contact
as
impregnationsin the granitenear
and also in the limestone.2
The streamwith the sedimentaries,
and rock,
derived
the
veins
from
tin was
tin-bearing
manifestly
and concentrated
in the gravelsby the rivers and their lateral
streams.

of stiff kaolin,
In many
placesthe gravelsrest on " false-bottom
of the graniteoutcrops. They
derived
from the disintegration
from

vary

1 to 15

ranging from

per
sometimes

black,and

piecesof

75

to

all

The

pale brown,

from fine sand

sizes,

States of

Dutch
tin.

richness

an

overburden

of

the

gravels

yard.
containing
very pure, generally
metal.
The
colour is often

or

The

white.

to boulders

magnetiteand

are

by

is found

ore

half

ton

in

in

weight.

ilmenite.

Perak, Selangor,Negri-Sembilan,
Pahang, and the

Indies

East
Of

of the

cent,

associated minerals

The

region is

overlain
The

deep.

feet

tin-stone of this

70

from

5 to 80

are

5 lb. to 40 lb. per cubic

varies from
The

thick,and

feet

yieldtwo-thirds

these,the State of Perak

of the

world's

productionof

producesabout,one-third,and
output.3
in
Valley, the State of Perak,
about
25 miles wide,and yield

the State of Selangorone-third of the total

The
cover

tin
an

placersin

area

40

the

Kinta

long,and

miles

about

three-fourths of the

tin-stone raised in

Perak

produced26,400

of tin.

Other

Siam, and

Tin

China, and

States of New
1
2
3

Placers.
South

R. A. F. Penrose,
Penrose, loc. cit.
F.

"

tons

There
in the

in

stream-tin

Commonwealth

mines
of

of Geology,Feb.

Perak,"Trans.

Inst. Min.

in

In

1904

Burmah,

in
Australia,

and
Wales, Queensland,Victoria,

Jr.,Journal

Owen, "Mining

are

Perak.

the

Tasmania.

1903.
and

Met.,vol. vi.

p. 51.

CLASSIFICATION

The

stream-tin

OF

Cornwall

of
deposits

21

DEPOSITS.

MINERAL

and

have

Saxony

long been

exhausted.

Platinum
Platinum

in Russia

is found

commerce

drainingthe

Nearly90

"

per cent, of the platinumof

the gravelsof the rivers
in
grains

loose

as

slopesof

eastern

Placers.

Ural

the

Mountains.

The

gravels

contain some
alluvial gold.
generally
A little platinum has been
found
in situ in peridotite
and
but
Ultra-basic
not
in
olivine-gabbro,
eruptives,
payablequantity.
and sometimes
chloritic and talcose schists,
in
the
bourhood
neighprevail
of the platinum placers
; and fragmentsof these rocks
predominatein the sands and gravels,
therebyindicatingpretty
that
the
noble
metal
derived
from the adjacent
was
conclusively
area
by the ordinary
processes of weatheringand erosion.
The domestic
Platinum
in America.
supply of platinum,
in the United
obtained
is
the
from
in Trinity
States,
gold placers
and Shasta counties,California. The gold-drifts
in Colombia, in
"

South

America, Brazil,British Columbia, and New Zealand also

yielda small quantityof the metal.
Platinum
is alwaysalloyed
with a small proportion
of iridium,
and

often with

Enormous

smaller amount

of osmium.

Ironsand

Placers.

black

of
deposits

exist
ironsand,mostlytitaniferous,

of Chili ; on the north shore of the

Canada
the coast of California ; and in New
; on
Taranaki and Wanganui.
coast between
the coast

on

These
In

derived,in most
depositswere
denuded
later eruptive
rocks,near

and

parts of the

some

sands contain

coasts

of California and

Diamond

Placers.

and
sapphires,
New

size and

Ruby

other

from

the coast-line.

Zealand, the

"

Placers.

River

yielddiamonds, rubies,
deposits

are

obtained

River, in South

Vaal

The

preciousstones.

Wales

South

placersof the

New

cases,

payablegold.
Gem

and

Lawrence, in
Zealand, on the

ironsand

weathered
black

St

diamonds

from

gravels. The
Africa,yieldgems

of

Brazil

diamond
of

great

purity.
Placers.

Burma, is situated

Mandalay.

The

"

The
near

rubies

are

region,in
principalruby-producing
Mogok, about
usuallyfound

due

90

miles

in

somewhat

Digitized
by

north

of

tenacious

VjOOQIC

22
in material

clay,or

gravel to river sand. The

gneiss,passingin placesinto granite;
fine

passingfrom

is a very hard
soft friable micaceous
schist.1

country rock
or

GEOLOGY.

MINING

The

Chantabun, in Siam, has longbeen

district of

its ruby and

famous

for

sapphiremines.

Sapphire Placers

the

sapphirefields of Anakie, in
friable and
and sometimes
clayey,
also found other precious
free from clay. In these deposits
are
moonstone, cat's
stones, notably ruby, diamond, topaz,peridot,
Queensland,the wash

eye, and

In

"

is often

cairngorm.

(b) Massive.
or
sheets,and irregular
Depositsof this class occur as layers,
lyingon the surface,or covered with soils,surface clays,
masses,
of bog-iron
They include deposits
etc.,of recent accumulation.
and rock -phosphate.
those of manganese
places,
ore, and in some
occurs
as
irregular
Bog-iron Deposits. Bog-iron generally
in shallow lakes
layersor lenticular masses, which were deposited
"

or

swamps.
The iron, in the

of iron in
deposits

iron-bearingminerals
of

its
near

iron

often

bog-ironare

or

of
decomposition

found

lodes,and
pyritic

When

The

lodes

from

has, doubtless,contributed

beds of

Extensive

iron.

derived

majorityof cases, was

the adjacentcountry.

of beds of the carbonate

portionof
the

crops
out-

ore.

is oxidised,
a
largeportionof
pyrites

salts,soluble in

; while

water

it passes into
of iron is readily
soluble

carbonate

acid.
carbonic
containing
Atmospheric
liberate
amount
of iron
a
large
weatheringmust, therefore,daily
in

in

dissolved

water

soluble form.
It is well known
a

that

when

chalybeatewaters

and
in ponds,lagoons,

shallow sheets,as

iron is

deposited
seen
frequently

the

swamps,
carbonate.

are

exposedin

to the

action of

Freshly precipitated
in
stagnant pools swamps.
carbon
is caused by the action of atmospheric
The precipitation
the
thrown
down
iron
is
the
cases
as
dioxide. In some
hydrated
oxide by decomposingvegetable
products.
and
are
ores
cinderyin structure.
They
Bog-iron
porous,
contain,in many cases, too high a proportionof phosphorusto be
the

air,the

be

iron may

useful for

of

Descending

have

will be

found,as
Wynne,

Waters.

by the action
generalrule,that the

formed

been

bodies

T.
Met, vol.

in

smeltingpurposes.

Action

lT.

as

"The

v. 1897, p. 161.

Ruby

Mines

of

"

Where

oresuperficial
descendingwaters, it
have merelyacted
waters

of

Burmah,,, Trans.

Inst. Min.

and

24

MINING

GEOLOGY.

greatlypredominate. Beds

of limonite occur
in
or
separately
close association with the manganese
oxides,
formingmanganiferousiron ores of varyinggradesof purity.
The immediate
of the manganese
source
others to be rocks from which the residual

derived.

were
was

effected

organicacids.

In

the

by Watson
the
claysenclosing

The dissolution and concentration

and

waters
by descending

Cave

chargedwith

in
Spring district,

ores
manganese
Knox
dolomite

are

confined

to

the

residual

higher
stratigraphically

ores

of the manganese
oxygen, carbonic

adjoiningcounty,
claysderived from
than

limestones of Cartersville district. Massive

B

and

is held

the

the
the

and
quartzites

chertybeds

occur

in

ville,
Openingsat the Dobbins Mine, near Cartersof manganese
ore in the residual
Georgia,showing the occurrence
clays. (Modifiedfrom Penrose by Watson. )
of partially
ore
A, fragments and masses
decayed rock ; B, manganese
;
C, residual clay.
Horizontal and vertical scale,
1 in.
10 ft.

Fig. 13.

"

Section

in

one

of the

and the decayof the rocks in these places

places,
breccias which, however, are not
manganiferous-chert
economic
importance. The followingfigureshows the
decayassumed by the Knox limestone which is ascribed to

the limestone

in

formed

has

of much
form

of

the Silurian

period.

of Roman^che
ores
(Sa6ne-et-Loire)
important manganese
both
which
traverse the
as veins
occur, accordingto De Launay,1
red
intercalated
s
heets
in
stone.
and
in limeas
irregular
clays
granite
The latter abut againsta nearlyvertical wall of granite.
the graniteand the Secondary
The vertical boundary between
The

Professor L. de

Launay, ComptesItendus,viii. Session CongresO4ol.

nation.,Paris,1901, p. 968.
Digitized
by

Inter-

CLASSIFICATION

rocks is
to be

by
occupied

partlycontact

The

OF

MINERAL

25

DEPOSITS.

vein of manganese.
These deposits
appear
and partly
ores
replacementsof the limestone.
a

valuable

the Mesabi range, near

the north
on
iron-deposits
shore of Lake
believed to be due to secondary
are
concentration
Superior,
Great bodies of
by the action of descendingwater.
lie
the
under
and
of glacial
surface
ore
on
heavy deposits
pass
drift.

SuperficialSalt Deposits. This sub-class also includes the

well as
of salt in Asia,America, and Australia,
as
deposits
the valuable deposits
at Lake Albert Nyanza, in Africa.
Borax
merce
Deposits. A largeproportionof the borax of com"

surface

"

is obtained

yielda

The

marsh

sediments.

of
deposits

sodium

The

of

borate,as also

of California and

marshes

muds

Nevada

also

output.

Section

14."

Fig.

and

valuable

Daggett,Pa.,contain
do those of Turkey.
small

muds

from

in Knox

Dolomite, 2

miles

east

of

Kingston,Georgia,

illustratingdecay of the magnesian limestone by flow of underground

waters.

(Modifiedfrom Spencerby Watson.)

A, residual clay; B, magnesianlimestone.

SuperficialGypsum
thick
notable
where

beds

Deposits." Gypsum

is found

forming

the floor of crater-lakes in volcanic regions. A

example of this is seen at White Island in New Zealand,
on

the banks

incrustation

and

of gypsum
also occurs

Gypsum
rocks;
argillaceous

floor of the crater-lake are covered

and sulphurmany
feet thick.
beds

as

and

in

associated

disseminated

with

with

calcareous

in
crystals

an

and

claysand

marls.

Sulphur Deposits.
"

in volcanic

Native

sulphuroccurs most frequently

with sulphurand celestine.

regionsoften associated

Digitized
by

26
It

MINING

in beds

occurs

near
Solfatara,

GEOLOGY.

and Mazzaro in Sicily

; at
Naples; also in Java, Japan,and New Zealand.
the

Class

of
valleys

Noto

Stratified

II.
"

beds
(a) Constituting

(b)Disseminated

and

or

strata.

through a bed.

Beds
(a) Constituting

Strike

Deposits.

or

Strata.

A bed or seam
is a member
of a
Dip of Beds.
the
the
and
the
formation,
roof,
overlying
layerforming
the floor.
underlying
"

stratified
The

strike of

drawn

along the

bed

or

is the direction of

seam

horizontal line

planeof the stratification.

The

and is
dip is the direction towards which a bed inclines,
that we are
always at rightangles to the strike. If we assume
standingupon the outcrop of a vein, running or strikingnorth
and south,and facingnorth, it will be found that the dip may be
either to the rightor left,
that is,to the east or west.
The dip or direction of the inclination of a bed or vein must
not
be confounded
with the inclination or angleof dip.
The angle of dip is the downward
The
Inclination of Beds.
"

inclination measured
The

underlie

The

dip and

of the

bed

among
When

The

This

downward

underlie

15 and 16."

Figs.

"

degreesfrom

the horizontal.

inclination measured

in

degrees

the vertical.

from

use

is the

in

or

vein

Showing

miners, and

means

strikes
that

is

bed

The

apt
or

to

term

direction

by

Co-ordinates.

underlie

is in

lead to confusion

seam

north-south,and

the

the inclination

when

same

Inclination of Veins

is 45".

a
describing
seam

onlythe

are

common

if used

care-

will generally
geologist
say,
east
at
an
dips
angleof 25"."

towards

which

the

seam

inclines is

CLASSIFICATION

east; and

the

OF

27

DEPOSITS.

MINERAL

measured
angle of inclination,

the

from

horizon,

is 25".
The

inclination of

For

co-ordinates.

departurefrom
for every
must

road

the

three

vein

or

depth;

with

in which
gradients,

inch,foot,or
of

unit,

method

expressingrailwayor

of 1 in 1000
gradient

angular
rect-

a
signifies

other

co-ordinate

the

but

method

the

1 in 3

dip of

instance,a

of vertical

expressedin

is often

of 1
perpendicular

be confused

not

bed

means

vertical

rise of 1 foot in a distance of 1000 feet measured

along the slope.
The inclination or angle of dip is generally
measured
with a

clinometer

or
(Abney level),

Thickness

length of

Of Beds.

between
the

the

beds

lengthof

pointsa

and

lyingbetween
; and

ac

of

bed

right anglesto

at

bedding.
For example:Supposethe

plumb-bob and

thickness

The

"

line,measured

with

if the average

the

seam

is the

plane of

and

b would

be

equal to

inclination or

angleof

the

17
fig.

feet,then the thickness

500

points a

or

horizontal distance in

measured
were

foot-rule.

dip of

of
the
the

^"7

'A

"

y/sA
*
-

Fig. 17."

at

Showing

from

beds,measured

A'%^
a
/
^x.x

the

/C

CA

of Thickness of Beds.

Measurement

horizon,were

60

deg.,that is,the angle

b,
Then

sin 60

deg.x

of Bedded

Examples

500

ac

433

Deposits." The

feet.
useful minerals

which

of a stratified formation,
beds, or as members
are
coal,
In
and spathiciron.
addition to these,roofingslates,
oil-shale,
marbles, limestones,building stones, and natural cements
are
occur

in

quarriedfor

commercial

purposes.

Coal.

Origin and

Formation.

Coal is

simply an

altered form of
At one
time it was
believed that there was
vegetablematter.
only one formation containingtrue coal,hence the originof the
time-name
Carboniferous,The discoveries of recent
geological
"

28

GEOLOGY.

MINING

in rock of all ages ;

coal-measures has led to the

that
years, however,have shown
and the investigation
of the newer
belief that

occurs

established
coal-vegetation

the conditions
In

coal

tracingthe

favourable

were

ever
when-

for its growth.

plantand

succession of

and

itself wherever
animal

life in

geological
primitive

time, it is found that the earlier forms were of a very

scale,these earlier forms were
type. In ascendingthe geological
succeeded, and to a large extent displaced,
highly
by more
conditions
organisedforms, doubtless better adapted to the prevailing
of the time and
In

respect

distinguished
by
other

place.

the
plant-life,

to

the

cycads and ferns;

flowering
plants.
The

developmentof

great
and

the

coals of the different

vegetationprevailingat
coals of

ferns, and

mosses,

Secondaryperiodby the growth of

Tertiaryby deciduous trees and

; the

cryptogamicforms

specially

Primary period was

formed

periodsare
geological

that

Hence

time.

composed of

Europe are
and
equisetums,lycopodiums,

the

Carboniferous

of

ferns,mosses,

remains

the

of the

which

of

lepidodendrons,
many

resemblingin their habit the forest trees

grew to a giganticsize,
the
of
present time.
indicate
would
The
of Carboniferous age
great coal-deposits
that

in this periodreached
plant-life

There is good
this and

unrivalled

luxuriance

attaininga

all later

periods
grew

land,.
adjacentto

some

sea

at any

later

belief that

for the

reason

wide

on

and

with mud
A

reveals

cloud of steaming

seldom

sun

penetrated.

for hundreds

qstuariesand deltas of great

the

the

preservedfrom
land, which

low-lying,
swampy

in
lake,enveloped

or

miles,

of

sluggishrivers laden

fine sediments.

study of

age

coal-vegetation
of

the

tracts of

vapour, through which the rays of the

Many of these ancient forests extended

occupying the

development,
period.
geological

its maximum

coal-measures

fact that

the

destruction

thus

by

of

country and of every

was
coal-vegetation
gradualsubmergence of the

every
accumulated
the

of
permittedthe deposition

great thickness of

protectingsediments.
The

succession

successive
each

thickness

affords

some

; but

encroachment

abnormal

of the beds

evidence

alwaysbe taken
an

with in many
coalfieldsindicates
subsidence and elevation of the land,

met

seams

of minor
periods
with its underclay
marking the

seam

The

of

the
as

of

or

the

strata between

extent

clay partingsmet
an

of

evidence

site of

new

flood-waters

on
a

forest.

the different

duration

of

each

with in coal-seams

submergence. They

of

inundation, whereby

and

to

the

layer of

forests
mud

was

may

seams

mergence
sub-

cannot

mark

during an
deposited

CLASSIFICATION

whose
vegetation,

the

among

OF

MINERAL

would

growth

29

DEPOSITS.

be

retarded,but

not

destroyed.
Mode

Occurrence."

Of

succeeding the
forests and
same

coal

their

age.
Subsidence

The

character

naturallyvaried

proximity to

of the land

was

of the accumulated
preservation
the coal is followed by shales

the

with

sea,

the

of
the

fundamental

the

positionof
for

even

sediments

coals of

the

requirementfor

the

In most countries,
coal-vegetation.
indurated
and
or
sandstones,
clays,

limestones.
The

shales

commonly formed
plant-remains
; the

are

contain
generally
and

often

contain

rich molluscan

of

fluviatile

sandstones
fauna

muds, which

fluvio-marine,

are

; while

the limestones

indicate a true
of shells and corals,which
the coal marks
the beginningof a
In these cases

composed

are

littoral.

marine

cycleof

deposition.
Where
lake
and

the

coal-vegetation
grew

the

on

the coal-measures consist

estuaries,
In most

sandstones.

lakes

margins of

in

or

of shales,grits,
principally

placesthe gritsunderlie

the coal.

is found in rocks of all

matter
Age of Coal. Carbonaceous
kinds
of sedimentary
rocks.
ages, and in nearlyall
in rocks of Laurentian age.
The graphite
beds of Canada occur
"

The

anthracite

of

County Cavan,

in

is Silurian
Ireland,

; the

great
Britain,Continental Europe,and United States
South
are
Wales, State of
Carboniferous; the coals of New
and
and
Carboniferous
China,
India,
Virginia,
Permo-carboniferous;
the bituminous
coals of New
Zealand, Upper Cretaceous; the
coalfieldsof Great

brown

and
Hungary, Pennsylvania,

coals of South

Zealand
and
Liassic ; of New
the lignite
beds of Ireland,Pliocene.

and

Inclined
their
more

accompanying
or

of Coal Seams.

Position

seams

less horizontal

of

very

laborious

overlyingstrata
The
strata

are

and

at

different

basin,Miocene

of the crust

had

strata

procuringcoal

expensive;and

with
coal-measures,

would

been

of the earth have

angles,the dip varying from

remained

in countries

thick the coal could not have

secular movements

Germany,

originally
depositedin

position.If the

horizontal,it is evident that the task of

been

The

"

coal,were

North

Vienna

Oolitic and

few

have

where

the

reached.
tilted the

degreesto

angleswhich occasionally
approachthe vertical.
Sudden
dislocations or changes of
Faulting of Coal Seams.
of
or faults.
slips,
positionare spoken as throws,troubles,
"

In

coal-strata faults

often

in

occur

bearing. They
having a parallel
in oppositedirections.
frequently
with
often met
are
Step-faults

sometimes
in

series of
all

two

or

one

way,

dip

coal-measures.

Where

more,

but
the

30

MINING

dislocations do not
termed hitclies.

Extent

exceed

Faults.

of

GEOLOGY.

the thickness
Fault-lines

"

of the coal-seam
often

are

thin

so

they are
as

be

to

for the

of the beds which

they
ordinaryjointing
More
the
faces
traverse.
however,
frequently,
opposite
present
or
smooth, glassy,slicken-sided walls, with a space partially
filled
with
the
debris
from
derived
clay or
adjoining
entirely
mistaken
easily

rocks.

by lodes or crosscontain threads or pocketsof iron-pyrites,

as brasses ; and, where
they intersect a coal-

In many
the
cases
which
often
courses,
to coal-miners

known

of sooty coal
quantities

seam,

Intrusive
wall-like

of

masses

of faults

and

Dykes

or inclined
vertical,

mixed

with

their

Effects.

igneous rock,
angles,and

surfaces of

to form

bed

coal,and

coal-seams,and

dykes and

sheets

or

expense in the
coal in the vicinity
of

The

rendered

extra

Zealand, a

seam

into anthracite of
Coal

They

act

the

oppositewalls.
been

of
are

part

They
forced

along their centre, so

even

of the

as

seam.

sillssometimes

working of the
an
igneousmass

great loss of

cause
seam.

coked, and

is often

cinderyor sooty.

the effects are

But

basaltic.

sheets of basalt have

sheet in the middle

or

the

on

consist

Dykes

"

sometimes

at various

alongthe

Intrusive

clay.

often

the coalfieldsof Scotland

In

caused

been

the strata
by displacing
to faults.
run
parallel

sometimes

New

faultinghas

not

of

alwaysdestructive. At Malvern
brown
coal was
dehydratedand

good qualityby

feet upon
of
masses

volcanic

floor of the

sandstone

with

agency

into

Egmont,

in New

graphite.
Zealand

piledup to a heightof 8000

lower
Tertiarybrown-coal measures),
adheringlayersof graphiteof fine

which

cone

converted

sheet of basalt.

also be altered by the same

may
the debris on the slopes
of Mount

Among
(a beautiful

Hills,in

is

of not

occurrence.
uncommon
qualityare
Igneous dykes often dam back water in coal-mines; and
cases
some
they have effectually
preventedthe spreadof fire.

in

with in
The troubles met
Irregularitiesof Coal Seams.
known
swellies,
are
as
balks,nips,gates, sa/ldle-backs,
coal-mining
"

horses,and
pot-bottoms,
Balks

sudden

are

shaken

coal.

thinnings in

of the roof of the seam,

depression
risingof the floor.
When

the stratum

seam,

so

called

Gaws

as

nip
and

to almost
or

above
or

the

coal, occasioned

accompaniedby

the coal invades

by

ing
correspond-

the thickness

take the placeof the

entirely

of the

coal,it is

want.

saddle-backs appear

to be

the

reverse

of

nips,as

the

32

GEOLOGY.

MINING

well

illustrated in the coal-basin of

section
typical

Fig.

of this

drawn
field,

by

De

Saint

Eloy

in

France.

Laimay,1is shown

in

20.
fig.

19. "-Cross-section

showing
from

Shenandah
Basin, Pennsylvaniaanthracite region,
of
coal-measures.
folding
(Reduced by B. S. Lyman

inverted

cross-section sheet of the

Fig. 20."

and

of Coal

Varieties

Assuming

of Coal

Section

coal to be

Survey.)
PennsylvaniaGeological

Basin,Saint Eloy. (AfterDe Launay.)

Influence

Enclosing

Rock.
form of altered vegetablematter, the progressive

stages in its formation

kinds

of

are

indicated

the

following

:
"

(1) Peat.
(2) Lignite.
(3) Brown coal.
(4) Cannel-coal.
(5) Bituminous or cakingcoal.
smokeless
(6) Semi-anthracite
Anthracite.
(7)
"

The

by

"

of
quality

coal is not

coal.

much

dependentupon the age of

the coal as upon the thickness and lithological
character of the coalA
measures.
great thickness of close-grained
imperviousstrata
enables the alteration of the vegetablematter
without
to proceed
1

Professor

L.

de

so

Launay, Comptes Jtendus, viii.

Paris,1901, p.
International^

Session

959.
Digitized
by

Congr"s Geol.

CLASSIFICATION

of

access

without
The

or

MINERAL

therebyproducingcoals

water,

fine bituminous

Upper

steam-coals

Cretaceous

of the west
enclosed

are

age,

sandstones and shales.

close-grained

The

the east coast are enclosed in porous

better than lignite.

Another

example of

rocks upon
the
eastern Texas.1
the

Penrose

the

character

influence

coast

in

of New

seen

In the

land,
Zea-

great thickness

coals of the

exercised

of the coal is

same

by

are

the

age
little

enclosing

in the coalfields of
Timber Belt divisions,

enclosingrocks

in the bituminous

group

of coals.

(b) Disseminated

througha Bed.

Sedimentaryrocks containingwell-defined
with

and

ores

minerals

of

greater

or

in many
parts of the globe. The
of these beds is a problemnot yet
metals

either introduced

were

of the sediments
and
awaits
of

high quality

Yegua, and
Fayette,
and shales,
are
soft,sandyclays,
chiefly
coal is onlya lignite,
while in Webb
where
the
measures
County
sandstones and shales,it is so superioras to be classed by

where

are

of

and
quartz grits,

on

the

33

DEPOSITS.

regardto age.

of
of

air

OF

elevation

further

less economic

impregnated

value

found

are

originof the metallic contents

The
determined.
satisfactorily

with the deposition

contemporaneously
tion
they occur, or after the consolida-

in which

of the

horizons

sediments

A few
investigation.

above

The

water.

subject

typical
examplesof this class

are
deposit
given below.

The

Rand

celebrated

Banket

so-called

in the Transvaal.
The basement

Reefs.

"

In this class may

be included the

banket,or almond, reefs of the Witwatersrand,

rock

is

which
granite,2

etc.
felsite,
syenite,granulite,

The

is intruded

by dykes of
by the

graniteis overlain

Quartzite-shalegroup, which consists of a great thickness of

shales,dippingsouth,at anglesvarying
quartziteand ferruginous
from
of

20"

to

50".

Johannesburg.

beds, which
The

are

round
side
the
north
wraps
group
It contains several thin conglomerate
or banket
This

gold-bearing.

Quartzite-shale
group

is followed,
comformably,
apparently

series proper
the gold-bearing
by the Witwatersrand
group
with which are associated beds
of quartzites,
consisting
principally
sandstones
and shales. The dip is
of conglomerateor banket,
series.
lower anglesthan the underlying
south, at somewhat
"

"

is overlain by
group
amygdaloidaldiabase,in its turn followed
The

Witwatersrand

an

by

pileof

enormous

the

Black

Ries,Mines and Minerals,Scranton,Pa., Oct. 1905, p.

S. J. Truscott,The Witwatersrand
Goldfields,
1898, p. 18.

Heinrich

Digitized
by

Reef
104.

34

GEOLOGY.

MINING

The

formation.

latter

and
alternatingquartzites
conglomeratesof the banket type

consists* of

shale ; and, at its base,contains

varyingfrom
the diabase
The

by

bulk

few inches of

of the

from
It is separated

feet thick.

few inches to 14

ferruginous
clay.
is derived

Rand

gold in the

Reef

series,in the Witwatersrand

importantbanket reefs,namely :

group,

which

from

the

Main

comprisesthree

"

(a) The

as

Reef

Main

(b)The

Main

(c)The

South

(thelowest).

Reef Leader.
Reef.

In addition to these,there are the less importantbankets,known

the North Reef, the Middle Reef, and the Bastard South Reefs.

Fig.

Cross-section

21."

Robinson

across

Mine.

(AfterGibson.)

(1 and 2) Bastard South Reefs ; (3) Diabase Dyke ; (4) South Reef ; (5)
Middle Reef ; (6) Main Reef Leader ; (7)Main Reef ; (8)North Reef.
The banket
of rounded
in

pyritic
quartzconglomerates,
composed

sub-angularpebblesof bluish-gray
quartz,embedded

quartzosematrix.

The

Main

banket

or

or

beds consist of

Reef series
beds

"

comprisesthree

namely,the

Main

more

or

Reef, which

less payablereefs
is often

12

feet

Reef
thick, and very low grade; the Main
Leader, about 15
inches thick, and very rich; and the South Reef, varying from
few inches to 6 feet thick,and payablein most
a
places. This
be traced for 46 miles,and is the main
series can
of the
source

goldproducedin

the Transvaal.

A characteristic feature
The

even

in the
occur

of the bankets

distribution of the

gold has

is their uniform

been

an

value.

importantfactor

developmentof the Rand goldfield.The gold does

enclosed pebblesbut in the cementing medium

in the

circumstance

which

tends

to

simplyconsolidated lacustrine

show

that

estuarine

the

not
"

conglomeratesare

in which
the
deposits,
from circulating
solutions.
gold-bearing
goldwas deposited
The
Shales."
Mansfeld
shales (KupCopper
copper-bearing
of Mansfeld, in Prussian Saxony,are of Permian age.
ferschiefer)
They are 18 inches thick,and extend for many miles. In places
or

CLASSIFICATION

onlythe

few inches

upper

rich

are

35

DEPOSITS.

MINERAL

OF

enough

The

to pay.

vary from 2 to 5 per cent.

The ore is chiefly
fahlerz,but zinc
argentiferous
and native copper are also
and copper pyrites,
cuprite,

copper

contents

present. It
deposited
aneously
contempor-

that
by geologists

is believed

the

with

blende,iron

the copper was

the originof the

shales,but

copper-bearing

and the difficulty

is increased
solutions is very difficultto explain,
rocks of Permian
by the wide distribution of copper-bearing
age
in different

the

partsof

globe.

in Southern
Russia,
Copper sandstones,of great extent,occur
in many
parts of Germany, in Great Britain and America,and all

sandstones
age. The copper-bearing
Lake
series near
much
to
a
belong
Superior

believed to be of Permian

are

of the

Keweenawan

earlier

period.
Copper Conglomerates of Lake

mines

the

on

shore

southern

long

Michigan,have

this
Geologically,

been

Lake

of

celebrated

region

copper

Superior.

The

copper
the
in
State
of
Superior,
for their productiveness.

is

"

highly interestingand

instructive.

belt,with a
copper-bearing
which
miles,lies on a long peninsula,
The

for

distance

of

60

some

width

varying from

into
projects

Lake

conglomerates,interstratified with
eruptive rock, chieflyamygdaloidaldiabase, and
sandstones of Huronian
age.1
The
found

copper

almost

occurs

Superior

It consists of older Palaeozoic

miles.

and

sandstones

4 to 5

whollyin

the native

sheets

of

flanked
state.

by
It is

"

(a)Disseminated
are

(b)In
(c)In

in beds of

intercalated with diabase flows.

old lava flows of

veins which
the

and sandstone,
which
conglomerate

run

diabase.
amygdaloidal
at rightanglesto the generaltrend

of

beds, and stand almost vertical.

In the beds

and sandstone the copper occurs

conglomerate
and grainsof sand.
In
as the cementing material of the pebbles
and Hecla mine, which is the most
the Calumet
the
productive,
bed
of copper-bearing
varies
from
8
25
to
feet
conglomerate
of

thick.
The

amygdaloidalrocks
which

they contain

copper
in the Atlantic mine.

Silver Sandstones
in

of Utah.

Washington County, are

R.

D.

everywhere

are

is very

as

"

much

altered.

distributed,
irregularly
except
The

silversandstones of

puzzlingas

the copper

States

Utah,

shales of

of Lake
Rocks
graph,
Copper-bearing
Superior,"Mono1883.
S
urvey,
Geological
Washington,

Irving,"The

United

The

Digitized
by

36

MINING

consist

Europe. They
Triassic age.
The White

of

and

Reef

GEOLOGY.

shales
alternating

Buck-eyeReef

and

sandstones
sandstone

two

are

of

beds,

feet to 4000 feet apart. Above water-level they are

horn silver;
and below wateror
impregnatedwith kerargyrite,
from

3000

level the

chloride is

replacedby sulphides.The

metal-bearing

30 to 90 feet wide,and yields

an
average of 25 oz.
A small percentageof copper also occurs
of silver per ton.
with
the silver.
rock varies from

are
Nearly all geologists
agreedthat the silver and
to the tilting
of the beds.
introduced subsequently

Lead

Sandstone

Commern,

in Rhenish
rock

of

Prussia. "The

lead

Prussia,is believed to be

copper

sandstone

The

is

white

of

lower

Triassic in
thickness.
The

sandstone,of great
varying from
upper part is chargedwith small concretions,
head to a pea in size,
of
composed quartzose sand, cemented
age.

were

pinwith

galena.
The

concretions

knotten-sandstein.

called

are

knots, hence

contain

They

the

miners'

name,

little

chromium, vanadium,
and titanium ; the latter in the greatest proportion. The ore is
mined partlyby open-castand partly
by undergroundworkings.
rocks
belongingto this class occur in
Lead-bearingsedimentary
several parts of Germany, and in the counties of Nottinghamand
a

in England.
Leicestershire,
found
seminated
disare
containing Coprolites."
Coprolites
with strata of younger
in greensandsinterbedded
Secondaryage in the south of England. The coprolite
bearing
of the Cretaceous Waipara series of New
Zealand
are
greensands
be
of
to
economic value.
of too low a grade
in beds associated with
Beds.
Gypsum occurs
Gypsum

Beds

"

calcareous and

clayeyrocks.

It is found
Its

Paris basin at Montmartre.

occurrence

in

great quantityin the

in volcanic

alreadybeen noted.
Class

III.
"

Unstratifibd

Deposits.

(a)Depositsof volcanic origin.

(b) Stockwork deposits.
(c) Contact and replacement
deposits.

(d) Fahlbands.
(e)Impregnations.

(J)Segregatedveins.
Gash veins.
("g)
veins.
(h) True fissure

Digitized
by

regionshas

CLASSIFICATION

Volcanic

(a)Depositsof
include

These

in and

accumulate

Origin.

depositsof sulphur

around

fumaroles

and

borax, which
of sublimates.

in the form

found
are
examplesof sulphur-deposits

Notable
Mount

and

the

White

Vesuvius;

Zealand ; and

in

37

DEPOSITS.

MINERAL

OF

and

Island

at

Mount

Etna
New

Rotorua, in

Japan.

Island the bulk

very low grade,

At Rotorua,
being mixed with a very largeproportionof gypsum.
thousands of tons of both yellowand black sulphurof highgrade
At White

being mined

are

The

the natives for

by

fumaroles

steam

of the

export.
Grosetto,in Italy,
yielda

and

Pisa

of

sulphuris of

of boric acid.

largeannual output

(b)Stockwork Deposits,
The

"

term

"

stockwork

first used

was

in

Europe to distinguish

the

quarry-methodof mining certain mineralised rock-masses

intersected
veinlets of ore.
It no longer
by small reticulating
method
metalliferous
refers to the
but is applied
of working,
to
the characteristics of the deposits
first mined
ore-bodies possessing
stockworks.

as

stockwork
small

numerous

but

be
may
veins of

too small

are

The

Stockworks
are

by the
output

country
matter

sometimes

are

mostly of low

grade;

of

rock

itself is

which

and from

Treadwell

bearing ore-bodies

the

are
commonly
necessity

albite-diorite

lyingbetween
with
foot-wall,

the

enables

on

greenstone
a

They generallyconform

the

mineralised

of
on

smaller
to

large

gold-

mines, Douglas Island,in

Treadwell

few

worked

celebrated

The

Alaska,according to Spencer,1consist
slate

often

Stockworks."

in

by

greateror less extent.

great width and length. They
to

quarry or open-cut system of mining,which

of ore to be producedat a small cost.

Alaska

slate.

traversed

rock-mass

mutuallyintersect each other,

separately.
clearlydefined walls, but merge

possess

imperceptiblyinto the
impregnatedwith mineral

as

that

ore

to be worked

seldom

veins

defined

dykes of

hanging-wall
dykes near by in

and

dip of

the

the

strike

and

the

slates.
The

greenstones are,

possess
ancient
slates
1

A.

schistose

andesites

were

C.

as

rule,greatlyaltered,and

or

and

basalts

that

in

places
supposedto be

slatystructure.
were

They are
eruptedat

the

time

the

formed.

Spencer,"The

Island,Alaska," Trans.

Geology of
Am.

Inst. M.E.

the

Treadwell

Ore

Pamphlet, 1904.

Deposits,Douglas

38

GEOLOGY.

MINING

mainly consists of altered diorite impregnated with

chieflyiron pyrites. The rock is also partlyshattered
sulphides,
The

ore

filled with

and

fair

carry

of thin

network

proportionof

sulphides.1The

mineralised,and often the whole

which

the

best

and

quartz veinlets.

The

is that

ore

calcite and

mass

contains

dykes are considerably

be mined.

can

the

per
and

In

general

of calcite

greatestnumber

and quartz. The

is felspar,
calcite,
gangue
with
about
2 per cent, of pyritesand
some

often accompanies,
the
or replaces,
Pyrrhotite
The

quartz veins that

ated
gold is associmagnetite.
pyrites.

is of very low grade,averagingabout twelve shillings

character of the ore,
the large output, free-milling

ore

ton, but
skilful

for
profits
cuts

and

The

years.

many

enabled

have

management

ore-bodies

Stockworks.
of

shaped mass

At

"

partlyby

Zinnwald, in Bohemia, in

and
greisen(quartz

veins of tin-ore that form

Altenbergthere

open-

is

mica),there

are

dome-

zontal
hori-

narrow,

stockworks.

called Zwitter,
rock,locally
greisen-like

tin-ore is disseminated

in which
half

mined

are

handsome

to pay

partlyby underground workings.

Other

At

the mines

of one-third

to the extent

cent., thus

stock work.

to

Somewhat

one-

similar

forming
in the form of impregnations.
granite
deposits
Near
Stanthorpe,in Queensland,grainsof tin are disseminated
constituents.
rock,as ifformingone of its original
througha granitic
the
Cretaceous
At Monte
broken
in
strata
are
Catini, Tuscany,
through by serpentineand gabbro, containinglargepockets of
copper ore, mostly erubescite and copper pyrites.
per

in

occur

In

Cuba

and

Newfoundland

rich

of
deposits

occur

copper

in

serpentine.
In

granitesand

Cornwall

containingfrom 8
In
a good profit.

slaty shales,locallycalled killas,

lbs. to 9 lbs. of tin stuff to the ton of

2 lbs. of tin stuff have

cases

some

rock,yield

been sufficient

A man
break from 1" to 2 tons
can
pay all expenses.
hard rock per day, and 7 to 8 tons of soft killas.
to

In the mineral
and

belt

cupriteoccur

near

Nelson, in New

and
in serpentine,

of the

Zealand,native copper

chromite

of iron in massive

olivine.
At

Kimberley, in South Africa,diamonds are

in tuffs and agglomeratesoccupying the

found
necks

nated
dissemi-

of ancient

volcanoes.

(c)Contact
A
a

is one
contact-deposit

sedimentaryrock

and
1

an

A. C.

and

ReplacementDeposits.

which

occurs

intrusive

mass

at, or
or

Spencer,loc. cit,t
p.

near,

dyke.

26.

the contact

of

40

GEOLOGY.

MINING

Contact

Ores in America.

in Colorado, have
ville,

been

depositsoccurringalong the

dykes,which

have

lead ores of Leadargentiferous

l
contactdescribed by Emmons
as
contact
planesof eruptiveporphyry

The

"

into and

broken

overlain

bed

of dolomitic

limestone.

c
Fig. 23.

Section of Rio Tinto

"

Contact Deposit.
Pyritic
Cupriferous
(6) Felspar-porphyry. ("?)
pyrites.

(a) Altered slate.

lead-zinc

The

along the

occur

have

been

by Lindgren

occur

as

slate and

diorite or

true
same

granite. They

contact-deposits.
State,there

(6)zones
(a)fissure-veins,

are

copper-

of

impregnation,
consist of Triassic
country-rocks

The
(c)contact-deposits.

and

as

in the
district,

Devils

which
deposits

and

of limestone

contact

described

In the Seven

Mountain, in the State of Idaho,

of South

ores

limestone,intercalated with

basic

lavas.

In

several

by diorites ; and all the ore-bearing

connected
with
these intrusive
genetically

placesthis series is intruded

bodies

to

appear

be

masses.

The
in the
in the
formed
veins.

has been
fissured
sedimentaryseries,in different places,
outside
and
also
The
of
it.
of
zone
fissures,
metamorphism,
filled with mineral matter,
of metamorphism,when
zone
while those outside of it became
fissurecontact-deposits,
but
they differ,
they are the
Morphologically
genetically

same.

The

Carboniferous
other

or

of Arizona
associated with
occur
deposits
at the line of contact of granite,
limestone,
generally

valuable

copper

eruptiverock.

Gold- and

contact-veins
copper-bearing
Cretaceous
between
occurringgenerally
rocks,which are nearlyalwaysdiorite.8
1

Genesis
S. F. Emmons, "The
M.E., vol. xv., p. 125, 1886.
2

W.

Trans.

Genesis and

Lindgren,"The
Am.

Inst. Min.

Lindgren,loc.cit.,p.

724.

common

limestone

in
and

Trans.
Deposits,"

Character of Certain Contact

"
Genesis of Ore
p. 226 ; and

Eng.%vol. xxxi.

p. 721.
3

of Certain Ore

are

Mexico,

eruptive
Am.

Inst,

Deposits."
Deposits,"

CLASSIFICATION

OF

MINERAL

41

DEPOSITS.

Rammelsberg Pyritic Deposit Pyriticore-bodies associated

found
with, but not actuallyin contact with, eruptive
masses, are
"

Of such ore-bodies that at Bammelsparts of the world.

berg, in the Hartz, said to have been worked for 900 years,
Hill lode, in
Mount
Lyell lodes,in Tasmania, and the Broken
New
South Wales, may be cited as typicalexamples.
in all

Vogt l
of

with

ore

The

describes

the

curious

depositis

1500

Rammelsberg depositas
like the

lateral branch

yardslong and

from

NW

Fio. 24.

Upper

is enclosed in
shear

zone.

Devonian

Hill lode.

feet wide.

neighbourhood.

certain

slates,
occupyingthe

lines

immediate

of

It

centre

of

closely
by Vogt
eruption of granite in the

Lyell Ore Deposits. Professor

"

to

J. W.

be

Gregory2

groups

of this district into two

ore-deposits

pyriticmasses,
lens-shaped
1

to 65

believed

genesis is

Its
with

the

Broken

Rammelsberg PyriticDeposit. (AfterVogt.)

connected
Mount

irregularlens

SE

Ideal Section of

"

49

an

J. H. L.
Vigsnas,Sulitelma in
Professor

Prakt. Geol.y1894.
2 Professor
J. W.

and

classes,
namely, (a) huge,
(6)mineralised bands of schist,

die Kieslagerstatten
vom
Vogt, "Ueber
Typus Roros,
Norwegen und Rammelsberg in Deutschland," Zeit.

Gregory,"The

Trans. Aust. Inst. M.R,

Mount

LyellMining

vol. x., 1905, p. 26.

Field" Tasmania."

42

MINING

forming fahlbands.
valuable

the

of

The

GEOLOGY.

former
mined

mineral

the

are

the

in

of the

source

great bulk

field; the

latter

are

of little importance.
economically
The

rocks

flanked

consist
Silurian

by

conglomeratesand

of

Devonian

and

Cambrian

but
complicated
by folding,

schists.

The

quartzites

country is traversed by

the

is not

structure

complex

of great faults.

ore-bodies

The

the

of

contact

schists

is known

the

which

with

and

Parent

or

Mine.

base.

The

planewhich

extension

bringsthe

most

important

Professor

Gregory

form, being an
and

tapers graduallydownwards

thrust

great

Mine

largestand

the

pyritic
masses,
Big

rounded

line of

east, and

the

conglomerateson

in
irregularly
boat-shaped

as

the

along

masses

side.

main

as

describes it
mass

quartzitesand

the west

on

Of the two

detached

as

occur

elliptical

is then

depth
under
conglomerates

off

cut

is limited

in

by

the

ore

schists.1
oxidised gossan consisted mainlyof silica,
barite,and iron
and
dwt.
about
15
of
15
of goldper
silver
oz.
containing

The

oxide
ton.

The
Small

enrichment,

They

with copper, gold,and silver.

chiefly
pyrites
very rich ore, probablythe result of secondary
is

pyriticore
patches of
contained

The

main

with

met

were

W.

pyriticmass

2 per cent, of
0*04 to 0*07 oz. of
2

T. Batchelor

New

oxidised

of the

zone.

is of very low grade. It contains from

1*5 to 3 oz. of silver,and
from
copper,

goldper

states that

of splitting
into
peculiarity

descend, a

bottom

bornite,fahlore,and argentite.
redruthite,

0*5 to
from

the

at

feature

one

ton

ore.

ore-bodies is their

feature of the

or

more

characteristic

so

of

of

legsor
the

branches

Broken

as

they

Hill lode

in

Wales.

South

Lyellore-bodies is stilla questionof

doubt.
Professor Gregorythinks they may be classed as contactconnected with igneous masses.
deposits,
althoughnot directly
lies
main
The
in
crush-zone
of the
at the contact
a
ore-body
and schists,
and its formation may possibly
be connected
quartzites
The

with

genesisof

the

the

granite

Mount

intrusions

of

Heemskirk

Mount

of the wall-rock and

range.

would

examination
ore
penological
probably
like
those
other
show that the Mount
of
pyriticmasses
Lyellores,
the
rock.
of
elsewhere,are metasomatic
enclosing
replacements
The great faults which traverse the lodes are
thought by some
writers to have
has

connection
lodes

not

faulted

are
1

geneticassociation
yet
and

Loc, cit.,
p. 118.

been

with the
The

but
ore-bodies,

this

in which

the

manner
proved.
displacedhorizontally
by
2

thrust-faults

Loc. cit,tp. 141.

OF

CLASSIFICATION

would
the

lead to the conclusion

43

DEPOSITS.

MINERAL

that the faults

of later date than

are

which theydisplace.
ore-deposits
a

100'

300'

Fig. 25.

"

Cross-section of Mount

(a) Quartzitesand
enclosed
quartzite

Broken

Hill

long,flanked

LyellOre Deposits. (AfterBatchelor.)

conglomerates, (b) Schists,

ore-bodies.
(d) Pyritic

(c) Isolated

masses

of

in lode,

Lode.
on

"

both

Broken

Hill itself is

sides

the

by

about
ridge,

plain. The

rocks

of probablySilurian age.
slates,schist,and gneiss,

are

The

2 miles

mainly
summit

of the hill is crowned

by the oxidised outcrop or gossan of the
which
was
lode,
impregnatedmore or less with cerussite,
embolite,
and
In

iodyrite.
the

oxidised

zone,

below

the

ironstone

cap,

the

mineral

44

GEOLOGY.

MINING

cerussite,native
principally

silver, chlorides,
associated with kaolin,
bromides, and iodides of silver,
garnet,and
quartz.
contents

were

Below

the

oxidised

productscame

what

locallytermed

are

of loose aggregatesof galenaand blende,

consisting
sooty sulphides,
enclosed in a gangue of quartz and garnet. The friable sulphides
jamieson

Shaft.

N*t Level

N?2

60

Scale
Fig. 26.

"

Feet

Hill Lode"
Broken Hill
Cross-sectioiiof Broken
the
Mine.
Company's plan.)
(Copiedfrom

passeddownward

into solid

Proprietary

enclosed
and galena),
(blende
sulphides

of quartz,garnet,and rhodonite,containingalso iron

gangue
The
and
little chalcopyrite.
a
sooty sulphideswere
pyrites,

in

frequentlyvery rich,
secondaryenrichment.
Between
spurs

or

the

200

and

branches,which

and

apparentlyrepresenteda

300

feet

zone

levels,the lode divides into

follow the

trend

of the

of

two

rocks.
enclosing

OF

CLASSIFICATION

The

walls of the lodes

rock is
The

not

are

MINERAL

slicken-sided.

more
impregnatedor replaced

gneissand

to
diorite,1

the

schist

of
subsequentfilling

of which

the

In

many

less with

associated with

are

intrusion

or

45

DEPOSITS.

placesthe

ore.

dykes of

numerous

foldingof the rocks and

along the axial line of main
the

cavities

flexure may be ascribed.

The character and genesisof this lode is stilla matter
among
that the

contend

sedimentaries.
that

of disagreement

geologists.Pittman and Jaquet2

large saddle-reef enclosed in altered

Australian
lode is

Professor

the other

on
Gregory,3

hand, maintains

the

positionof the lode has been determined by a series of

powerful faults along which mineralisation has taken place. He
contends that the containing
rocks are not sedimentary
and never
and
lode
The
beside
the
he
schists
a
were.
affirms,
gneisses
are,
and Jaquet oppose this
series of altered igneous rocks.
Pittman
view with the statement
that the same, or similar gneissesand
in the adjacent
contain bands
schists,
district,

clearly
prove
Duckton

Ore
be

region may
America.

The

slates which

originfor
sedimentary
Deposits,Tennessee.
taken
rocks

have

been

as

thrown

which

the series.
ore-bodies in this
pyritic
in
this class of ore-deposit

The

"

typicalof

consist of

of limestone

gneissand

micaceous

schists

or

into close folds.

to S.E.,showing probablestructure of
Fig. 27." Ideal Section,N.W.
Duckton region. (AfterHenrich.)

The

ore-bodies consist of

of
sulphides
have

been

copper,

of

masses

zinc,and lead.

oxidised into gossan.

with
pyrrhotite

The

portionsnear

Carl Henrich4

which

occur

the surface

states that below

Hill Lode and Barrier Ranges

J. B. Jaquet, " Geology of the Broken
Geol. Survey N.S. W.t No. 5, 1894.
South Wales," Memoir
New
Mineral Field,
Hill Lode,"
2
Genesis of Broken
and J. B. Jaquet, "The
E. F. Pittman
Australian
Mining Standard, October 1904.
'
8
Genesis of Broken Hill Lode,
Professor J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., "The
1

Melbourne

Argus, September1904.

Ore Depositsand Treatment

Carl Henrich, "Ducktown
Trans. Am. Inst. M.E., vol. xxv., 1896, p. 206.
4

of

Copper Ores,

46

MINING

the gossan

and

unaltered

the

above

GEOLOGY.

there is a zone
of
sulphides
secondaryenrichment consistingof partlyoxidised copper ore or
black copper." Frequently
floor of white quartz occurs
below
a
the
enriched
zone
frequentlycontaining dispersedgrains or
"

bunches
The

of marcasite.
do not
ore-deposits

intrusions,but

in direct association with

occur

found

the

igneous

planesof

the
fault-fissures,
along
accordingto Henrich, forming the east or

are

in all cases,
fault-plane
hanging-wallof the deposit,which is alwayssharplydefined.
That writer is of the opinionthat the Duckton
are
ore-deposits
which
of
the
time
at
one
replacements
igneous dykes
occupied
present placesof the ore-bodies.

(d) Fahlbands.
These

are

beds

or

of

strata

crystalline
metamorphic rock, so

highlyimpregnatedwith ore as to be of commercial value. The

fahlbands (orgray beds)of Norway are among
the
silver-bearing
best-known
less
t
or
examples. They follow, more
closely,he
strike and dip of the gneissoid
and schistose strata by which they
bounded.

are
a

width
In

They

extend

of several hundred

the

fissure

narrow

attain

cases

feet.

Kongsberg district these

rightanglesby

miles,and in

for several

bands

are

crossed

veins,varyingin width

nearly at
from

few

are
productiveof silver only where
up to 2 feet,and
the
fahlbands are importantin this
The
intersect
fahlbands.
they

inches

district

solelyfrom the fact that

in passingthrough them,

the
more

veins intersect within the mineralised

Yiq. 28."

Section

of Fahlband

at

small

when
especially

are

two

riched
en-

such

belt.

Dusky Sound,

(a) Schists.

fissure-veins

New

Zealand.

(AfterPark.)

(b) Fahlband.

Zealand, there is a mineralised band

of mica and chlorite schists,
pyrite,with a
containingpyrrhotite,
and garnet
and nickel,associated with epidote
little chalcopyrite
the mounbe traced southward, across
tains,
minerals. The band can
shown
been
contain
has
to
several
it
not
but
for
miles,
yet
At

Dusky Sound,

of
payable*ore

any

in New

kind.

48

MINING

In

clay slates.

the

Emmaville

in
ore
occurs
tin-bearing
b
oss.
of
crust
a granitic
In

the

GEOLOGY.

veins

in the same
division,
State, the
and impregnationsin the outer

Herberton

which
district,
producesthe bulk of the tin
raised in Queensland, the tin-stone occurs
in veins,bunches,and

impregnationsin granite.
At the

the tin-stone occurs

tin-mine,at Mount Bischoff,1
in strings,
bunches, veins,and impregnationsin quartz-porphyry,
which have intruded slates,
eurite,and topaz-porphyry,
sandstones,
and quartzoserocks.
like fahlbands, form
of metalliferous
a
Impregnations,
group
famous

not very clearly

denned.
deposits
related to contact-deposits.

Genetically,
they

are

closely

(f)SegregatedVeins.
of
Deposits
masses,
a

to constitute

as

in the

occur
generally

often succeed

and

manner

this kind

one
a

shapeof lenticular
lengthand depthin such
less continuous
vein.
They
that have been sharply
folded,

another
more

or

in

rocks
onlyfound in sedimentary
cracks
fissures
have
been formed more
or
or less parallel
whereby
with the beddingplanes,
and dippingat rightanglesto the axial
are

line of elevation.

Characteristics
of

which
of

both

seldom

as

Segregated Veins.

veins
segregated

(1) Uncertain
are

of
in

may

as

depth and

continuous

succession

are

of

contain

follows

"

The

chief characteristics

"

linear extension

; that

is,they

either in

lengthor depth,but occur

disconnected,lentil-shaped
masses,
few tons, or

many

thousands

of tons,

quartz.

(2) Irregularin width.

(3) Seldom possess more than one well-defined wall.
(4) Frequentlyreceive small veins in their course.
(5) Conform more or less to beddingplanesof country-rock.
(6) They are only found in bedded sedimentaries,which are
or sandstones.
generallyslates,
claystones
The
Origin of Segregated Veins.
originof segregated
of this class is somewhat
obscure.
occur
deposits
They generally
along the bedding-planeof the country-rock.The cavities they
been formed by the folding
fillhave apparently
of the enclosing
and
this
have
caused
been
rock;
foldingmay
by secular earth"

movements, or the intrusion of an igneousmass.

New
Zealand
Segregations." The productive
quartz-veins
1

H. W.

F.

Kayser,"Mount

Aust.
Bischoff,"

Assoc. Advt.

Science,1892.

CLASSIFICATION

the

in

MINERAL

Reefton, Inangahua,and

succession

lenticular

of

the

bedding

Some

of the

their widest

enclosingclaystonesand

largerore-bodies
varying

from

intrusive bosses in the

formed

masses

planesof the

swell out

3 to

Saddle

Reefs.

These

"

stockman's

6 feet.

so

are

to

width

shapedlike
There

of

to

sandstones.

of 20

feet at

flat lenses with

are

veins,which

of the
vicinity

along the beddingplanesof

in form

49

DEPOSITS.

consist
Lyell goldfields
which
generallyconform

part,but the majorityare

thickness

OF

dykes

no

or

cavities

occupy

monoclinal.

named

from

their resemblance

saddle.

veins
They are merelysegregated
formed
in cavities along the bedding planesof sedimentary
rocks
which have been bent into anticlinal and synclinal
folds.
E. J. Dunn,1 who
worked
out the morphology of the saddlereefs of Bendigogoldfield,
defines a saddle-reef as :
in Victoria,
A lenticular quartz-lode
lying between beddingplanesof rock,
bent over
folds."
in anticlinal or synclinal
to

"

"

The

chief characteristics of saddle-reefs are

bedded, banded,

They

occur

They

fillcavities which

in

as

:
"

foliated rocks.

or

to the

conform

follows

planesof beddingor

foliation of the rocks.

(3) The

of

greatest mass

anticlinal arch

ore

along

occurs

forming the

saddle

the

crown

which

from

of the
the

legs

descend,one on each side of the arch.

legs diminish rapidlyin size as they descend, and

(4) The

die
finally

out.

(5) Two or more saddle-reefs may succeed each other in vertical

depth under the axis of the same anticlinal fold.
(6) The greatest thickness of ore in inverted saddle-reefs,
formed
in synclinal
folds,is found alongthe axis of the
trough.
The

saddle-reefs of

Bendigoconsist

bearingquartz conformingto
and

slate
most

sandstone

cases

the

of arch-like

masses

bedding planesof

of Silurian

age.
of the rocks was
the folding

Dunn

has

caused

by

the
shown

goldenclosing
of

that

in

the intrusion of

igneousdykes.
Inverted

Saddle

Terawhiti, near
of

Reefs."

Wellington,in

saddle-reefs which

arrangement, as
synclinal

the
1

New

gold-bearingveins at Cape
examples
Zealand, are interesting

exhibit
in

both

anticlinal and

an

fig.31.

which
have
and sandstones
claystones
with the result that
eroded into steepridgesand deep valleys,
ore-bodies
The
denuded.
been correspondingly
veins have

The
been

shown

The

rocks

are

E. J. Dunn,
Melbourne, 1893.

Triassic

Report on

Bendigo Goldfield,Dept.

of

Mines, Victoria,

50

MINING

Fig. 30." Sections showing Formation

GEOLOGY.

of Saddle-Reefs.

(AfterE. J. Dunn.)

CLASSIFICATION

remaining are

now

at

time

one

only

the

MINERAL

truncated

51

DEPOSITS.

ends

or

legsof

what

were

saddle-reefs.

true

Monte

The

OF

Christo

lode,in Nerrena, or Little Bendigogoldfield,

Sta*tevel
:::v-r

Fig. 31. "Section

Cape Terawhiti.

at

(a) Segregatedveins.
is a

segregatedore-bodywhich
branches

spurs or
form assumed

shapeof

the

into the

by

sends out

adjoiningslates

"

Cross-section of Monte

Christo

(g) Gash
metalliferous

shaped cavities,or
where
cross-joints

by

The

by

the

Lode, Little Bendigo.

Veins.

occupying lenticular
deposits

gashes

in

limestone.

alongthe bedding planes,often

formed

sandstones.

Bradford.)

(AfterW.

are

and

lodes of this class is always determined

original
cavity.

Fig. 32.

These

lateral
peculiarparallel

and
cavities,

at

the

sometimes

the action of surface waters

wedgeThey generallyoccur

pointsof

intersection

largecaverns,

chargedwith

or

have

carbonic

of

been
acid.

52

MINING

The

zinc blende.
confined to

Veins

in

of this class have

galena and
walls,and,being

are
gash-veins

no

distinct

in which

of the formation

singlestratum

found

commonly

most

ores

GEOLOGY.

they occur,

limited in extent.

are

Fig. 33.

"

Gash

Veins,Wangapeka,

New

Zealand.

(b) Silurian slates.

(a) Silurian limestone.
Gash
veins
galenaand blende.
(c)
containing

(h) True

Fissure

Veins.

admitted
in
to have originated
generally
fissures caused either by secular folding,
or by igneousintrusions,
and are believed to possess great depth. They pass through all
kinds of rocks in their course, independently
of any bedding or
chance
stratification ; but in some
to coincide with
part they may
Veins

the

of this class

dip and

are

strike of the

containingformation.

Fig. 34."

True Fissure Vein.

(c)Granite.
{d) Fissure-vein.

(a) Limestone.
(b) Slates.
The

mineral

contents

ascending aqueous
connected with
The

banded

these

solutions,which

magmatic
deep-seated

veins
were,

depositedfrom
probably,genetically

were

intrusions.

arrangement of the vein-matter

of the fissure-veins

is very similar to that of the solfataric veins of the

which would
tend to show that the filling
took
goldfields,

of Cornwall
Hauraki

of

CLASSIFICATION

the later

placein

OF

MINERAL

53

DEPOSITS.

the igneous
stagesof the after-actions following

intrusion.
The
often

walls do

two
a

always coincide,that is,the

not

fault,and of variable width.

throw

vein,may
Lodes

out

branches

or

spurs

of Cornwall.

A true
from

or

one

segregated

both

Cornwall

lodes of

The

"

vein,like

fissure is
walls.
familiar

are

examples
They pass
depth successively
and
In
the
limestone, the
through limestone, slate,
granite.
commercial
product was lead ; in the slate,copper ; and
principal
tin.
in the granite,
The
three giganticquartz
Lodes
Forest.
of Bavarian
of true

fissure-veins.

in

"

regardedby Suess l
of linear dislocation known
in Europe.
as the greatestmonuments
and
They are true fissure-veins, are believed by that distinguished

lodes

the

on

the Bavarian

slopesof

Forest

are

he

the existence of which

on
occupy great fault-fractures,
finds support for his celebrated theory of mountain
building

by

hords

to
geologist

graben.

und

Of these,the Asch
of

lode

north-west

beginsin

the most

of

Asch, runs
the mica-schist,
gneiss,and

Bohemia,
across

Mountains; then

cuts

to

the

across

the

beneath
Seeberg,disappears

south-east

versely
trans-

graniteof Erzgebirge
narrow
outcrop of gneissnear
Tertiarycoveringin the basin

the other
on
Eger,and reapj"ears immediately
the granitemass
of Sandan, finally
extending
to the south of Konigswart. The total lengthof

and

of Franzensbad
side of this in

through this

north-westerly
part
the

up

outcrop is nearly25 miles.

Near Hals, where the Asch lode ends, there appears the beginning
Pfahl which strikes
of the great vein known
as the Bohemian
back to the
then curves
to the east,then turns
south-south-east,
and
the Bavarian
frontier near
Furth.
crosses
straightcourse
34 miles,and the average width
The length of outcrop is about
about 100 feet. For a long distance the lode runs
bejaween the
and
but
where
rocks bend,
the
hornblende
hornblende rock,
gneiss
into the latter.
it passes completely
The third and greatest of these lodes is the Great

58" W., and

strikes N.
from

strata, and

then

into the Archsean

greater part of its

For

it separatesthe

course,

Jurassic

for the

to 370 feet wide.

225

the

course

varies
east
south-

region;

west

far

Veins

of

Cripple Creek.

Creek, in Colorado,traverse
1

Eduard

Suess,The

Face

the Triassic and

"

of the

thence

as the Austrian frontier.

as
of this remarkable lode is 92 miles.

line

It

distance of 27 miles in

granitefrom

to

Pfahl.

The

The

chain

it continues
total

middle

pletely
passes comin a straight

length of outcrop

veins at Cripple
gold-bearing
of lower
phonolite

andesitic tuffs and

vol. i. p. 207.
of the Earth, Englishedition,

54

MINING

They

Tertiary
age.
of

centres

The

Nevada,

traverses

Lode.

The

of

latter

diabase,the

In

the middle
between

contact

portionof
of

masses

its course
diorite

hanging-wall.The

the

lying on

Comstock

it
and

basement

and limestones.1
schists,
slates,
granite,

are

traced for

lode has been

nearlydue
and

line

the

occupies

celebrated

lode, in
andesite,dacite,diabase,diorite,
propylitised
"

etc.,of older Tertiaryage.

The

old volcanic

fissure-veins,groupedaround

are

eruption.

Comstock

rocks

GEOLOGY.

has

and

north

thickness

fissure is also

The

It

20

varying from

fault.

distance of

direction.

south

60

feet*

the east,
The
vein-

consists of crushed

decomposed rock, clay,and quartz. The

the high temperature of the mine- water in

and

lode is remarkable

for

the lower levels.

yieldeda fabulous
of gold and silver since they were
amount
opened in 1859. The
of silver.
gold exists as free gold,associated with sulphides
The

mines

the

on

Lode

Mother

California is one
It is traceable

of

of the
for

counties,and in many

lode

dips towards

to

vein-matter

Comstock

22,000 feet in

over

California.

have

The

"

remarkable

most

Great

Mother

lode of

fissure-veins in the

globe.

of 70

distance

placesis

miles,extendingthrough five
mineralised belt,rather than a

vein.

true

This immense

of

vein,or group

veins,generallyoccurs

slate of Triassic age, and runs

dippingin the
planes of stratification,

of black
the

angle of

same

traverses

The
course

inclination.

At

in

belt

with the
nearlyparallel
direction
at nearly
same

different parts of its course,

it

and granite.
diabase,serpentine,
slate,diorite,

mines

the

on

Mother

lode and

the

rich

largeproportionof the

have

yieldeda
years.2

placerson its
gold produced in

California for many

Lode

Formations
of

formations
features

of

Kalgoorlie.
"

Kalgoorliein Western

peculiarinterest

grouped togetherin

are

of

an

to

area

The

Australia

the

lode-formations

and

many

mining geologist.They

about

in extent,
in this area
country-rocks
a

square

the

mile

tion
the determinaof demarcation

which
country-rock,3

Lode and
G. F. Becker,"Geology of the Comstock
Monograph Hi. of U.S. Oeol. Survey. Washington,1882.
1

possess

the

The
Mile.
the Golden
named
locally
renders
which
have undergone extreme
alteration,
character very difficult.
of their original
In the oxidised ground,there is no sharp line
between

lode-

famous

Washoe

is

District,"

J. D. Whitney, The
Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada
of
Cambridge,U.S., 1880, p. 45.
California,
8 H.
Alteration of Western Australian Ore
C. Hoover, "The
Superficial
Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. xxviii. p. 785.
Deposits,"
2

56

MINING

GEOLOGY.

which is an
quartz,however, is in many cases replacedby calcite,
important gangue material,sometimes occurringin large masses,
with calaverite.1
The gold occurs

mainly in telluridesand sulphides,

onlya minor
The
proportionexistingin the free state.
principal
accessory
minerals
arsenical
and
i
ron
are
magnetite,siderite,
pyrites,
pyrites.
The

telluridesoccur

and disseminated
veins,splashes,

as

crystals
throughoutthe entire
Mount
mine

Morgan

Lode.

mass.

in Mount
greatore-body

The

"

minute

Morgan

lode.
to be a huge pyritic
Queensland is believed by some
In the upper part of the deposit,
it consists of siliceous haematite

or

in

often with

gossan,

lower

part, of

porous,

massive

; and

structure

cavernous

ore.
pyritic gold-bearing

in the
zone

of

f
Fig. 35.

Cross-section of Mount

"

of

(AfterE.

J.

Dunn.)

(e)Cellular siliceousore.
(/) Siliceous sulphides.
(g) Oxidised enriched zone.

(a and b) Sandstones,etc.
(c)Dykes.
(d) Igneousrock.

secondaryenrichment

Lode.

Morgan

great value

met

was

with in the oxidised

zone.

The

action

of thermal

G. W.

E.

water

is held

by

E. J. Dunn

oxidised ores, without

secondary
as contended
by Dr Jack.
springs,

to

Card, "Notes

on

Records
Australia,"
J.

Dunn,

"Mount

the

Country Rocks

of the

Morgan

Qeol.

Gold

of the

sufficiently

in
calling

are
highlymetamorphosedstrata
country-rocks

Western
Part I.
2

sea-

for the

account

The

of

the aid

of Permo-

Kalgoorlie
Goldfield,

Survey of N.S.W.,

vol.

vi.

Mine," Proc. Royal Societyof

1905.
Victoria,
Digitized
by

Classification
Carboniferous age, traversed
and dolerite.1

of

mineral

by

intrusions

57

deposits.

of

hornblende-granite

ore-bodyitself is nearlysurrounded by dykes of dolerite,

serpentinised.
The evidence supplied
by Dr Jack, Wilkinson, and others seems
indicate that this unique lode is a true fissure-vein,
genetically
The

often altered and

to

connected

with

points of

resemblance

Rio Tinto

in

The
of

the

to the

in the

geneticcause

formation

geneticorigin. As
magmatic intrusion may

of

bed-impregnation.
Lodes
of Malaysia.

Tin

many

fissure-veins is

than

later,the after-actions of

even

bears

It

depositsat
copper-contact

and
contact-deposits
rather

geologicoccurrence

or

dolerites.

the

famous

Spain.

distinction between

shown

of

intrusion

will be
the

be

fissure-veins,
contact-deposits,
The

"

one

lodes

tin

the

of

Malay

Peninsula,the erosion of which has producedthe valuable alluvial

placersof the Straits Settlements,are fissure-veins passing from
downward

clay slates
Gold

of Charters

Veins

of the veins

largenumber
in

porphyry.

The

pyritesand

iron

Copper

into the basement

Towers.
enclosed

are

vein-gangueis

often

Lodes

rock

but some
occur
granite,
principally
quartz, containing
of which
The

City.

Butte

a
goldfield

in

both
pyrrhotite,

of

granite.2

In this rich

"

"

contain

gold.
near
copper-deposits

Butte

City,in the State of Montana, are among the richest in the

traversed by dykes of rhyolite
is granite,
globe. The country-rock

trendingnorth
A

number

mineralised

of

south.3

mining

belt,which

are
companies
be traced
can

running nearlyeast and

course

direction of the

The
the

and

unitingin

planes,which are
places,running out

which
intrusions,

over

were

at
after-actions,
including

lode

miles, in

or
a

generaltrend of
to each other,
approximately
parallel
belt follows the

and

unitingagain.
that the granitewas
fissured by
followed by the usual sequence

concludes

Emmons

for

west.

mineral

fissure

operatingon

the
of

rhyolite
eruptive

ing
stage the circulation of hot ascend-

one

the granite
Through the agency of these solutions,
decomposed along the lines of fracture,and the ore-bodies
by metasomatic interchange.

solutions.
became
formed
Much

of

the

ore

occurs

in thin

impregnatingthe granite,and
1

C.

Mount
2 W.
Trans.

8S.
Amor.

some

veins, some
interlacing
as huge ore-masses.

of it

S.

Wilkinson,Notes on a Collection of Rocks and Minerals from

Morgan," Records o/Oeol.Survey of N.S. W.t 1891, vol. ii.p. 86.
fin Mining in the Malay Peninsula,"
Lode
H. Derrick, Notes
on
Inst. Min.

and

F. Emmons,
Inst. Min.

Met.t vol. vii.,1898-1899,

"The

Eng.t

Copper

Resources

vol. xix. p. 678.

p. 12.
of the United

States,"Trans.

58

MINING

The
copper
zone

oxidised

GEOLOGY.

portioncarried silver,
mainlythe chloride,and

of any moment, down

to
of secondaryenrichment

depth of
was

met

about

400

no

feet,where

with, containingrich

and other secondary

Below this zone
of copper.
ores
oxysulphides
of
appearedthe normal sulphideore, which consists principally

bornite,and
chalcopyrite,

6 to
copper glance,containingfrom
10 per cent, of copper, and a little silver.1
but on an
The width of the lodes varies considerably,
average

may
1

be taken

at about

Douglas,"The

Inst. Min.

10 feet.

Copper Resources
Eng.t vol. xix. p. 679.

of the

United

States,"Trans.

Digitized
by

Am.

CHAPTER

ORE

VEINS

III.

THEIR

"

FILLING,

AGE,
PAY

MOVEMENTS,

WALL

TURE,
STRUC-

SHOOTS,

ETC.
Contents

Filling of
filling Width
:

Vein-

Condition
Shoots

of

Veins

Veins

Horses

Bonanzas

Wall

Vertical

"

in

Veins

of

Ores

of

Veins

"

Beds

Rock

"

Para-

"

"

"

"

"

Enrichment

Indicator

in
of Veins
Depth
Impoverishment
in Deep Mining
genesis
Recording
Temperatures
Metasomatic
Limits
of Deep
Replacement.
Mining
"

"

Pay
Country

Secondary

"

of

Age
Depth

Contents

"

of

"

"

Outcrops

"

Valuable
Influence

Movements

Distribution

Cavities

Inclination

of

Position

"

Zones

Vein

Stroke"

"

"

Contents"

of

Origin

"

Length

"

Matter

Metallic

Gold

"

Productive

Lode

of

and

Lodes

of

"

Arrangement

of

Cavities

"

Temperatures

"

"

Cavities

of

Filling

from

matter
was,

doubtless,

and

chemical

of

the
It

of

most

due

cases,

to

in

operating

ore-bodies, and

not

the

of

one

precipitation

combination

solved
dis-

of

and

solutions

gases

physical

of

well-known

with

conformity

constitution
to

uncommon

more

of
find

difficult

most

is made
the

so

by

connected

and

lack

our

held

substances

vein

lead, zinc, antimony,

copper,
of

is

chemical
is

The
"

circulating underground

causes

problem

genesis

Veins.

laws.

physical
The

in

and

enclosed

the

knowledge

of

solution.

sulphides

containing

silver, all

in

with

in

of

iron,

matrix

quartz.
In

of the
veinsymmetrical arrangement
the
in other
matter
cases
sulphides are deposited throughout
; but
the
order
matrix
or
apparently without
irregularly, and
system,
forming
masses
intimately associated, yet still only mechanically
that
the
of
mixed,
a
clearly suggesting
deposition had
process
nuclear
which
each
in
of
to
went
ore
itself,
tendency,
consequence
and

many

formed

aggregates,

Deposition
effected

(a)

by
The

there

cases

one

of

is

both

from

vein-matter
or

cooling

more

of

of

and

small

the

solutions

great.
solutions

underground

following
charged

matter.
59

causes

with

may

"

dissolved

mineral

be

60

MINING

GEOLOGY.

(b)A decrease of pressure.

(c)Electro-chemical action.
(d)Chemical precipitation.
(e)By other contact with other mineralised solutions.
(/) By gaseous emanations.
of metals by gelatinous
etc.
silica,
(g)By absorption
Cavities.

Origin of Vein

The

"

solutions

either found

the

channels by a
awaiting them, or they formed their own
to
replacementof the wall-rock parallel
process of slow progressive
primary fractures.
If the cavities were
pre-existing,
they were formed mechanically
or
by forces either {a)internal,
(b)etxemal to the rock affected.
In the case of eruptivemagmas
of the igneous
unequalcooling
cavities

would

mass

tend

unequal internal tensions,with the

contraction would be formed.
Magmas, like
create

to

result that fissures of

the

molten

charge in

their cavern, and the

will tend to detach
concludes

energy

furnace, will corrode

"

plucking

action of the
the

fragments from

of the

to fracture the

magmas,

the

walls of

risingpasty mass

roof and

digestionof solid rock

that the
of volume

increase

blast

a
"

sides.

Daly1

causes
an
by magma
sufficient
furnishing
thereby

overlyingrocks

and

force the magma

itself

alongplanesof weakness.
eruptiverocks may be fractured by an
stresses created
or by the lateral and
tangential
igneous intrusion,
by the secular foldingof the crust of the earth. Such forces are

Sedimentaryand

older

external to the rock-mass

in which

they act,
importantpart in

more

we

ponderoussecular

affected ; and if we
consider the
shall find that igneous intrusions
the

genesisof

vein-cavities than

manner

play a

the

more

earth-movements.

extremely slow, seldom exceedinga few

it causes
inches in a century. The foldingwhich
being for the
most
part of wide structural or tectonic importance,is continental
Secular

rather

movement

than

local.

material

the

is

the

When

resultant

stress

effects

exceeds

the

elastic limit

faultingand

shearing,
infolding.
sharp
The fracturingwhich
produces open fissures and cavities is
work
the
of igneousintrusions and volcanic forces. These
chiefly
also providethe mineralised
agencieshaving made the cavities,
of the

are

and
plication

gases and solutions that corrode and replacethe shattered rock

and fillthe fissures with mineral matter.
Ore-bodies are often formed
along jointand fault planes,and
the

at
1

intersection

of

Daly, R. A., "Mechanics

vol. xvi. p. 107, 1904.

joints,
simple fractures,and
of

Igneous Intrusion,"A

mer.

faults.

Journ,

Set.

[4],

typicalexample

of

this class of

Victoria,has been shown

Fig. 36.

depositin Bendigogoldfield,

T. A. Rickard.1

by

of Ore

Section
Typical

"

61

VEINS.

ORE

Body at Intersection
Rickard.)

of Fractures.

(AfterT. A.

(b) Slate.
(a) Sandstone.
(d) Gold-bearing
quartzin the form

of

(cc)Fractures.
false-saddle
reef.

of Monte
ores
Cristo,in the State of Washington,
sulphide
be
of the country-rock
to
are
replacements
by Spurr2
tonalite. The ores, which are chiefly
galena,blende,chalcopyrite,
and arseno-pyrite,
concentrated alongjoint
are
planesand
pyrite,
The

stated

intersections in the

Age
in

of Vein

district

are

system make

an

Filling.
"

place,it

case

vein is younger
of large fissures

than
now

the

they remained

support until they were

filled. It is

1
2

the lodes

beginningthe

fissures

were

of

the

vein

as

mineral

open

matter, it

chasms

States Oeol.

without

believed that in
generally
small size,and
gradually

T. A. Rickard, Trans. Am. Inst. M.E., vol. xx. p. 469.

J. E. Spurr,"Ore
Depositsof Monte Cristo,Washington,"22nd

lieportUnited

which

vein.
displaced

filledwith

that
is highly improbable
the

that

is evident

another
displaces
the

figure.

happensthat

It sometimes

of one
of different ages, and that the members
with
those
another
of
system. When
angle

displacementtakes
In

in the next

shown

manner

Survey, 1900-1901, Part II. p. 849.

Digitized
by

Annual

62

MINING

increased

in

accumulated

GEOLOGY.

length, depth, and

the

mineral

matter

to afford the

fissure.
original
It might be expectedthat
tend to follow

as

necessary support. In other

lode was the work of metasomatic

in them

words, the enlargementof the

replacementoperatingupon the

would

width

an

rock

forming the

if later

movement

old line of fissure rather

walls
took

of

the

it
place,

than

initiate

one, and in support of this view there is internal evidence in

lodes that they have been reopenedat different periods.
many
Portions of the Martha
lode at Waihi
have been brecciated by
new

SCALE

OF

FCC

and Vein
Sketch-section of Tunnel
Fig. 37.
Glacier
Creek, showing mineralisation

Exposure in Vertical Cliff,

along joints by, probably,
Shaded
areas
represent impregnationof tonalite
descendingwaters.
with sulphidesalong joints,sometimes
becoming solid ores.
(After
Spurr.)
"

and

wall-movements
character

re-cemented; and

not uncommon
who made a

are

evidences

of

similar

elsewhere.

examination
of the copper-veins
of
Weed,1
special
that
there
the
veins
of
states
several
are
Butte, in Montana,
ages
and systems,and that the older primary quartz-pyrite
veins were

reopenedby
volcanic

of

later movements, which he correlates with a period

activity.This reopening,he says, resulted in the

enargite,which is now
sulpharsenide,
copper
of the veins.
found to be the chief ore of some
of vein-matter
took place after the
As a rule the formation

of
deposition

formation
1

W.

H.

Waters,"

the

of the

Weed,
Trans.

enclosingrock.
"Ore

Am.

Depositionand

List.

Vein Enrichment
vol.
1903.
xxxiii.,
M.E.,

by AscendingHot

64

GEOLOGY.

MINING

The

or

Little

Bendigo goldfield

typicalexample of an ore-bodycomposed of a
the
masses.
Accordingto W. Bradford,1
lozenge-shaped

in Victoria

stringof
lode

lode in the Nerrena

Temperance
is

traverses

and

alternatingslates

series of

sandstones

of

distance,it consists of a succession of

wide and narrow
parts, the wide parts forming in the slates and
in the accompanythe narrow
in the harder sandstones,as drawn
ing
of
does
show
not
which,
however,
figure,
any appearance
Silurian

In vertical

age.

faulting.
that erosion,either chemical or mechanical,
Again, it is possible
than in another.
may have acted in one portionof a fissure more

Fig. 39.

Section

"

slates.

Lodes
and
and
a

widest
generally

are

in hard

narrowest

In hard

diorite.
crack

mere

or

enteringsofter

Length
which

rocks

Of the three

Forest

Saxony
1

W.

lengthof
to

andesite,
granite,

to

down

its normal

size

to
on

great lodes

is traceable for

lode

Pfahl

generallythose
the slopes
traversing
are

for 34

miles, and

distance

the

Great

92 miles.

the

average
miles, and

Bradford, Bulletin

1905, p. 6.

expand

the Asch

miles, the Bohemian

Cornwall

unaltered

as

longestlodes

The

"

of 25
In

moderatelysoft ground,

country.

of Lodes.

Bavarian

such

or

dwindle
rock,a lode will frequently

of the

Pfahl for

in soft

clayparting,and

broadest.

are

"

Temperance Lode, showing makes" of quartz in

Scale,1 in. to 40 ft. (AfterW. Bradford.)
of

No.

length of
in

the

15, Geol.

load is about

Harz

Mountains

mile, in
8

to

10

Survey of Victoria^ Melbourne,

ORB

miles.

In

California

the

Great

Mother

In the Hauraki

been

traced for

in New
goldfields,

be

traced for 3 miles ;

lode,Te Aroha, 4 miles.

Strike

Zealand,the Tokatea lode can

the Waiotahi
lode, 2 miles ; the Premier

Bearing of Lodes.

In many
general bearing. Thus

or

"

lodes possess a
generalstrike is E.N.E.-W.S.W., and
main

W.

many
the
goldfields

N.N.E.-S.S.W.

districtrun

trend

mining regionsthere is a

some

of the lodes

runniug in

E.N.E

yieldtin,copper,

lodes

yieldclayand

lead.

the

But

of

and

the

In
is

Freiberg

strike has

times
some-

lode.

in the
great similarity

direction.

same

S.

E.

productivelodes

changeof
of

the

England

hand, the lodes in the

other

directions. A

in various

in -Cornwall

north

of the most

influence in the enrichment

an

In

the

On

in the

mining districtsthe

of the iron lodes strike N. and

Prussia

In

the Hauraki

safe

lode has

70 miles.

over

and

65

VEINS.

Thus

contents

in Cornwall

the

littlelead,while the N.S. lodes

exceptionsare

too

The

lode may

many

allow

to

to be made.
generalisation

Inclination

of Lodes.

dip of

vary as it
descends
depth,or may vary at different pointsalong its course.
The dip is spoken of as flat or steep. It is alwaysat rightangles
"

in

to the strike.

The

lode

Andreasberg,the Talisman
Empire lode in the Waihi mine
oppositedirections in different parts

Samson

Karangahake,

and

Zealand, dip in

at

the

lode

at

in New
of their

course.

Moissenet, in his classical work

fullyendorses

the

on

of
generalisations

the

Lodes

Henwood

of Cornwall,
the

relatingto

strike,and character of country upon the

inclination,
of the lodes of that country. With respect to these he

influence of
contents

formulated

the

(1) Those

laws
following

parts

vertical

(2) In

the

"

lode

of the

always the

are

inclination

whose
most

nearly

productive.

parts the lode is enclosed

rich

is most

in

rate
country of mode-

hardness.

(3) The

"

"

courses

direction

as

of bunches

(4) The

"

the

shoots

contained

bearing of

the

in the

rich

stratigraphical
system
laws hold

if they can
them

be

has been

Take

good

the

the groups

is

generallythat

with which

the

observation

for the lodes of Cornwall.

The richest bonanzas

of

initial fracture

the
of

is connected.
It is doubtful

and
appliedin other mining regions,
safely
in different places.
disproved

the first law.

same

lode.

same

parts

regionunder

the lode in the

These

"

generallydip in
and very often also
country,"
"

or

in the Thames

each of

gold-

66
field

found

were

where

the

Caledonia

in the

about

dip was

and

Cambria
Both

30".

under

angle of dip was

the

bonanzas

reefs,in places
and

above

below

the

45".

With
which
the exception
of gash-veins,
Depth
wedge-shapedopenings from the surface the depth which

of Lodes.

are

GEOLOGY.

MINING

"

veins may attain has not yet found

The greatestdepth to which
a

limit.

lode has

been

followed

wards
down-

Przibram, in Bohemia, where one of the mines has

depth of nearly4000 feet,and is still being deepened.

is at
reached
The

gold-minesof
reached

have
It

seems

than

Victoria and

depthsranging from

that
likely

of Lode

most

veins is quartz. The

often

occurs

It may
crystalline.

be
be

Lake

feet to 5000

2000

to

Superior

feet.

greaterdepth

follow them.

Matter.
most

in veins of calcite

quartz may

at
copper-mines

fissure-veins will descend

can
mining operations

Arrangement

The

the

or

The

"

or

gangue

matrix

of

exceptionis lead,which
fluor-spar.
chalcedonic,finelyor coarsely
notable

flintyor
concentric,
brecciated,
banded, ribbon-like,

M*i Iff*
,$
"

Fig. 40."

Showing Ribbon

Structure of Vein Matter.

or in loose sugary
compact, vuggy, granular,disseminated,
grains.
The arrangement of the lode-matter should always be observed,

since the

structure

something about

and

arrangement

will almost

always tell

us

its history.

In lodes of the base metals the contents are sometimes

in bands
to the walls,the minerals
or
layersparallel

arranged
and

ores

ORB

wall

one

on

67

VEINS.

being representedby corresponding

layerson

the

other wall.
When

bands

the

individual

are
crystals

anglesto the
termed

made

plane

up

of

arranged

with

are

This

of the walls.

crystalline
aggregates,the
their longeraxis at right
arrangement is sometimes

comb-structure.

Such
the

symmetrical arrangement is,however, rare.

Generally
thicker
wall
than
the
quently
on
are
on
one
other; and frelayers
a
layer of ore on one wall has no corresponding
sentative
reprethe other.

on

Lodes

filled with
lode at

Martha

lode, exhibit

chalcedonic quartz like the upper

Waihi, or

little

or

part of the

quartz like the Comstock

symmetricalarrangement of mineral

with

no

sugary

contents.

In

some

cases

the

partly fillingthe
breccia
The

consists of broken rock, whollyor

vein-filling
vein-cavity;in others, a band of frictionwall.

occupiesone
Cambria

lode

Thames

at

has

band

2 to 4 feet thick.

hanging-wall varyingfrom

of

The

breccia
breccia

on

the

is not

in flatlenticular layers.
co-extensive with the vein-matter,but occurs
A mass
embedded
of country-rock
in Veins.
in the
Horses
"

matrix

of

lode,and

more

Fig. 41.

walls,is termed

when

"

or

Horse

less

or

detached
completely

Floater in

large a horse,and

from

the

Vein.

when

small

or
floater,

rider.
A

horse is

slice of rock

hanging-wallwhile

the

that

siliceous

has

become

was
filling

detached
still in a

from

gelatinous

condition,
~~

the

Digitized
by VjOOQIC

68

GEOLOGY.

MINING

wall and

In Com
of

horse

Cornish

attended

aphorism,
and

labour

extra

with

horne

expense

of

rence
occur-

the

of

doubtless

originated
for itself,
meaning that

pays

lode

that the

enrichment

an

which

circumstance

increased richness of the

the

shown

experiencehas

is often

lode, a

of the

contents

the

elsewhere

than

more

working caused

compensates the
the

by

of

appearance

the horse.
veins
steeplyinclined gold-bearing

In the

Thames

horses

with, and in almost every instance they

values being generally
local enrichment, the increased

of rock

often

were

caused
confined to

met

or
split

one

branch

of the lode.

that

this enrichment

showed
Investigation
of the

concentration
increase in the

values
values

mean

Outcrops of Veins.
different
the

of the

terms
biological

branch, but

one

Professor

"

used

by

Van
a

designatethe

to

are

actual

an

lode.

suggestedby

somewhat

as

to

the
distinguishes

nomenclature

life. His subdivisions

animal

Hise

to

the main

rulingin
previously

of rock-alteration

zones

changes in

into

due

not

was

follows

parallel
:

of Katamorphism.
Belt of weathering.

1. Zone
a.

b. Belt of cementation.

of Anamorphism.

2. Zone
The

Katamorphiczone

broken

and

down

it is the

is that in which

altered into

complex compounds are

simplecompounds. In other words

of oxidation.

zone

Anamorphic zone the alteration of rock masses

the production
or buildingup of complex compounds
compounds.
In the

The

belt

ground

of

weathering extends

the
water-level,

level to the
Chemical

zone

action

and is in most

changes

of

cases

effected in

down

from

belt of cementation

from

the

results in
from

simple

surface

ground

to

water-

Anamorphism.
is very

active

in the

zone

of

Katamorphism,

accomplishedby descendingsolutions. The

this zone
are
: (a) oxidation,(b) hydration,

and

(c)carbonation.
By long-continuedexposure to atmospheric agenciesand the
meteoric waters, the outcrops of iron,copper,
action of descending
often oxidised and so altered by
and silver sulphidelodes are
and
removal
replacementas to bear little resemblance to the
be found at a greater
unaltered vein-matter which will generally
depth.
1

Chas.

Survey.

Richard Van

Hise,

Washington,1904.

"A

Treatise

on

Metamorphism,"

U.S.

Geo!.

The

iron

oxidised

are
sulphides

oxides, while

lirst to

copper is removed
is oxidised to
or
sulphates,

soluble

69

VEINS.

ORE

the

by

and
sulphates

then

to

the

form

of

in

water

carbonates,which

stain the

rocks green and blue.

Silver sulphides
altered to the chloride
are
the surface,or the dissolved metallic contents
found
near
are
concentrated

at

below

or

water-level.

lodes iron is the predominating

In many
constituent,
sulphide
and
its oxidation generally
results in the outcrop assuming a

honey-combedappearance, the removal of the sulphides

filled with oxide.
The
leavingcavities which are onlypartially
porous,

solution flowingfrom
ferruginous
the

rocks
surrounding

Such
hat in

ironstone

known

gossan in
ironstone blows in Australia.

the

of

nature

and

cavernous

and

brown

much

red
cindery,

ore-bodyis composedmainly of
of ochre

as

varies with

gossan

originalsulphideore-body.If
is

outcrop stains aud discolours

soil.

outcrops are

Germany, and

The

and

the

character

of

quartz is present,the
brown- coloured

or

iron

the

Cornwall,iron-

; but

the
crop
out-

if the

the gossan will consist

pyrites,
and stalactitic
botryoidal

haematite,often in

forms.
The
to

oxidation and

depth of 500

far below

the

leachingof lode-matter

feet below

present

line of demarcation
of

lode,but

between
often

more

first

Gossan

outcrops
contain

they may

be detected

The

valuable

givelittle or
The

often

proceeded

outcrop,in

some

cases

there

is

sharp
portions

Sometimes

unaltered

the passage is gradual,the suphides

at
in detached
nodules, bunches, or

graduallybecome

plentiful

more

increasing
depth.

A gossan is always an
reason, forms a valuable

not

surface

the oxidised and

making their appearance

small lenticular masses,
which
with

the

water-level.

has

lode

below, and, for this

guide to the prospector.

should be carefully
sampled and

valuable

minerals

by panning.
gold and silver

the

presence

lodes of the

in such

assayed,as

of which

could

Hauraki

goldfields
by
panning.
finelydivided state that a colour is rarely
value can onlybe ascertained by careful

indication of their value

no

goldexists

indication of

crushingand

in the ore, and the

seen
samplingand fire-assay.
The

rich,unoxidised

Australia
of Western
ores
sulpho-telluride
character to indicate
physicalfeature of a striking
possess no
their great value, and when
tested by the prospector's
ready
method
Each
to

of

rough crushingand panning appear valueless.

mineral

and
itself,

film

or

possesses certain characteristic indications peculiar

be considered separately.
Thus
iridescent
must
an

layerof

oil

on

pool of water, or

an

emanation

of

car-

70

GEOLOGY.

MINING

buretted

direct

hydrogen, may

attention

petroleumin the vicinity.

Brine springspoint to deposits
of salt,and
iron,though

to

steam

may
aud

springs
chalybeate

of commercial
necessarily

not

of

existence

Puffs

value.

of

the smell of

sulphuretted
hydrogenin a volcanic region
pointto the existence of sulphur. For instance,at Rotorua
in New
of sulphur
White Island,
Zealand, extensive deposits
or

found

are

the

to

around

extinct,and

the

fumaroles, both

numerous

at both

placesthe
long before
plainly
perceptible
Condition

of Metallic

odour
the

or

goorliemuch

of it exists combined

In

uncombined

the

portionsof
influences
of
oxidising
condition

of Veins. "Gold

the

with
that

veins

occurs

Kal-

and

CrippleCreek

form, but at

tellurium.
have

been

subjectto

the

in a free-milling
surface waters, gold occurs
that is to say, it unites readily
with mercury
to form
being free from tellurium and base sulphides.1

"

amalgam,
Below

sulphuretted
hydrogenis
reached.
are
deposits
of

Contents

in the native

and

active

oxidisinginfluences,the gold is often

associated with metallic sulphides,
in which
iron pyrites,
generally
it often exists entangledin an
fine condition,so fine
excessively
that when
the recovery of the gold is attempted by chemical
dissolution with aqueous
sufficient
solutions of potassiumcyanide,
the

extractions

reach

of

only be
fine,so
ground extremely
with

in contact
The

can

Waihi

on

of this

trace

chemical

have
sulphides
of goldto
particle

the

each

been
come

the solvent.

bullion

selenium,and

no

when

to enable

as

extracted

Hill lodes contains from

Martha
of

obtained

some

from

cyanideprocess

one-quarterto one-third per

much

as

be

can

the
cent,

1 per cent., but

detected in the ore itself by

occasions

metal

rare

the

by

as

tests.

in the upper part of lodes into

the free-milling
is displaced
chloride,which, below water-level,
by
Silver

is

ore

converted
generally

sulphides.Native

bromides, and
silver,

iodide often

accompany

the chloride.
The

of
sulphides

lodes

in the upper portion

of the vein into sooty secondary
oxides and carbonates,
sulphides,
copper

converted

are

great richness. At the outcrop,the copper contents have

been oxidised and removed, leaving
rusty brown caps of ironstone
more
or less quartzoseand
porous.

often of

Position
contents
1

of

It must

of Valuable
a

vein

are

always be

so fine that
particles

in contact
particles
the precious
metal

Contents.

Sometimes

the metallic

evenlydistributed throughoutthe

remembered

that

there is considerable

with

"

the mercury

in the form

of

so

gold may
mechanical

as

amalgam.

to obtain

be

free and

gangue.

yet exist

in

in bringing
the
difficulty
an

adequaterecovery

of

72

MtMKG

wall to wall.

from

sometimes

the

on

the centre

The

of the

or
hanging-wall,

vein,or in

the

on

Gold
and

band

of

the

and
foot-wall,

ore

situated

thin streak which

near

the

crosses

vein

wall to wall.

payableore
systematicsampling,provideda
values

in

of the

extent

lie on

values sometimes

obliquely,
passingfrom
The

GEOLOGY.

always

can

careful

ascertained

be

is made

record

of

by
the

mine-assayplan.

Bonanzas.

Coromandel

rich bonanzas

The

"

celebrated

are
goldfields

for which

Thames

the

in the richer

occur

zones.

daubs or masses
They are placeswhere the quartz contains coarse
called
of gold,forming what is locally
picked or specimen stone,
found to yieldas much
which
six ounces
of gold
is frequently
as
to the pound of stone.
The

Hauraki

extended
the

It

surface.

off by

100

from

feet level from

120

to

feet

wide, and

60

feet from

point about

and
north-east,

the

to
pitchedslightly

fault about

In these

varied

bonanza

to the 300

cut

was

Bunker's

30 feet from

boundary.
the pay-shootscommonly occur
goldfields
along the

of intersection

of

vein

cross-

which
flinty,

or

is

thin

line

indicator

of dense
consisting

flinty
quartz,generallypyritic.
Faultinghas taken placealong
the course
In some
the faultingtook
of most large veins.
cases
the
the
other
before
of
in
the
and,
fissure,
filling
place
cases, when
vein

Wall

veins

Of Veins.

Movements

formed
partially

were

When

"

but not consolidated.

faultingtook placeafter the consolidation of the lodethe productionby attrition of a layer of

was

the

matter, the

result

the movement
took place. On
pug or clayon the wall on which
the side on which the pug occurs
all the small veins and droppers
thus cut off or displaced
that branching
are
; and it is for this reason
veins
taken
In

only found

are

classes of
seldom

of friction-breccias

exceed

of

lenticular-shaped
hard

few

masses

In

has

movement

no

country faultingalong the

the formation

breccias

form

which

on

place.
some

has caused
Such

side

the

on

country, movement

on

course

one

or

the

both

vein

walls.

thickness,and

feet in

varyinglengthand
on

of

walls has

mostly
depth.
often produced

slicken-sides ; and in some

the flucanor claypartings
between
cases
and walls has assumed
character
the vein-matter
a flaky
or
platy

through the
"

Influence
shown

has

by

stress of lateral pressure.

of

Country-Rock.

that the valuable

the character

of the

"

Observation

contents

of

vein

are

country-rocktraversed

recognisedthat certain
and minerals.
ores
particular
also

graniterocks ; while copper

is

rocks
Thus

favour
tin

has

in many countries
often influenced

by
the
a

the vein.
occurrence

It is
of

preferencefor
serpentines,

usuallyassociated with

ORB

chloriticschists,
and
diorites,
Austrialia

yieldslead

it

change

countries.

in

many
silver ; in

and

especially

Limestone, more
In

Belgium,

Chili and

zinc ; and

in

lead.

England, iron and

A

slates.

dolomitic,yieldslead

when

73

VEINS.

rock often

in the

causes

the

change in

richness of

vein.
In

the

and
goldfields

Hauraki

productivein
tuffs. At

altered

the
Transylvania,

in

andesite,but

CrippleCreek, the

veins

barren

the

veins

are

and

breccias

in
productive

most

are

in

andesitic

breccias.
In

Yorkshire,the lead-veins are good in limestone,not so good in

in shale and limestone,and worst in shale.
limestone,worse

gritand

Sandbergerstrongly
urged the

influence

of

country-rock
upon
of veins ; and his researches have been supplemented
verified in later years by those of many
American
accomplished

the contents
and

whose
geologists,
been

and

wide

rocks.
of twelve

be summarised

rock which

(a) The
"

(b)The

found

that the

influenced by
strongly

was

results of his researches

years may

author

the
goldfields,

of the veins

The

in the

field have

varied.

In the Hauraki
character

observation

for
opportunities

has

moderatelyhard
kindlysandstone

in

containing
this regionduring a period

follows

as

productive

the

:
"

yieldedthe largestquantityof gold is

altered andesite, the
yellowish-gray
"

of the miners.

favourable

country is not too soft,nor yet too hard,

beingshootingground,requiringtwo or three shots to the
most

shift.

(c)In

the veins are

very hard country-rock,
than in soft rock; and when
vein
a

passes into hard

smaller,and often thins

becomes
andesite,it invariably
out

(d)The

to

or
clay-parting

mere

veins in the
those

as

is due

not

size and

(e)When

the

breccia,it
to be

in the

so

vein

rock

hard

to

passes

from

altered

to their

as

is true

or

character,and seldom
been

andesite

this

smaller

found

tuff

too

low

that

the

or

barren, or
grade
the
of
Hauraki
parts

breccias

reliable

into

in all

experiencehas

exist in tuffs
have

their leanness

becomes
invariably

Peninsula; and

some

clay-head."
not proved so remunerative
"kindlysandstone,"and

greatercost of working them.

payable. This

which

"

have

miner's

much

generallysmaller

as

shown

veins

often

in
superficial
although
gold-producers,

to contain

are

small

shoots of

able
pay-

nature.1
1

J. Park, " The

N.Z. Inst. Mining

Geologyand Veins of Hauraki

vol. i. 1897, p. 46.
Engineers,

Goldfields,
N.Z.,"

Trans.

74

MINING

Productive

Zones.
in

thirty-five
years

The

"

the

different belts of altered

are

veins,it has
parallel

enteringthe

favourable

of the miner's
There

andesite

there

others.

Even

found

that

Point

such

The

Russell.
the

lodes

the

of

in

zones

latter
influence

Moanataiari

namely,

"

the

being

till the

certain

in the

that

which

of

case

past

in the

zones

all become

several

enriched

grade

Kuranui

at

of

the

Hill and

is traversed

mine

four

by

large parallel
Age, and

Parr, Golden
course.

the

ore

high grade,this character

cessively
changes from exmaintained
being

the course
passed through. This zone crosses
the lodes nearlyat rightangles.1
The
followingdiagram shows the generaldistribution of
is

zone

on

affords,perhaps,the most
graphic
favourable
of
country. At that

productivezone,
to

end

Moanataiari

those

Dauntless, Reuben

entering the
low

are

the

Waiotahi, all pursuinga N.N.E.-S.S.W.

On

shown

zone,

field,the best-known

illustration

have

tion
a graphicillustratherebyaffording
aphorism,ore-against-ore.

several

are

Thames

place

area

been

the

mining operationsof

Hauraki

productivethan

more

GEOLOGY.

of

"

zones
productive

Fig. 43."

on

Plan

the

this field :

"

of Northern

Portion

of Thames

N.Z.
Goldfield,

(e)No. 9 veiu.
(aa) Great Moanataiari fault.
zone.
(/) Caledonia vein.
{bb)Point Russell productive
of
altered
andesite.
zone
(g) Waiotahi vein.
(cc)Kuranui productive
(d) Shotover vein.

Mining operationsdisclosed
zones

were

they were

not

onlylimited

found

direction to the
The
of the
The

to

dip

the

in width

to the

circumstance
but also in

southward, that

that

the

rich

depth. Further,
is,in the opposite

dip of the veins.

joiningcc shows the relation

veins to the Kuranui
zone.
productive
parallel
of
shaded
zone
portionrepresents the Kuranui productive
cross-section

along the

line

altered andesite.
1

J.

Park,

loc. cit., p. 50.

gold occurred

The

in the

bonanzas, which

in almost

of intersection of

Fig. 44.

case

every

end

Kuranui

the

surface, but

going

1000

they were
Beauty shaft,in

of

the

that
mixed

This

is,there

by

no

are

better

of the

depth of nearly

elsewhere

have

are
sulphides

each other in

horizontal

certain

shown

intimately

each

of which

is

sulphide.
noticed

was

zones,

vertical direction

zones,

of the metallic contents

example could

celebrated Dolcoath

Lower

end

Depth." Mining operations

and

metallic

succeed

dominant

arrangement

less horizontal

In

to

increasing

at

south

definite

which

zones

characterised

lower

the

the

near

arrangement, in other veins,particularly

and
there
is
those of lead,zinc,
an
iron,
orderlydistribution

that

and

the

veins

in many
without
any

in

States,England,

United

while

in horizontal
"

of Ores

Distribution

in the

followed

was

found

sea-level.

feet below

Vertical

the shoots occurred

field,

of the

southward

Queen
depths.
the
goldfield, productivezone
In

Goldfield.

(e) No. 9 vein.

(/) Caledonia vein.
{g) Cambria vein.

(a) Shotover Creek.

(b) Moanataiari Creek.
(c) Waiotahi Creek.
(d) Shotover vein.
At

leader.

Foreshore,Thames

alongNorthern

line

along the

found

were

rich

and

in shoots

productivezone

cross-vein,
locallytermed

small

Section

"

75

VEINS.

ORE

of

in Cornwall

mine, which

commenced

vein,in

many

found than that

be

as

more

years

or

ago ;
the

presentedby
a

tin-mine,at

nothing but copper, and again,below that,tin.

depthyielded
the great lead- and zinc-miningregion of Ozark, in the
Mississippi
Valley,the

to Bain, is as
according

follows

vertical
:

distribution

of

the

ores,

"

(1) Oxidised zinc and lead ores, with galena.

(2) Blende, with a little galena.
predominateand increase with depth.1
(3) Iron sulphides
Spurr, in
Washington,

his

report on

states

1
H. F. Bain, United
Part II. p. 161.

that

Monte

the

States Oeol.

Cristo

mining district,in
quartz, pyrite,chalcopyrite,
pyrSurvey Twenty-Second Annual

Report,

76

MINING

GEOLOGY.

and calcite show

rhotite,blende,galena,realgar,
stibnite,
in horizontal
zones
tendency to aggregate themselves

marked
in

the

order named.1
Rlckard
Weed

states

order
ores

orderlydistribution

that in the Castle

Mountain

Hill lead and

Broken

distribution

general

follows

silver

of

assumes

as

The

concentration

primary

to commend

Yellowstone

solutions.

by ascendinghot

it.
is often succeeded

eruptionof igneous magmas

solfataric

silver.

"
Ore Depositionand Vein Enrichment
paper on
Hot Waters," appears
to support the hypothesis
that the distribution of ores in horizontal zones
is

has much

This view

by

intense

action, of which notable examples are found in the

Park, in the United States,and in the volcanic region

of the North
rocks

depth

Wales,
been

has

"

result of

The

South

Weed,4 in a
by Ascending
which

highlyzinciferous

mines, in New

in vertical

ores

in Colorado.2

ores

in Montana, the
district,

(a) Oxidised ores of lead and

(b)Galena, with blende.
(c)Blende, with galena.

the

of

appears to be galenaon top, passinginto

below,and those into low-gradepyrite.8

At
the

the

mentions

Island of New

Zealand.

in contact with heated

slowlycirculating
solve
disbelow become
and in their upward course
superheated,
various substances,which
they carry with them along the

ascendingwaters

line of least

that
resistance,

is,towards

the

hot

spring pipe or

vent*.

Many substances,insoluble
soluble
easily

in the

presence

in normal

rendered

conditions,are

of heat and

pressure.

The

ground
under-

will,therefore,
possess their greatestsolvent power
where the greatestheat and pressure prevail,
which will naturally
be at the greatestdepth.
waters

With

loss of

will be
As

the

relieved
will be
When
solution
1
2
3
4

and

precipitatedthat
"

effected under

was

heat

waters

extreme

ascend

pressure,
is,those

the

least soluble

substances

whose

substances
dissolution

heat and

they

pressure.
will continue to lose heat

and

be

minerals

of pressure, with the result that the dissolved

in the inverse order of their solubility.
precipitated
the
in

hot waters
most

cases

reach

the

will be

surface,the onlysubstances

the

extremelysoluble

in

alkaline

J. H. Spurr,loc. cit.,p. 841.

J. A. Rickard,Trans. Inst. Min. and Met.,London, vol. vi.,1899,p. 196.
Weed and Pirsson,Bulletin 139, U.S. Oeol. Survey, 1896.
W. H. Weed, Trans. Amer.
Inst. M.E., vol. xxxiii,1903.

ORE

77

VEINS.

carbonates,and silicates. In support of this it may be

sulphates,
that hot springscommonly depositsilica and rarely

mentioned
metallic

at
sulphides

the surface.

lodes it is a common
In many
feature to find
oxidised products,
at the surface,but in such
well to bear in mind
have
The

obvious

is
filling
veins

that veins which

truncated

been

to

that

drawn

be

to

outcrop at the surface may

less

greateror

inference

impoverishment of

or their
sulphides,
it is always
cases

degree by denudation.
from

the

this process of veintake place in all

must

ore

great depths,due to the migration of the valuable

the zone of dissolution below to the zone of tion
precipita-

at

minerals

from

above.

Secondary Enrichment

of Veins.

parts of the globe that rich

oxidised

portionof

the

It has been

"

of

masses

or
ore-body,

ore

in that

often

noted in all
in the

occur

portionlying near

water-level.
has shown
that these rich masses
investigation
are
Microscopic
not of primary but of secondary
origin. Their genesisis supposed
to be due

the

by

the

to

higherpart

migrationof
of the

the valuable

vein to the lower

the agency of meteoric waters.

In some
cases, the processes
have

redeposition
may
resultingin

an

concentrate

at the

metallic contents

from

part of the oxidised

zone

dissolution,
migration,and
and
over
again,each cycle
placeover

taken

of

increasing
degreeof concentration.
The veins in which
often seen
most
are
secondaryenrichment
those of gold,silver,
are
copper, lead,and zinc.
Gold ores, in the zone
of weathering,are often augmented in
value by the long-continued
of the vein and the endisintegration
closing
rock, thus permittingthe goldset free from its matrix to
Extensive
to

outcrop.
of the

areas

sub-aerial

denudation

and it is doubtless
Victoria and
The
upper
surface

due

Western

the

lower

in the

electro-chemical
Chemical

of

that

cause

so

many

have been

subject

Palaeozoic

period,

notable

veins have
gold-bearing

gold,copper, silver,lead,and
parts

in the

waters

involved

to this

continent
close of the

been

examples
found

in

Australia.

migration of
to

since the

enrichment

of mechanical

Australian

zone

of the

veins

is affected

zinc from

the

by descending

of vadose

migration are

(a)

circulation. The processes

chemical dissolution,
and (b)

deposition.

operate in
may
secondaryenrichment, as follows :
processes

various

ways

to

cause

"

(1) By

the

removal

valuable

of

contents

worthless
in

purer

metals, thereby leavingthe

form.

78

MINING

of worthless metals

removal

(2) By

GEOLOGY.

and

their

replacementsby
higherpart of the vein.
of valuable metals on primary sulphides,
in
(3) By deposition
those portionsof the vein subjectto the influence of
In this case, the primary
circulatingsurface waters.
valuable

metals

removed

from

sulphidesmay form the

secondarysulphides.
Manifestlythe

first

nuclei

for the

depositof

the

the process of secondaryenrichment

and
oxidation
the
metallic
of
weathering

operationin

is the chemical

of the vein in the

contents

The

oxidation
In

day.

mass

galena,the iron

Katamorphiczone.
be seen
of base sulphides
in operation
can
every
of mixed
sulphidesof iron, copper, zinc,and
will be the first to be affected from its affinity
for

oxygen.
Iron

pyritesis decomposedand forms ferrous sulphate,which is

and H2S04. The H2S04 attacks
changed into Fe(OH)3,Fe2(S04)2,
and
iron
forms
ferrous
more
sulphate,liberatingH2S,
sulphide
which

with free oxygen to form H2S04.

which attacks
ferrous sulphate
changesto the ferric sulphate,

at

The

and

gold

combines

once

lead,zinc,and silver. The process

be slow,on account
of the extreme
necessarily

of
sulphides

of dissolution

must

copper,

dilution of the solutions.

For many
believed that the only secondary
ment
enrichyears it was
that could take placewas
the formation of rich bonanzas
of
carbonate
But

ores

careful

and

chloride of

in the
silver,

in
investigation

sulphideshave

been

later years
enriched
by the

zone

above

has shown

water-level.

that

of
deposition

primary
secondary

placesbelow present water-level.

was
proved experimentally
by Skey l in 1870, and confirmed
2
by Liversidge in 1893, that gold is more
readilyprecipitated
than by organic matter.
from its solutions by metallic sulphides
of the base metals were
Furthermore, Skey showed that sulphides

even
sulphides

in

It

from
readilyprecipitated
coherent

form

in

the

alkaline

presence

of

sulphidesolutions in a solid
iron pyrites,
galena,blende,

etc.
stibnite,

The

descendingacid

will attack

the

solutions formed

constituents

of the rocks

in the

zone

of oxidation

which

through
they percolate
and
alkaline
silicates
of
production
sulphides.
dissolved by ferric sulphate would
be also carried down

with the
Gold
and

wire gold in cracks in sulphide

as leaf,scale,
or
deposited
ore,
local
enrichment.
therebycausing
have
It is maintained
writers that secondary
sulphides
by some
1

W.

Professor

1870, p. 226.
Skey, Trans. New Zealand Inst.,vol. iii.,
Proc. Boy. Soc. New South Wales, vol. xxvii.,
Liversidge,
1893,

80

MINING

GEOLOGY.

the

absorptive
propertyof clays,etc.,made by himself
and
others in the laboratory
States Geological
of the United
Survey in Washington. The results confirmed the researches of
W.
Skey made in 1869, and of E. Kohler1 in 1903, who found
that clays and
substances, such as gelatinoussilica,
porous
raents

on

and colloidal matter, possess the power

carbonaceous
metals

their dilute aqueous

from

of

extracting

solutions.

In

that finely
1869, Skey2 proved experimentally
pulverised
and
massive
rock
the
of
silica
crystal,
quartz,
possess
power
the
extracting
found

that

ignitedat
and

oxide

preparedsilica
low

In

from

the silica the

1871,he

from

found

solution.

its acetate

this

manifests
especially

temperature, and

chromium

divided

of iron

besides takes

their acetate

also

He

property if

oxides of copper
The

solutions.

finely

more

apparent is the absorption.

more

that

when

ammoniacal

weak

little caustic potashis

a
copper containing
which
of Swedish paper (cellulose),
the liquid
and
paper is quiteor nearlycolourless,
retained all,or nearlyall,of the copper

of

solution

poured upon

filter

passes through the

the filter is found to have
of such

solution.8

chemist
that clay possesses the
showed
1874, the same
property of absorbingand fixingnatural petroleumin such a way
the oil being
as to form
a substance
resemblingnatural oil-shale,
In

combined
with the clay.4
chemically
that gelatinoussilica
Skey'sdiscovery
possess the

property of absorbingmetals from

important bearing upon

an

and

veins and in

the

porous substances
their solutions has

in
chemistryof ore-deposition

secondaryenrichment.

Impoverishment

of Veins

in

Depth.

"

T. A.

Rickard,when

discussingProfessor Posepny'sclassic paper on "The Genesis

Ore Deposits,"
states that the generalnon-persistence
of ore

depth is

fact

capableof proof.5He

contends

that

of
in

since heat

and

pressure are the two great factors which increase the solubility
of mineral
substances,the deep region will favour solution the

most, while

the

shallow

zone

will favour

owing
precipitation,

the decrease of heat and pressure.

There is much
in favour of this contention.

in

E.

W.

to

Progressive
poverty

Kohler,Zeitschrift
filrprahtischeOeologie,
1903, p. 49.
of Silicaand its direct Hydration
Skey, On the Absorptive
Properties
Zealand
contact with Water," Trans. New
Inst.,Wellington,
N.Z., 1869,
"

vol. ii.p. 151.

8
W.
Skey, "Absorption of Copperfrom its Ammoniacal
Cellulose in presence of Caustic Potash," Trans. New
Zealand

Solution

by

Inst.,vol. iv.,

p. 332, 1871.
4

of Torbanite
W. Skey, " Notes on the Formation
and Constitution
similar Minerals,"Trans. New Zealand Inst.,vol. vii. p. 387, 1874.
6
T. A. Rickard," Genesis of Ore Deposits,"
Discission,
p. 190.

and

ORE

81

VEINS.

of
depth below a certain depth must be the natural corollary
the generallaw governing the orderlydistribution of ores
in
horizontal zones, throughthe agency of ascendingwaters.
in depth is determined
In some
by the
cases, impoverishment
geologicalconditions. Ore-veins which are confined
prevailing
in

singleoverlyingformation often die

rock.
reachingthe underlying

to

out

on

example of this is afforded by

Thames, Tapu, Coromandel, and

notable

veins

of the

in the
districts,
the

Hauraki

gold-bearingveins

rest

on

highlyeroded

and

wacke,

mining
surface

occur

The

the

near

in all

borders

hydro-thermal

Kuaotunu

mining
Zealand,where

in altered

andesites,which
Mesozoic
shales,grey-

of Lower

cases

of

shown

the

that

andesite

when

the veins

flows reach

the

end in small strings,

or
completely,
soon
depth.
of
enrichment
the continuance
precludes
principle secondary

rock,they die

basement
which

exhausted

adinole.

have
Mining operations
which

the

region of New

contained

are

become

or

out

in
disappear

of the enriched

portionof

the vein downward

in vertical distance.

added
to ore
are
secondaryenrichment
the
result
rich
shoot
is
bonanza
a payable
a
or
quality,
;
values are added to lean
the secondary
but when, as often happens,
just payable.
ore, then the net result is to render the lean ore
of enrichment, the lean ore will be unprofitable.
Below the zone
Thus
secondaryenrichment is a concentration of values in
due to the tranference of the
the oxidised or Katamorphic zone
valuable contents
from a higher to a lower level by the flow of
meteoric
be
waters.
Only in rare cases will primary sulphides
enriched by this agency.
The
of Victoria,includingthe late
Mining Commissioners1
Professor
M'Coy and Mr Alfred Selwyn, the State geologist,
in
reported 1857 that experiencein every country had proved
that the yieldof gold decreased with the depth after a certain
When

the

values

of

alreadyof

small limit
The

was

reached.
of the

conclusion

Commissioners

opinionalreadyexpressedby
edition

of

his

Siluria.

Sir Roderick

This

was

in unison

Murchison

with the

in the first

the
as
geologist,2
distinguished
induced to materially
modifyhis

knowledge,was
he tells us, as respectsthe colonyof Victoria ;
view, particularly,
but he still adhered
to the belief that in general gold veins
diminish in value as they descend.8
result of further

the
2
3

on the Mining Resources of

Report to Surveyor-Generaland Chief Secretary
1856-57.
Victoria,
of
Colony
third edition,
Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, Siluria,
1859, p. 494.

Loc. cit.,
p. 496,

82

GEOLOGY.

MINING
,

of payablegold in a saddle-reef in the New

discovery
Chum
Railway Mine at Bendigo,at a depth of 4156 feet, in
March
1905, proves that the limit in depthassumed by Murchison
be extended to a depthprobablynot under 5000 feet.
must
It is now
Indicator
Beds.
generallyrecognisedthat a
vein may
become
enriched
or
impoverishedin passing from
The

"

kind

one

of

rock

often

productivein limestone,are
and

gold

veins,payable in

lead

Thus

another.

to

veins, which

in sandstone

poor

often barren

andesite,are

are

shale ;

or

in tuffs

or

breccias.
There

are

well-known

some

exhibited in

specialand

the

Certain
divided

manner.

to the strike and

veins,and

The

that

of

area.

generallytilted

position.They

Silurian

are

shale
the

from
applied,
locally
one

veins

by silver-bearing
only productive

are

the distribution

high

at

of black carbonaceous

crosses

are

these

exercised

of the

gold

in the

are
country-rocks

vertical

schist.

intersected

Ballarat,in Victoria,have

influence upon

veins of that

vein

Kongsberg, in

the fahlbands.

indicator-beds

remarkable

is

is

conform
fahlbands,

as

enclosinggneissand

fahlbands

it is notorious

theytraverse

The

are

the

dip of

and
country-rock

where

influence

gneissand

are

lead,nickel,cobalt,and silver.
These mineralised bands, locally
known
The

this
In

schists.
crystalline
bands or zones
of the latter are
impregnatedwith finely
of iron,copper, zinc,and occasionally
of
ores
sulphides

Norway,

prevailingrocks

where

cases

notable

of these

slates and

angles,and

interbedded
or

sandstones,which
often

with

slate,to which

certain thin
the

that

circumstance

approach the

name

wherever

seams

indicators
a

it uniformlybecomes
shale-seams,

quartzricher

along the planeof intersection.

The most persistent
of the shale-seams,
known
as The Indicatory
is described by E. Lid gey1 as "a narrow
bed of dark
slate,
usuallyshowing cleavageplanes,and containinga largepercentage
of pyrite,distributed irregularly
through it." It varies
from

mere

distance

of

sheet

to

or

an

inch

miles.

thick,and
It

is

can

be

traced

for

nearly vertical,and

is

intersected
are

by a series of nearly horizontal quartz-seams,which

of the indicator.2
commonly enriched at, or in,the vicinity
Dr
in Queensland,
Jack, in his report on Gympie goldfield,

states that
1

E.
T.

the veins

are

richest in certain bands

of black

Lidgey,Reporton

shale ;

the Ballarat East Goldfield.

"The
Indicator
Vein, Ballarat,Australia," Tram.
American
Inst. M.E., vol. xxx., 1901, p. 1094.
This paper contains an
of the available data relating
to the indicators,
interesting
summary
2

A.

Rickard,

Digitized
by

ORB

and

well is this influence known

so

the system of
says, determined
The goldveins in the south

83

VEINS.

to the miners

mining on
end

that

it has, he

the field.1

of the

Thames

in
goldfield,

New

Zealand, traverse altered andesites. They consist of graycoloured crystalline

quartz,but experiencehas shown that they
where
onlyproductive

are

termed

intersected

are

flintiesare

proportionof
Von

thin veins of

brown

or

gray
Cotta

schist.

states that

The

Freibergare enclosed in
irregularbed of black graphitic'

the veins

contains

veins,he says,

Mansfeld,

in

bituminous

an
are

Prussia, which

near

in
productive

well-known
in

occur

assayed at

bituminous

found

the

embedded
of

rate

5000

silver to

of

oz.

sapwood

showed

assay value of only from 8 to 10

in these sandstones
are

and

bark.

hard

The

impregnatedwith

horn

Triassic sandstones
sandstones of Russia.7

Permian

in the

association of

another, with
metallic

the

of Utah
the

in

ton

of silver to the

oz.

covered

and

the wood
of
replacing
of fossil plantshave

trees

often

silver.

of copper-ores
leaves and stems

occurrences

encrustingthe

discovered

copper-ores of
shales and

silicified heartwood

Tree-trunks

Similar

and
schist,

in the silver sandstones

carbonised
an

the black

limestone.4

A tree-trunk

The

locally

chalcedonic quartz
close-grained
They usuallycontain a small

colour.

poor in the mica-schist.8

The same
author also refers to the

and

veins

disseminated pyrites.
finely

mica-schist,which

ton.5

by

flinties.2

These
of

they

ores
productive

carbonaceous

has
sulphides,

been

and

of New

with

fetid

Mexico, and

carbon

in

demonstrated

in almost

form

one

limestones,and

been

in the

with
all

or

base

parts of

the

globe.
Organic matter
powerful reducers

and
of

either singlyor
sulphides,

gold

and

base

metals

from

together,are
their alkaline

solutions.
1

R. L.

Jack, Annual

Report of the Depart of Mines, Queensland,1885,

p. 58.
2

J. Park, "The

Trans.
Geology and Veins of the Hauraki Goldfields,"
Zealand Inst. Min. Eng., vol. i.,1897, p. 52.
3 Von
Cotta,Treatise on Ore Deposits,
p. 46.
4
Loe. cit.y
164.
p.
6
W.
P. Jenney, "The
Chemistry of Ore Deposition,"Trans. Amcr.
Inst. Min.
Eng., vol. xxxiii. p. 445, 1903; and C. M. Rolker, "The
Silver Sandstone
District of Utah," Trans.
Amer.
Inst. M.E., vol. ix.
New

p. 21.
6
F. M.

F. Cazin, "The
Origin of Copper and Silver Ores in
Sandrock,"Eng. and Min. Jour.,vol. xxx. p. 381.
7 Persifor
Frazer,Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. ix. p. 33.
Digitized
by

Triassic

84

GEOLOGY.

MINING

Paragenesis.
has

It

certain
each

other

than

caused

which

shown

been

and

everywhere that
by mining operations
associated with
more
ores
are
frequently

with

other

minerals

formation

the

operatedso

minerals.

The

genetic processes

of
deposition

or

certain mineral

the

of another mineral,
deposition
same
same
or
place.
This parallel,
and
of
ores
or
minerals,
genesis
synchronous,
which has brought about a common
association in the matrix,is
and is probablygoverned by the laws of
known
as paragenesis,
Substances
soluble at the
chemical
solution and precipitation.
often

as

to

cause

time and

minerals,at the

in the

temperature and pressure will pass out of solution together

in the zone
of decreased pressure or
temperature. The causes
which led to the constant association of certain minerals,such, for
example,as gold and quartz, tin and wolfram, are still very

same

obscure.
The

the basis of that

followingtable,on

affords

clear view of the

in metalliferous

ores

deposits
"

Galena,blende,

chalpyrites,
copyrite,

Iron

Gold, quartz,

Gold, tellurium,
and

Ores

nickel

Galena, blende,

Cinnabar,

Mineral.

Four

iron

or

More

Members.

Galena, blende,iron pyrites,

quartz.

pyrites,
chalcopy- Iron pyrites,chalcopyrite,
pyrites,
rite,quartz,
galena,blende,quartz.
Gold, quartz, iron Gold, quartz, iron pyrites,
blende, galena, arsenical
pyrites,
pyrites.
iron pyrites,
Gold,tellurium,
quartz, Gold,tellurium,
Iron

Cobalt and

nickel ores,

pyrrhotite,

ores,

wolfram,
Tin-ore,

and

Three Members.

Members.

Cobalt

compiledby Von Cotta,

commonly associated

mineral

Associated

Two

and

quartz.
and
Cobalt

nickel

ores,

quartz.
pyrrhotite,

Tin -ore, wolfram,quartz,Tin

ore, wolfram, quartz,
tourmaline.
-

iron

iron
Cinnabar, iron pyrites,Cinnabar,
pyrites,
pyrites,
quartz, calcspar.
quartz,
chlorite,Magnetite,chlorite,garnet,
Magnetite,
chlorite,
Magnetite,
garnet,
pyroxene, pyrites.
olivine,
Chromite, serpenChromite, serpentine,Chromite,serpentine,
tine.
olivine,
pyroxene.

In
and

generalway, experiencehas shown that tin,tungsten ores,

mium,
gold have a preferencefor siliceous rocks ; and iron,chroa

nickel,and
platinum,

copper

for basic rocks.

ORE

85

VEINS.

Temperatures in Deep Mining." Until recent years

that the increase of temperature,
believed
it was
by physicists
namely,1* Fahr. for every 60 feet,observed in the drivingof the
Rock

Gothard

Saint

of the

crust

This

earth.
taken

Observations

in

provedthat
(a) The

belief is

known

parts of the
be

to

erroneous.

bore-holes in different

parts
Australia,during the past decade, have

"

temperature of the

from

(b) That

in all

rate

now

and

deep mines

Europe, America, and

of

normal

the

tunnel, was

with

increases

crust

the

distance

the surface.

the ratio of increase of

temperature

to

depth,i.e.,the

is not the same

in all places.
temperature-gradient,
is not uniform for all depths
(c)That the temperature-gradient
in the same
even
place; that is,isogeotherms are not
the
in
parallel
upper part of the crust.1
increases with the depth.
(d) That the temperature-gradient
In the

Tertiarydate, the
feet

30

every

by

to

increase

of middle

rise 1" Fahr.

for

and
exceptional

is

strong upward flow of heated waters in

geologicconditions suggest the waning

The

vein-fissures.

phasesof solfataric action

At

This

depth.2

in andesites

found

temperature was

in

caused
apparently
the

is enclosed

lode,which

Comstock

the

as

of the heated

source

waters.

Ohaeawai

mines in New
Zealand, the rockquicksilver
that boiling
water
with
met
was
temperatureincreased so rapidly
feet from
the surface.
Here again we
at a depth of 200
are
the

manifestlydealingwith expiringvolcanic heat.

and
of quitelate Tertiarydate,the hot springs,
and

leave
deposits

cinnabar

Volcanoes, whether
hot
Calumet
Fahr.
In

and

recent

of

parts

abnormallycool.

For

Hecla

little room

the

South

instance,Professor
mine

Lake

at

was

Maldon

found

to be

as

Mine, Maldon

Professor
East

cap

sinters,
sulphur,
situated

in

parts, however,

Agassiz

a
Superior,

follows

found

rise of

Victoria,4the

normally
abare

in the

only 1"

increase

of

:
"

"

1" Fahr. for every 81 feet in

1

Some

basalt

in this instance.

Tertiary,are

or

crust.

for every 223 feet in depth.8

four
gold-miningcentres in

temperate

and

for doubt

The

depth down

to 1700

feet.

Redmayne, "Underground Temperatures,"South Staffordshire

Worcestershire

Inst. Min.

Eng.,

1904.

F. Becker, "The
Geology of the Comstock Lode," Monograph III.,
Oeol.
U.S.
Survey, Washington.
p. 263, 1882,
8 Professor
Journal of Science " vol. i.,1895, p. 503.
Agassiz,American
4
H. C. Jenkins, " Rock
Temperaturesin Victoria,"Proc Aust. Assoc.
1902.
Adv.
vol.
ix.
Si,
p. 309,
2G.

Digitized
by

86

GEOLOGY.

MINING

Garden

South

1" Fahr.
Band

and

Gully,Beudigo
"

for every 77 feet in depth down

Albion Mine, Ballarat

Chum

depth down

80 feet in

to 2080

feet.

Railway,Bendigo
"

1" Fahr.
The

feet.

"

1" Fahr. for every

New

to 3000

for every

in
country-rock

77*5 feet in
each

depth down

to 3645

is Silurian slate and

case

feet.

sandstone.

The

followingtables of rock-temperatures
preparedby Professor
Everett,1are of much interest in connection with this question.
Table

I.
"

Observations

Depths

II.
"

Temperature

Vertical

and

Table

of

at

Mines

at

Borings.

100"

which

Fahr.

was

found.

Feet.

Sperenberg,

2400

Paruschowitz,
Schladebach,
Pendleton,

3200

......

3400
3480

3875

Wheeling,
Table

III.

"

Calculated
WOULD

Depths
BE

at

which

100*

Fahr.

FOUND.

Feet.

Rosebridge,

2769

Scarle,

3449

Kingswood,

3469

Dukinfield,

3672

Wheeling,

3722

Ashton

4192

Moss,

Professor J. D.
Everett, Evidence
Coal Supplies,London, 1904.
1

before

the

Royal

Commission

on

88
ture, it is remarkable
recorded
in

GEOLOGY.

MINING

in

little

how

has been

information
trustworthy

underground temperatures,even
regardto progressive

mining has been carried on for generations.The

the recordingof rock-temperatures
approaching when
undertaken
in all deep mines.
systematically

placeswhere

time

is

must

be

Temperaturesshould

regularintervals both

at

ground ;

and

value,and

taken

in

in

some

cases

follows

there
be

even

is

change

than

worse

cision
pre-

drivingin

haphazardmanner

or

new

rock.

of

of

are

no

useless,as they

conclusions.

erroneous

observed

be

precautionsto
been

may
of

skill and

reasonable

sinkingand

when

careless

lead to the formation

have

with

placeswhere

all

at

Observations

may
The

noted

be

peratures
taking underground tem-

in

summarised
succinctly

by

H. C. Jenkins

as

:
"

(1) Temperaturesshould be taken in new ground, that is,in the

face or heading freshly
broken, where the work is being
ahead.

rapidlypushed
cooled

(2) Where

The

rock-walls

currents.
by ventilating
should
the
rock
possible

oxidised,since chemical
easily

temperatureshould

(3)Very

ground

wet

lower

in

be taken

must

readingthan

most

be

cases

be

free

sulphides
tion
attendingoxidasulphidesare present the

at

once.

it will

avoided,as

the

from

reactions

When

exothermic.

are

be

time

be

must

the

will tend

to

given to permit

the

water
deep-seated

sufficient
(4) After drilling,

will

true

hand, ascending
exaggerate the temperature.

generallygive

one, since the water

On
descending surface-water.

other

abnormal

become

soon

heat of

itself before taking

to dissipate
drilling
A few minutes will generally
suffice
rock-temperature.

for this.

(5) The

drill-hole must

be

deep enough

of the face of rock.

In the

majorityof

to

6 feet holes

cases

avoid

Agassizused

the

ture
tempera-

holes 10 feet

are

deep.

sufficient.

(6) The bore-holes should be horizontal by preference.

clinical
(7) The temperatures should be taken with a high-class
115"
80"
to
Fahr. and
thermometer, graduatedfrom, say,
reading to 0*05" Fahr., and corrected againsta
thermometer.
should

Limits
limited
1

by

of
the

be

When

inserted in the

wrapped round

with three

Deep Mining. Mining

undergroundtemperature and

H. C. Jenkins," Rock
Sc, vol. ix. p. 309, 1902.

"

at

standard

hole,the thermometer

layersof flannel.
great depths will
economic

Temperaturesin Victoria,"Proc.

Aust.

be

consideraAssoc. Adv.

ORE

tions.

By

the

89

VEINS.

adoptionof secondaryventilation

methods

and

mining could doubtless be carried

refrigeration
ranging up to 6500 feet accordingto the local

depths

at

on

of

increment

of

temperature.
Until lately
it was
Replacement"
commonly
and
believed that ore-deposits
filled
fissures
pre-existing
merely
In recent years writers on ore-formation
cavities in country-rock.
has been
have been inclined to placemore
less stress on what
or

Metasomatic

termed

metasomatic

replacement
no
According to this,it is surmised that,in many cases at least,
previouscavities existed,but that the waters percolating
through
the rocks dissolved certain tracks or zones
which
they replaced
with

and

ore-matter

This

of

gangue.

replacement is

process
taken placeamong

have

how

matter

the

well known

rock-masses,no
metamorphic rocks,and all older

constituents

all
dense,including

to
penologists

to

of many

igneousand eruptivemasses.
It is known
due

internal

to

in rocks
readily

(meaningchange of body),and is
to take placeas
reactions,which seem

metasomatism

as

chemical
as

do the metabolic

changes in livingorganisms.
replacedmolecule by molecule,

In

minerals
cases
are
many
giving rise to what is termed mineral
the

pseudomorphism. But

in

processes which affect changes in rock-masses,reactions are

between
the different constituent minerals,thereby forming

set up

minerals

new

capableof segregatingthemselves

into

masses

of

all sizes.
Gneiss

and

mica-schist

segregationand

molecular

of altered

are

familiar

examplesof

rearrangement

sedimentaryrocks.

work

of
stituents
con-

alteration is termed

Such

anamorphism and alwaystakes placein

the

dominant

of the

the

anamorphic zone.
The internal changes that affect eruptivesare known
to every
Besides
these
which
molecular,
are
petrologist.
changes,
chiefly
and
altered by
be
rock-masses,
so
eruptiverocks, may
especially
the action of

waters
circulating

as

to

bear

no

resemblance

to the

rock.
original
Thus

by

the

in many
removal
of

cases

andesites have

of certain

others.

Rock

been

changedto propylite

essential constituents

replacement

and

is doubtless

the

tution
substi-

precededby

alteration.
Hise l and Emmons,2
as defined by Van
replacement,
does not necessarily
substitution of matter, molecule
imply a mere
for molecule,as happens in the process of pseudomorphism,
which
involves the preservation
of the original
form of the subMetasomatic

1
2

Hise, IQth Annual

Report U.S. Oeol. Survey, Part I., p. 689.
S. F. Emmons, U.S. Oeol. Survey, Monograph XII., p. 565.
Van

90

GEOLOGY.

MINING

but an
replaced,
interchangeof substance, the dissolved
being replaced
by grainsor crystalline
aggregates of one or

stance

rock

minerals.

more

That

substitution

did, however,

kinds of
place in some
In the tin-impregnations
in granite,
depositsis well known.
in New
South Wales, pseudomorphs of tin-oxide,
in the form of
not uncommon
other examplescould be
are
orthoclase,
; and many
reference
of isolated
to the replacement
quoted,having
principally
in crystalline
and eruptiverocks.
crystals,
Slow replacement
of substance
of
by a progressivemovement
the

solutions

taken

in

direction must

placein the formation

In

aggregates.
determined
In

the

by

where

most

of

cases

of

ctd-desac.

massive

would

be

it
solutions,
by deep-circulating
as
rapid,

would

active

processes were
circulation

Whatever

in

have

to

line of fault.

or

depositsformed

currents, which

assumed

direction of movement

that circulation could not be

metasomatic

be

composed of
ore-deposits

the

rock fracture

case

is manifest

or

definite

take

the face
form

existed would

or

be due
could

deep-seatedcavities

breast

blind end
to

vection
con-

only

be

feeble.
This

now

raises the

dissolved matter

of

to the

questionas

to

transference

and

supply

somatic
advancingfaces of metacontinually

the

action.
The

energy which
was

It has been
is

force of

proved that

at any

when

from a solution at
deposited
and
immediatelymore
;

been

shown

portionof dissolved
any point,the osmotic
a

dissolved matter
well-established

point in accordance with the

diffusion,
thereby providingnew
of

has

by

great intensity.

disturbed

mass

ference,
rate accelerated this trans-

pressure, which

probablyosmotic

*t Hoff to be

van

caused, or

to

matter

substance
balance

is

travels to that
laws

of

osmotic

augment the growing

ore.

Arrhenius

and

Gillette

have

urged

the

claims

of

osmotic

pressure to be considered a factor in ore-formation.1

chemical
which
is the
Osmotic
principle
compels
pressure
solutions to maintain an equal state of concentration
throughout
their whole

and

mass,

since it is
its

deposition
commences,
have

must

seldom

been

does

not

dissolved matter
1

is

by

writers

an
on

being when
in vein-filling
agency
this subject,
although

process of lode-formation
itself with the source

concern

by replacement,
or

originof

the

contained in the solutions.

"
Osmosis
Gillette,

1903.

operationas

called into

mentioned.
specifically

Metasomatism
and

assumed

always

as

Factor

in Ore

Formation,"Trans.

Am.

Inst. M. E.,

It is almost
less

certain that

mineralised

to

appliedto largepyriticore-bodies

often
of

zones

metasomatic

processes, to a greater or
ground
agenciesin the formation of many underrock masses.
For this reason
the phrase

degree,were active
and
ore-deposits

Replacementlode,so

91

VEINS.

ORE

country, is somewhat

ambiguous,

possesses no definite geneticsignificance.

Veins in which the mineral contents are arranged in
bands

the

with

vein-matter

layeron

channel
width
It is

each

assumed

during

satisfactorily
explainedby supposing
in
deposited open channels, beginning
until the
wall,followed by subsequentlayers
the solutions exhausted.

or

that

the

vein-fissure remained

open its full

of the vein-matter.
periodof deposition

whole

the

reasonable

more

symmetrical

was

closed

became

It is not

and

only be

layerscan

or

that

and

that the fissure

to suppose

opened
gradually

the process of deposition

the newly formed
matter
proceeded,
the
the
walls.
The
which
forces
affording necessary support to
initiated the fracture,
if stillin existence,
would doubtless tend to

as

reopen and
Waldemar

widen

in Fissure

Veins"1

the fissure from

Lindgren'sclassic paper

on

The

of

work

His

genesisof
rocks

further
a

vein

can

shows

metasomatism

that

only be

contiguousto the

The

"Metasomatic

author

microscopicchemical research
field hitherto much
neglected.

methods

the

to time.

Processes

representsa great advance in the scientific

of vein-formation.
investigation
in

time

has followed Stelzner's

with

conspicuoussuccess,

clear

obtained

of. the
understanding
minute
the
of
by a
study

ore-body.

he

describes

is

not
clearly

correlative with

replacementdefined by Emmons, but merely

point
pseudomorphismon a large scale. He defines his stand2
that
the
by repeatingand adoptingBecker's statement
theory of the substitution of ore for rock is to be acceptedonly
when
there is definite evidence
of pseudomorphicmolecular
replacement."
that quartz is found replacing
He
mentions
calcite,or even
and that rutile and anatase are common
orthoclase,
as secondary
etc.
productsafter ilmenite,biotite,
and
these
other
which
he
mineralogicalreplacements,
Upon
that vein-filling
the
enumerates, he apparentlyassumes
was
result of replacementmolecule by molecule.
This somewhat
view of metasomatic
narrow
replacementis
the
insufficient
the
banded
to
of
chalcemanifestly
explain genesis
metasomatic

mineral

"

donic veins of the Hauraki

Lindgren thinks

regionof New Zealand.

be
this genetic theorymay

fullysufficient

Lindgren,Trans.

1
31

Becker,Discussion,Genesis of Ore Deposits,1901, i". 204p(

Am.

Inst M.E., vol.

xxx.

p.

578, 1900.
igitie

92

MINING

for many

veins, but admits

majorityof

fissure-veins

GEOLOGY.

others
for many
perhapsthe
there seems
to be something lackingin

"

that

"

this

explanation.
Vogt classifiesthe
of ore-solutions

processes caused

metasomatic
as

follows

by

the circulation

:
"

cassiterite rock, etc.

(a) Alteration forminggreisen,
(b)Scapolitisation.
(c) Propylitisation.

(d)Kaolinisation.
(c)Sericitisation.
(/) Carbonatisation
(g)Silicification.

(withdolomitisation).

(h)Zeolitisation.
(t)Intense
He agrees
metasomatic

contact

with

Becker, Lindgren and others that

tion
replacementplays an important part in the formaEmmons,

of mineral-veins
Information

with

of wall-rock
occasions.

wall-rock

for

often

throw

be taken
1

in

Professor

metamorphism.

and

ore-bodies.

regard

to

character,and
vein-structure,

should

be

placed on

examination
petrographical
distance

some

on

each

record
of

on

all

possible

the vein-matter

side of

the

Vogt,

"

Problems

in the

Geology of

Ore

and

ore-bodywill

lighton the genesisof the ore ; but care

on
forminggeneralisations
microscopicevidence
much

fluence
in-

must

alone.

Deposits,"loc. cit.,

p. 660.

Digitized
by

CHAPTEE

DYNAMICS

THE

OF

"

of

fractured,

or

which
the

Faults.

build

sharper

by
igneous magma
or
hypogenic.
simple

fractures

fracture

is, the

have

become

of

movement

the

majority
displacement.

; but

but

areas

in

also

the
of
In

Zinimerraann's

veins

the

slow

or

tilted
the

by

and

bent
ments
move-

dislocated
an

orogenic

either

there

other

of

be

may

on

cases

be

may
secular

intrusion

agents
rock

Faults-

Dip

Lodes"

and

propagated
disturbing

movements

without

been

up

beds

Bed"

with

Inclined

depressed, by

or

BEDS.

AND

parallel
for

Mineral

continental

; that

Dislocations

Rules

"

"

elevated

LODES
Faults

"

Faults

Trough
Step Faults
Graphic Method.
Definition

Faults

of

Definition

Contents:"

IV.

wall

has

words,

the

side

of

are

only

not

rente

faults.

fault

be

may

denned

as

fracture

on

one

taken

on
place whereby the rocks
been
displaced relativelyto those on the other side.
Faults
caused
in
are
by crust stresses.
They run
the
in
but
the
faults
of
often
a
run
region
major

has

movement

which

side

one

all

have

directions,

general

same

direction.
A
or

fault

vein
Faults

are

plane.

The

not

fault

makes

The

cross

or

other.

fault

run

may

hade
with

hade-line

the

the
parallel with
course,
at right angles,
course

often

vertical,

is said
of
the
of

hade

to
a

fault

vertical
a

fault

but

when

or

incline

at
to

it inclines

is, therefore,

strike, of

or

the

other

any

angle.

side

one

from

the

or

the

vertical

which

angle

bed

the

plane.
is

the

oblique

resultant

forces, namely
gravitational
principal component
towards
the
of the
centre
earth,
verticallyor radially
thrust
mainly due to subsidence.
Faults
of two
kinds, namely :
are

of

stress

and

two

acting
lateral

"

(a)
(b)

Normal
Reversed

faults.
overlap faults.

or

93
Digitized by

G00gle

94

MINING

In normal

GEOLOGY.

downthrow

faults the

is towards

the side to which

the fault hades.

Fio. 45."

In

the hade

Fig.45

towards

Normal

Fault.

of the fault and

downthrow

of the beds

are

the west.

In reversed

or

overlapfaults

the downthrow

is on

the

foot-wall

side of the fracture.

Fig. 46.

In the
on

above

"

Reversed

figure,the

hade

or

OverlapFault.

is to the

west, and

the

throw
down-

the foot-wrallside.

Fig. 48.

"

Sharp Foldingwithout

Fracture.

intimatelyconnected with sharp anticlinal

and synclinalfolding. The stresses introduced
by the bending
of beds are often relieved by faulting
and shearing.
Keversed

faults

are

96

GEOLOGY.

MINING

The

vertical line ab shows

miners
from

dotonthrow

the east

or

as
upthrow,according

or

called by
displacement
the fault is approached

west.

Fig. 52.

The

the vertical

"

Showing Displacements
by

line cb shows

disseverment which

the

amount

is sometimes

of

Strike Fault.

horizontal

displacementor

termed
erroneously

heave.

Fro. 53." Upper part, Plan of Beds traversed by Strike Fault.

Lower part,
Cross-section of Beds alongline AB, showingrepetition
of dislocated beds.
Digitized
by

DYNAMICS

THE

When

OF

LODES

AND

97

BEDS.

stratified rocks, the lines of bedding

displaces
afford a measure
of the vertical displacement
; but in the absence
marked
rock
of bedding-planes
or some
by a distinctive peculiarity
there is no certain means
of colour or composition,
of measurement.
A strike-faultcauses
lateral displacement
of the beds, which
no
it intersects ; but when
the beds are
it may produce a
inclined,
fault

of the dislocated beds, as shown

in fig.
53.
repetition
tion,
denudaIn regionswhich
have been subjectto long-continued
side

one

shown

fig.54.

in

Secondaryand

Fig. 54.

both

This

seam

is not

may

be

removed,
entirely
in the

uncommon

Tertiarycoal-measures

"

Section of Normal

seam

may
sides of the

65. "Section

Fig

faulted

hanging on

as

of young
flanks of

case

the

chains.

mountain

The

of

be

Fault,showing one
by denudation.

partlyremoved

fault,as indicated in

showing Seam

Bide of

seam

by denudation
55 and 56.
figs.

partlyremoved

on

One

Side

removed

on

one

or

alongline

of Fault.
or
fault possesses the same
dip and strike as a seam
it
mineral-vein,that is,when it conforms to the bedding-planes,
rocks
relation
of
the
on
disturbance in the
no
causes

When

apparent

each

side.

98

GEOLOGY.

MINING

The

only evidence
and
smooth,polished,

Fig.

56.

Section

"

of

the

existence

slicken-sided

showing Seam

such

of

surfaces

partlyremoved

on

the

Both

on

fault

is the

line of

Sides

move-

alongline

of Fault.

In

ment.

the

the

of
production

the movement

of

case
a

took

mineral

layerof
place.

vein,the faulting
may

friction breccia

on

Fig. 57." Section of Parallel Thrust

Such

fault is

more
merelya thrust-plane,

the side

result in
on

which

Plane.

often the result of

stress.
shearingthrust than vertical or tangential
A
fault
which
in the same
runs
Dip Faults.
generaldirection
bed
termed
is
the
of
or vein,
a dip-fault
as
dip a
strike-faults and dip-faults
The distinction beween
is not always
"

A fault may pursue any course

between
the strike
When
its course
is midway between
the dip
dip of a
strike of the bed, the fault may be termed
either a dip-fault

well marked.

bed.

and
and
a

or

strike-fault.

producean apparent
Dip-faults

lateral

of
displacement

the bed

vein,which

or

When

they cross.
the principal
movement
faultingtakes place,

is

vertical

when
the faulted vein is vertical there is no
Consequently,
lateral displacement
or
heave, as the dissevered ends merelyslide
one.

upon each other.

Evidences
of lateral thrust
among

Palaeozoic schists and

and

shearingare

but
gneiss,

are

sometimes

often
seen

observed
in fault-

THE

Thus

planes.

DYNAMICS

in

some

LODES

OF

the

cases

AND

99

BEDS.

dissevered ends

of

vein

are

towards each other,where theyabut againstthe fault.

the striae caused by
slicken-sided faces of great faults,

sharplybent
On
the

the

rubbingof

vertical

rock-surface

one

upon

the other

follow
generally

plane.

Fault

Fig. 58.

"

Upper part,Plan of Faulted Vein at, say, 100 feet level. Lower
alongetc,showing heave and vertical displacement.

part,Cross-section
The

apparent heave
the vein

dip of

the

or

lateral

vein to the

carryingthe

flatter the
When

dip,the

the

is producedby
displacement

vein

is

left ; and

rightor

greater will be
vertical,there

the

festly
mani-

the

placement
apparent dis-

can

be

no

heave

at all.

In

fig.58

the

distance

db

represents the

amount

of

vertical

100

MINING

GEOLOGY.

downthrow
or
displacement
; and
lateral displacement
heave.
or
When

The

lost.

drive

the

da

lost vein

the

cross-cut

the

ac

of

amount

fig.58, reached the fault,the vein was

found at pointc by cross-cutting
towards

in

was

the part of the vein struck at c was

not
obviously
the part corresponding
to that driven on along da (fig.
58).
In this example,the fault dips to the north; therefore,the

the

east ; but

downthrow

is

will strike
The

higherpart of

downthrow

is the

Sometimes

two

ab, and

upon alongda.
b will be found the

at

faults

on

run

angle. In other cases, it

of faults is intersected by another
group

problems become

Step Faults.
number

of

"

seam

the

"

same

a.

other,or

happens that
of

one

later date.

are
again faulted,many complicated
in the recovery of the lost portions.
bed
crossed by a
is sometimes
or

faults,running more

Fig. 59.

dippingin

seams

or

involved

at

with each
parallel

an

faulted veins

crosscut

the vein than that driven

distance

more

or

each other at

group
When

some

Hence, the

of the portionof the vein driven

continuation

cross

side of the fault.

the north

on

Cross-section

or

less

to
parallel

showing Group

direction ;

or

by

some

of

each

other,and

Step Faults.

dippingone

way

and

another.

Such

faults

they dislocate

Fig. 60."

are
a

seam

often

small, and

their effects best

seen

when

of coal.

Cross-section of

Trough

(a) Seam

Fault in

of coal.

Dudley Port Mine, Staffordshire,

(b) Basalt.

THE

DYNAMICS

Faults*

Trough

When

"

LODES

two

faults dip towards

parallel

example

is the

which
Staffordshire,

distance of 450

has

as

Inclined

Lodes.

fault.

the

vein

the

dips to

dippingtowards

cases

The

drivingon a vein dislocated by a

right or left hand, and the fault towards
I. When

Mine, in

Port

or

you

left,and

dip to
from

away

is cut

when

occur

may
vein may

off

the

you.
a

fault

by

ing
driv-

fault

by

lost vein will be found

you, the

well-

great 10-yardseam

Four

"

Lodes.

Lost

of

each

between

trough-fault

the

down
below.

thrown

feet,as shown

for

down

of Dudley
trough-fault

Recovery

Rules

AND

to be thrown

other, permittinga portionof strata

them, they form what is spoken of
known

101

BEDS.

OF

to the left.

II. When

III.

the vein

the

left,and

is cut

When

the

dips to

right,and

is cut

from you, the lost vein will be

to the left.

cross

does

fault may

cross

the

face of the

obliquely.The angle at which

of the
not affect the application

V.

When

horizontal

seam

drive

rules

faults and
or

the

ing
driv-

or
squarely,

fault

dippingtowards

higher level

the

lost

; but

will

seam

are

always true, except in

strike-faultswhich

run

the

with
parallel

of

case

reversed

the strike of the

seam.

method

1.

fault

rules.

is cut off by

Graphic
findingthe lost

Method.

Zimmerman's
follows

by a
found by

underfoot.

be found
These

off

it may
fault intersects the vein

you, its continuation will be found at

the fault dips away
from you,
when

vein

by

right.

the vein

dippingaway
The

off

ing
dippingaway from you, the lost vein will be found by drivto the right.
the vein dips to the rightand is cut off by a fault
When
ing
dippingtowards you, the lost vein will be found by drivto the

IV.

dips to

for

or

faulted

"

Zimmerman's

portionof

graphic
lode

is

as

:
"

upon paper the line of strike of the lode and

producingthe lines tillthey intersect.

Lay down

2. Determine

by

construction

the

point of

intersection

fault,
at

any

level.

3.

imaginary lower
the pointsof
Draw
a line joining
fault at the two

levels.

intersection of the lode and

102

MINING

4. Produce

GEOLOGY.

the

line of intersection

line

to
perpendicular

through the

fault at upper

level.
5. Draw

the

fault at

the

pointwhere

the line of intersection emerges

from the fault.
On whatever side of the line of intersection
Rule.
"

the

faults and

beds

be

can

of the throw

Applicationof
north

on

of reversed

strike-faults.

Unless
extent

produced

be found.

that side will the lost lode

falls,
on
perpendicular
Zimmerman's
law is always true, except in the case

lode

Example

fault is met

fault

an

an

In

dips south at
angle of 60*.

side of the

fault,the

be determined.

cannot

Rule.

each

on
recognised

with

Suppose that
the
which displaces
1.
"

angle of 45", and

which

the

direction should

lode
the

in

driving

lode.

The

dips west at
lost portions

of the lode be found ?

Fig. 61."

Procure

Sketch

Plan to illustrate Example I.

sheet of paper and plot the

the lode and fault,
showing the direction of
Let the
in

lode and

fault be shown

by

of
approximateposition
dipof each with an arrow.

firm,black

line,as

shown

fig.61.

the lode and fault would occupy at a lower

position
them by a thin line. Produce
depth,say, at 100 feet,representing
at a lower
the lines till they meet.
The approximatepositions
that
if the lode
level can be plotted
for it is evident
by inspection,
dippingat 60 deg.travels out, say \ inch in 100 feet,the lode
dippingat the flatter angleof 45 deg.will dip much faster,and
hence travel relatively
further out.
The exact departure
distance the lode and fault will travel
or
the cotangentof the
be found by multiplying
out in 100 feet can
angleof dip by 100.
Plot

the

Draw

line

through

the

and
pointsof intersection,

erect

per-

104

MINING

north instead of south,at the

below.
as shown

Example

5.

GEOLOGY.

angle,the diagramwould

same

Supposein drivingnorth-west

"

on

lode

be

dipping

Fig. 64." To illustrateExample 4.

south-west at
E. and
would

W., and

an

angleof 60", a
dippingnorth at

Fig. 65." To illustrateExample 5.

fault
an

were

met

with

angle of 75",on

running

which

side

the lost lode be found ?

Fig. 66."

To illustrateExample 6.

Example 6." Supposein drivingeast on a lode dippingsouth

at an
with running N.E.-S.W.,
met
angle of 35", a fault were
and
S.E.
at
an
angle of 60", where should the lost
dipping
of
portion

the lode be found ?

Digitized
by

CHAPTER

DEPOSITS

ORE
Contents

GENETICALLY

formed

Nickel

"

by

Alkaline

Deposits

and,

occurrence,

determined
their

as

by

to

It

the

"

Regional

They

are

members

as

that

of

mode

their

composition and
prevailing at

their

conditions

geological

and

known

now

extent,

some

Ascending

of

Deposits

composition.

masses,

is

Ores

"

"

and

form

detached

formation.

sedimentary

Waters

Metals

Action

"

Metamorphic
Organic.

in

Chromite

"

Platinum

"

Solfataric

"

Meteoric

"

Segregation

Copper

Contact

"

diverse

of

veins,

true

Magraatic

"

Native

"

Fumarolic

are

CONSIDERED.

After-actions

Eruptive

Ore-deposits
as

lion

Waters"

Metamorphic

found

Classification

Genetic*

:"

Peridotite

V.

of

form,
the

were

time

of

formation.

In

the

of

the

facilities

for

The
and

genesis

naturally

of

vast

and

observation

with

literature

the

of

the

to

where

afforded

has

mining

the

research.

ore-deposits presents

the

added

been

America,

in

connected

operations

has

of facts

mass

subject, particularly

the

of

magnitude
great

decade,

past

literature

difficult

many

is rich

subject

problems,
theoretical

in

deductions.
The
and

introduction

of

demonstration

the
and

of

secondary

this
but

are

of

crust

still
We

the

of
in

the

understand

the

of

occurrence

incident

in

shell

Recent

the

of

investigation,

of

metasomatic

marked

have

conception
remember

must

we

the

same

the

present
natural
of

edge
past,

is

that

The

past.

ore-deposits
tectonic

of

ment
replaceof

point

new

formation

of

ore-

existed.

its

governed by the
are
living on

rightly

outer

earth

principles

truer

investigation
reflection

the

enrichment,

led
to
departure, and
deposits than formerly
In

methods

petrographical

agencies

form

are

existing
that

still in

conditions

built

the

up

operation,

and

laws.
a

we

geologic epoch,

study

must

merely

arrangement

of

the

geologic

the

and

if

we

would
The

present.

happening

materials

forming

"

an

the

of the

globe.
petrographical investigation
105

has

shown

that

ore-deposits

106

alwaysmore

are

GEOLOGY.

MINING

This constant

association

leads
naturally

That

geneticclassificationwhich

to most

seems

to mineral
present knowledgerelating

I.

to the

Classification.

Genetic
The

igneous rocks.
broad generalisation
with the eruption

connected
genetically

are
ore-deposits
of igneousmagmas.
"

with

less intimately
connected

or

our
nearly satisfy

is
deposits

follows

as

"

Magmaticsegregation.
Eruptiveafter-actions
(a) Solfataric.

II.

"

lb)Fumarolic.
(c)Contact melamorphic.
(d)Regionalmetamorphic.
III. Meteoric

waters

"

(a)Chemical.
(b)Mechanical.
IV.

Organic.
I.
"

It has

been

shown

Magmatic

by

Segregation.

Professor

Sandbcrger and others,that

igneousrocks contain all the constituents

of mineral

veins.

Vogt, of Christiania,maintains that a deep-seated

inaccessible repositoryof the heavy metals can
no
longer be
abandoned
Modern
he
have
sustained.1
geologists, points out,
which supposed
the old conception
of the earth's interior condition,
that the interior was
an
enormouslycompressedliquidmolten
of highspecific
mass
gravitychargedwith heavy metals.
Professor

that have issued at the

magmas
surface in successive geological
thesis
ages, does not favour any hypoof the
which assumes
the existence of a greaterproportion
lithocrust
metals
the
than
in
the
in
or
heavy
barysphere
upper
The

compositionof

the molten

sphere.
Keferringto

the

distribution of the

elements

in the

earth's

crust,Vogt states that of the entire crust,includingthe rocks,sea

and
and atmosphere,
oxygen constitutes by weight about one-half,
silicon above one -quarter.2
1

Professor

Loc. cit.t
p. 639.

"

Problems
Genesis of Ore Deposits,
1901, p. 637.
J. H.

L.

Vogt,

in the

Originof

Digitized
by

Ore

Deposits,"

DEPOSITS

ORE

The

GENETICALLY

the other elements

of
proportions

107

CONSIDERED.

are, he says,

as

follows

"

Per cent.

Aluminium,

iron, calcium, magnesium,

sodium,and

potassium,

Hydrogen,titanium,carbon,and chlorine,
barium,
Phosphorus,manganese, sulphur,
fluorine,nitrogen, zirconium, and
strontium,
Nickel, lithium,vanadium, bromine, and
perhapsberylliumand boron,
Cobalt, argon, iodine, rubidium, tin,
arsenic and
cerium, yttrium,
possibly
others,
....

....

the
deficient in acid-forming
constituents,
heavy metals will segregateas oxides duringthe process of cooling,
assuming the form of individual crystals,
grains,or irregular
In

igneous magmas

aggregates in small and great masses.

researches of Vogt and Brbgger disclosed in
petrographical
basic dykes a tendencyof the heavy minerals to segregate near
The occurrence
of massive mineral-aggregates
the borders.
near
and
borders
characteristic
of peridotites
their
is a marked
serpentinesin all parts of the globe.
mineral
For physico-chemical
segregationsare more
reasons,
The

in basic and

common

The

ultra-basic rocks than

in acid rocks.

are
typical
examplesof magmatic border-segregation
At
the
and
forms.
its
found
serpentinised
peridotite
present
but
differentiation
laws
are
imperfectly
governing magmatic
is
molecular
flow
ascribed
to
understood.
segregation
By some,
and
Becker
due to differences of temperature in the magma
; by
Spurr to convection currents which they believe would tend to

most

in

such
carry the first crop of minerals,
the borders of the igneousmagmas.

as

etc.,to
magnetite,olivine,

segregation
may be accelerated
The
in the cooling magma.
due to unequal osmotic
pressure
would
be less
temperature at the borders of the igneous mass
than
in the central portion,thereby causing a corresponding
The

difference
holds

writer

of

good

transference

believes that border

And
since osmotic
pressure
pressure.
there would be a
laws of thermodynamics,

osmotic

for the
of

osmotic

stress

from

the

central

portionto

the

borders.
The
1

J.

Trans.

ores

that

Park, "The
N.Z.

occur

as

primaryconstituents

Cause of Border

1905.
Inst.,vol. xxxviii.,

in
Segregation

of intrusive

Some

rocks,

IgneousMagmas/'

108

MINING

resultingfrom
follows

GEOLOGY.

direct differentiationin the

coolingmagma,

are

as

"

and serpentine.
(a) Chromite in peridotite
(b)Copperand nickel-iron in serpentine.
(c)Platinum metals in highlybasic eruptives.
(d)Magnetiteand titanite in basic and semi-basic eruptives.

in Peridotite. In the
Chromite
Zealand, there are two mountain
masses
the

magmatic

of
segregation

Island

South

"

in which
peridotite,

of

is exhibited

chromite

New

of

on

large

scale.
A

the

few miles from

height of

over

4000

cityof Nelson,

feet above

Dun

Mountain

sea-level.

It

covers

rises to

area

of

an

about

4 square miles,and is composedof massive olivine,

in which
chromite
of iron is uniformlydisseminated in the form of fine

but occasionally
occurs
grains,
The

adjacentrocks

are

Between

Hochstetter

largemasses.1

slatyshales and

Jurassic age, the limestone

formation.

in

at the base of
occurring

and

limestone

the

the distinctive name

gave
half
a mile wide.
serpentine
The

limestones
the

of

probably
sedimentary
which

olivine,to

dunite,there is

chromite,

of

masses
serpentinecontains lenticular-shaped

belt of

with the
native copper, and copper ores, principally
chalcopyrite,
usual productsof oxidation.
It also contains thin irregular
veins

and chrysobronzite,enstatite,
wollastonite,
diallage,
scapolite,

of

tile.
The
The

second

situated 20
6000

feet

The

olivine,near
so

ore.

an

of about

area

10 square
chromite.

greaterproportionthan at Dun

age.
the

serpentine

these rocks.

is composedof olivine and

supposedPalaeozoic
often

covers

separate it from

The

olivine and

the

of Milford

is flanked
peridotite

which

and

in

Ked
forms
Mountain,
peridotite
in
Sound,
Otago.3 It is over

of

mass

north

high,and

mountain

The

great

miles

in much

occurs

chromite

along the margin or boundaryof

occur

of

of

largermasses

two

on

the

sides

by

with

latter

belts of

serpentine,

sandstones

of

sedimentaryrocks, is

the

highlychargedwith chromite as
No deposits
of chromite are known

The

Mountain.

adjacentslates and

contact

miles.

to form

in the

massive

bodies

but
serpentine,

S. H.

Cox, "Chrome
Depositsof Nelson,"New Zealand Qeol. Reports
Explorations,
1881, p. 8.
Dr F. Von Hochstetter,
xvi. p. 341,
ZeUschriftder deutscJien geol.Gesells.,

1864.
8

J. Park, New

Zealand

GeologicalReports and

Explorations,1886-87,

p. 121.
Digitized
by

DEPOSITS

ORB

they

GENETICALLY

the

possiblyexist,as

may

Nickel

Iron.

sands

The

"

Mountain

109

CONSIDERED.

explored.
uncountry is still practically

in the streams

yieldsmall

drain the Ked

which

nickelarea
rare
serpentine
iron alloy,
Awaruite, discovered by W. Skey in 1885.1 It has
been found,in situ,in the serpentine.2
A nickel-iron alloy,
the same
as or related to Awaruite, has been
found
sands at the River
in gold-bearing
Biella,Piedmont,
associated with chromite
in serpenseparatedfrom peridotite;8
tine
4
associated
with
in
in Josephine
sandstone,
County,Oregon ;

chromite, in Fraser River, British

River, Del Norte County,California.
Native
the

Copper.

serpentinesat

Native

Wales,

Columbia

association of copper and

has alreadybeen
Mountain

Dun

in

in
serpentine

Cornwall,

of native copper, associated with

diabase at Lake Superior.
amygdaloidal

In
found

in

mentioned.
New

South
found

are
silver,

S. H. Cox

disseminated
grainsof native copper, finely
The
dykes are intruded in
igneous matrix.6

small

to contain

throughout

the

volcanic breccias of

Platinum

probablylater

Metals.

in the

matrix

rocks.

In

basic

flanks

of

the

An
the

olivine rock

found

in

few

Kaiva

rivers,on

the

western

seminated
containingdisolivine-gabbro,
platinum,but not apparentlyin payable
consists

of

discovered

was

side

western

age.
onlybeen

Ural

Urals,

grains of
quantities.

has

in basic or ultrasitu,and in most cases

it
as
occurs
Mountains,
grains in

in
the

Miocene

Platinum

"

and serpentine.
peridotite
The bed-rock
of the Vyzaj and

on

chromite

a
district,
discovered,in the Manukau
their
of dykes of andesite,which, near
borders, were

1879, Prof.

number

cases

in Smith

parts of the world.

other

Large masses
in

and

The

"

is found

copper
and many

of the
quantities

of

the

in

1893,

at

Goroblage-datsk,

Urals, containing chromite

and

the latter at the rate of 14 dwt. 9 gr. to the ton of rock.

platinum,
the occurrence
of platinum in a
in 1902, reported
Carmichael,7

dark
fine-grained
1

basaltic rock.

Skey, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,vol. xxiii.,

p. 401, 1885.
G. H. Ulrich," On the Discovery,
Mode of Occurrence,and Distribution
of the Nickel-iron Alloy Awaruite
the West
Coast of the South Island of
on
London.
New
Zealand," Quart. Jour. Geo. Soc.
W.

ComptesRondus,

Am.

5
6

Journ. 8c

cxii. p. 171.
[4],xix. p. 319, 1905.

Loc. cU.t p. 819.

S. H. Cox, " Geology of

1879-80,p. 27.
Eng. and Min. Jour.,New

Cape Rodney," N.Z.

Oeol.

York, Feb. 12, 1902.

tions,
Reports and Explora-

110

MINING

GEOLOGY.

at
Pond, in 1886, discovered native platinumin serpentine
and
in
vein
a great
Wade, near Auckland,
traversingpropylitised

I. A.

goldfield.
of platinumin
discovery

andesite at the Thames

the

Since

Sudbury,

at

ore

presence of the metal

throughoutthe world.

in minute
But

beds
in sulphide

occurs

the result of direct

II.
"

or

nickel-copper
sulphide
disclosed
has
the
analysis
quantityin many sulphideores

this,and

all cases, where platinum

is probablynot

veins,its occurrence

magmatic segregation.

Orbs

Eruptive

by

formed

that the whole

It is manifest

at the movement

commence

in

in

the

careful

Canada,

in

are

series of

after-actions
eruptive

of intrusion of the magma,

become
cooled.
completely

until the rocks have

Igneous magmas

After-actions.

now

admitted

the

fusion of magmas
dry heat

that is,the result of

is, fusion

in

the

is not

constituents
believed to be

alone,but

temperature

shown
of

by experimentthat

3000"

F. to

tinue
con-

hydrous

pyrogenetic,

that
hydato-pyrogenetic,
water.
Accordingto
liquid.

of

by heat,
presence
more
Arrhenius,1water renders the magma
It has been

of

will

contain

to
by penologists

less water
more
or
togetherwith many
character.
or gaseous
Hence

and

which

magmas

requirea
be

produce dry fusion,can

fused

of water
at 500" F.
Further, it has been
presence
shown that the presence of water aids in givinga magma
fluidity.
able to fuse glassat 200" C. in the presence of water.
Barus 2 was
in the

Accordingto Arrhenius,water, in a magma, acts the part of an

free silicicacid and free bases.
acid,liberating
The
at high temperature is very
activityof water
great.
8 has
shown that water, heated above 185 deg.C, attacks
Barus
the silicates composing soft glass
with remarkable
rapidity
; and
that
has
Lemberg
proved,experimentally, water, at a temperature
C, slowlydissolves anhydrouspowderedsilicates.
will be
It is probablethat, at great depths,the pressure

of 210"

in the form of a
sufficient to hold the water
condition.4
At high temperatures,both
possess
1

Svante

in
liquid,
water

and

heated
supersteam

mineral substances.
great capacityfor dissolving

Arrhenius, "Zur

Physik des Vulkanismus,"

Geol. Foren.

Fork.

Stockholm,1900.
2

Jour. Sci.,vi. p. 270, 1898.

C. Barus, Am.
C. Barus, " Hot Water and Soft Glass in their Thermodynamic Relations."
Jour. Sci. IV., vol. ix.,1900, p. 161.
Am.
4 C. R. Van
the Deposition
of Ores,"
Hise, " Some Principles
controlling
Institute of Mining Engineers,vol. xxx.
Trans. American
27.
p.
3

Digitized
by

112

MINING

thick

hot

the

Where

GEOLOGY.

springs overflow

mushroom-shaped mounds

the surface,they form

silica. The silica is sometimes

on

of

porous, and often dense,hard,and

In all cases, the hot springsand geysers are
soft and

the volcanic vents, and

emission.
In
end

along

fissures in lavas

grouped around
the

near

point of

Hauraki

the

gold-miningarea, which adjoinsthe northern

volcanic region,the country-rocks
consist of a vast

of this

andesitic lavas,tuffs,and

pileof

chalcedonic.

slatyshales

breccias of Miocene

resting

age,

and

greywackeof probablyTriassic age.

The gold-bearing
both the andesites and tuffs,
veins traverse
but are
onlyproductivein the former.
They are fissure-veins ;
but, strictly
they do not conform to the usuallyaccepted
speaking,
definition of a true fissure-vein,
since they are
confined
generally
on

to the

igneousrock-formation.
the borders of the

Near

and

die out
generally

rock.

basement

veins

On

are

small

are

they reach

the

and

important,
un-

underlying

hand, the larger and

other

more
ductive
proold vents, and have been
have followed them.
operations

the

deep as mining
no
reason
why they should

as

be

to

seems

the

when

grouped around

found to descend
There

andesites,the veins

descend

not

to

great depths.
the walls of the veins,is propylitised
to a
on
country-rock,
hard
rock.
When
two
veins
or more
run
moderately
parallel
gray
with each other, as they do in all the Hauraki
mining centres,
between
the veins is often entirely
the country-rock
altered,or
propylitised.
The

In

veins
parallel

which

yards,and

in almost

each other

by

hard

bands

or

generalstrike

distance

the
district,

Thames

the

narrow

traverse

the

seldom
goldfield

numerous

exceeds

200

from
separated
every instance the veins are
belt of hard unaltered
andesite. These

bars,as
and

the

between

the

dip as

miners

them, possess the same

the veins,and in cross-section present
term

the appearance of lenticular and hourglass-shaped

masses.
30
in
few
feet
width.
from
to
a
yards
vary

They

has been found to be propylitised

down to a
country-rock
which
is the greatest
depth of nearly1000 feet below sea-level,
depth reached by mining operationsup to the present time.
The
of the andesites is not widespread,
but
propylitisation
the
old
confined
around
to small areas
volcanic
vents.
grouped
The

Away
surface
The
waters

matter.

from

the

eruptive centres,

the

andesites

have

but are not propylitised.

decomposition,
was
propylitisation
apparentlyeffected by

circulatingin
From

fissures which

these fissures the

are

now

hot

suffered
mineral

filled with

mineralised waters

acted

veinon

the

DEPOSITS

ORE

rock

wall ; and where

the fissures were
metasomatic
agencies,operatingfrom one

coming

the

from

meet,

narrow,

Where

the vein-fissures.

the veins
surroundingdistricts,

distance

majorityis under

5000

Besides the veins

largerlodes

of the

16,000

of

feet,but

principally

are

quartz,possessingall the

origin. Some

the surface for

the

left between

were

"

composedof chalcedonic
of solfataric

those

met
fissure,

"

and

Waihi,

each other,

near

processes of alteration did

sheet-like masses
of unaltered rock
irregular,

other.

the bars of the miners

At

113

CONSIDERED.

each

on

the
not

GENETICALLY

characteristics
traced

be

can

the

on

length of the

feet.

having linear extension,there

huge
of chalcedonic quartz,closely
resembling
mushroom-shapedmasses
volcanic
in
the
in form the siliceous deposits
now
forming
regions
around Rotorua and Lake Taupo.
At

and

Kuaotunu

Barrier Island there

Great

in
mushroom-shapeddeposits,

others,thousands
circular in
At

of

shape,and

Great

character.1

Barrier
It

is

some

are

are

many

of these

many

covering hundreds,

cases

At

acres.

Kuaotunu
they are more
exceed 20 feet in thickness.

seldom

Island,the largestdepositis
miles

nearly2

long,half

50 to 700 feet thick.

filledwith
The pipe is completely

of

an

mile

or

in

less

unusual

wide, and

from

intersected in four

mines, in

by levels for many

feet in width, and

hundreds

quartz, in which
The

evidence

The

of

yards.

It has been

matter.

mile, and

opened

It varies from

12

to

up
40

chalcedonic
very dense banded
silver sulphides
tributed.
are
sparinglydis-

is filled with
iron

and

furnished

overlyingmushroom
surface from

mineral

distance of

or

thermal

by

the

umbrella

waters

mine
of

workings impliesthat

quartz was

issuingfrom

at Jeffs
molybdenitedeposits,

on
deposited

the
the

fissure in the andesite.

Camp,

in the

Hodgkinson

as
Queensland, are described by W. E. Cameron2
roughly circular,or oval-shaped
outcrops of quartz, or blows,

in
goldfield,

carryingwolfram
The

'

and

blows, when

native bismuth.
followed down,

developinto irregularpipe-

shaped masses, surrounded on all sides by granite,which is the

the quartz is extracted,there remain
country-rock.When
only
vents.
empty pipesor
These
ore-bodies possess a peculiarinterest from a
pipe-like
resemble the siliceous
geneticstandpoint.They appear to closely
pipes formed in rhyoliteby the hot springsin the Rotorua
1

N.Z.
2

Geology and Veins of Hauraki Goldfields,"Trans.

Mining Engineers,vol. i. p. 137, 1897.
and MolybdeniteMining in QueensWalter E. Cameron, " Wolfram
land,"
Queensland Qeol. Survey Report,No. 188, p. 7, Brisbane,1904.

J. Park, "The
Institute

114

GEOLOGY.

MINING

region, and

volcanic

the

mushroom-shaped quartz-blowsat

Kuaotunu.
Several

of the

of chalcedonic quartz at Waihi

deposits
of the andesite
Kutley to be replacements

massive

by Frank
country-rock.1
A
similar replacementof

andesite

Monte

Cristo

stated

are

Spurr
He

occurringat

as

that the silicificationhas

mentions

rock is made

up of

by

silica is described

in
district,

by
Washington.2

proceededuntil

of the

most

to
quartz,which, he says, varies from coarsely

in structure, and contains sulphides,

chiefly
crystalline
finely
and
lenses
in
concentrated
of
blende, pyrites,
ore
chalcopyrite
and
contacts.
bedding-planes,
alongjoint-planes,
tion
Spurr continues, Thus we have a completeand gradualtransifrom andesite to a sulphide
by the
ore, with a quartz gangue,
the
materials
silica
and
of
original
progressivereplacement
by
metallic sulphides."
very

"

In 1894

and

andesites

of the Hauraki
The
The

analyseswere
ranging from two

leached with

was

potassiumcyanidefor
The

five

and
litharge,

pure
Simultaneous

tests

were

All the andesites

were

the

pounds

selected

cyanide test, on

in

weight.

0*3 per cent, aqueous

The

in situ.

samples

pulverised

solution of pure

seventy-two hours.

cyanide solutions

with

by

examination

silver.

examination, were

conducted
to

exhaustive

an

goldand

for

samples,subjectedto

material

made

1896, the author

and
the

made

fluxed
washings were
evaporated,
resultingbutton of lead cupelled.
on

pure

substances,so

to

as

check

the results.
found

the rate of 1 J gr.

per ton, and silver varyingfrom 3 gr. to 30 gr. per ton of rock.
The
the mouth
feet from
at 3000
of the
augite-andesite,
to contain

goldat

tunnel,contained 1 J gr. of gold and 3 gr. of silver to

the ton ; and the hypersthene-augite-andesite,
from the waterfall,
the Fame
and Fortune
in Waiotahi
Creek, near
mine, contained
Moanataiari

1 " gr. of gold,and 30 gr. of silver.3

A penological
examination
of the rocks showed
were

The
and

and
kaolinised,

often

sampleswere
in

no

that the

case

did

the pyroxenes
much
generally
selected from the least altered rocks

they contain

visible

felspars
altered.4

obtained,

pyrites.

J. Park and F. Rutley," Notes on Rhyolites

of the Hauraki
Goldfields,"
Journal
1899.
Geol.
Quart.
Soc.,London, lv.,
2 J.
E. Spurr,U.S. Oeol. Survey Twenty-Second Annual
Report,"1900-1 ;
1

Part II. "Ore

3

Deposits,"
p. 833.
Geology And

J. Park, "The

Veins

Zealand
Inst. M.E., 1897, p. 52.
4
Andesites
J. Park, "Some
from
v
ol.
Zealand
Institute,
xxxiv.,p. 435.

"

of Hauraki

Goldfields,Trans.

New

Thames

Trans.
Goldfields,"

New

the

DEPOSITS

ORE

The

evidence

primary
the

is not

is inclined
and

quantityof

gold
for by the

accounted
At

Te

Aroha,

conclusive

the

silver

of the

gold may
Percy Morgan1 that

source

with
the

gold and

the

is too

veins

to

great

in
existing

the

country-rock.

boundary of

the

great Central

traces

near

the

to agree
silver in

115

CONSIDERED.

that

Whatever

constituents.

author

GENETICALLY

are

be
the
be

Volcanic

hot springs; 20 miles distant,

Region,there are, in the andesites,
and
the
at
Thames, 10 miles further north,
springs;
volumes
of carbon dioxide.
which dischargeenormous
gas-springs,

soda-water

In the mines

in the north

end

the C02 issues with

field,

of the

great force from cracks and fissures in the rocks.

and
The mine-shafts are situated near
the foreshore,

depthsvaryingfrom
weather

muggy
in the

mines,

feet to 900 feet below

500

and

sea-level.

In

closd,

with a low barometer, the gas rises

in summer,
and
floodingall the workings,drives the miners

the gas
overflows at the surface.

before it.

descend to

Sometimes

to the collar of the

rises up

shafts,

specialprecautionsemployed to effect
and to warn
several fatal accidents
the men
of danger,
ventilation,
have taken placein the past thirty
years.
In the Big Pump Shaft,the C02 escapes with such force as to
Notwithstanding the

violent

cause

The

boilingall

depth of

the shaft

the surface of the water

over

is 640

feet,but

the

in the well.

workings are

flooded

of which the gas escapes

to the 500 feet level,in consequence
head
of
150
to
feet,equal a pressure of 65 lb. per square
againsta
inch.
up

The

has been

pump
quarter of
The
in

the

500

feet level is caused

water

at

which

is not dissolved

At

of

rate

750

so highlycharged with gas

the pumps.
The commotion

working

The

the

century, at

is

water

Hauraki

veins

as

gallons per
to
at

by

the

often
the

cause

surface

escape

over

minute.
trouble
of

the

of the gas

the water.

by

of
manifestly

are

Waihi, Kuaotunu,

this shaft for

from

raisingwater

and

Great

solfataric

Barrier

origin.
Island,there are huge

veins of

quartz,mostlychalcedonic,many of which are stillcapped

with wide, mushroom-shaped quartz blows."
In many
the
cases
mushrooms
been
of quartz have
removed
partlyor entirely
by
"

denudation.
The
when

presence of timber
the vein-fissure was

point of

its

course

with

in mineral

veins

open channel
the surface,as

an

pointto a time
communicating at some
hot springs do at the
seems

to

present day.

Posepny
1

mentions

the

remarkable

occurrence

of

tree-stems

Percy Morgan, "Notes on the Geology,Quartz Reef, and Minerals

Trans. Austral. Inst. M.E., vol. viii.p. 164, 1902.
Goldfield,"

Waihi

of

116

the

chargedto galenafrom
these

In

the

fibre and

R. D'Audremont

Mr

carbonised

be

easilyrecognised,

surfaces.1
polished

deciduous

volcanic tuff at

piece of

found

plant,was

depth of 915

that

Bdgique)states

la Soc. Geol.

Joachimsthal, in Bohemia,

at

wood, from

filled with

rings could

de
(Bull,

mine
pitchblende

mine, Freihung,in Bavaria.

Vesuvian

annular

being extremelyplainon
in

GEOLOGY.

MINING

in

fissure

feet.

andesites,
gold-bearing
wood, partlyor whollysilicifiedand spangledwith nests

In the tuffs associated with the Hauraki

of

masses

and

veins of iron
Martha

The

lode, and

its

Silverton,Union, and

the

in

that

andesite,prove

time

activitysome
flows,which
Silverton

and

ramifying branches, and

numerous

tained
lodes,at Waihi, are all conmile.
The huge lodes,wide

square
and extensive

of the
propylitisation
area
was
an
hydrothermal
the
the
later
of
to
rhyolite
eruption
prior
Waihi

form

now

occurrence.

silicified andesite

of

zones

common

Amaranth

of about

area

an

of

are
pyrites,

of intense

the

and
plains,

around

wrap

the

Martha

veins.

has already
been shown by the Waihi mine
propylitisation
workings to extend to a depth of nearly800 feet below present
The

that is,some
water-level,
alteration of the andesite
thermal

moving
laterally
At Thames
do

and

reach

not

workings at
with

the

on

paper

"

The

of
of

were

the

of Ore

of the association

rocks.4

He

states that

Professor Franz

P.

the

C.

Company'sproperty.2

"Waihi

"Notes

"

on
Morgan,
Trans,
Goldfield,"

result of

the

who
geologist,

discussingProfessor

describes
Deposits,"

examined

Posepny's

the characteristic

adducing additional
springsand later eruptive

the view

of thermal

his examination

Posepny,

mine

feature in connection

of

of the

led him
vein-structure,
though incomplete,
1

the

Thames

American

with
district,

evidence

and

cluded
conmining district,
hydrothermalorigin.8

well-known

Genesis

features of the

similar

Hutton, F.R.S., as

W.

in 1891, when
goldfield

same

the
Obviously,
ascendingand

veins
productive

enclosingrock;

the

veins in the Waihi

that the veins

the

of the most

disclosed

have

examination
petrographical

Rickard, a

the action of

to

some

of

surface

Waihi

sea-level.

waters.

1898, CaptainF.

T. A.

due

was

Coromandel

few valuable

In

feet below

400

to

and

ore-occurrences

conclude

that

The Genesis of Ore Deposits,"

p. 129, 1901.
the Geology,Quartz Reefs, and Minerals

Austr.

Institute

of Mining

the

of

Engineers,vol.

viii. p. 168, 1902.

8
of the Hauraki
the Rocks
F. W.
Goldfield,"Trans.
Hutton, "On
"Source
of Gold at the
and
A asl. Assoc. Adv.
viii.
Sc, vol.
p. 245, 1888;
vol.
Journal
i.
146.
Thames," N.Z.
of Science,
p.
4 T.
A. Rickard,The
Genesis of Ore
York,
Deposits Discussion,New
"

1901, p. 222.

ORE

which
country-rock,

lines of altered

certain

its associated minerals

gold and

the

of
deposition

117

CONSIDERED.

GENETICALLY

DEPOSITS

had

had

been

followed

exposedto

dying but lingeringsolfataric agencies.

north of the
Hot
Springs quicksilver
deposits,
of the
Hauraki
of great importance,on account
are
peninsula,
evidence
which
they furnish in connection with the genesisof
solfataric ore-deposits.
the effects of
The

Ohaeawai

The

basement

sandstones

rocks

overlain

of

consist

lower

and

shales

Mesozoic

lower

by greensandsof

Tertiary or upper
basalt and beds
which
covered
with
flows
of
are
age,
that the basalt constitutes
of scoriae. It is agreedby all geologists

Cretaceous

youngest rock-formation in the district.

The surroundingcountry is studded with old

the
is

everywhereevidence
The

springs,around

hot

situated

clustered,are
which

Omapere,

They

itself

which

sulphurand
There
some

are

cinnabar
also

an

and

lain
over-

siliceous sinter

muds, through which

disseminated.
finely

are

of pyriteswith
deposits

sinters also contain

old crater.

basalt,which is

calcareous

carbonaceous

of

containingtraces

cases

Lake

of

south-east

site of
flow of

of
point by deposits

solidified siliceous and

and

miles

two

of

activity.
quicksilver
depositsare

the

occupiesthe
edge

there

intense volcanic

about

along the

occur

this

at

of former

; and

craters

goldand

without

or

both

gold

and

cinnabar,in
silver.1

The

silver.

springsis generally
ground
very hot ; and all
depositshave been frustrated
attempts to developthe quicksilver
at shallow depths
by the largevolumes of hot water encountered
The

below

the surface.
district has

The

Sir James

Hutton,
best

the

around

Hector, A.

is
description

extensive

examined

been
that

prospectingand

M'Kay,

Andre

of

different times

at

and

by Captain

author

the

there
mining operations

the

conducted

who
Griffiths,

P.

; but

in 1895

and

1898.
The

mining operationsand borings disclosed

details,which could not be gatheredfrom a
The

iron

varies

from

in

pyritesoccurs

cracks and

masses

fissures in that rock.

3 inches

to

the

near

The

feet,but

many
surface

tion.
examina-

ing
basalt,and also fill-

thickness

their

important

other

of the

masses

dimensions

are

extremelyirregular.
Close

to

sinter, from
contain

the
8

gold and

pyriticmasses
to

10

inches

silver in

there

thick,

places. One

is

which

hard, white
Griffiths

siliceous
found

to

assay of the sinter gave

1 Andre
"The
P. Griffiths,
Ohaeawai
QuicksilverDeposits,"Trans.
Zealand Institute Mining Eng.tvol. ii. p. 4S.

Nexo

118

MINING

GEOLOGY.

value of "3

the
per ton, but unfortunately
silver are not given.1

goldand
The

cinnabar

in the
in the

proportionsof

the

liningsmall cavities and cracks

solidifiedmuds and sinters surroundingthe original
fissures
basalt. It also occurs
tremely
impregnating the sinter in an exoccurs
generally

divided form.
finely
Sulphuroccurs throughoutthe sinter in largerproportionthan
either the cinnabar or pyrites.
The hot springsgive off largequantities
of H2S, and occasionally
little steam.
The gas escapingthrough the water of the
a
and
small
oxidised liberating
is partially
streams
pools
sulphur,
which
the
white
colour
known
to
imparts a milky
pools,locally
white

as

The

lakes.

beaches

mixed

with

the

of

magnetic

lakes

so-called white

ironsand,and

small

consist of

also

being sublimed, at the vents

rocks,from which H2S and S02 gases escape.
The prospecting
work
conducted
by Griffiths
features.
interesting
A depositof cinnabar and pyritescrops out at
to the south-west
of the main
hills,
deposits.A
near
it,and cut the lode at a depth of 35 feet.
Sulphur is

feet

consisted

thick,and

cinnabar.

At

this

of small
there

depth

was

that

mining was extremelydifficult.

noteworthy,as showing the

the rocks

increased

so

It is

that
trunk

of

trunk

and

roots

also

as

of the

were

tree

sunk

was

The

ore

found

was

in hard

was

of
the

by

H2S,
depth

of the cinnabar,
the charred

siliceous mud.

coated with

were

evolution

piecesof fossil kauri

some

some

foot of the

shaft

formation

recent

embedded
tree,partially

the

rapidlywith

outcrop of this lode

the

near

strong

the

of

disclosed

of pyritescemented
crystals

and

heat

sulphur,

proportionof alum.
or
openings in the

The

thin

film of cinnabar,

gum

found

near

the roots.
In

rock at

small trench
a

depth of

sunk

over

10 feet

was

fumarole,the temperature of the

found

to be 185" Fahr.

was
bore-hole,cased with
put down to a
piping,
depth of 104 feet,where it encountered the edge of the basalt.
At the same
from which
hot mud
time it struck a fissure,
was

No.

3-inch

a heightof
projected

60

feet above

the

surface

for about

forty-

eighthours.
The

mud

gas, which
inch.

was
was

succeeded
found

to

issue at

Griffiths further mentions

were

found

in close
1

by boilingwater, charged
pressure

that the richest

proximityto

Andre

the hottest

with

H2S

of 30 lb. per square

of
deposits

cinnabar

fumaroles,and that

P. Griffiths,
loc.cit.t
p. 50.

120
Baron
a

GEOLOGY.

MINING

Rlchthofen,1who examined
abnormal
no
temperature was

von

time when

lode, at

Comstock

the

ascribed the
noticeable,

originof the lode to earlier solfataric action.

furnish
mines at Sulphur Bank, in California,
quicksilver
importantevidence in relation to the genesisof ore-deposits.
The
At

slate and

this

rocks are
place the basement
freshwater
formation,which
by a
basalt.
flow
The
of
a
geologicfeatures are
those existing
at Ohaeawai.
overlain

The

sandstones

way as to form
still soft or

disseminated

and

slates

breccia.

The

metallic

is

almost

identical with

fissured in such

filled partlywith

are
interspaces

alreadyindurated

capped by

in turn

and

broken

are

sandstones,

siliceous

paste,containingfinely
partlywith cinnabar,for the

and
sulphides,

part in coherent crusts.2

most

In

the

and

mine

same

traversed

the

is reduced

basalt

to

irregularfissures,filled

by

with

mass,

porous

sidphur

and

cinnabar.8
Hot

mineral

through
and

gases, carrying H2S, force their way

interstices of the depositin the fissured sandstones

the

and

water

slates.

The

silica

found

are
deposits

in all

from
stagesof consolidation,

and
to chalcedony,
gelatinousmass
metallic sulphides,
of cinnabar
consisting
information

no
Unfortunately

the

freshwater

and

basalt.

formation

sodium

carbonate.

and

is rich in

liberated

gases

to the nature

as

the Cretaceous

hot water

The

layersof

pyrites.

is obtainable

lyingbetween

According to Becker,the
and

with

alternate

of

sandstone

borax,
chlorides,

from

the water

sisted
con-

H2S, 79 parts of marsh

gas

parts of nitrogenin 1000 parts.

According to Dr Melville,the marcasite,associated with
and
in
of gold and
traces
cinnabar, contained
copper;

the

of 893

(CH4),and

parts of

cobalt and

the

In the upper zone

cinnabar ; and
The

mine

workings,Becker

detected

the

traces

of

nickel.

onlysulphur was

and

within

parts of

25

efflorescence from

or

C02, 2

in

found

depth,cinnabar

and

; lower

down

sulphur

pyritesoccurringupon

of silica.
deposits

Steamboat

Springs,in Nevada,

furnish

equallyimportant

F. von Richthofen,The Comstock Lode : Its Character and Probable Mode

Continuance
in Depth, San Francisco,1866, p. 54.
of
2 J. Le
Conte, " On Mineral "Veins now in progress at Steamboat Springs

compared with

the

same

at

SulphurBank,"

p. 404.
3 Professor

F.

List.

Eng., vol. xxiii. p. 197.

Mining

Posepny,"The

Genesis

Am.

of Ore

vol.
Jour, of Science,
Trans.
Deposits,"

xxv.

American

evidence

GENETICALLY

DEPOSITS

ORE

121

CONSIDERED.

of

action. They have

been
vein-filling
by hot-spring
Le
and
other
writers.
Conte,1Becker,2
by
surrounded
with
rocks
and
underlain
eruptive
valley
by

fullydescribed
In

sedimentaries,believed

altered

springsissue
The

floor of the

of the

some

of

archaean

north

age, thermal
south fissures.

and

with
valleyis covered, in places,
there

mostlyclosed

still open, but

From

pointsfrom

sinter,in which

calcareous

and

several

from

be

to

by

are

many

the

springshot

sheet

here and
fissures,

of
deposit

vapours

of

there

silica on

their walls.

gases,

chiefly
C02

and

H2S, stillissue.

Becker

found,in

sulphideand
About

the mineral

sodium

mile

to

water, small

of mercury

amounts

sulphide.
the west

of the

there are similar

group
the sinters of these occur

main

and

fissures

yieldingsteam
C02. In
sulphides.
Becker
analysedthe fillingof several fissures,and found,
besides hydrated ferric oxide,lead,copper and mercury
sulphides,

several metallic

and
gold and silver,
The

traces

of

of metallic

occurrence

in the
sulphides

Springs, and

Bank, Steamboat

Ohaeawai

mushroom-cappedlodes at Waihi and

found
tree-stems
replacedby sulphides,
below

of veins
late

by

hot

and

ascendingwaters

sinters at

Sulphur
Springs; the

Hot

Great

Barrier

in veins

present surface,afford conclusive

the

cobalt,and nickel.

zinc,manganese,

at

evidence

gases in

Island ; the

great depths
of the

areas

filling
occupiedby

eruptiverocks.

It

is

notorious

in the

that

circumstance

are
ore-deposits

neighbourhoodof extended

most

of

zones
igneousrocks,
and
New
Nevada,
Colorado,
Zealand,
Hungary,Transylvania,
where
the vein-bearing
rocks are
andesite,phonolite,
principally

common

in

as

and

trachyte.

In other rocks veins

For veins in the altered

are

fewer

and

more

scattered.

later

eruptivesLindgren suggests the

but it is doubtful
whether
the genetic
name
propylite-veins,
difference between
them
and
fissure-veins is sufficiently
true
marked
distinction.
the
to justify
Moreover, the roots of propyliteveins would be difficult to distinguish
from fissure-veins connected
with a plutonicintrusion.
Professor
Suess,3 speaking of the importance of the role
the
played by
waning phases of volcanic phenomena in the
of mineral-veins,
Hot springsmay
formation
be taken as
says,
"

J. Le

Conte,

comparedwith

"

the

On
same

Mineral
at

Veins

now

in

Sulphur Bank,"

at
Progress
Am.

Steamboat

Springs

Jour, of Science,
vol.

xxv.

p. 424.
2
G. F.

Becker, " Geologyof the Quicksilver Depositsof the Pacific

Slope,"U.S. Oeol. Survey, Washington, 1888, p. 831.
3 Professor
Edward
Suess,Lectures,The GeographicalJournal, vol. xx.
Nov. 1902, p. 520.
,

122

MINING

latest

the

of
deposits
Action

phasesof

of ascendingAlkaline Waters.
bore-holes

constitute the
have

Lake

Rotorua

crusted

are

is

old

an

the

In

the

pumice flows of
pumice there are

become

rise to

pumice and rhyolites,

deep-seated
source,
have

This has

not

sinter formed

common

while the
led to the

origin.

shores of which

by

the

of
deposit

disseminated
of finely
deposits
solfataric
action at
by
that the deposits
of pyritesand
north
Hot Springs,
at Ohaeawai

apparentlyformed

were

formed

being

now

which

many

date, in the way

are

the sinter there is a thick

which

ascending alkaline chlorinated waters

or wholly oxidised into sulphates
by contact with
partially

Auckland.

of

present

hot
existing
and
pumice,
generally
pumiceous or pisolitic.
rhyolite

of
deposits

below

cinnabar

the

alkaline,
neutral,or

the southern
crater-lake,

springs.

some

to

waters

are

in the

that all the waters

with

over

earlier

from

come

Below

marcasite

down

put

The

"

Rotorua

quite a superficial
origin.

conclusion

erroneous

led up

great bulk of the rocks in this area, have shown

that the alkaline waters

acid waters

Lake

regionabout

Shafts and

which

series which

whole

ore."

the surface in the

acid.

GEOLOGY.

The

hot

the

decomposingiron sulphidewith formation of free sulphuric

and hydrochloric
acids,and liberation of sulphuretted
hydrogen
and sulphurousacids.
In this way the ascendingalkaline waters
with masses
that happen to come
in contact
of pyritesbecome
oxidised in the superficial
of
the
pumice, and rise to the
layers
tion
surface as neutral or acid springsaccording
to the degreeof oxidathey have undergone.
Thus, within
waters

that reach

highlyalkaline
oxidation

small

area

to the

extremely acid

of the contained

the

singularphenomenon of
ranging from the
accordingto the degree of

salts.

The

have

we

the surface in all conditions

composition of the salts

Spring in grainsper gallonis as

in the
follows

alkaline waters

of Eachel

6943

Part

The

Mineral

I.,1904, p.

Waters
39.

and

Health

Resorts

of

New

Zealand,Dr Wohlmann,

Plate

II.

Geyser-crater

[To face page 122.

at

Whakarewarewa,
siliceous

New

crustification.

Zealand,

showing

Digitized
by

DEPOSITS

ORE

Also
In

GENETICALLY

sulphuretted
hydrogenand carbon dioxide not estimated.
majorityof cases, the alkaline springsdepositlayersof

the

silica on

the walls of the vent

and

the

at

forming largemushroom-shapedmasses.
The compositionof the waters of the
be taken

may

123

CONSIDERED.

Priest hot

the acid waters, is

of
typical

as

surface,the latter often

as

spring,which

follows

Grains

per

:
"

gallon.

19*4

Sulphateof soda,
potash,
.

"

"

"

"

lime,

"

"

magnesia,

"

"

"

"

traces

alumina,
iron,
.

Sulphuricacid

(free),

Hydrochloricacid (free),
Silica,
96-77

Total,
The

the alkaline

temperature of

originwould

suggest, is very
while that of the acid

Fahr.;

waters,

high, varying
is

waters

their

as

deep-seated

180"

from

212*

to

low, commonly ranging

98" to 110" Fahr.

sinters are
found of all degrees of hardness.
They are
hard
and
The
sinter
and
or
vesicular,
soft,spongy,
compact.
from

The

walls

encrustingthe
waters

and

escape

(PlateII.).

the

at

arrangedin

Hand

lode

at

surface

is

much

of the

Waihi.

Rotorua

In

and
we

can

pipes from
generallyhard and

often

specimens of

marcasite
Around

fissures and

the

layerswhich

from
distinguished
Martha

of

present a
the

ore

the

chalcedonic

fine ribbon-structure

harder

found

which

sinters cannot

at the

be

outcrop of the

disseminated
placesthe sinters contain finely
of goldand silver.
of the solfataric class
see
ore-deposits

trace

stillin process of formation on a scale of considerable magnitude.

alkaline waters
Of the genesisof the ascending
nothingis known
at

present.

(b)Fumarolic.
ferric

"

In this class

chloride,
cupricoxide,and

of steam

and

sulphurand
Boron

salts

are

common

boric

in the

by the escape
regions. Of these,

salts,formed

acid

volcanic regions. The

in many
from the
from Italyis obtained

provincesof

Sulphuris sublimed
reaction of

boron

of sulphur,
groupeddeposits

emanations
in volcanic
gaseous
value.
boric acid alone are of economic

productionof
fumaroles

are

from

Pisa and
fumaroles

entire
steam

Grosseto.
and

craters

by

hydrogen sulphideand sulphurdioxide.

the mutual
It is found

124

MINING

GEOLOGY.

vesicular lavas,tuffs,
and mixed
and siliceous sinters,
impregnating
with volcanic muds
and gypsum
deposits.
The most
known
of sulphuroccur
in Italy,
important
deposits
United
and
New
States,
Spain, Hungary, Chili,Mexico, Japan,
Zealand.
The

of Italy occur
sulphur-deposits
rocks

in

masses,

Caltauisetta

of

and

between

age,

lenticular

or

the

chieflyin

limestone

rock
sulphur-bearing
and

provinces of
beds

in

occurs

lying

magnesian rocks.
associated

Utah, the sulphuroccurs

In

veins

Girgenti.

Nevada, the

In

Miocene

in

with gypsum,

an

near

old crater.
At

Tikitere,in New

sulphurin
the black

Zealand, there

old crater.

an

of
large proportion

amorphous variety. The

great to permit the

springsis too

greaterdepth than
At

or

extensive

are

the

of
deposits
sulphuris

heat of the fumaroles

of the

excavation

and

highlycharged with

The

in
is deposited
gypsum
floor of the crater-lake.

been

hydrochloricand

free

the

; but

8 feet.

of sulphuroccur
in and
Island,the deposits
m
ixed
the crater-lake,
with gypsum.
The
crater-water

determined

hot

sulphurto

White

and

and

of the

source

be

supplymust

is

hot,

sulphuricacids.

on
incrustations,
crystalline

The

around

the sides

lime has not

yet

constant, as gypsum

is

continuously.
being deposited
The sulphur is deposited
in the water from gas-springs,
which
are
seen
bubbling everywherein the floor of the lake ; and also
from fumaroles around the margin of the crater.

(c)Contact
tends
contact.

to

Metamorphic

effect
In

the

changes

Even
shallow

magmas

rocks

which

of overflow

case

that

"

in the

and
generallytrifling,

are

Deposits.

have

depths,have

not

with

the

magmas,

in

many
cooled in

molten
it

thermal

magma
comes

in

changes

cases

hardly appreciable.

rents

in sedimentaries

always caused

at

great changes in the

enclosingrock.
The

take placein the case of

greatest alteration will,naturally,
that do not reach the surface, but cool slowlyunder
magmas
great pressure.
The greater the mass
of the intrusive magma,
the slower will
be

the

rate

of

longerwill the
The
of the
thermal

rate

of

cooling;and
adjacentrocks
coolingwill

be

of the
conductivity

the

rate

of

cooling,the

be heated.
the mass
upon
surface,and the relative

mainly dependent

the distance from

intrusion,

changes effected
will be
igneousmagma
The

the slower

the

adjacentrocks.

in the

by
country-rock

mechanical

and

thermal.

the intrusion of

an

126

GEOLOGY.

MINING

It

probablethat

is

in the later phases,will tend

solutions,
the

and

ascendingwaters

and
circulation,

mix

hot

as

reappear
in contact

with

Weed

to effect

redistribution of

gases may
the meteoric

with

reach

the

zone

some

cases,

of

surface

waters, which

springs,forming ore-bodies and

eruptivemagma.

then

may

veins not

directly

the

and

other

some

made

have

writers

attempt

an

to

depositsinto
contact-metamorphic

subdivide

mainlyupon

the mode

of

distribution

be

due

may
and
composition

accidents

to

depending
groups,
the form and mode of

But

occurrence.

hydrous condition

differences in

than

mineralised

heated

in the earlier stages. In

deposited

and minerals

ores

the

of the

circulation

the

of

densityor
rocks

of the

porosity,

affected,rather

geneticformation.

of the magma,
the weight of superincumMoreover, the mass
bent
and
the
heat
and
of
amount
rocks,
subsequent contraction,
all doubtless contributing
factors in
are
phaseof the after-action,
with the form

connection
Masses

of ore,

distribution of the

heavy metals.

and
fissure-veins,
occurringas contact-deposits,

in the
bed-impregnations,
to the

and

of

zone

metamorphism,may

all be traced

geneticcauses.
Launay, of Paris,supportsthe views of the school
and Daubree
of De Beaumont
in respectof the primary influence of
volatile mineralisers emanating from eruptive
The emanations,
magmas.
he contends,must have prepared
into
the way, by introducing
the enclosingrocks,*
in the vein-fissures,
or
simplyby depositing
same

Professor L. de

constituents such
dissolved
rendered
The

the latter essential aid in the processes of alteration.1

of contact-metamorphismeffected by the granite
extent

intrusions of

Hawes.2
the

quently
chlorides,
which, subsefluorides,
etc.,
sulphides,
anew
waters, have
by the circulation of superficial

as

His

schists

investigated
by
Albany,in New Hampshire,was fully
showed
series of changes in
a
analyses
progressive

as

they approach

boric and
there

appears
He
contact.
hot vapours

granite.

silicic acids have

to have

been

regardedthe

and

the

solutions

an

schists

as

but
eruptive,

More

never

added

rocks
to

hydrated,
de-

are

them, and

of alkali at the

infusion

time

of

having been impregnatedby

the granite.

emanating from

lie at
Contact-deposits
frequently
eruptiveand the country-rock
; also
the

been

The

outside the

zone

at

the

boundary between

the

variable
of

distances

from

metamorphism.

limestones,marly and
and are
accompanied by the usual contact-minerals,
clay-slates,
blende,
wollastonite,
garnet, vesuvianite,scapolite,
augite, mica, hornand
in clay-slate
etc.
etc.,
by chiastolite,
contact-ores
particularly,

L. de

G. W.

Launay,
Hawes,

The
Amer.

Genesis

occur

in

of Ore Deposits,1901, Discussion,p.

Journ. Sci.fxxi.,1881, p. 21.

616.

Contact-ores

127

CONSIDERED.

GENETICALLY

DEPOSITS

ORE

magnetite and speculariron, but

principally

are

of copper, lead, and zinc often occur.

sulphides
are
by those
represented
typically
Pyriticcontact-deposits
and
San
Domingo,
Vegsnas,in Norway, Rio Tinto, Tharsis,

of
in

Spain.
The

Lyell Mine, in Tasmania, is

althoughits
contact-deposit,
replacement
nition
defithe
conform
to
not strictly
common
in Mount

pyriticore-mass

described
generally

as

geologicoccurrence

does

of such

Gregory describes it as a boattalcose schist and

conglomerates.1

Professor

body.

shaped mass, lying between

The
mine-workings have shown
from the outcrop,being

that

it

graduallytapers

wards
down-

rounded

by

off with

cut

base

(loc.
cit).
great thrust-plane
There
but
at

of

are

dykes of

diabase

and

great distance.

other

contact

igneousrocks
of these

The

with
occur

to the belief that at

the

leadingfrom
all

the
probability

time

one

later,or

district,
of bands

fahlbands,would
of

munication
com-

to the vein-cavities.

Lyellsulphideore-bodies
in the

ore-body,

in the

there existed channels

eruptivemagmas

Mount

formed
impregnationswere
eruptiveafter-actions.

the

dykes,and

presence
with
forming
schist,impregnated
sulphides,

no

lead
In

actual

eruptivesin

no

solfataric

and

bed-

stages,of

Deposits." To this group

(d) Regional Metamorphic
which
mentary
in altered sedioccur
belong the depositsof iron-ore
of older Palaeozoic age.
rocks, generally
The iron probablyexisted originally
as
sedimentarydeposits,
and became
concentrated and rearrangedunder the influence of
which caused the metamorphism
the heat, pressure, and solutions,
of the

enclosingrocks.

of
Examples of deposits
which

ore

due

to

regionalmetamorphism,in

processes doubtless

metasomatic

took

an

active

part, are

of Sweden
deposits

and the
magnetic
of Michigan.
vast speculariron and magnetitemasses
Massive
in chlorite-schist
aggregates of magnetite are common
and mica-schist in all parts of the globe.
Metamorphic rocks also enclose beds of iron pyritesand pyrrhotite,the originof which is stillobscure.
found

among

the valuable

III.
"

(a) Chemical.
borax,

Meteoric

Waters.

this group
are
nitre,bog-iron ore, and some
"

In

included

of salt,
deposits
and
depositsof gypsum

manganese.
1

Professor J. W.

Inst. Min.

Gregory,"The

"ng.f vol.

i. Part

Mount

LyellMuring Field,"Trans.

IV., July 1904, p.

281.

Aust.

128

MINING

(b) Mechanical.
formed

by

"

This

the agency

loose

whether
drifts,

GEOLOGY.

of water
or

includes

group

in lakes and

compact, of river

gold,tin, platinum,and

all

gems;

and

sedimentaryrocks
seas

; also alluvial

lake

containing
origin,
sea-beaches
ore-bearing
or

deposits.
IV.

(a) Vegetable. This

fuel,ranging from peat
"

Organic.

"

group
to

embraces

all varieties of mineral

anthracite,also

graphite,oil-shale,

and natural gas.

mineral-oil,
The minerals
(b) Animal.
limestones,includingchalk and
"

included
mineral

in

this subdivision

phosphates.

Digitized
by

are

CHAPTER

OF

THEORIES
Contents

VI.

theories

follows

Lateral Secretion"

EruptiveProcesses" Theory of

:"

of Solutions

The

FORMATION.

VEIN

which

"

the

receive

now

Ascension

Summary.
most

acceptance

are

as

"

I.

Eruptiveprocesses :
(a) Magmatic segregation.
(b)Eruptiveafter-actions.
"

II. Lateral

secretion.

III. Ascension

of solutions.

Eruptive Processes.
in the

igneous rocks
urged in late

Kemp2 of
recentlyby
United

has been
of ore-deposits

Vogt

Lindgren4
Staff.
Geological

with

classes
principal

under

as

and
the

of

playedby
specially

Professor
Christiania,
of Vienna, and
more

W.

H.

Weed5

of

the

close

ing
existrelationship
eruptiveprocesses. Ore-deposits
are
grouped by him into two

attention

eruptive magmas

Suess8

Waldemar

and
ore-deposits

between

the r61e

importance of

formation

directs renewed

connected

The

years by Professor
New
York, Professor

States

Vogt

"

to

:
"

formed by magmatic segregation.

(1) Ore-deposits
formed
by eruptiveafter-actions.
(2) Ore-deposits
1

Professor J. H. L.

Genesis
2

loc.

of

J. F.

Kemp, "The

cit.,
p.

681

'Professor

1902, p.

Vogt, "Problems

in the

Originof

Ore

Deposits,"The

Deposits,1901, p. 636.

Ore

; also

Edward

Rdle of the
Trans.

Amer.

in the Formation
of Veins,"
vol. xxxii.,1902, p. 681.
GeographicalJournal, vol. xx.,

IgneousRocks
Inst. M.E.,

Suess, Lecture,The

520.

Waldemar
Lindgren," Character and Genesis of Certain Contact Deposits,"
Genesis of Ore Deposits,1901, p. 716.
5W.
H. Weed, "Ore
Igneous Contacts,"Trans. Amer.
Deposits near
Inst. M.B., voL xxxiii.,1908.
4

129

by$Lj"

130

GEOLOGY.

MINING

the

and
infrequent,
therefore economically
subordinate in importance to those of the
second group.
to Vogt :
They include,
according

belongingto
Ore-deposits

first group

are

"

of titanic iron ores in basic and semi-basic

(a) The occurrences
eruptives.
Chromite
in peridotite.
(b)
the nickeliferous pyrrhotite
of
(c)Sulphidedeposits,
including
Sudbury,in Canada.
in highlybasic eruptiverocks.
Platinum-metals
(d)
(e)Copperand metallic nickel iron in serpentiriised
peridotite.
That

be

from eruptivemagmas
in the
segregated
and
be
still
it
is
to
doubtful
yet
proved;
the occurrence
far Vpgt's conclusions respecting
of sulphide
from a molten
as a productof primary segregation
magma,
can
sulphides

first concentration
how
ore,

has

admissible.

are

processes are said to have playedan

importantpart in the formation of these valuable deposits.
In all

cases

metasomatic

eruptiveafter-action group, Vogt includes cassiterite

of contact-metamorphic
zone."
apatiteveins and
ore-deposits

In the
and

"

Cassiterite

are
deposits
everywhereconnected with acid eruptives,
and
granite,and occasionally
principally
quartz-porphyry
and
because
for
of
the
this
partly
reason,
rhyolite.Partly
characteristic paragenesisof fluoride,borate, and
phosphate
view that tin-deposits
minerals,he supports the common
are
connected
with
that
various
graniticeruptions,and
genetically

volatile fluorides took

Cassiterite

veins

part in their formation.

were
formed, he thinks, by pneumatolytic

that is, by
processes,1

the

action

of

gases

and

water

at

high

temperature and

pressure.
further urges that they were
formed immediately
after the
eruption,and before the complete coolingof the granite,one
He

proofof which, he thinks,is the

veins of

pegmatitein

Cassiterite veins

the

of tin-vein minerals

occurrence

in

granite.

of the immediately
admittedly
independent
and
for
this
to be more
reason
seem
adjacent
country-rock,
nearly
of magmatic segregation
related to deposits
than to contact-metamorphic
deposits.
It is probablethat the magmatic segregation
of chromite
in
in
effected
was
some
cases
peridotite
agencies
by pneumatolytic
before the completecoolingof the magma.
It is not uncommon
find chromite

to

having
1

been

are

in vein-like

masses

that have

segregatedin cavities of

Pneumatolysisis a term
action of gases and water.

firstused

by

the appearance of
in the pasty

contraction

Bunsen

to describe the combined

Digitized
by

THEORIES

OP

VEIN

131

FORMATION.

As the agency of underground water cannot have been

magma.
the aggregation
have been
active in this class of ore-deposit,
must
and gases occluded in the igneous
effected by metal-bearing
steam
magma.
while

Pegmatite veins,

generallyconnected

to be of later formation

seem
eruptions,

than

with

granitic

the cassiterite veins.

often pass into quartz and frequently

possess sharp,welldenned walls which suggest their formation in shrinkagecracks

They

agenciesin the waning phasesof the

by pneumatohydato-genetic
after-actions,
coolingof the eruptive
by the progressive
developed
magma.
which
other
The

Teall has

is an eutectic
suggestedthat micropegmatite
lowest
the
at
presents
crystallises
possible
temperature, and refrom which the
in certain rocks the final mother-liquor
minerals have crystallised
out.
different phasesof after-action must
into
necessarily
merge

other, and

each

minerals

and

expect to find,as we
may
cassiterite in veins of pegmatite.

hence

even

do, tin-vein

we

of contact-metamorphicorigin,Vogt includes
ore-deposits
within
the
ore-bodies which
occur
metamorphosed
of deep eruptives,
contact-zone
granite.
especially
several
The
He
distinguishes
types of contact-deposit.
that appear to have
Christiania type includes iron-ore deposits

Among

the

formed

been

of the
before the solidification

granitic
magma.
but alwaysin the
granite,
adjacentrocks. If they had been introduced after the coolingof
in the granite.
the magma,
they would also have been deposited
The
is believed to be the source
of the
eruptive magma
These

metal

ores

which

are

is

never

found

in
expelled

in the

the heated

steam

into the surrounding

rocks.

1902, Weed1

In

classificationbased

on

proposedthe followingprovisional
genetic
that of Vogt :
"

J. Igneous(magmaticsegregation)
"

(a) Siliceous.

(b)Basic.
II.

deposits)
Igneous(emanation
"

deposits.
(a) Contact-metamorphic
to magmatic veins and
(b)Veins (related

division IV.).

III. Fumarolic.
IV.

deposits
Gas-aqueous(pneumatohydato-genetic)
(a) Fillingdeposits.
"

(b)Replacementdeposits.
1

Weed, "Ore Depositsnear

1903, p. 715.
M.K, vol. xxxiii.,

W.

Inst.

H.

Igneous Contacts,"Trans.

Digitized
by

Amer.

132

GEOLOGY.

MINING

V.

Meteoric

waters

"

(a)Underground.
(b)Superficial.
this classification the

In

segregationat

magmatic
the

major

one

other, with intermediate

groups
phasesof eruptiveafter-actions.
Weed

divides

Siliceous and

subdivisions

end and

The

based

upon

at
deposition

characteristic of the different

into
magmatic segregations

Basic.

are

cold aqueous

latter embraces

groups, namely,
of iron,copper,
deposits
two

igneousborders and as dykes; and the former, the

with quartz-veins
as extreme
ore-bearing
pegmatites,
examples.1
This is a distinct departure
from Vogt'sconceptionof magmatic
segregation.It is almost certain that the segregationof ores
and the formation of cassiterite and pegmatite
from basic magmas,
etc.,found

at

connected
genetically

veins,are
seated

and
eruptions,
each

into

merge
increases

the

formation

of

with

the

after-actions of

deep-

such

as

degree,be related and

must, in some
But
this genetic connection,while it

other.

of formulatinga satisfactory
classification,
difficulty
subdivision
the
proposedby Weed.
hardlyjustifies
The syntheticexperiments of Daubree
to support the
seem
other observers who
views
of Vogt, Beck, and
maintain
that
formed by gaseous and aquecassiterite and pegmatite veins are
ous
and
direct
not by
emanations,
segregation.
Gold is commonly associated with acid rocks,but it does not
in such
to suggest direct segregation.In
occur
a
manner
as
Queensland,New South Wales, and New Zealand it is found in
but in these cases
in graniteand quartz-porphyry,
the
quartz-veins
fillcontraction-cracks.
veins manifestly
Weed
stronglydissents from the view expressed
by Van Hise,
that meteoric waters are an
mation
importantcreative factor in the forHe thinks,however, that primary hot oreof ore-veins.
rise into the zone
of
bearing solutions and hot vapours may
meteoric waters, heatingthe latter and chargingthem
circulating
with metallic salts and such active mineral solvents as fluorine,
his views relatingto the
He summarises
chlorine,and boron.
"Contact
of intrusive
contact

or

of
deposits

impure

as follows :
contact-deposits
occur
metamorphicore-deposits
"

masses

in

the

limestone

actinolite-calcite
minerals

are

of

zone

economic

about

the

margin

granularigneousrock, either at the actual

of

value

metamorphosed sedimentaries.
only where

occur

have

been

rocks,

with

or

blocks

of

as
garnetiferousor
crystallised
oreconsequent porosity. The

associated
intimately
1

strata

The

with

these aluminous

Weed, loc. cU.tp. 717.

silicates,

134

MINING

GEOLOGY.

latter do not compare

The

with the former

efficient

an

as

cause.

Theory of Lateral
is assumed

that

meteoric

waters

rock, by the aid of carbon

constituents

certain

Accordingto this theory,it

through the countrypercolating

Secretion.

which

"

dioxide

alkalies,dissolve out
depositedin fissures,

and

afterwards

are

therebyforming mineral-veins.
originof the theoryis unknown, but it is certain that
Lasius
Delius
in 1770, Gerharde
in 1781, and
in 1789, were
latter
the
his
of
basing
conceptionsupon a careful
supporters it,
The

mountains.1

of the veins of the Hartz

examination

1847, Professor Bischof,of Bonn, a distinguished

geologist
and chemist,in his fascinating
Text-book of Chemical and Physical
In

Geology,discusses
meteoric

rocks.

with

His

in this branch

research

veins, and

being found

created

work

scientific basis of

new

contended

geology. He

of economic

obtained

were

ores

and

waters

contact

take placewhen
processes which
in
different kinds of aqueous
solutions come

the chemical

leachingfrom

traversed

rocks

the

by
of
suggested the possibility
rocks.
in the adjacent

that

by

the

vein-constituents

the

chemist
of Copenhagen,
1855, Forchhammer, the famous
and
zinc
in
the
of
found traces
lead, copper,
roofingslates of
which
held to afford conclusive
North
was
Wales, a discovery
In

proofof
In

the

originof

1873,Professor

processes of lateral secretion.

F. Sandberger,of Wurzburg, dissatisfied with
ore-veins

results obtained
the meagre
rocks,directed his attention

traversed

of the rocks

by

from
to

the examination

chemical
systematic

ore-veins in different

by

sedimentary
investigation
mining centres in
of

Forest,and of the vein-stuff itself.

he discovered copper, zinc,lead,arsenic,antimony,
clay-slate
while
tin, cobalt,and nickel; in sandstone, lead and copper;
acids were
found to be present everywhere
titanic and phosphoric

the Black
In

in small

quantity.
Sandberger'sresults
satisfied

means

extended
of
He

and

vein-contents

between

to

his

the

that

the

country-rock
; but he
originof the heavy metals.

to
investigation

an

by

largesamplesof
solutions

of

rock and

different

elements

silicates thus
crystallised
and
by this means
analysis,

no

ingly
accord-

He

the

stituents
con-

separatedthe

isolated
were

constituent

Samples
were

found

of

the

subjectedto
all the

usual

present in metalliferous veins.

George ^Lasius, " Observations

Hanover, 1789.
Minerals,vol. ii.,
1

by

was

of

examination

densities.

individual

careful

relationshipexisted

close

igneousrocks.

crushed

minerals

as

showed

on

the

Hartz

Mountains,"

Ores

and

THEORIES

Thus

in olivine he

VEIN

OF

135

FORMATION.

found

iron,nickel,copper, and cobalt;in

augite,copper, cobalt,iron,nickel,lead,tin,and zinc ; and in the
micas many
base metals.
Gold, mercury, and tellurium were not

sought for.
In

1880, Sandberger announced

contents

of veins

but

the immediate

from

his belief that

derived,not

were

from

the

unknown

some

mineral

depth,

wall-rock.

Gold-bearingveins

are

slates and

in

common

sandstones

of

marine

to the announcement
origin; and as sea-water,according
of Sonstadt in 1872,and of Professor Liversedgein 1893,contains,

accordingto

amounts
latter,
ranging from 0*54 to 1 grain to
the
exponents of lateral secretion that the
by
marine
the source
of the goldin veins traversing
is,therefore,

the

the

ton, it is held

sea

sedimentaries.
It is maintained
of the

they must

sea

sea-water, and
the

that

sediments

when

are

entanglea
necessarily

that

when

sediments

these

formed

on

the floor

certain

of
proportion

become

consolidated

gold must

remain in them.
of
theory lateral secretion received a new impulsefrom the
researches of Sandberger. It seemed
competent to explainthe
The

origin of
Professor

although strongly opposed by

Professor Posepny,of Przi-

ore-veins, and

many

Stelzner,of

bram, it found

Freiberg,and

support in America, in

much

more

or

less

modified form.
Thus
the

the
Emmons,1 discussing

Leadville

were
ore-deposits

ore-formation

on

in

generalas

have
(1) Ore-deposits

he considers

in which

manner

produced,summarises
follows

his views

:
"

depositedfrom solution,rarelyin
most frequently
by metasomatic interchange.
open cavities,
come
(2)Solutions do not necessarily
upwards,but
directly
simplyfollow the easiest channels of approach.
The
within limited and
material was
derived from sources
(3)
been

conceivable distance,very often the older intrusive rocks.

Emmons,
disclaims the
of the

while
narrow

of lateral secretion,
supportingthe principle
who limited the source
views of Sandberger,

vein-contents

to

the

wall-rock

in immediate

contact

with

the vein.2
In

the

Professor

critical discussion

Posepny'spaper

1893, Blake and Winslow

lead-ores of Wisconsin
1

were

on

which
"The

followed
Genesis

the

of
publication
in
Deposits,"

of Ore

reaffirmed their belief that the zinc- and

formed by lateral secretion.8

S. F. Emmons, "The
Genesis of Certain
Inst. M.E., vol. xxx.
125.
p.
2
The Genesis of Ore Deposits,
1901, p. 199.
8 Loc.
cU.tp. 188.

Ore

Trans.
Deposits,"

Am.

136

GBOLOGY.

MINING

Becker, while

from
Posepny'sview
stronglydissenting
of producingsuch
replacementwas incapable

metasomatic

ore-bodies
of the
"

those at

as

makes
Leadville,

like solution,
must
Eeplacement,

and

ore-bodies will

metasomatic

nounced
proclear statement
He

metasomatic

supposed operationof

processes.
alongfissures or

occur

that

says,

channels,
to the

form

in
presentanalogies

"

of solution
cit,p. 206).
(loc.
spaces of caves
Rickard discusses the problem of ore-formation

open

and
standpoint,

is not

dogmaticsupporter of

of either ascension
there is
water

no

at

ground for the

great depth,and
time have

lateral secretion.1

or

the

all

that

wide
trines
doc-

extreme

affirms that

He

belief in the existence of

maintains

from

reservoir of

ascending water

been

water.
descending
So far
in regardto meteoric waters.
water is concerned,his view is not
as the existence of deep-seated
in accord with the hydro-fusion
theoryof modern penologists.
of
a
Rickard,possessing
personalknowledgeof the goldfields
Australia and New
Zealand, discusses the probableoriginof the
must

at

one

This last

can

veins of the
main

only be true

Thames

in
goldfield

the latter

country ; and

that they were

agrees with Captain Hutton
of lateral secretion by thermal waters.

Professor
the extreme

270).

He

each, and

J. Le

Conte, in

views

of both

makes

reconcile

that he leans

as

considers both

by

cesses
pro-

attempt

to

combine

their differences. It

to
favourably

althoughnot defined

in the

carefully
preparedthesis,combats
cit.,p.
Posepnyand Sandberger(loc.

earnest

an

formed

is

what

is true

in

manifest, however,

the side of lateral secretion processes,

such.

partlyright and both partlywrong.

he thinks, are
Ascensionists,
right,in derivingmetals mainly
solutions
in imaginfrom great depths,
but wrong
ing
by ascending
these depthsto be an exceptionally
metalliferous barysphere
;
lateral
and
in
contributions
subordinate
not
allowing
by
wrong
from the wall-rock higherup.
currents
he thinks,
the other hand, are right,
The lateral-secretionists,
on
but wrong in
metals by leachingfrom the wall-rock,
in deriving
the main source.
not making the thermosphere
his views in the following
summarises
Le Conte
succinctly
He

terms

sides

"

using the
(1)Ore-deposits,

place from

many

in its widest

term

kinds

of

waters, but

alkaline

solutions;for

these

metallic

and
sulphides,

metallic

of such

form
original
1

Loc.

are

the

sense,

natural

solvents

of

usuallythe

190 and 211.

"

take

from
especially

are
sulphides
deposits.

cit.,
pp.

may

Digitized
by VjOOQIC

THEORIES

(2) They

take

may

placefrom
mainlyfrom

pressure, but
under heavy pressure,

solvent

such

power,

137

FORMATION.

VEIN

OF

waters

at

those at

because,on
waters

temperature and
high temperature and
of their great
account
any

heavilyfreightedwith

are

metals.
be moving in any direction
waters may
(3) The depositing
coming,
updownsometimes
moving, or even
horizontally
but
going,
mainlyup-coming,because by losingheat and
to deposit
are
sure
pressure at every step, such waters
their contents
abundantly.
take
(4) Depositsmay
placein any kind of waterway in open
in incipient
in
fissures,
cracks, and even
fissures,
joints,
in great open
fissures,
porous sandstones,but especially
"

"

because
from

these

the

highways of ascendingwaters

greatestdepths.

(5) Depositsmay
of

the main

are

kinds
and in many
in many
regions,
regions,and in metamainlyin mountain

be found

rocks,but

morphicand igneous rocks,because the thermosphereis

thereto through
the surface, and
nearer
ready access
great fissures is found mostlyin these regionsand in these
rocks.
Professor C. K. Van

Some
Hise,in a classic paper on
Principles
1
ing
of Ores," defines his views in the followcontrolling
Deposition
sentences

(1) That

"

the

work

greaternumber

of

(2) That

the

within

(3) That

"

is the
ore-deposits

undergroundwater.
material for ore-deposits
is

the

by

of

result of the

derived from

rocks

of fracture.

zone

far the

the water

major part of

ores
depositing

is

meteoric.

(4) That

the

(5) That

the waters

flowageof
stress.
gravitative
of

by
undergroundis caused chiefly

water

which

perform the

firstwork

in the

genesis

waters.
are
ore-deposits
descending

(6) Lateral

secretion is

an

tion
essential step in the first concentra-

ore-deposits.
Many ores in their first concentration
precipitated
by ascendingwaters.
sulphideores are generally
depositedby ascending
of

are

(7) That

waters

in trunk

channels.

of
transportation
the

causes

metals

the
explaining

of lodes ; but

whether

ward
It is believed that the down-

character

this be

Loc. cit.,
p. 282 ; also Trans. Amer.

is the

so

most

of the
or

important of
upper portions

not, their

peculiar

Inst. M.E.$ vol. xxx., 1900, p. 27.

138

GEOLOGY.

MINING

characters

due
certainly

are

the effect of

to

descending

waters.
That
the
(8)

if not all,are
majorityof ore-deposits,
partly
i
n
and
ments
deposited pre-existing
openings, are partlyreplaceof wall-rocks.

From

the above

he

genetic connection

to attach

seems

existingbetween

much
processes ; and places
of meteoric waters.
Professor Kemp * contends
show

to the
too littleimportance

and
eruptive
ore-deposits
dependenceupon the formative power
in America
mining operations
drier with increasing
depth;

that

that mines become

conclusively
deep mining in South Africa,Australia,and New
confirmation
The drynessof mines
to this view.
the foundations of Van
Hise's main
to destroy

and
adds
seems

the underground circulation of

respecting

Van

Hise admits

that there

igneousorigin,but
to Kemp
rejoinder

with
and

thinks
he

meteoric

they are

limited

of

to somewhat

seems

that

the rdle of

have

direct

In

extent.

modifyhis

respectto the rdle of meteoric

admits

depth

contention

water.

which
ore-deposits

are

Zealand
in

former

his
ception
con-

in vein-formation,

waters

igneous intrusions

may

be

very

considerable.2
It has

been

that the metals

contained

primary,but

not

are

suggestedby

the

opponents

lateral

of

in the silicate minerals

constituents.
secondary,

of

secretion

eruptiverocks

Accordingto

their

view, lateral secretion is onlya process of concentration.

of Solutions.

Ascension
assumed

that the material

In

his

classic memoir

laid

great

at

Similar

conditions

Nevada, where
of formation.
iron and

we

The

copper
who
Sandberger,

brought

in

of Ore

Deposits,the

of

from

Steamboat

gaseous

emanations

Springs in

and

Western

mineral

vein in process
siliceous vein-stone containmatrix
ing
and
metallic
gold.
sulphides,
sulphur,
an

exampleof

is banded

was

an

to this
secretion,
objected

is

supporterof the ascension

formation

exist at

have

Genesis

the

stress

waters.

J. F.

lode has been

theory,it

hypothesis,
occurrence
sulphur and
upon
impregnatinga decomposedbasalt,and

Posepny,an

hot mineral

fillsa

The

on

ardent

SulphurBank
stillmildlyin process of

The

which

this

the lode.

late Professor
cinnabar

According to

and not from the rocks in the immediate

great depths,

solution from
of
vicinity

"

equallystrenuous supporter of
view, on the ground that he knew

lateral
of

no

Kemp, "The Rdle of Aqueous Rocks in the Formation of Veins,"

Genesis of Ore Deposits,
1901, p. 681.
C. R. Van Hise, The Genesis of Ore Deposits,
1901, Discussion,
p. 763.

THEORIES

OF

VEIN

139

FORMATION.

mineral incrustations on
springwhich deposited
channels.
He regardedthe SulphurBank and
phenomena as exceptional.
made

the walls of their

Steamboat

Springs

at
examination
of the deposits
special
SulphurBank and Steamboat Springs,
strongly
opposedthe views
of the extreme
And with regardto the originof
ascensionists.
the deposits,
he expressed
the following
The evidence
views :
is overwhelmingthat the cinnabar,pyrite,
and goldof the quicksilver
mines
their present positions
of the Pacific slopereached
in hot solutions of double sulphides,
leached out from
which were
1
and
itself."
the
the
Further
masses
granite
underlying granite
he says : "I regardmany
of the gold veins of California as
on
having an origin entirelysimilar to that of the quicksilver
deposits."
Becker's views postulate
which
lies midway
new
a
hypothesis,

Becker, who

"

"

between

and

the ascension

lateral-secretion

present knowledge of ore-formation

our

views

extreme

definition of lateral secretion

descendingwaters

leachingthe

nearlythan

more

the

Posepny and Sandberger.

of

Accordingto the
the

and expresses
theories,

rocks

became

in the

charged with

region of vadose

by

mineral

the

latter,

matter

circulation.

On

by
the

other

that the ascendingwaters

became
hand, Posepny assumed
with
a
deep-seated
charged at great depthsby coming in contact
but

of metalliferous matter.
repository
hypothetical
The modification suggestedby Becker
favours the ascension
theory,and differs only from the lateral-secretion hypothesisin
for the mineral contents
of the veinassuming a deeper source
matter.

Summary.
we

deduce

may

the

From

"

the

data

recorded

in the

preceding
pages,

the genesisof
followingconclusions respecting

:
ore-deposits
"

connected
are
genetically
majorityof ore-deposits
with igneousintrusions which may be plutonic
or volcanic.
and
the
That
(2)
circulating
underground waters
gases are
primary
principal
agents concerned in the dissolution,
and deposition
of vein-matter.
concentration,
do not
pre-existing
(3) That ore-deposits
necessarily
occupy

(1) That

the

fissures and

cavities.

in many
was
(4) That vein- filling
replacement.
waters
are
(5) That vein-filling
deep-seated.
necessarily
1

G.

F.

"

Becker,

Slope,"United

The

States OeoL

cases

effected

by

metasomatic

ascending waters,

but

Geology of the QuicksilverDepositsof the

1888, p. 449.
Survey, Monograph xxiii.,

not

Pacific

140

(6)That

the mineral

to the

(7) That

MINING

GEOLOGY.

contents

are

of fracture

zone

or

derived from rocks

of

zone

contiguous

metamorphism.

agents of dissolution are heat

accessory
pressure, aided by dissolved alkaline minerals.
from the ascendingwaters
takes
(8) That precipitation
in

the

more

less

or

with the laws

(9) That
to

orderlyhorizontal

precipitation.

of
is,in the majority

cases, due
higher to a

secondaryenrichment
the

place

in accordance

zones

governingsolution and

and

migrationof mineral contents from a

level,through the agency of descendingmeteoric

lower
waters.

The

theories of lateral secretion and

based

on

ascension

fundamental

the

cavities
filling

of solutions

the

mineral
assumption that
from
waters.
deposited
circulating

was

matter

Their

in the different conceptions

differences lie principally
as
direction and operation
of the circulating
liquids.

(1) The lateral-secretiontheorysupposes

of cavities was
(a)That the filling
meteoric

(b)That

(2) The

matter
filling

rocks by
adjacent

ascension

(a) That

to

the

:
"

the work

of

descending

waters.

the

the

are

theoryassumes

was

obtained
principally

process of

from

leaching.

:
"

effected by deep circulating

of veins was
filling
waters, ascending through open, or partially
the

open fissures.
(b)That the mineral
from

and

metallic contents

mineralised
deep-seated

were

derived

zone.

and descending
waters are
ascending
termed
be
a
hydrauliccircuit,the
may
assisted by capillary
action
interchange
beingcaused by gravitation,
and descending
and the difference of temperature of the ascending

Many writers assume

merely units in what

that

waters.

Much

towards
It
that

and
it is claimed,is necessarily
of the movement,
lateral,
channels filled with ascending
waters.

was

maintained

by

descendingwaters

Posepny and
merely oxidisingand

Professor

were

Dr

Raymond
of
incapable

fully
has,however, been successby Emmons, Becker,Van Hise,and other American
disproved

sulphides.This contention
depositing
who
geologists,
both
zone

above

and

of vadose

have
below

shown

the

existence

of

or in what
water-level,

circulation.

secondarysulphides
may

be termed

the

CHAPTER

ORES

AND

VII.

MINERALS

CONSIDERED

ECONOMICALLY.
Aluminium
Arsenic"
Asbestos
Antimony
Borax
Bismuth
Cement
Chromium
Coal
Asphaltum
Cobalt
Diamond
Fluorite
Gold
Copper Cryolite
Fireclay
Iron
Lead
Mica"
Graphite Gypsum
Magnesite" Manganese
Oil
Nickel
Shale
Petroleum
Phosphate Rock
Molybdenum
Silver
Slate
Platinum
Quicksilver
Tin
Sulphur Talc
Tungsten"Zinc.

Contents

Alum

"

"

"

"

"

Barytea

"

"

"

mining

the conditions under

"

"

possess

"

"

general knowledge

commonly

"

useful

and

ores

of

minerals

of the market

intended

minerals

the

of

the

"

"

"

"

should

which

; and

in Nature

occur

"

"

"

student

"

"

"

"

Every

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

and value
condition,
quality,
and
metallurgical
manufacturing

for

purposes.
market

The

quotationsgiven

the

are

must

subjectto
be

continual

regarded more

The
selling-prices.
order.
alphabetic

standard
in

values

of

minerals

and

and
fluctuations,
as
a guide than
a
ores

are

dealt with

Alum.
of alum

sources
principal
cryolite.

The
and

Alunite
the most

and

by

in

masses

part in acid lavas of later

formed

been

in veins

occurs

alunite,alum

are

shales,bauxite,

eruptive rocks,and

date,in

which

for

it has

probably
replacement attending waning

metasomatic

solfataric action.
At
occurs

Tolfa,near Civita Vecchia,in the neighbourhoodof Rome, it

veins,which are supposed to have been
as
thin, irregular
contraction-cracks

by the action of hot waters and

of the containingtrachyte.
felspars
sulphurousgases upon
Bullahdelah
An
at
occurs
important deposit of alunite
formed

in

the

Mountain, in New
from

pure
silica. The

alunite

South
to

an

depositis over

Wales.

impure
a

mile

It consists of minerals
form

containing40

ranging

per cent, of
of a
long,nearlythree-quarters

ORES

mile

AND

wide,and

It is

yardswide.

thickest

the

mineral

is

as

of stone

follows

slates. The

60

varies from

70

to

with felsiticdykes,which

connected
genetically

Carboniferous

traverse

band

143

ECONOMICALLY.

CONSIDERED

MINERALS

average

compositionof

the

"

10000

by calciningand

is obtained

Alum

washing alunite; and

evaporatingthe liquors.
in
Natural alum is obtained in considerable quantities
and Scotland from the coal-shales and alum-clays.
of alum and aluminium
Bauxite is an importantsource

alum) in America,
(concentrated
aluminium-iron

hydrate

aluminous

an

"

France, and

England
sulphate
It .isan

Germany.

form of limonite

ing
contain-

"

50 to 60 per cent, of alumina

(A1203).
bauxite, from 65 to 70 per cent, is produced
and
the balance
of Georgia, and
in Arkansas

from
generally
American

Of

the

in

State

Alabama.
The

Departmentof Var, in France,are

cemented
by carbonate of lime. They
from Cannet du Luc.
westward
basins,extending

bauxite

in
deposits

mostlymassive

and
oolitic,

in old lake

occur

The

originof

the mineral
around

is still doubtful

been

have

supposed to

is

action in and

the

Only the

varieties of bauxite
of alum.

manufacture

some

writers it

with

solfataric

lakes.

Baux, near Aries,the bauxite

compact limestone.

in the

by

connected
genetically

the ancient

At

; but

occurs

free from

and
oolitic,
iron oxide

grainsin

as

be utilised

can

used for the

The

purer gradesare
f
rom
which the metal aluminium
hydrate,

of aluminium
preparation
is manufactured.

of alum, stillcontinues
another importantsource
Cryolite,
derived from the mines at Ivigtut,
in Greenland.
The

alunite of New

The

American

18s. per ton.

at a somewhat

the

domestic
French

Wales

South

"3

per ton.

ranges in value from

is delivered at American

14s. to

is valued at about

bauxite

bauxite

lower rate than

railroad-freight
charges.

to be

the

domestic mineral

on

seaports

account

of

144

GEOLOGY.

MINING

Aluminium.
in Germany, America, and
manufactured
largely
from bauxite principally
produced in the Department of
Southern
France.
Alum.")
(ForBauxite, see

This

metal

France

Var, in

is

"

Antimony.
The

only commercial

antimonite
antimony is the sulphide,
;
the oxides are
the
The
found
near
secondaryproducts,
outcrop.
in veins in schist,
occurs
slate,and sandstone ;
sulphidegenerally
and also associated to a small extent
with ores
of lead,bismuth,
of

ore

and

copper.
The principal
of antimonite
producers

France, Algeria,
Italy,

are

depositsoccur
of
is generally
The

Zealand,but the ore

payable.
be
worth
to
handling. When under
pure
it is practically
to separatethe
impossible

South

too low

Wales

be very
cent, in the mine

metal, each unit above

Under
below
do not
In

New

its gangue.

Antimony-oresare bought by
of

and

grade to be

must

ore

25 per
from
ore

in New

45

per cent, there

which
the ore
has
care

to

America,

an

touch

is
no

basis of 45 per cent,

being paid for at schedule rates.

discount

ores

arsenic,copper, and

on

until the
value.

commercial

containingunder
marketable

to be

ore

that

smelters

zinc.

One

per

limit is

reached,

English smelters

40 per cent, of metal.

contain not less than

must

50 per cent, of antimony.

Ores intended for the English market
ore

Considerable

Canada.

Mexico, Turkey, Hungary, China, and

be free from

must

cent, of lead

lead,

will render

the

unsaleable.
The

size of the

material,which

ore

also affects the market

should

not

be

broken

in

value of the dressed

piecessmaller

than

hazel-nut.
An

is made

allowance

for

gold

and

silver when

present in

The smelters' payments

sufficient quantityto pay for extraction.
The
based on the dry weight.
are
percentage of metal should be

determined
reliable.

by

the

wet

assay, the

fire assay not

being sufficiently

Antimony is mostly used for the manufacture

considerably

of

type-metal.

Its value fluctuates

Arsenic.
The

arsenious

oxide of

commerce

is manufactured

from

arsenical
,

which
pyrites,

is

mined
generally

in association with

ores

of

gold,

ORES

145

ECONOMICALLY.

is largely
Mispickel
producedin Germany,France,
England.

tin.

or

copper,

CONSIDERED

MINERALS

AND

Canada, and

Asbestos.
is found

This mineral
of the world's
Russia,United

veins in

as

serpentine.Over 90 per
Canada, and the balance

from
supplycomes
a
States,Italy,nd Cape Colony.

cent,

from

largestCanadian quarriesare situated in the Province of

there is intersected with numerous
veins
Quebec. The serpentine
of chrysolite,
varyingfrom a mere streak to 6 inches in width. The
The

is 1 inch

width

common

to

inches,and

each other at every angle.

Asbestos is classed in three grades

the

veins

cross

and

recross

Nos. 1, 2, and

"

the longestand

finest

from
fibre,

inches

No. 1

3.

is used

upwards
"

"

for

No. 2 is inferior to No. 1, being harsh and

spinningpurposes.
unbroken
less flexible,
from about J
or discoloured and short,but
inch

It is used

upwards.

contains stillshorter

for engine-packing.
No.
principally

mixed
fibre,

cleaned, it is used

When

fire-proof
paper,

in

the

and
serpentine
manufacture

relative value

The

etc.

with

iron oxides.

of

of the three

cardboard,
is
qualities

4:2:1.
The

to be broken

Canadian

to obtain

contain

mines

of asbestos.

ton

ground

of asbestos ; while the poorer

of rock.
150 tons or more

ton

Asbestic

fossil-meal

and

steam-pipesand
value

"2,

from

as

rich

mines

as

50

raw

of rock

of rock to the

from
used

They are
fire-proof
plaster.
material varies according
to

boilers and

of the

tons

yieldonlya

manufactured

are

of tons

Accordingto Klein,few

short-fibre asbestos.

low-gradeand
The

the number

productiondepends on

cost of

ton

for every

the

refuse

for

covering

"

as

the

quality,

10s. to "20.

ASPHALTUM.
in a soft,viscous state,as a solid,
or
Asphaltor bitumen occurs
limestones
and
bituminous
earths,sands,sandstones,
impregnating
of no particular
age.
land,
of supplyare Trinidad,Italy,
The chief sources
France, SwitzerUnited States,Germany, Venezuela,Russia, Spain,Turkey,
and

Hungary.

The
from
tons

Pitch Lake
20
of

of Trinidad

feet to 30

feet

has made
asphalt

the surface of which

occupiesan

deep.

The

littleapparent

forms

sheet

area

removal

of 99 acres, and varies

of nearly2,000,000

impressionon the deposit,

broken by poolsand channels

146
of

GEOLOGY.

MINING

lake

The

rain-water.

everywherethe
Accordingto

Malo,1

follows

asphaltis as

contains

is firm
deposit
the

liquidasphalt.Nearly

no

to walk

enough

upon.

compositionof

average

the

crude

"

Per cent.

Bitumen,
Water,

Clay,

.34
.30
.36
100

The greater part of the United States

bituminous
sandstones in California

from

bituminous
various

sandstone

of California

points between

contains from

12 to

San

Francisco

18 per cent, of

in

limestones

are

France,Switzerland,Cuba,

Indian

in the United
Territory
Val

The
the

de

at
largequantities

and

Los

lower

the

being

nearlyhorizontal

in

occur

Angeles.2It

remainder

bitumen, the

the most
and

in

occurs

quartz-sand.
of Kentucky
The asphaltdeposits
sandstone
belonging to
fine-grained
period.
Bituminous

is obtained
production
and
Kentucky. The

Carboniferous

importantsource

the States of

of

asphalt

Utah, Texas, and

States.

mine, at Neuchatel, in Switzerland,and

Seysselmines, in France, yieldan asphaltfrom bituminous

limestone
there
to 20

are

Travers

used
extensively

beds of bituminous

seven

feet in

for

At

paving purposes.

Seyssel

limestone,varyingfrom 10 feet

and containing
from
thickness,

4 to

10

per

cent, of

bitumen.
The

Turkish

supply is mainly derived from Albania and

Palestine.
The deposits
Sea regionhave long been
in the Dead
notable.
The bitumen-springs
Musa contain from 30 to
at Nebi
40 per cent, of asphaltum.
The ozokerite deposits
at Boryslaw,in Galicia,
Austria,supply
the
world's
annual
practically
output.
Barytbs.
This mineral

is found

as

in schists and

irregularmasses

stone.
lime-

It is often associated with lead-ores.

The
Great

world's

obtained
is principally
production

Britain,United

States,and

Leon

F. V. Greene, "Asphalt and

p.

Belgium.

from

One

Germany,
largest

of the

1888.
Malo, VAsphalte, p. 20, Paris,
its Uses."

Trans. Am.

Iiist.M.E., vol. xvii.

355, 1888.
Digitized
by

AND

ORES

known

CONSIDERED

MINERALS

occurs
deposits

Silver

at

147

ECONOMICALLY.

the north

Island,near

end

of

Lake

Superior.
Barytesis now largelyemployed in

The

priceof the

the

material varies from

raw

Bauxite.

manufacture

of

paints.

12s. to 21s. per ton.

(See"Alum.")
Bismuth.

Metallic bismuth

in veins in

occurs
generally

and
schist,
gneiss,

cobalt,lead,wolfram, zinc,
clay-slate
accompanying ores of silver,
derived from the silver and cobalt mines
and gold. It is chiefly
in

Saxony and
The

Bohemia.
commercial

of

ores
principal

value

sulphide,

the

are

and carbonate,which are found associated with molybtelluride,

denite,
and
fluorite,
pyrites,
chalcopyrite, apatite.
The

world's

mines

in

South

Saxony.

Wales,

The

supply of
and

bismuth

Small

the State

from
principally

comes

Colorado, New

from

quantitiescome

Queensland.

supplyis greaterthan

the

than

5 per cent, of the metal

priceis about 6s. per pound.

demand, and

leave

no

less
containing

ores

margin

of

profit.The

Borax.
This mineral

occurs

as

in old lake basins

incrustations

less
in rain-

and mixed with clayin marshes

and shallow lagoons.
regions,
Colemanite,which is a calcium borate, is found in California in
bedded
less connected
or
by
depositsas large masses, more
and
bands.
Near
the
colemanite
stringers
Daggett,
deposits
vary
from
The

5 feet to 30 feet in thickness.1

world's supply is derived from

Peru,
is

and
Italy,

derived
chiefly
Boric

Turkey.
from

The

the

United

of the
production

the colemanite

in
deposits

States,Chili,
United

States

California.

acid,which

used in the manufacture

is largely
of borax,
in
the gaseous emanations
of steam fumaroles
volcanic regions. The entire yield
of it from Italy
is derived from
the fumaroles in the Provinces of Pisa and Grosseto.
is obtained

from

Cement.
cement
considered,
Chemically
and clay. There are two kinds

artificialand
1

Marius

R.

is an

intimate

of cement

admixture

in the market

"

of lime

namely,

natural.

Campbell,

"

Reconnaissance

Valley and Mojave Desert,"Bulletin

of

of the
the U.S.

Borax
Oeol.

Depositsof
Survey, No.

Washington,1902.
Digitized
by

Death

200,

148

MINING

Artificial cements
Natural
more

or

United

in almost

all civilisedcountries.

produced direct

requisite
proportionsof lime
New
from

cement

rock

from

containing
clay. France,
Zealand
considerable
produce
quantities
limestone depositsof great
argillaceous

are

States,and

of natural

made

are

cements

less the

GEOLOGY.

and

extent.

The

hydrauliclimestone

the finest natural

bed

15

feet
is

cement

at

in the

thick,interbedded
follows

as

Grenoble, in France, from

in

world

which

is

produced, occurs
Its
compact limestone.

in

position
com-

:
"

Per cent.

Silica,
.

13-40

100-00
The

hydrauliclimestones

in

New

Zealand

17-37

to

10000

are

of

Upper

Cretaceous age.
They vary from 20 feet to 140 feet in thickness.
manufactured
from the rock at Mahurangi showed
Cement
the

followingcomposition:
"

Per cent.

Silica,
Alumina,
Iron

25-44

....

i 15-76

oxides,
.

Lime

5506

carbonate,
Magnesia carbonate,
Alkalies and loss,

2-05
1-69
100-00

The

iron

seldom

exceeds

per

cent.

It

mostly

occurs

as

grainsof glauconite.
Natural

equal to the best artificial Portland

cements, but, generallyspeaking,they lack the uniformity in
compositionof the artificialproduct.
cements

are

often

Chromium.
Chromite

of iron

in peridotite
and
irregularmasses
world's
is
serpentine.The
supply
produced by
principally
Turkey, New Caledonia,Greece, New South Wales, Canada, and
occurs

in

150

MINING

hydrousoxide

GEOLOGY.

mixed

of manganese

with

variable percentage of

cobalt.
The

of cobalt

ores

nickel and

found
generally

are

and sometimes
silver,

of copper and manganese.

Skutterud, in Norway, consist of

cobaltiferous

those

thin
alternating

bands at
beds of mica-schist

with
impregnated

cobalt
pyrites,

The

little chalcopyrite.
So far

those of

accompanying

and

the
quartz-schist,

cobaltiferous
glance,

they have

not

latter

and
mispickel,

provedof

much

value.

Caledonia
is largely
hydrated oxide of cobalt of New
and
It
associated
America.
occurs
exportedto Europe
intimately
which
with hydratedoxide of manganese,
is found in irregular
pocketsof red clayin serpentine.This cobaltiferous wad contains
from 2| to 5 per cent, of cobalt,and at present is the principal
of the world's supply.
source
The

tillthe end of 1901

Up

supplyof

United

the

States

considerable

obtained

was

of the lead-ores from

treatment
Missouri.

portionof

Mine

La

as

the domestic

by-productin

the

Motte, in the State of

Copper.
chief

of copper are the sulphides principally

the
When
the
native copper.
in
ore
occurs
yellowsulphide
3
of
1
of
to
cent,
large masses
capable being cheaplymined,
per
The

sources
"

metal

the

payable. The

is
the

placed in

"

and

associated with

market
iron

is

great bulk

of

the

copper

annually

produced from

and
pyrites,

often

very low-grade ores,

containinga littlegoldand

silver.
The
time
in

of
importantcopper-mines
those of Mansfeld, in Germany

most
are

Spain;

San

Domingo,
the

Arizona, in

and

in

the world
; Rio

Portugal; Lake

United

States; and

at the

present
Tharsis,
Superior,Montana,
Tinto

Mount

and

Lyell,in

Tasmania.
The

to over
of copper amounts
580,000 tons,
production
the United States producesover 55 per cent.
in Michigan,
the copper is
At Lake
States.
Superior,

world's

of which
United

"

conglomerateand sandstone,interstratified with

amygdaloidaldiabase,forming what is known as the

found in beds
flows

of

of

and
series,

which

probablyof pre-Carabrian
age.
the most
The conglomerates
are
productive.In them the copper
been deposited
as the cementing material ; it has evidently
occurs
diabase
The
flows
in
solution.
are
from an aqueous
amygdaloidal
the lower side also may
be
and occasionally
their upper layers,
vesicular.1 They contain rich patchesof native copper associated
Keweenawan

is

with native silver.

1

T. A. Rickard, The Copper Mines

of Lake Superior,
p. 25,1905,New

York.

ORBS

AND

Copper is

MINERALS

also found

CONSIDERED

151

ECONOMICALLY.

in fissure-veins

crossingthe

Keweenawan

series of the northern end of the peninsula.The veins vary from

10 feet to 30 feet in width.
They are richest in the diabase,
in which
found

the

The

in the

occurs

copper
in masses, the

state,being

weighingnearly600

largestmass

in this

productivemines

most

native

and

generally

tons.

region are the "Calumet

Quincy." The two

and

Hecla," "Osceola,""Tamarack,"
former
have
shafts reaching the great depth of nearly5000
"

feet.
It should
littleas
the

be noted

T5

Lake

per

the

as
extremelylow-grade
ore, containing
made
in
to
are
yieldlargeprofits

To

Superiordistrict.

of ore
quantities
The

that

of copper,

cent

are

mined

and

this

achieve

result

enormous

stamped.

features
distinguishing

of the

are
Michigan copper-mines

low-gradeore stamped,the low cost of

tonnage
and the great depth of the mines.
production,
The
productionof the copper-mines in Butte district,in
mines.
Montana, is even
greater than that of the Lake Superior
The most
and
the
Butte
mines
are
Anaconda, Parrot,
productive
Boston, Boston and Montana, and Colorado.
enormous

The
main
has

of

copper is found
lode,which runs

and

Arizona
the

near

Spain

granite. The
Parrot

mines,

along the strike.

of 3 miles

The

copper occurs
the proportion
silver-bearing,

are

and

per unit of copper.

oz.

producelargequantitiesof
copper-mines

carbonates,which

often

Anaconda

distance

which
as
principally
sulphides,
of silver varyingfrom \ oz. to
The

lodes in

of the lodes is 10 feet.

width

average

west

the

through

for
provedproductive

The

and

in east

in

occur

pointof

contact

or

near

with

Carboniferous

or
granite,

oxides

limestone,

with sandstones.

The

Rio
at
Tinto,
copper-deposits
consist
Tharsis,and San Domingo are of great extent.
They
of compact pyritescontainingfrom 1 to 2| per cent, of copperPortugal.

and

pyritesdisseminated
Next

to

the

Germany.

worked

"

The

since the

lying bed

of

throughoutthe

Calumet

copper-minein the

"

and

whole

mass.

Hecla, the Rio Tinto

is the

greatest

globe.

'

Mansfeld
twelfth

in Saxony
copper-mines

century.

shale
cupriferous

of

The

Upper

ore

have

is found

Permian

age,

in

been
a

flat-

withstandin
and, not-

low grade in metal,

comparatively
in finely
it can
with
disseminated
be worked
profit.It occurs
A
colour
shale.
indicates
the
golden-yellow
throughout
particles
chalcopyrites
; a bluish and reddish variegatedcolour indicates
irona
bornite; a steel-gray,copper-glance;
grayish-yellow,
pyrites;and a leaden-gray,
galena.
The whole bed contains copper, but onlythe bottom 3 inch or
its thinness

and

152

MINING

4 inch

average contain 2 to 3 per

of silver to the ton of copper.

rich,and

are

copper and 163

Australasia.
is

oz.

on

cent,

an

of

mania,
Lyell Mine, on the west coast of Taswealth
in the Commoncopper-producers
principal

Mount

"

of the

one

GEOLOGY.

of Australia.
At

the lode

the surface

dark

friable

and

haematite

the oxidised

Below

South

New

In

the

zone

talcose schists

between

estimated

on

Wales

side and

one

there

5000

from

at

of dense
huge gossan, consisting
limonite containinggold and silver.
ore
passedinto massive pyriteslying
a

was

is

It is situated in
Darling,Bogan, and

miles.

square
the

great arid plainlying between

the

Lachlan

The

rivers.

traversed

by

is
country-rock

fissure-veins.

variously

area
copper-bearing

6500

to

the other.

on
conglomerates

None

slate,which

Silurian

of the mines

have

is

worked

been

continuously.
Cryolite.
is

This

51

about

whole

the

fluoride of

of sodium

cent,

per
of

sodium

world's

the

and

aluminium,

fluoride when

supply is

pure.

obtained from

containing
Practically
the

Danish

coast of Greenland.

the west

at Ivigtut,
on
cryolite-mines
which
The white cryolite
in great snow-white
occurs
masses,
in
are
partially
transparent. It constitutes a large bed or mass
a granitic
dyke which traverses a gray gneiss.
Associated with the cryolite
are
quartz,siderite,
galena,
pyrites,
wolframite
also
cassiterite.
and
fluorite,
chalcopyrite,
mispickel,
;

The

ore

is confined

demarcation

passes.
and

The

100 feet

The

to

mineral
or

more

Greenland

the

it and

between

but there is no
granite,
the surroundingrock

is mined

by

open

cuts

about

clear line of
into which it
200 feet wide

deep.1
producenearly8000

mines

tons of cryolite
a
"3
valued
about
the
the
The
bulk
of
at
ton
mines.
at
year,
per
of
output is exportedto the United States for the manufacture

aluminium, for making sodium

manufacture

of sodium

forming in
an

and

aluminium

which
fluoride,

is used to

and
salts,

for the

tions
preventincrusta-

steam-boilers.

is also used to a limited

Cryolite
glasswhich resembles
opalescent

extent

French

in the manufacture

of

porcelain.

Diamond.
Until the discovery
of the mines at Jagersf
ontein and Kimberley,
in the years 1870 and 1871, there is no record that diamonds had
been found except in alluvial deposits
or conglomerates.
1

Mineral

Resources

of United States,
1901, Washington,p.

883.

ORES

CONSIDERED

MINERALS

AND

Kimberley Diamond
in

occur

be old volcanoes.
with
peridotite
do not

which

There
of

are

The

black

They

occur

4000

on

are

believed to

serpentinised

shale,granite,and

diorite
radius

gentlyundulatingplateauat

an

; and do not project

level of the surroundingcountry in the manner
so

feet above

characteristic of breccias

or

in the

pipesof

old volcanoes.

The

smallest

pipe,known

the

Kimberley Mine

sea

agglomerateswhich
the

as

De

of 22 acres ; and the largest,

area
an
The
succession of rocks which
the

area

this field

on

commonly exceed an inch in diameter.1

five necks in close proximity,
that is,within

elevation of about
the

pipesor

diamonds

craters of what

breccia is mainlycomposedof

fragments of

few miles.

above

Mines. "The

the
filling

breccia

153

ECONOMICALLY.

is as follows

Beers

have

consolidated

Mine, has

of 45

surface

acres.

pipe penetratesin

the

"

Feet.

Surface soil and

debris,

30

...

1557

Total,

of the various strata are horizontal,

but it
bedding-planes
of
the
shales
the
sides
of
at
the
edges
pipes
bent upwardsat an angleof about 40" for a distance of about
The faces of the harder rocks,
the melaphyreand
feet back.

The

is noteworthythat the
are

not bent, but

are
polishedand striated in various
quartzites,
directions,
mostlyat an angle of 45" to the vertical. Heneage 3
of the scratches have apparentlybeen made
by
says that some
descendingbodies. The wall-rocks show no signsof fusion.
From the surface down nearlyto the bottom of the melaphyrebed, for a depthvaryingfrom 45 feet to 60 feet,the material filling
oxidised into a soft,
the vent was
yellowish-coloured
clay. At a
100
it
became
and
feet
of
darker
a slateharder,acquiring
depth
1

Professor T. G.

vol. lxv.
of the RoyalSociety,
Bonney,F.R.S.,Proceedings

p. 223, 1899.
2

Gardner

F. Williams,"The

Genesis of the

Diamond," Tram.

Am.

Inst.

M.R, Pamphlet,Sept.1904.
3
Phenomena
of the Diamondiferous
E. F. Heneage,"The
Depositsof
South Africa." Trans. Inst Min. and Met., vol. xii.p. 115. lfifiSHk~-V "-iv*^*

UNlVEi

154
blue

GEOLOGY.

MINING

or

dark-greencolour

in

varieties

places,resembling some

of

serpentine.
forming the blue ground is a darkwhich contains glistening
platesof brown
green dense serpentine,
mica, small dark-red garnets (mostlypyrope),largedark-green
crystalsand grains of olivine,besides enstatite,smaragdite,
chromite, magnetite,and ilraenite. Small fragments
chrome-diopside,
to
of altered black shale are often so abundant
as
give the
material

Four-fifths of the

rock

brecciated appearance.

CL

Fig. 67." Section of

a, Yellow

ground,

the

blue

weather

Kimberley Diamond

Blue ground,
Slates.
gt

aa,

phyre. f,Quartzite.
The

Cb

is greasy to
time it soon

the

ground
for

crushed, the diamonds

Basalt
ft,

Pipe.

sheet,

touch.

c, Shales,

When

and
disintegrates,

being afterwards

extracted

d, Mela-

exposed to
then easily

is

by washingand

hand-picking.
The

late Professor

H. C. Lewis

volcanic peridotite
of
porphyritic
Kimberlite."
proposedthe name

described

the blue

basaltic structure

ground

as

for which

he

"

It has been
of the material
mine
1

has its own

Professor H.
Meeting, British

by several writers that while

the pipesappears to be the
filling
kind of diamond which
particular

noted

C.

Lewis, "The

Matrix

of

the

Association,
Aug. and Sept.1887.

the

composition
each
in all,

same

is so distinctive
"

Diamond,

Manchester

ORES

that

MINERALS

AND

expert buyer

an

certain

seldom,

or

usuallysay

can

155

ECONOMICALLY.

from

which

mine

any

is derived.

particularstone
A

CONSIDERED

the

of
proportion
perhaps never,

diamonds

have

the

broken

and
crystals,
correspondingpieces been
are

found.
diamonds

of the

Many

pieces or splinterwhen
being cut.
Professor

of the

other

minerals

diamond

carbonaceous
a

which

formed

was

matter

usual

by

magma

as

by
the

the

as

the

molten

of

or

from

up

when

primary

believes that

action of steam

forced

and

garnet,mica, and

He

action

flyto

some

is

volcano,but was
in some
differentiation,

of

afterwards

was

much

stage of the

processes

which

by

nor

diamond

the

it is associated.

neither

subsequent solfataric
the

that

igneousrock

with

of stress,and
from their matrix

state

removed

believes

Bonney1

constituent

in

are

hot

the

rock

on

in

water

segregrated
deep-seated

below

into

the

that

the

pipes.
F. Williams2

Gardner
blue

ground

forced

mud

Professor

be

designateda breccia which has been

igneous agency, possiblyin the
by some
volcano.
Among the facts which led him to

this belief he mentions

the

embedded

Kimberlite,as well

with

in the hard

surfaces
polished
Lewis

Professor
formed

shale

regarded

Williams, who
do

as

shales

are

those

lava.
that

diamonds,
in the

to be

Parent
with

states

contain

not

such

the

enclosed

true

pebblesand

as

diamonds
boulders

if water-worn.

advanced

carbonaceous
as

as

of broken

frequentoccurrence

theorythat

hydrocarbons derived

from

Bonney

below

from

up
of

nature

must

with

agrees

This
all the

while

Pretoria

from

the

in

the

were

the

fragments
ground, which

blue

view

diamonds

is

contested

by

of
he
Mr

pipes containing Kimberlite

diamonds

exist in

where
district,

no

some

mines,

carbonaceous

found.

Rock

Of Diamond."

Mr

Williams, while

agreeing

stituent
Bonney that the diamonds are a primary conof some
deep-seatedigneous rock, denies that eclogite
is the parent rock of the gems at Kimberley.
Professor Bonney,3in 1899, reportedthe discovery
of diamonds
in specimens of a coarsely
rock,related to
crystalline
garnetiferous
obtained
from the Newlands
mines, situated about 40
eclogite,
miles
from
this discovery,
he
Kimberley. Commenting on

Professor

Professor T.

G.

Bonney, Proceedingsof

the

Royal Society
\ vol. lxv.

228, 1899.

p.
2

Williams,"The Genesis of the Diamond, Trans, Am. Inst.

M.K, Pamphlet,Sept.1904.
3 Professor
of the Royal Societyvo^bcy^P.
225, 1899.
Bonney, Proceedings
Gardner

F.

"

156

MINING

concluded

that

the

was
eclogite

Africa, a

South

GEOLOGY.

view

which

parent-rockof

has

diamond

the

generallybeen

in

acceptedby

since that date.

Englishgeologists
The

that

the

eclogitewas

originalmatrix of the
diamond
caused Mr Williams, for many
years General. Manager of
the Kimberley mines, to carefully
the eclogitewhich
examine
all
treated
in
in
the
where
it
is
tons
rock.
waste
occurs
as
pipes,
collected and tested by crushing
Twenty tons of this rock were
and jiggingin a test-plant,
but not a singlediamond
found
was
statement

in the

material.

examined

diamond,
found

Mr

hundreds
had

nor

Williams
of

he

in this rock

further

heard

ever

during

that

states

eclogite,but

pieces of

of

all the

the

years

had

also

found

never

diamond

he

having
had

mines

been
been

worked.
The

of diamonds

from Newlands
Mine
eclogite
and not general. That a peridotite
be regarded as sporadic
must
the parent-rockof South
ultra-basic igneous rock was
or
some
African diamonds
be
the laws of magmatic
inferred
from
may
paragenesis.
Genesis of Diamond.
Assuming the diamond to be a primary
constituent
of an
igneous rock, the originalcondition of the
carbon is stilla matter
for conjecture.Did the gem
crystallise
occurrence

in the

"

carbonaceous

from
or

carbide]

known,

remember

to

the

Of

of

or

with the iron

matter, from

small
inferred
the

carbon

nothing definite is
the processes
preventedits oxidation along
with which
It is important
it is always associated.
that the diamond-bearingpipes in the Transvaal
source

shales.
that

mentions
ones,

that

the

of

dioxide,

hydrocarbon,carbon

which

penetrate carbonaceous
Williams

while

the

ordinarylaws

largediamonds

twins

formation

are
or

have

been

found

in a magmatic solution
crystallisation

of

ing
enclos-

which
it may be
rare, from
growth of the diamond followed
not

of rock-

material.

Moissan, in his diamond-making experiments,fused iron rich in

carbon, and allowed it to cool in such a way that the separation
of the

of carbon

excess

microscopicdiamonds
been

found

abnormal

in

took

In this way
place under pressure.
diamonds
have
Microscopic

formed.

were

ordinary cast-iron; hence

pressure

is not

necessary

experiment.
The experiments of

Dr

the natural

of diamonds.

formation

Friedlander

a centimetre
piece of olivine,
1

E. F.

ensure

have

Friedlander

diameter,by

means

that

in

success

closer

"
The Phenomena
of the Diamondiferous
Inst, Min, and Met,, vol. xii. p. 125.

Heneage,

Africa,"Tram.

in

to

inferred

it is

the

bearingupon
fused
of

small

gas blow-

Depositsin

South

158

GEOLOGY.

MINING

conglomerate beds

providedthe material
The conglomerates
contained in them.
are
chiefly
composed of a
is
the
micaceous
which
sandstone
not
originalmatrix
manifestly
The
of the diamonds.
were
probablyderived from some
gems
rock-surface subjected
at the time the sandstone
to denudation
ravines

to

the

which

being formed.

was

greatestdiamonds of which there is any record priorto

1905 are the Koh-i-nor,
793 carats,the Great Mogul, 787*5 carats,
and the Regent,410 carats,all found in the great mines of GaniCoulour
and Gani-Parteal,in India. A stone of over
400 carats
found at Kimberleyin 1884, and one
of 972 carats,named
was
the
at Jagersfontein.The
Excelsior,'
great Cullinan diamond
found earlyin 1905 in the Premier Mine, 31 miles from Pretoria,
The

'

"

3024*75

is

reportedto weigh
inches by 4 inches.
is said to be
from

comes

have

is the

the

free from

in 1903

Kimberleymines, which
to the value

producedstones

flaws.

supply of diamonds

world's

of the

of

It

in the world.

largeststone

perfectin colour and

great bulk

The

This

carats,its size being 2" inches by 2

at

millions

nearlyfour

present

reportedto

are

sterling.

Fireclay.
material

This

association with
and

should
fireclays

As

fusible

by

also

material suitable for

use

as

coal,

Good
fireclay.

52 to 62 per cent, of
10 to 14 per cent, of water.

22
silica,

from

useful

and
injurious,

presentthe

the

the coal vegetation

grew.
in all coal-bearing
but all coal-seams
regions,

contain

be

to

in
generally

rule it lies under

per cent, of alumina,and

of 1 per cent, of lime, magnesia, potash,or
too

beds

layersor

which

found

underlain

not

are

of coal.

seams

is the soil on

are
Fireclays

in stratified

occurs

for

when

clay should

3 per

over

be

The presence
renders a clay

soda

Iron

fireclay
purposes.

to 32

oxides

are

the

protoxideis
tains
conStourbridge
fireclay

cent,

discarded.

of

about

2 per cent.
China-clayor kaolin is found

placeswhere

granitehas

in veins and

in
irregular
deposits
been altered probablyby the emanation

gases from cracks and fissures.

that the kaolinisation of
has shown
Investigation

of steam
other

and

highlyacidic
That

weathering.
katamorphism

rocks

is not

the

decompositionof

does take

result of
the

noted
New

in

atmospheric

mere

in the
felspars

placeis well known,

has been
kaolinisation which
South Wales, Queensland,and
fumarolic agencies.

graniteand

but

the

zone

of

deep-seated

Cornwall, Devon, New

Zealand

must

be ascribed to

ORES

CONSIDERED

MINERALS

AND

159

ECONOMICALLY.

Fluoritb.
is generally
found in
mineral, often called "fluorspar,"
It also
veins in limestone,gneiss,sandstones,and
clay-slate.
This

as

occurs

of metallic ores, especially

of lead.
flux
A small
for
iron-ores.
as a

the gangue

Fluorite is

used
chiefly

employed in the

is

manufacture

of

quantity

and
opalescentglass,

for the

acid.
of hydrofluoric
production
world's

The
which

output

United

the

to

amounts

States

60,000

over

producesabout

one-quarter. The value varies from

about

tons

one-third

and

year, of
Prussia

""1,2s. per

16s. to

ton.

Gold.
is found in veins in

This metal

The

situation.
or
age, composition,
Palaeozoic
those
traversing

regard to
veins

nearlyall kinds

are

of

rock,without

productive

most

sedimentaries,ancient

those
and older TertiaryerUptives,
especially
granites,
basic

of

semi-

type.
of

denudation

The

of
quantities

gold-bearingrocks

gold,which

become

have

liberated

has

more

or

gravels
placers found of all ages,
extendingfrom Middle Tertiaryto recent times.
The gold found in veins traversingrocks of Palaeozoic or older
of high value,while that derived from
Secondaryage is generally
is commonly
veins in andesite and other older Tertiaryeruptives
with
silver.
of low value,being largely
alloyed
derived from rocks of
The gold of Australia,
mainlyor entirely
in alluvial

or

placers.These

large

less concentrated

are

Palaeozoic age, is of high value ; as also is that of the Transvaal.

The gold found in the Palaeozoic mica-schists and slates in the
Zealand is almost pure ; while that derived
Island of New
South

Tertiaryandesites in Auckland
with one-third in weight of silver.
alloyed
The

feature

same

Northern
The

vein

that

of

Russian

the andesites of
and

the

value,being

gold produced

goldis of

high

in

the

value,while that

is of low value.
Transylvania

California is commonly very pure ;

Colorado, mostly derived from veins

placergoldof

Nevada

later
traversing
with

characterises

Hemisphere.

derived from
but

is of low

the

from

and

is of
eruptives,

low

grade,being generally
alloyed

largeproportionof silver.

peculiar
phenomenon is too generalto be accidental. It is
at present be
can
happeningof which no adequateexplanation
This

offered.
A

considerable

quantityof goldis

derived

from

silver,
copper,

160

MINING

lead

and

; and

ores

The

value

smaller

from

amount

ores

of

antimony,

and tungsten.

arsenic,manganese,
estimated

GEOLOGY.

of

the

world's

productionof gold

for 1904

was

"75,000,000.
gold producedby the five great producingregionsin
1905,accordingto Mr F. Hobart, was as follows :
at

The
and

1904

"

Transvaal,

United States,

Australasia,
Russia,

Canada,
The

1904.

1905.

"15,624,548
16,144,640

"20,259,192
17,267,540
17,104,425

17,420,170
5,015,071
3,280,000

centres
goldfield
productive
Creek.
Cripple

most

4,800,000
2,883,625

in the

globeare

the

Rand,

and
Kalgoorlte,
In

the

of

Commonwealth

of Australia

and

United

States,which

continental

dimensions,the gold-bearing
depositsoccur
conditions.
varyinggeological
many
Victoria.
In this State the gold is derived from three principal
from Tertiarydeep-leads,
and
sources
namely, from quartz-veins,
from recent graveldrifts.
The deep-leads
consist of placergravelsof Miocene and Pliocene
The latter have proved the most productive,
and are in many
age.
places,as, for example,near Ballarat,protectedby a thick sheet
of basalt,the lava having flowed down
the ancient valleyand
covered up the river gravelsand sands.
The quartz-veins
occur
mainly in Silurian slates. The goldclass of orebearing veins at Bendigo belong to the interesting
are

under

"

"

termed
deposits

arches, and
more

less

or

which
saddle-reefs,

send

down

with
parallel

occur

in the

crown

of anticlinal

or
tapering prolongations
legs,running
the
of
country-rock.
bedding-planes

distinctive feature of the veins in the Ballarat Goldfield is

the presence of the famous
These are thin beds
indicator beds.
The

of black

carbonaceous

in the Silurian
pyriticslate,which occur
and consequentlyconstitute a distinct member
or horizon
slates,
The
slates stand
in a
of the country-rock.
nearly vertical
while
contained
the
lie
veins
zontal.
nearly horigold-bearing
position,
Along the plane of intersection of the quartz-veins and
indicators there
Western
which
wide

form

occurs
generally

Australia.
the

"

basement

belts of ancient

In

rich

ore.

this State

rocks of the

the

schists
crystalline
traversed
by
country are
dioritic
are
or
eruptives

eruptives. These
hornblendic in different places,
and are often so much
altered that
At
their originalcharacter
is not
always easilydetermined.
Kalgoorliethe hornblendic belts have been altered and silicified,

ORES

AND

probablyby

MINERALS

solfataric

These

structure.

CONSIDERED

action,and

mineralised

generallyexhibit

belts

161

ECONOMICALLY.

the

form

schistose

oregold-bearing

bodies.
other

In

wide

by
and

Australia the schists

parts of Western

belts of diorite and

often

schistose

in

traversed

are

diabase,nearlyalwaysmuch
These

structure.

altered,

as
greenstone-schists,

bodies of quartz ; or
termed,contain gold-bearing
they are locally
traversed
w
hich
of
intersected by
are
they are
granite,
by dykes
veins.
gold-bearing
New
South
Wales.
In this old colonypayablegold occurs
in
"

veins

slates
intersecting

Accordingto

age.

; and
between
Goldfield,

andesite
The

the contact

In

of

not

veins

worked

Mudgee.

are

at the

In the

ferous
Carboni-

of

common

Hargraves

Lucknow

in

irregularveins
serpentinebelt.

occurs
a

conglomeratesforming the
the

been

and

ore
gold-bearing
near

of Silurian and

Pittman, bedded

Hill End

but
gold-bearing,

are

sandstone

have
saddle-reefs

occurrence

the

and

in

trict
dis-

augite-

lowest beds of the coal-measures

in payablequantity.
apparently

field the

Timbarra

in veins in granite,
and
gold occurs
also in pyritesdisseminated throughout the graniteitself. G. W.
Card1 has reportedthe occurrence
of gold in unaltered
granite
and

eurite.
of the

Many

in
deep-leads

this State

are

covered

by

flows of

basalt.

Queensland.
shallow

of

The

"

alluvial

goldobtained

placersand

Devonian

age
where
State,particularly

are

the

from

in

Queensland is derived from

quartz-veins.Slates

and

stones
sand-

in
gold-bearing
have

strata

parts of the
many
been intruded by dykes

diorite,
diabase,or porphyrite.

of

productiveveins at Charters Towers

enclosed in granite,
in porphyry.
but some
occur
At Gympie Goldfield the goldoccurs
in veins traversing
a
Many

of

the

most

are

belt

of diorite.
The

celebrated

at Mount
gold-deposit
Morgan is a siliceous
the gossan of a huge pyritic
contact occurring
haematite,
apparently
the
altered
sedimentaries
of
Permo-carbonnear
boundaryof
iferous age and a dyke of hornblendic
granite. The strata are
also intruded by later dykesof porphyritic
dolerite. The eruption
of these dykes is believed to have originated
the solfataric action
of
the pyritic
the alteration of the upper
to which
part
body is

ascribed.
Tasmania.
and
1

in

"

In

this small

quartz-veins.The

State
latter

goldis found in recent placers

generallytraverse strata of

Auriferous
Some
Rock Specimens from
Card, "On
1895.
N.S.
fT.,p. 154,
Timbarra, Becards,QeoU Surveyof
G.

W.

Granite

at

"

DigitizecMV^OO

162

MINING

Silurian

In

age.

Lisle and

the

a belt
intersecting

in veins
New

Zealand.

In

"

and
placers,
Tertiary
veins

GEOLOGY.

Goldfields

Golconda

of

granite.
colony gold

this

is found

sandstones of supposed Carboniferous

Peninsula,in altered andesites of Middle

The

and

in recent

in

and

Hauraki

occurs

quartz-veins. In Otago the gold-bearing

in clayin Silurian mica-schist;in Reefton
district,

occur

stones

gold

conglomerates and

quartz

at

cements

age ; and

in the

Tertiaryage.
the

base

of

the

Middle
seldom

contain
water-worn
gold, but
Tertiary coal-measures
in payable quantities.It is noteworthy,however, that
of
the richest placersin Otago and Westland
are
a rewash
many
of these ancient gravels.
United
States.
The gold of this country is obtained
from
veins,or from placersresultingfrom the erosion of gold-bearing
"

country and the concentration

In
"

the

State
"

Lode

Mother

of

the veins

at
particularly

in and
this

placersalong

gold

belt

masses

high quality.
A second gold
the veins

belt of

among
remarkable

occur

stretch

The

richest in
of

contained

of the

Colorado

and
andesites,
phonolites,

North

gold-bearing
gold is of

great importance lies in Eastern

the watershed
in

the

are

The
age of this
is believed to be Cretaceous.

within

the

Cityand Grass Valley,1

of granodiorite.The

Nevada

intrusive

near

America.
veins

as

in slates and. altered igneousrocks

and Calaveras
Jurassic age.
In Tuolumne

and

more

occur

contents.
vein-system known

the
California,

is contained

of Carboniferous

counties,and

of the valuable

River.

fornia,
Cali-

In this belt

trachyteof

probably

Middle

and associated
Tertiaryage. The gold is alloyedwith silver,
with silver-ores,
etc.
pyrites,
The largerpart of the gold-production
of California is obtained

from
The
from

the Cretaceous belt.

gold produced in the State of Colorado is mainly derived

veins traversingArchaean granite,
the overlyingandesitic
or

tuffs and
Creek

breccias,which

district.

well

These

are

developedin
typically

igneousrocks,which

consist of

the

Cripple
heavy flows

fragmentary matter, are believed by American geologists

to be of post-Miocene
age.
A considerable quantityof gold is also derived as a by-product
from the silver-lead ores
of Leadville and other mining centres,
which
in veins in altered sedimentaries and eruptivesof
occur
Mesozoic
Colorado
is the largestgold-producing
State in
age.

as

as

America.
The

The
bulk

of

not
are
placer-deposits

the

gold

of Montana

Waldemar
Lindgren, "The
of North America," Tram. Am.

Inst. Min.

of

great extent.

is derived

Features
Geological

from

lead-silver

of the Gold Production

vol.
xxxiii. p. 817, 1903.
Eng.t

ORES

MINERALS

AND

in Archaean

163

ECONOMICALLY.

CONSIDERED

veins of copper-ore occurringin

intrusive granites
of supposedUpper Cretaceous or Lower Tertiary
veins

from

rocks,or

Butte.

developednear
principally

age,
In

State

the

of Palaeozoic and
and
basalts.

Nevada, the basement

of

andesite.

silver ores, is contained

in
*
Eureka
in limestones
occur
their

of

Southern
The

value

in

In

the massive

are

gold.

groups.
lodes of the

The

silver-lead

phyry,
por-

of

ores

carry one-third
De
Lamar, in

mine
gold-silver

Nevada, occurs
of
gold-bearingdeposits
two

dykes of

many

and
eruptives,

near

The

in Palaeozoic

belong to

by

sedimentaries

are

by Tertiaryrhyolites,andesites,and
Lode, long celebrated for its dry gold-

Comstock

The

age, intruded

Mesozoic

smothered

rocks

quartzites.

Black

Hills,in South

Dakota,
important,there
which consist of
district,

the most

one

group,
Homestake

belt of Archaean

intersected in great areas

schists,closely
by
thin stringsand veins of quartz carrying free gold and
goldknown
The Belt,is 6000
as
bearingpyrites. This deposit,
locally

long and
only rendered
feet

The

feet wide.2

2000

veins

older
intersecting

the

Kootenaydistrict the

gold occurs

The

gold

the

of

Douglas
which, accordingto
diorite,
silicifiedby solfataric

or

dykes in
follow.
theyclosely

occurs

as

which

A. C.

and

Mesozoic

intrusive

Spencer3

series of intrusions

which

distance of about

is

placers
In

in copper-bearing
principally
Mesozoic

age.
Treadwell

from

Professor

Mines,

mineralised

Becker, has

been

on

albitealtered

hydrothermalaction. The diorite

black slates,
the bedding-planes
of
the

that

states

from

Palaeozoic rocks.

celebrated

Island,in Alaska, is derived

and

is derived

intersect rocks of Lower

veins,which
"

ore

Columbia

of British

and

Alaska.

is very low grade,and

the magnitudeof the operations.

by
profitable

gold output

The

appear

ore-bearingdykes belong to a
along the strike
interruptedly

3000
feet
miles,in a zone approximately
In
the
of
intruded area
wide.
the greater part
are
exposures
and
side
the
toward
small
the
centre
few,
only
dykes outcrop on
for

of

the

island.

limited,but
defined

by

slates and

On

next
a

to

this

side

the

shore

heavy bed

the

intrusive

the

adjacentchannel.

the

known

of

minable

ore

the

zone

of Gatineau

Inst. Min.

channel

irregularly

the border is
the

dykes,and
The

occur

dippingwith them toward

mineralised
dykes which constitute
justbeneath this greenstone, which

Features,etc.,p. 829.
Lindgren,Geological
Ore Depositsof
B. Carpenter,"The
Am.

be

to

with
greenstone running parallel

2F.

Trans.

seems

the Black

Hills of

Dakota,"

Eng.t vol. xvii. p. 570, 1889.

A. C. Spencer,"Geology of the Treadwell

Am.
Inst. M.E.t p. 14, 1904.

Ore

Alaska,"Pamphlet,
Deposits,
Digitized
by

164

MINING

GEOLOGY.

and
thus constitutes the hanging-wallboth of the intrusion zone
of the ore-bodies. Many of the dykes of albite-diorite away from
the hangingaltered and impregnatedwith
wall have been greatly
pyrite,but workable ore-bodies have not yet been discovered
in them.
The relations of the mineralised
diorite dykes to the associated
shown

country-rockare

Fig.68.

"

in the

accompanying diagram.

Cross-section through Alaska-Tread well Mine and Northern

Side of Douglas Island. (AfterSpencer.)

generallyassociated with pyritesin stringsof

quartz and calcite ramifyingthrough the ore -body.1
The ore is extremelylow grade,but, notwithstanding
the
this,
and
annual profits
are
large
regular.
and Nome
districts the gold is derived from
In the Yukon

gold

The

is

placers.
the whole of the gold of this State is
Practically
derived from beds of pyritic
interbedded
quartzose conglomerate,
Palaeozoic age.
The
banket reefs,as
of Lower
with quartzites
these gold-bearing
conglomeratesare locally
termed,vary from a
in
south
feet
thickness.
inches
4
at angleswinch
to
few
They dip
The most productive
are
steeperat the outcrop than elsewhere.
about 115 feet thick.
in a belt of quartzite
beds occur
contained
in
the quartz pebbles,but in the
The gold is not
The bankets are remarkable for their
siliceous cementing matrix.
Transvaal.

great

extent

"

and

of the
description
Russia.
from

"

uniform

value

over

chief banket-beds

Almost

all the

on
placer-deposits

gold

the western

wide

stretches.

is given in

detailed

Chapter II.

produced in Russia
flanks of the Ural

is derived

Mountains.

slopesof the range consist of younger

intruded by masses
of granite,diorite,
Palaeozoic sedimentaries
but
not
and
diabase. Gold-bearingveins,
generallyvery proThe

foothills on

R. A.

the western

Kinzie,"The

Pamphlet,p. 9, Trans.

Treadwell Group of Mines, DouglasIsland,

Alaska,"
Am, Inst. Min. Eng., vol. xxxiv. p. 334, 1894.

166

MINING

the

At

present time

world's

output.
amounting to 30

France
follow

Then

GEOLOGY.

than

producesmore

the

United

per cent., Canada

with

States,with

houses, and

for

Great

Paris,of

agricultural
purposes.

from 6s.
pricevaries,accordingto locality,

The

output

an

8 per cent.,and

Britain with 7 per cent, of the total production.1

of plasterof
Gypsum is used in the manufacture

plasterfor interior walls of

the

half

to 12s. per ton.

Iron.
The

ores

of iron of commercial

value

haematite,magnetite,and haematite

brown

limonite,or
siderite,

are
or

iron.
specular

commonly occur in beds forming

members
of nodular masses, more
of a stratifiedseries,
or in layers
in association with coal-measures.
especially
Clay ironstone,an
in most of the
carbonate of iron,is common
impure argillaceous
and in those of Pennsylvaniaand Ohio, in the
British coalfields,
In Scotland
it contains a large proportionof
United States.
The

carbonate

carbonaceous
The

spathicores

or

matter, and is known

years to occupy
many
iron and steel.

Beds, nodular

dominant

and
layers,

many
of little value.
outside

ore,

which
The
of

the

Among

great extent, and

importedinto Great
They occur in beds
The

brown
and

manufacture

of

those of Cleveland,

England.
depositsof Bilboa,in Spain,are

about

limestone

for

in
spathiciron occur
small
and
generally
of spathose
deposits

70 per cent,

Britain for the manufacture

in

haematite
value.

are

Britain

Lias of

haematite
furnish

of

veins

the

coal-measures,are

in the Middle
brown

veins

valuable

most

Carboniferous

occur

red and

the

The

ore.

iron-ore enabled

in
position

even

formations.
geological

black-band

as

close association of coal and

of Cretaceous

of the
deposits
embrace

of the

ore

steel.

age.

United States

all the

raw

of iron and

are

of

great

varieties of

hydrated
o
f
iron
recognisedas limonite,gbthite,turgite,
bogsesquioxide
The
the
States
of
etc.
are
principalproducers
Virginia,
ores,
West Virginia,
Alabama, Colorado,and Pennsylvania.
extent

The

Huronian

They

and

Lauren

tian rocks of North

America

contain

depositsof magnetiteand red haematite,which occur as huge

interstratified
and as regional
contact-deposits
metamorphic masses
rocks with which they are associated.
with the crystalline
in Laurentian
The most valuable deposits
of magnetic ore occur
New
rocks in the States of Pennsylvania,
Jersey,New York, and
Michigan.2

vast

1
2

The
The

Mineral
Mineral

Resources
Resources

of the United States,

Washington,1901.
of the United States,
1903, Washington,p. 44.

ORES

Red

AND

CONSIDERED

MINERALS

haematite

167

ECONOMICALLY.

constitutes 83

per cent, of the annual output of

States,and continues to be suppliedby the

iron-ore in the United

Lake

the
of supply are
sources
Superiorregion. The principal
Mesabi Range, in Minnesota, with an annual output of 14,000,000
tons; the Menominee
Range, in the States of Michigan and
with
an
Wisconsin,
output of 5,000,000 tons ; MarquetteRange,
in Michigan,4,000,000tons ; and Gogebic Range, 4,000,000tons.
annual
The
been
Range has never
output of the Mesabi
reached by any other iron-ore region in the world, the closest
in Biscayan Spain, which
competitorbeing the Bilboa district,
produces7,500,000tons.
to nearly
output of iron-ore in Great Britain amounts
and
haematite ores.
13,500,000 tons, being mainlyspathic
The magnetite and specular
iron-ore deposits
of Scandinavia,
of Sweden, are
of great extent.
more
especially
They occur
districts as
rocks, in some
regional
generallyin crystalline

The

and in others as contact-deposits

metamorphic deposits,
genetically
with eruptives. The
total annual
connected
output is about
2,500,000tons, the bulk of which is exportedto Germany.
Iron-ores
Australasia.

What
Iron

that

at

Port

Augusta, in

contain
In New
enormous

the

commercial

of

value

Knob

and

Iron

not

are

described

has been

as

very

abundant

in

most

important

is

the

Monarch, 41 miles W.S.W.

Australia,which has been estimated to

21,000,000tons of high-gradehsematite and manganic iron.1
of limonite occurs
at Parapara
Zealand,a largedeposit
; and
quantitiesof titanic ironsand are distributed along the
South

shores of Taranaki
Iron-ores

and

Patea.
40

containingless than

rarelysmelted,and

only those

per

cent,

containingover

of the
50

A
rich commercial
considered rich.
sample of
should contain from 60 to 65 per cent, of the metal.
A

of

depositof

metal

are

cent,

are
per
red haematite

value must
be of
of any market
rich ore, be free from silica,
sulphur,

iron to become
contain

great extent, must

smelted,situated in the proximityof coal

easily
phosphorus,
that it could be
and limestone,or so accessible to deep water
and
cost for handling,
to the smelters at a minimum
transported

and

of the world.
easy reach of the great markets
and
deleterious matter
found in iron-ores,
Silica is the most

within

exceed

10

of no
are
mercial
comSulphide-ores
value for the production
of iron, as the whole of the
sulphurcan onlybe removed by a dead oxidisingroast,which is
facture
however, is mined for the manua costly
operation. Iron-pyrites,
acid. Depositsof rich haematite are someof sulphuric

should

H.

not

Y. L.

Brown,

"

per

Notes

on

cent.

the Iron

Supplementary Mining
Australia,"

and

PhosphateDepositsof

Records, 1905, p. 6.

Adelaide.

South

168

MINING

times

rendered

valueless

GEOLOGY.

the

by

sulphide-ore.
Arsenical pyrites
is generally
of
except it contains goldor tin.
The
in

no

presence

free from

sulphur
phosphorusmay

arsenic,

available for

smelting

the other

On

be

practically
rich

hand, ores

of basic steel.
used for the manufacture
the
the
whole of
nearly
phosphorus

be

blast-furnace work

present in the
For

coke

per cent.
of acid steel must

phosphorus.

or

In normal

of

source

arsenic in iron-ores should

or

The

Iron-ores for the manufacture

in

as

percentage of

1
sulphurexceeding

contain

not

value

no

sulphur,copper,

exceed 0*10 per cent.

case

must

of

of

presence

goes into the pig.

steel-makingpurposes the relative value
ore

of

iron-ores,as

regardstheir phosphorus-contents,
dependson
For

the process in view.

rise in value in proportion
as

acid process, ores

the phosphorusis low, the maximum
the

For
An

Bessemer

the

Bessemer

average

sampleof

being about

0*03 per cent.

valuation is the reverse.

basic process the

pigfor the basic process contains

"

Per cent.

Silicon,

Sulphur,

Manganese,

Phosphorus,
Ores
limits
of

0-50-1-00

0-05-0-15
0-35-2*00
l'OO-3'OO

between
containinga phosphorus-percentage
are

suitable for

phosphorusis very

the

in which, however, an
foundry-work,
objectionable.

above
excess

Lead.
The

most

valuable

abundant

and

ores

of lead

are

galena and

are
cerussite,which
generallyfound in veins in limestones,
in gneiss,
calcareous slates,and
sandstones, and occasionally
and
andesite.
Cerussite
found
in
in
the
shallow
mica-schist,
only

parts of
of

lead-mines.

Galena
2

silver,
varying from

usuallycontains
3

to

oz.

oz.

small

to hundreds

of

proportion
ounces

per

ton, and is commonly associated with blende and pyrite.

The
short
to
are

26

world's

productionof

tons, of which

the

lead

1,000,000
States' domestic output is equal

United

per cent, of the whole.

The

Spain,Germany, Mexico, and

The

Hill

Broken

to about

New

amounts

other

chief

South

of
producers

Wales.1

in
Proprietary
Company (Limited),

lead-mine in the world.

South Wales, is the most productive
Lead-ores are purchased
by smelters on the fire assay.
1

The Mineral

lead

vol. xiii,
1904.
Industry,
Digitized
by

New

ORES

AND

MINERALS

169

ECONOMICALLY.

CONSIDERED

Magnesite.
This

mineral

serpentine. The

is

generallyfound
world's supply comes

Austria,the Island of

in

Eubcea, in

in

veins

and

in

masses

from
principally

Styria,

Greece, and California.

Calcined

used in the manufacture

of
magnesite is extensively
bricks for lining electric and basic-steel furnaces,in the manufacture
of paper-stock
in the sulphite
in
the
production
process,
of Epsom salts,magnesia, and carbon dioxide for the carbonating
mineral

of

material
non-conducting
etc.
boilers,
steam-pipes,

waters, etc., and

prevent loss of heat from

The

market

value of crude

as

magnesiteis about "\

to

per ton.

Manganese.
The

of
ores
principal
pyrolusite.
They are

and

in

or

beds, veins, or

the

are

manganese

found
generally
in

masses,

oxides,psilomelane

in

slates and

superficial
masses,
slatyshales,often

associated with haematite.

'

Rich

70 per cent, of the oxide,

over
ores, containing
manganese
used for making ferro-manganese,
which
contains about 80

are

of manganese,
and is then in
Bessemer
in
and
Siemens plants.
using

per

cent,

convenient

form

for

Silica in manganese
should not exceed 12 per cent.
The
ores
best ores contain less than 0*10 per cent, of phosphorus
; but on
the London
the value of the ore
metal-market
is not seriously
affected even
if the percentage reaches 0*20.
Beyond this limit
it diminishes the sellingvalue of the ore.
A few years ago, when spiegeleisen
was
was

demand

good

for

used

ores
manganiferous-iron

there
extensively,

containing20

to

30 per cent, of manganese

and about 30 per cent, of iron.
Some
them
contain sufficient silver to make
manganese-ores
valuable for their silver-contents than for the manganese.
more
of high grade, say
Pyrolusite
small

extent

70 per cent.,is used to a

in chlorination-works,
of
and for the manufacture

For
bleaching-powder.
carbonates
The

as

these

over

purposes

it must

be

free from

as

possible.

countries
great manganese-producing

are

Russia, United

States

(where the bulk is raised in Michigan and Wisconsin),

India,Brazil,Chili,Spain, Germany, and Turkey. The total
the
to nearly2,000,000 tons, of which
output in 1904 amounted
United States
The

producedabout

third and

Russia

about

third.

Russian output is mainly derived from Miocene sandstones

claysin the Caucasus. The price varies from 7d. to lid.
unit.
per

and

170

MINING

GEOLOGY.

Mica.
Mica

is

commercial

value

capableof
The

constituent

when

valuable

veins

or

inch

square

in micaceous
from

vary

pegmatiteveins,or dykes,as
in

or

minerals

felsparand

the

Valuable

mica

other times
Mica

several

to

writers suppose

found

and

and

improves with the

Veins under

the

is found

mica

is found

uniform

coarse

in those veins in

masses,

in

is

mica

apatite.

called blocks
crystals,

the surface is soft and

mineral

more

colour

in

Canadian

in the vein in

on

better-coloured

the harder

resemble

in largemasses.
crystallised
in small

are

them

and
quartz,felspar,

"

rough
evenly distributed throughout the
contact with the country-rock.

the

near

when

The

occurs

books,sometimes

mica

hornblende

inches

few

some

have

quartz

usuallyof littlevalue.

and

generallyin

gneissin

varyingproportions.They commonly
in general the best mica is found

the constituent

Where

or

in size.

more

occur

and
granite,
which

a
possesses
that are

masses

abundant, and

be, consist of the three essential minerals

mica"

only

feet thick.

These
to

The

not

and
granite,

in

blocks

in

occurs

are
deposits

mica-schist.

hundred

it

rocks, but

many

being splitinto sheets

pegmatiticveins
and

of

lower down

at

mass,

Clearer
cracked.
in the solid ; and

rock-formation,the better is the

In other words, the quality

the

substance.

depth.

2 feet in width seldom

of commercial

contain mica

value,except as scrap-mica.
As

than 10 per cent, of the mica mined

generalrule not more
of
the balance being waste
into
cut
or
capable
being
plates,
In
the
United
mines
in
States
the
some
scrap-mica.
yieldof
a

is

is less than

sheet-mica

and

India

and

Canada

3 per cent.1
the chief
are

the United

Europe
depositsin

States.

but
places,

many

few

present the supplyfor domestic

In the mica-mines
rock.

The

coloured
Sheet

of

greatest

mica

is

furnace

used
largely

clear and

and

free

stove

from

colour,white mica
of little value.
range
1

from
Mineral

1"

is

there

3 square

and
doors, lamp-protectors,
For

of commercial

are

use

doors

is for

insulators

in

value,and

is found in

best mica
sheets

at

India.

from
the

of

and

for

stove

ruby-

windows

electrical

the material

choicest

is in
Biotite

blocks
or

The standard sizes for the purposes

in. by 2 in. up^to 8 in. by 10 in.
of the United States,
p. 874.

and

machinery.

windows

next.
being preferred

Resources

used

upwards.

for furnace

spots. The

mica

mainlyderived

inches

and

the

country contains mica-

latter

Bengal in India,the

demand

from
variety,

of

sources

The

black

be

must

of winemica

is

stated above
Smaller

Washington, 1901.

sizes

ORBS

AND

seldom pay for

of

MINERALS

mining and preparation.Large

grainare

essential characters.

The

of the mica

bulk

placedon

in the
principally

171

ECONOMICALLY.

CONSIDERED

fineness

is used for electrical

the market

construction

size and

of

dynamos,alternators,
For these uses
the sheets must be flexible,
free
etc.
transformers,
and must
from cracks,capableof withstandinghigh temperatures,
essential
for
be non-conducting,
low
of
iron
a
being an
percentage
purposes,

perfectcleavageis of

is of little moment, but

"
electrical mica
the highestimportance,
as
latter.

the

Colour

thickness,and

is often

gauged to

"

be of uniform

must

the thousandth

part of

an

inch.

followingcommunication, received by the Agent-General,

in London, for South
"fcCo., of
Australia,from Messrs Nathan
useful particulars
to the priceand market
London, givessome
as
The

condition
"

of mica

"

All the sizes which

saleable
readily
for 2 in.

by

auction

will yieldare
crystal

at

present

3d. per pound

Thick12 in. ness

pricesranging from

at

in.,to 7s. 6d. per pound for 8 in. by

by

the native

T*Fin. to J in. is
All qualities
saleable.
but it is obviously
are
saleable,
impossible
estimate of probable
two
to givean
a
s
no
yield
prices,
properties
similar mica, and it would be necessary to see a case or
precisely
the
of
actual stuff before anything approachinga final
two
judgment could be passedupon it.
The mica crystals,
One or two important
points
may be made.
be trimmed
after being split,
with ordinaryhand-shears,all
may
exceed

not

must

Anything

in.

from

"

cracked

aiming
such
"

edges being

of
regularity

at

waste, remember
The

chief

material

to be used
next

even

in

as

secure

is sound

laminae

and

the latter shows

is used
"

for

due

as

material

by

without
possible,

area

without

would

cracks,for it is

militate

against a

secure

flat surface
perfectly
'

pn

between

Any lumps or unevenness

hydrationor often to metallic insertion,

to

itselfin

varietyof

far

as

the

electricinsulator.

an

importanceis to

the

waste

are
rectangular
preferred.
plates

the mica into sheets.

splitting
are

not

cracks
microscopic

that

The

Do

shape, but,

that

thing to

obvious
"

removed.

'

spots. Mica with metallic insertions

purposes,

but

is useless for

insulating.

Summarising :
(a) Avoid marginalcracks.
"

(b)Splitto a thickness of yT in. to J in.

(c)Avoid uneven
platesas far as possible.
(d) Cut in rectangularplatesas far as possible.
(e)Throw out broken plates altogether"they will
and charges."
pay freight
1

The New

Zealand

Mines

Record,February1905,

p. 299.

not

'byt^oogle

Digitized

172

MINING

For

some

Ground

thickness.
is used

mica

The

market.1

and
cleanly

platesshould
and
flawed pieces,

The

be about

J in. thick,and

cut

rectangularshapesif possible.

sorted

so

as

crumpled

to cut

to
according

varies

mica

priceof

should

be trimmed

The
or

lubricant

sheet

sharplyinto

and

for decorative purposes.

be exercised in the preparation
of mica

as

must

greatestcare

for the

irregularpiecesof mica, otherwise

together,and built up into sheets of any

cemented

useless,are

The

small

purposes

desired size and

GEOLOGY.

away any
their colour.

accordingto

its size and

colour.

It

increase of size ; thus Englishpricelists quote

6 in. at 2s. 6d. per lb.,and 3 in. by 6 in. at

rapidlywith

rises
sheets

2 in.

by

6s. 6d. per lb.

bo

cl

Fig. 69."
a,

Section

throughPegmatiteVein.

MeUmorphic

(AfterH.

K.

Scott.)

schist ; b, decomposedpegmatitewith
mica

books

; c,

quartz.

Molybdenum.
commercial

The

ores

of this metal

are

the sulphide
molybdenite,
;

the yellowoxide ; and to a small extent

wulfenite,the
molybdite,
molybdateof lead.
out
Molybdeniteoccurs in beds, or disseminated in scales throughstone.
and
rocks
such
as
granite,gneiss,
crystalline
granularlimein California and
It is produced in commercial
quantities

Canada.

In

the

Haliburton

in Ontario, it
district,

quartz veins,commonly associated

with

occurs

in

and
pyrrhotite,
pyrites,

chalcopyrite.
At

Wolfram

Camp,

has
molybdenite
1

H.

Kilburn

for
Preparation

been

in the
found

Hodgkinson Goldfield,Queensland,
in payablequantities
in clean white

the Occurrence of Mica in Brazil and on

Scott, "On
the Market," Trans. Inst. Min. and Met.,vol. xi.,1902-3.

its

174

MINING

has been
and

attended

with

great

the

of nickel
production
longenjoyedby the New

so

broken

duringthe past few

success

has been

so

Caledonia

large that

mines

has

the

been

years,

monopoly

completely

up.

addition to

In
2*8

GEOLOGY.

nickel,the Sudbury ore

cent., and

per

platinum,about
In the

about

cobalt

oz.

0*8 per
lb. of nickel matte.

in 1000

Sudbury district there

ore-bodies

copper about
cent., and a little

contains

is

regularvein-system. The

no

in detached groups.
or
separately,
depositsare commonly lenticular,
pinching out

The

occur

directions and
Huronian

conforming to

schists.

The

ore

the

general strike

of the

in,and

always occurs

in

both

enclosing
ments
frag-

contains

of,a basic and altered eruptiveof the gabbro type relative

to norite.

Accordingto
within

C. W.

Dickson

this

the

ore-bodies

its contact

with

the

either well

occur

other

eruptiveor
prevailing
or
district,
quartzite,
namely,granite granitic-gneiss,
the metamorphosed representative
of a series of basic sedior
mentaries,now termed
greenstones by the Survey of Canada.
at

rocks of the

"

"

Cliff

SE

NW

Fig.

70." Section of Ore

a, Huronian

Three

main

Depositat Copper Cliff. (AfterJ.

schists ; 6, Diorite (norite)

; ct

belts of these norites and

H.

Collins.2)

Pyriticore-body.

associated

tites
micro-pegma-

as
recognised,
designated
Northern,Middle,and
at
respectively.
They are,
present, mapped as
and
but
genetically
mineralogically
they are essentially
separate,
the Southern
belt is the most important.
identical. Economically
are

Southern

now

the

belts

of Sudbury, Ontario,"Trans. Am.

W.
Dickson, "The
Ore-Deposits
1904.
vol.
xxxiv.
M.
Inst.
K,
p. 3,
2
J. H. Collins,
Quart. Jour. Geo. Soe. London, vol. xliv. p. 834, 1888.
i

C.

ORES

CONSIDERED

MINERALS

AND

175

ECONOMICALLY.

of Sudbury is still a questionof

genesisof the pyrrhotite
doubt.
writers,includingVogt, it is due to
According to some
the developmentof magmatic differentiation in a coolingrockThat
depositsof magnetite, chromite, and
many
magma.
have
corundum
originatedin this way is almost certain; but
that metallic sulphides
can
separateout as primaryconstituents
still
of a rock-magma is
open to doubt.
1
that the nickel and copper were
leached
considers
PhilipArgall
and conformed
out of the norite in which
centrated
originally
they were
a view
alongzones of fracture by a process of replacement,
2 of
Professor
Beck
Freiberg,who maintains that the
supportedby
The

brecciated nature

during,

or

the

of

ore

have

must

been

due

to

deposition

after,the metamorphism.

of
important use of nickel is in the manufacture
nickel-steel,
containingabout 3" per cent, of nickel. Considerable
quantitiesare used for platingiron goods,and in the coinageof
The

most

the United

States and

European countries.

many

Oil-Shale.
of a stratified formation.
layersas members
mineral oil by slow distillation.
It yields
The originof the hydro-carbonaceous
in these shales is
matter
obscure.
In many
been
it
has
shown
somewhat
scopic
cases
by microThis

in beds

occurs

observation

or

be due

to

lived in shallow

which

to accumulations

fresh-water

lakes and

of

gelatinous
algae
lagoons.

in the Lothians
of Scotland
of great
are
shale-deposits
and
The
Broxburn8
shales
of
extent,
yieldfrom
poor quality.
The

24 to
per
crude

30

ton, while
oil and

is maintained
The

the

by

oil and

Drumshoreland

the

of
production

Permo-carboniferous

shales

sulphate

yield 20

gallonsof

shales

sulphate.The industry
bye-products.

Zealand

New

of
places,

New

of

generallyin

occur

oil-shales of

They are, in
ammonia.

lbs. of ammonium

42

60 lbs. of ammonium

about

high grade,but
nearlyexhausted.
The

crude

gallonsof

thin

are

great extent, but

of

South
seams.

Middle

Wales

They

of

are
are

now

Tertiaryage.

generally
poor

and

low in

Petroleum.
Mineral
commercial
the Middle

oil is found

formations of all ages, but in

geological
quantitiesoccurs
chieflyin two horizons namely,
Palseozoic and lower half of the Tertiary.
in

"

1
2

Proc. Col. Sc. Soc.,December

1893.
R. Beck, Lehre von den ErzlagerstatUn,
1901.

Trans.

Inst. Min.

Eng.,vol.

xxii. p. 581, 1902.

176

MINING

In

America

it is found

GEOLOGY.

mostly

Carboniferous,and in Eastern

to

and

Eocene

in rocks

ranging from

Europe and

Silurian

Asia in rocks of the

Miocene

periods.
speaking,
petroleum is
Generally

found

beneath

the

of

crowns

anticlinal

sandstones.
folds,
saturatingporous uncemented
The genesis of natural oil has not yet been satisfactorily
French
school maintain
that it is chemical,
explained. The
alkali
the
reaction
of
metals
from
at
a high temperature
resulting
and carbon

steam

on

the

as

same

dioxide.

natural

Crude

in many
petroleum,
respects
preparedsynthetically
by Berthelot in

oil,was

this way.
The
hydrogen of the water and the carbon of the
carbon dioxide having been deprived
of their oxygen, unite to form
an

oilysubstance closelyresemblingrock-oil.
destructive

The

distillation of shale,peat, wood, and

oil

animal

and

the

carbon
same
having
producesan
hydrogen
natural
oil
of
the
Pennsylvania.But, on the other
compounds as
matter

hand, oils have

of

different

rock.

The

found

Canada, Tennessee,and elsewhere

cavities in a richly
fossiliferous
filling
composition,
been

rock in which

limestone

of Silurian age,
with animal life. Tt

apparentlybe

can

in

the oil is

is a thickly
bedded
imprisoned
in a deep sea swarming
probablydeposited
assumed
is generally
that the oil,which

liberated

only

indigenousto the rock in which

The

it

porous

Experimentshave
to slow destructive

crude

gallonsof

that

shown

the

of

broken, is

is

Pennsylvaniaare

of shale

fossilseaweed

in
distillation,

some

ton

of

than

more

this fucoidal

oil to the

rock

occurs.

sandstones
oil-bearing

comformably by a formation
fossilanimals and
thick,containing

50

when

lain
under-

1000

feet

in vast

quantities.

shale,when

subjected

yields

cases

as

much

as

This

rock.

oil in many
the natural crude oil.

from
hardlybe distinguished
is
commonly acceptedtheory that petroleum is a natural
remains imprisoned
distillate from carbonaceous
in rocks.
or animal
rise into the overlying
The distillate would naturally
strata,where

respectscan
The

it would
The
of

condensed

; and

where

the

rocks

were

porous

it

accumulate.

would
from

become
heat

requiredfor

the distillation may

have

been

plutonicor volcanic,from
igneous intrusions,

the

heat

due

metamorphism, or
deep-seated
in

cases

where

the

strata

have

from
been

the

involved

in

derived
reactions

to- sure
prescrustdeep

folds.
Mineral

oil is producedin vast

in
quantities

the

United

States,

in the States of Pennsylvania,

Texas, Ohio, California,
particularly
Southern
Russia ; Galicia,
in
in
and Indiana ; in the Baku
region,
Austria ; Roumania, Burmah, Borneo, Sumatra, and Java.
The output of the Appalachianoil-fieldsin Pennsylvania
and

AND

ORES

West

MINERALS

Virginiaamounts

of the United

CONSIDERED

to about

third

of the total

production

States.

Phosphate
Mineral

177

ECONOMICALLY.

phosphates are

fertilisers.

used

now

in

quantitiesas

vast

found

in many
the chief producers
countries,
States, and Algeria. The
output of

They
being Canada, United
are

Florida and

Rock.

Carolina,besides supplying the market of the

for export.
States,is able to furnish largequantities

United

South

Of late years the American

affected
industryhas been seriously
by the largeoutput of the Algerianphosphatebeds,which produce

high-grademineral containingfrom 63 to 65 per cent,

phosphate of lime, and a second grade containingfrom 55

of

63

per cent.
The
formation

have

been

rocks

due

by

followed

is generallybelieved to
phosphate-deposits
the leachingor lixiviation of phosphate-bearing

of
to

by

the

and

containingcarbonic

waters

favourable

to

concentration
subsequent

conditions.

In

some

other

of the

organic acids,
phosphateunder

their
they deposited

cases

calcium

formed in limestone or calcareous sandstone,

phosphatein caverns
and
the subsequent removal
by solution of the walls of the
either
left the phosphate in the
wholly or partially,
caverns,
remainingsands
It is of interest to note that the apatitebeds and veins of
in

Ottawa,
brown

Canada,

of
rock-phosphate

derived

the

from

rocks

in

occur

Tennessee

of

Laurentian

is believed

underground weathering of

layers in

the

Lower

of middle

Tennessee.

Silurian
These

but
stratigraphical
position,

limestone

layersdo

to

certain

which

The

age.
have

been

phosphatic
the basin

forms

occupy an unvarying
in various horizons in the Lower

occur

not

Silurian formation.1
The

in the
phosphate-deposits

and

Belgium occur
Algeriaand Tunis
nodules

in marl

been

or

estimated

associated

South

of

England, in France,

Cretaceous

with

Those

chalk.

of

as

age, the phosphatesoccurringin

In Algeria,which
limestone.
phospliatic

by

M.

are

of Eocene

Chateau, a French

to
mining engineer,
contain from 150,000,000 to 300,000,000tons of phosphaterock,
it is considered riskyto mine rock containingless than 60 per

has

cent,

The

of the

tricalcic

celebrated

in detached

pocketslying on

limestone,and
1

William

Memoirs

phosphate.2
in Peninsular
phosphate-deposits

in Western

the

Florida

uneven
on

surfaces

Miocene

Florida
of

an

occur

Eocene

limestone.

Hayes, Annual
Rept. U. S. Oeol. Survey,p. 633, 1898-99.
the
French
of
Societyof Civil Engineers,August 1897.

178
The

beds of South

once-famous

Post-Pliocene
The

considered to be of

are

lime

West

Indies, was

at Aruba

formerlyworked
a
originally

and

Sombrero,
converted

limestone

coral

of water containing
phosphoric
percolation
derived from the overlyingdeposits
of bird-guano.
valuable deposit
discovered in 1901 at
of rock-phosphate
was

into

acid
A

the

phosphateby

Clarendon,2in the Province

a

Carolina

age.1

phosphate of

in the

in

GEOLOGY.

MINING

limestone,as shown

Fig. 71.

A,

Loose

Section

"

determine

in the

It

Zealand.

New

hollows

occurs

surface of

the upper

on

diagram :
following
"

of Clarendon

Rock-phosphate.

phosphaticsands ; 8, rock-phosphate
; C, limestone,generally
glauconitic
greensands.
; D, glauconitic

geologicalconditions

The

Otago, in

pockets and

eroded
chemically
Miocene

of

which

the existence of workable

presence of
favourable
a

and

accompany
depositsof

formation
phosphate-bearing

at

doubtless

phosphateare the
the surface,lyingin

able
positionfor underground weathering over considerconcentration
of
subsequent
phosphate by replacement

areas, and
or

The

secondaryenrichment.
in
phosphate deposits

in

occur

and

caves

to be of
reported

for

limestone.

largeextent, high grade,and

They are
situated
favourably

of commercial

value

should
phosphate-deposit

fulfil

"

of such
and

the erection of tramways

magnitude as to justify
for developmentand
surface-plant
necessary

other

winning of
1

Penrose, U.S.

J.

Cambrian

Australia,

followingrequirements:

(1) Be

xxxv.

Peninsula,South

working.3

To become
the

fissures in

Yorke's

Park, "The
p. 391, 1902.

mineral.

Oeol.

Survey Bulletin,No. 46, p. 60,

Rock-phosphatesof

1898.
N.Z.

Tram.
Otago,*

Inst.,vol.

the Iron and Phosphate Deposits

H. Y. L. Brown, "Notes
of South
on
Australia,"Supplementary Mining Jfccords,
1905, p. 5. 4deJai"Je,

MINERALS

AND

ORES

179

ECONOMICALLY.

CONSIDERED

high grade,averaging not less than 50 per cent, of

tricalcic phosphatebefore dressing.
In
to a railwayor seaboard.
a
(3)
position
easy of access
be
that is, in a positionin which
it can
(4) Easy to win
worked
and
water-free by open
cuts
quarrying. The

(2) Be

of

"

overburden
with

also

must

it exceeds

When

the

20

and

shallow

be

feet the cost of

easilyremoved.

strippingruns

away

profit.

that it pays to mine phosphate by

cases
exceptional
during
underground workings. At Ross Farm, in Pennsylvania,
mined
from a stratum* 30 feet
the year 1899, 2000 long tons were
thick, 4000 feet long,and inclined at an angle of 60" from the
It is only in

horizontal.

The

stratum

mined

was

to

depth of

300

feet below

56 per cent, of phosphate. Here

and cheaplybroken.
yellowmarl, easily

and averaged about

water-level,
consisted of

the

matrix

The
the

however, did not compete in distant markets with

producers,
higher gradesof phosphatefrom South Carolina,Tennessee,

and

Florida,but looked only for

local market.1

remunerative

Platinum.
This valuable
in
in olivine,

metal

is

found
generally

sparinglydisseminated

and
olivine-gabbro,
serpentine,

other

ultra-basic rocks

Zealand.
It is found in
Russia,2Germany, France, and New
gold placersin many parts of the world in small quantities.
of iron, which also has
It is commonly associated with chromite
in

preferencefor magnesian eruptiverocks.

the arsenide of platinum,
occurs
Platinum, as sperrylite,
cupriferousnickel-ores of Sudbury,in Canada, and in the

of Rambler

ores

County, in
have

shown

Mine, in the Medicine

the State of

Wyoming.

that this metal

Bow

Refined

in minute

traces

in many
parts of the world.
sulphide-ores
3 records the
occurrence
Hundeshagen
in

wollastonite

which

He
augite-diorite.
big lens of limestone
to

is associated

thinks

that

imbedded

the

in the

of

with

Mountains
methods
exists in

in the
copper-

Albany

of
of

analysis
cupriferous

platinum in

Sumatra

schists,granite,and

was
ore-deposit

a
originally

altered
schists,
subsequently

and mineralised by hot solutions carrygarnet and wollastonite,

ing
copper, gold,and platinum.
world's supplyof platinum is
The

depositsin the
1
2
s

Ural

mainlyderived
Mountains, mostly situated on

from

placer

the western

21st Annual
Rept. U.S. Qeol. Survey, u. 494, 1899-1900.
J. F. Kemp, Bull. U.S. Qeol. Survey, No. 193, p. 72.
L. S. Hundeshagen, Trans. Inst. Min. and Met., vol. xiii.1904.

180

GEOLOGY.

MINING

to 14,230 lbs.,
slopes. In 1904, the output of Russia amounted
equal to about 90 per cent, of the world's production. In
found
at
September of that year two lumps of platinum were
360
Krestowosdwischensk, one weighing 756 lbs.,the other over
A small part of the domestic
lbs.
requirementsof the United
States is obtained as a secondaryproduct from the gold-placers
in
and
Shasta
Counties
California.
in
Trinity
Some
of the gold-placers
of Colombia,Alaska,Siberia,
Australia,
and New
Zealand contain platinum,but rarelyin payablequantity.
The Fifield Goldfield,
in New
South Wales, yielded,
in the year
of
valued
375
at
In
the
"750.
1902,
oz.
same
platinum,
year
Russia produced 234,478 oz., which represented
90 per cent,
over
of the world's output. The balance is mainly furnished by the

State of

Colombia, in South

America.

Quicksilver.
The

only valuable

which

occurs

of this metal

ore

in veins

in altered andesites.
all ages
in most

and

all

by

cinnabar, the sulphide,

along

seminated
sandstones,or disfound
in
rocks
of
is,however,
preferencefor sandstones,and

lines of

country that have

been

volcanic disturbances.

Some

cinnabar

by

volcanic

up

It

kinds,but shows

is found

cases

affected

is

traversingslates and

has

been

depositedfrom

hot

Hot
springs. At Ohaeawai
formed
were
cinnabar-deposits

Zealand, the

solutions

brought
Springs, in New

in

this manner,

as

probably were
The principalquicksilver-producing
mines at the present time
situated at Almaden, in Spain,New
Almaden
in California ;
are
those of Almaden.

Idria,in the Provence

The

average

of

containingas
profit.The grade of
but

Carniola,in Austria

yieldof the Almaden

ores

ores

; and

is from

Russia.

7 to 10 per cent.,

littleas
the

1 per cent, have been mined

Russian
is generallyunder
ore

with
1 per

cent.

Silver.
horn
or
Among the principalores of silver are kerargyrite,
the subsulphide. Large masses
silver,embolite,and argentite,
of

the

South

two

former

Wales, disseminated

Masses

of native

Mountains, but
Peru, and
copper.

were

the

in the

found

at the

Broken

Hill

throughoutkaolin clay.

silver have

been

found

in

Saxony and

discovered

were
largestmasses
Superior mines,

Lake

mines, in New
Hartz

in Mexico

associated

with

and

native

182

GEOLOGY.

MINING

durability.Marcasite is objectionable
it oxidises readily.Cubical pyritesdoes not oxidise
in slate,
as
and
readily, is therefore not so objectionable.
A good slate should be capableof being splitinto smooth thin
laminae parallel
to the planesof slaty
cleavage.
The specific
gravityof slate varies from 2*7 to 2*9.

slates

inferior in

often

are

slate

Large quantitiesof
France, and

are

quarried in

the

United

States,

England.
Sulphur.

is derived from native sulphurand

sulphurof commerce
pyrites.
volcanic regions,more
in most
Native
sulphur is common
both active and extinct.
around the vents and fissures,
especially
of native sulphurin 1904 amounted
to
The world's production
The
93 per cent.
600,000 tons, of which
Italy produced over
United
in Japan,
balance is mined
States,France, Austria,and
The

Greece.
crude

priceof

The

."3 to "i

sulphur varies accordingto qualityfrom

used
sulphuris principally

The

per ton.

acid.
sulphuric
producersof pyritesfor
principal

in the

facture
manu-

of

The

acid

Spain,France, United

are

phuric
of sul-

the manufacture

States,Germany, Norway,

Canada, and Russia.

Italy,
Talc.
This

in its fibrous and

mineral

often associated with

The

massive

Talc is used

as

flour is used

The

known
generally

for boiler and

in the
a

as

occurs

in beds

chloritic schists.

It

is

manufacture

as

steatite

or

soapstone.

piecescut into various shapes.

sulators
fireproof
paints,for electric infor dynaas a base
mite,
steam-pipecoverings,
and
for leather dressing,
of wall-paper,

and
flour-talc,
as

forms

granularlimestone.
is

form

talcose and

in

lens-shapedmasses

and

massive

base

as

for

lubricant.
.

soapstone are cut into hearthstones,

and gastables,ovens, pencils,
liningsfor furnaces, laboratory
The

tips.

harder

The

"3, 5s. per

varieties of

talc

produced in

the

United

States is valued

at about

ton.

Thorium.
This

rare

and

monazite, which
rare

earthy metals

valuable

metal

is obtained

from

the

mineral

anhydrous phosphate of the

cerium, lanthanum, and didymium, having the

is

an
essentially

MINERALS

AND

ORES

CONSIDERED

formula

(CeLaDi)P04. A small but

(Th02)is nearlyalwayspresent.
Monazite

is described

by

lustre.

to vitreous

thoria

proportionof

light-yellow,
honeyin
with
a
yellowish-green colour,

yellow,reddish,brownish, or
resinous

variable

Pratt

J. H.

183

ECONOMICALLY.

as

It is translucent

to subtranslucent

brittle,with conchoidal fracture,and hardness from 5 to 5*5 :

monoclinic,and in crystals
are
up to 2 in. long. Perfect crystals
downward
in.
from
in.
those
to
of
to
scopic
micro"
generallysmall,
^
The

size.

specific
gravityis high, and

from

ranges

4*64

to 5*3.

insoluble
incompletely

It is

in

acid,but completely
hydrochloric

readilyin sulphuricacid. If oxalic acid is added to the very

dilute filtered sulphuricacid solution,
or to the solution obtained
with
and
if the mass
is treated with
soda,
by fusing the mineral
and

and

water

acid, a

the

precipitateis

due
brick-red,
Before

filtered and

residue

with

obtained, which, upon

to the presence

of cerium

mineral

blowpipe the

the

dissolved

becomes
ignition,

oxide.

turns

grey, but
the flame

sulphuricacid it colours
due to phosphoricacid.
Monazite is found in granite,
rocks, and
gneissic
If heated

the

with

Mountains

Maritime

other

many
monazite
of

quantity. The
from
placersresulting

beach

occur
as
deposits
used
in
the
chiefly
gaslights.

is

incandescent

of the

in

region of
in

only
from

minute
sands

or

rock.
mineral-bearing

sands.2

manufacture

4d. per

is about

value of monazite

bluish-green,

mica-schist

is derived

commerce

is infusible.

Mountain

places,but

the denudation

Brazilian

Thorium
The

Brazil,in South

Carolina, and

North

The

of

hydrochloric

of

mantles

for

pound.

Tin.
The

only

of this metal

ore

which
cassiterite,
alluvial drifts.
Tin-ore is found
and
eruptives,
etc.
granite,
At

Mount

globe,the

in

occurs

in

in

of the

one
Bischoff,8

Palaeozoic slates and

2Loc.cit.ip.

951.

Fawns,

P.

and

which

sedimentaries

Joseph Hyde Pratt, Mineral

Washington,1904.

Inst. Min.

lodes,beds, and

value

is the

oxide,
stockworks, and in

and
granite,felspar-porphyry,

Sydney

of commercial

"Notes

on

have

intruded

greatest tin mines

sandstones

Resources

the

been

other

Mount

of

are

the

intruded

United

Bischoff Tin

Met., Pamphlet,p. 16, London, 1905.

on

acid

by
the

by dykes

States,p. 1163,

Mine," Trans.

184

MINING

GEOLOGY.

felsite which
carries topaz both
and
crystalline
porphyritic
amorphous. The topazisationwas probablya pneumatolytic
from deep-seated
of the
granite. The felspar
process proceeding
recorded
is replacedby topaz. The analysis
by
ground mass
of

showed

Groddeck

Von

Baron

payablequantityin
The

the

alkali.

no

of quartz,topaz,and
practically

tin.

consisted

rock

does not

in

occur

topaz tin-ore.

associates of tin-ore

common

The

Wolfram

are

wolfram, quartz,mica, and

tourmaline.
65 per cent, of the world's supplyis derived
placersin the Straits Settlements and Dutch East
About

the

hundreds

gravelscover
tin-bearing
world's annual

The

of square

is about
production

the tin-

from

Indies,where

miles.

100,000 tons.

containing5*5 per cent, of arsenic is useless for

further purifying.
purposes and requires
Tin-ore is bought by the smelters from the results
assay, and is subjectto certain schedule deductions.
Tin

commercial
of the

dry

Tungsten.
The

of

ores
principal

the

wolfram,
tungstateof manganese.
lime ;

Wolfram
in

veins

is

the tungstateof
tungsten are scheelite,
iron
of
and
megabasite,the
tungstate
;

usuallyassociated

schists and

in

quartz. When

happens, the

the

with

tinstone.

Scheelite

occurs

sandstones, generallyassociated

with

vein-stuff contains

scheelite

gold or silver,as often

produced very cheaply as a

be

can

by-product.
best-known

The

depositof megabasite is

Mining Company's property

Idaho, where

it

5 feet to 15 feet
acid.
of tungstic

occurs

wide,and

Patterson

at

with

wolfram

assayingfrom

that

in

Creek, in the
in

vein

the

Ima

state

varying

of

from

5 per cent, to 50 per cent,

of the world's tungsten are

England,
principalsources
New
South
Wales, and
Saxony, Germany,
Austria-Hungary,
Queensland.
and
German
The
pricevaries with the qualityof the ore.
7s.
8s.
unit.
to
from
Englishbuyersgive
per
States pricesare somewhat
In the United
higher,the value of
acid
from 45 per cent, to 55 per cent, of tungstic
scheelite containing
while
55
from
cent,
about
8s.
ores
containing
being
per
per unit,
acid command
10s. per unit of scheelite.
to 65 per cent, of tungstic
The

The

ferro-tungstenore

Hungary,
(England),
sold

on

the

wolfram
New

tungsticacid

South
basis.

is

mainly producedin

Wales,
Wolfram

and

Cornwall

Queensland. It is

to be marketable
Digitized
by

must

ORES

brought

be

AND

to

MINERALS

an

average
It is essential that the ore

CONSIDERED

185

ECONOMICALLY.

of 50 to 70 per cent, of tungsticacid.

be free,or nearlyso, from phosphorus

sulphur,but the presence of carbon and silica will not be

considered injurious.
At present an
ore
averaging 60 per cent.
W08, and containingnot more than 0*25 per cent, phosphorus,
and 0*01 per cent, sulphur,
be sold in New
York at 28s. per
can

and

tungsticacid,equal to "84 per long ton.

steel works, analysesfrom
A typical
ore, used by German

unit of

W03,
FeO,
MnO,
CaO,

:
"

60-76

.8-10
.9-12
0-4-1

Buyers as a rule do not care to handle ore running under 40 per

acid.
Therefore to be broughtup to a marketable
cent, of tungstic
be crushed and concentrated.
High-grade
grade the ore must
be bagged as they come
from the mine, or their grade
can
ores
be
can
improved by hand-sorting
only
; but quartzose ores
may
and
concentration.
be made marketable
by wet-crushing
and
The wolfram produced in Queensland is of very high grade,
for

time commanded

The

chief

as

much

."140 per ton.

is in the manufacture
as

of

tungsten

in

with
conjunction

of

tungsten
the
of
steels,which
self-hardening.
special
property
possess
Recentlytungsten has been added to a copper-aluminium
alloy,
to which it imparts greater strengthand toughness. Tungstate
soda

of

use

is used

fabrics non-inflammable.
for

renderinglight
by dyers as a mordant,

starch

It is also used

and to
hardeningplaster-of-paris,

for

small extent

in the arts.

Zinc.
The

of the zinc of
source
principal
or blende,and to a less extent
sphalerite
Zinc-ores

are

commonly

associated

is the

commerce

the
with

often copper.
The principal
countries
zinc-producing

sulphide,

carbonate,calamine.

galena,pyrites,and
are

Germany,

United

States,Belgium,Italy,
Sweden, England,and Austria.
The ores of Broken
Hill,in New South Wales, contain a large
percentage of zinc,the economic extraction of which has proved
a

difficultproblem.

Digitized
by

CHAPTER

MINE-SAMPLING
Contents

VIII.

AND

ORE-VALUATION.

:
Sampling Equipment Sampling Intervals" Record of Samples
Breaking the Sample Sampling Reduction of Sample Assay of
Future
Samples" Calculating Value
Prospects"Sample Values and
Mill Values" Sampling Dumps and Heaps.
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

In the

with
majorityof mines sampling proceedssimultaneously
the mine development,
the results being recorded
on
assay plans,
which
the
are
or
generallylongitudinal
stope plans. Where
has
been
and
sampling during development
carefully
cally
systematishould
the
those
obtained
done,
by the
approximate
averages
mine-examiner.

Sampling
canvas

Equipment
6 ft.

5 lb. hammer

of small

number

number

distinctive

includes

gad

canvas

5 ft. wide ; a short-handled

4 lb. or
two ; small linen tape or foot-rule ; a

or

tags

stripsof

or

; and

mark

or

9 in. wide ;

and

long

metal

sample bags of

new

calico,say 14 in. long and

stout

or

sheet,about

This

"

stout

custodyof samples.
Begin
Sampling Intervals.

soft

wood, each

with

lock-up sack

canvas

for the safe

"

end

main

of the

respect to
When
drive

survey station.
width
the whole
of the

underfoot,and
the

to

the

sample

to

customary

the back

Divide

cross-cut, or

samplingof
point

some

level at the

easilylocated

with

it is

lyingon

at

the

of the

level,as

often covered

with

vein
the

of the

divisions with

is

exposed in

the

higher or foot-wall portion

portionmay be partly

mud

ground

open

seam

the lower

the level into sections of 5

extent

or

and

water.

ft.,10

ft.,or

and

according

more,

character

of

ore.

chalk, or by blackeningthe wall with

Mark
candle-

flame.
it is well
respect to the sampling intervals,

With
that
often
wide

largenumber

more

of small

reliable than

samplestaken

small

number

of

to

at short

remember

intervals

largesamplestaken

are

at

intervals.

When

the

ore

is known

to
186

be

consistent

in

value, and

is

MINE-SAMPLING

exposedin long stretches,the sampling

apart; but when

the

is somewhat

vein

value the 5 ft. intervals will

Record
width
A

of

Samples.

of the vein in feet and

simple and

may be 20 ft.
irregularin width and
results.
trustworthy

most

and

record

the

inches at each interval.

method

accurate

intervals,widths,and

give the

intervals

Carefullymeasure

"

187

ORE-VALUATION.

AND

of

recording the
is to draw

sample numbers

sampling

diagram in

.5
IQ

to

*.

Fig. 72.

"

Showing Record

of

Widths, Values,and Sampling Intervals.

field-book

section of the level. On

a
longitudinal
representing
this diagram,which
need not be drawn
to scale,all the necessary
information
be shown
has also
can
graphically.This method
the advantagethat the assay-values
afterwards be filled in at
can
the different intervals,
thus

Fig. 73."

The

completingthe record.

Section
Longitudinal

of Block

widths, numbers, and

values

between

are

150 and

300 feet Levels.

commonly recorded
inks, accordingto

on

different coloured
mine-assayplans
the
individual fancy of the engineer; but this is not necessary in the
examiner's field-book,
which is a privaterecord.
In the above figurethe widths of ore are shown
in inches under
in

188

level,and the value in dwts. above

the

intervals

entered

values

the

fresh

expose

level.

The

sampling

the

are

the

not

assay
in

different processes

recovering.
the face down

Dress

"

Johannesburg,the

at

section

which

recovery
to be capableof

Breaking the Sample.

to

Mine,

continuous
values

estimated

are

Charlton1

upon

the

values,but
use

and

Meyer

the

dots.

by
represented

are

the

In

as

GEOLOGY.

MINING

surface,and,

with

pick,so

if necessary,

clean

sample

each

it with

water.

With

the

allowingthe
felt hat
The

or

and

material

to fall on

wall to

the

In

is taken
shown

in

the

where

by

at

sheet,or

canvas

interval,
into

stiff

assistant.

an

from

to the

cut

groove

in other

dip; or,

wall,as

cases

break

gad

box held

narrow

sample

plane of

level

hammer

at

rightanglesto
the

words, across

thickness

the

from

fig.72.

width

of the

is less than

vein

that of the

stope,it is necessary to square the ore on the back of the

level or stope in order that the true width of the vein,from wall
be exposedfor sampling.
to wall,may
In

or

4 in. to

from

vary

uniform
fairly

of

ore

hardness

in.,and

cation

that is with

2 lbs. to

Wide

ribbon-structure

to determine
separately

band

each

lodes should

also be

values

the

sometimes

are

Where
the

level is driven

is

ore

exposedfor

management

the

lode

metalliferous

at

"

where

sampled in

10

lbs. for every

foot

it is advisable

to

sample

the values lie.

widths

the commercial

on

wide

of 2 ft. or

ft.,as

progress of
of 20 ft. or 50

of the

ore.

value of the lode.

lode,onlya small portionof

In such cases
it is customary

during the

character

of crustifi-

times
by the foot-wall portion,someor
by the central portion. In such
from wall to wall may convey quite

examination.

intervals

bands

carried

by the hanging wall

a
cases
singlesample taken
an
erroneous
impressionas to

for the

in. to

arranged in distinct

is

vein-matter

the

"

of the groove will

1J in. deep. The

bed.

or

When

"

from

weigh from
sample will generally
of vein

the width

These

developmentto

cut
cross-

ft.,accordingto
cross-cuts

the

will afford

opportunityof samplingthe lode from wall to

there are
as the case
manner
may require. Where
cross-cuts through the lode from the level,the full,
no
or, at any
width of ore will generally
be found exposedin
rate,the payable,
the examiner

an

wall in such

the

stopes.

It often
has been
1

Now

T.

A.

happens,in

driven

on

Rickard, The

York, 1904.

the

case

of

veins,that
flat-lying

the footwall of the

Sampling

and

the level

vein,or that the level has

Estimation

of

Ore in

Minet p. 174,

190

MINING

GEOLOGY.

thickgrooves cut at rightanglesto the plane of the dip. The ness

and recorded on a diagram in the fieldof ore is measured

book, togetherwith the sample number

Reduction

of

Sample.

The

"

will vary with the width and

is largerthan the capacity
of the

broken
the

to

to the size of

sample is thoroughlymixed, formed

all their

with

sheet.
down

broken

walnut, thoroughlymixed, and

of the
quarterslyingin the position

to

rejectedand removed
method
of mixing the ore

to
care

in

taken

be

must

from
to

insure

that

removed

completely

material

in the

the

two

size half the diameter

The

two

the sheet.

from

the

on

sampling-sheetis

other.

fines

are

In
not

this process
concentrated

evenly distributed
before each quartering.
In three-quarterings,
a
sample weighing 80 lbs. will thus be
down
cut
to 10 lbs.,
which is about the maximum
capacityof the
of

particularpart
throughoutthe whole mass
one

sample-bags.
The time required
to

the

contents

quartersretained in the

side to the

one

be

been done,

again quartered.
two

first operationare
common

must

it

very flat truncated

The

toss the material

into

broken

When

ore.

this has

being
rejected,

the

finesfrom

remainingquartersis then

of the

When

walnut.

cone, and quartered.

Two
oppositequarters are

of

hardness

sample

sample-bag,the sheet
place underground, and its

convenient

down

interval.

of the

weight

down

carried

at each

break

sample, but

down

the hardness and

size of the lode.

hour, and

extend

number

of

weight.
and

may

several

to

needed
quarterings

The
into

samplingof

sample will depend

It seldom

upon
half an

is less than

hours, depending upon

to reduce

largemine

the
may

sampleto
occupy

the

convenient

several

weeks,

cost of several hundred

pounds.
Assay
Samples.
sample should be dried,
crushed
in a rock-breaker
in the laboratoryto pass through a
10-mesh
and
sieve,mixed,
sampled by quarteringtill reduced to
in weight,all of which should be finally
a pound or two
pulverised,
60-mesh
and
divided
into
a
sieve,
through
mixed,
passed
again
two
portions. One portionis handed to the assayer, while the
other is retained as a duplicate
sample for subsequent reference
run

of

and

"

verification if the

Carelessness
in the

in the

The

whole

of the

should arise.
necessity
all the
laboratory
may stultify

care

exercised

sampling underground.

If the

mine-examiner

submit

his

samples to

assayer whose
take care
be
to

an

unknown
to him, he should
are
qualifications
and final
present during the crushing,pulverising,
assay samples.
The duplicatesamples should be put into small

division of the
calico

or

stout

MINE-SAMPLING

AND

191

VALUATION.

ORE

and secured in a lock-upsack, which

brown-paper bags,labelled,
should be removed
from the laboratory.
to the niinebe submitted
The examiner's samples should never
should the
circumstances
assayer; and only in very exceptional
samples be placedin the hands of an unknown
assayer.

and Value of Vein."

Calculating Average Width
values
be
in
expressed pennyweightsof gold per
assaymay
; or, in the

percentage of metal

the money- value may

The
thickness
of
inches

for veins up
ten samples from a

by

average
the number

of

per ton

When
band

of

average

by

for

the

8 feet

vein, as
gold-bearing

is found

the

sum

width

of the

case

the

case

of

"

of the widths

sum

have

we

y6^6 356
=-"

no

value, which

assay value

two

,,

"

"

widths
bands

cannot

is ascertained

A be 18 inches
B

by dividingthe
as

under

sum

of the

^3/ff86*7 dwts.

of 35*6 inches.

of "2

Then

follows

in this

found

assay-valueis

vein contains

"

Take

by dividingthe

samples. Thus,

Let band

feet thick.

10

or

d. per ton.

s.

expressedin
conveniently

is most

ore

"

or

gold or bullion,

width.

inches average
The average
inch-dwt.

be stated in dollars

to

width

The

of low- valued

case

The
ton ;

of

be
as

payableore separatedby a
out economically,
the

sorted

follows

wide, and

"

have

assay value

an

per ton.

6 inches wide and

worthless.

12 inches wide and

worth

(18x 2) + (6 x 0)+ (12 x 3)

=

"

18 4- 6 + 12

"0-per

"3

per ton.
tun.

192

MINING

GEOLOGY.

If it is practicable
to sort out half of the worthless
band, then
the average assay value of the ore will be found as under :
"

(J^2H
In

(12x3)=
(3^
18
3
12
+

estimatingthe

net

in sightin
profit

that

the recovery value,and

the basis of the calculation.

High

Assay

Values.

high assay-value
may
discarded entirely
and

3a
'

"

the

not

8d

ton

block of ore, it is fest

maniform
assay value,must

exceptionally

sample giving an

dealt with in different ways.

included in the average ;

be

not

or

It may be
ascertain

the average value with it included,and replacethe original

exceptional
value by this average, and then calculate the average value
for the average width.
For

example :

Five

Samples

dwt., and 25 dwt. per

Replace the exceptionalvalue, 120
25

values

gave

dwt., 120

ton.

of 10

The

dwt., by

dwt., 20 dwt.,

average is 40 dwt.
40 dwt., and then

proceedwith the calculation of results.

exceptionalvalue may representa small patchof rich ore,
of rich ore increasing
in dimensions
or a bunch
going upwards or
factory
a
downwards, or even
solitaryspeck of gold. The most satisfrom
rich
of
with
a
manner
an
dealing
exceptionally assay
Rickard1
A.
second
T.
is
the
to
vein
time.
a
sample
resample
also recommends
the takingof intermediate
samplesas a further
againstfraud or mistake.
precaution
been
have
values
Future
satisfactory
Prospects. When
block of ground, the natural inference is that
obtained around
a
the area
of ore is of the same
approximatevalue.
Experiencehas shown that where a block is exposedon four
The

"

sides,such inference is fair and

exposedon
Before

the block is

Where

reasonable.

three sides the inference is open to doubt.

arrivingat a definite conclusion as to

prospects of the mine,

engineerto

it is advisable

consider the
carefully

(1) Is there

change

any

the

for the examiner

or

future

mining

followingquestions
enclosingthe
:

"

of rock-formation

lode
does

influence
If so, what
any part of the mine?
this change of country exercise upon the value of the ore 1
(2) Is there any indication of barren zones of ore, either in
of the
depth or horizontal extension,along the course
in

lode?

(3) Are

the

values in the

are

the

of oxidation

unoxidised

likelyto

tained
be main-

portion?
in depth %
of impoverishment
probabilities

in the

(4)What

zone

T. A.

Rickard, loc. tit.,p.

42.

MINE-SAMPLING

Sample Values
obtained

values
broken

by

and

the

Hence

Manifestlythe

Returns."

assay-

represent only the values of the actual material

examiner.

the different intervals

ore.

Mill

193

ORE-VALUATION.

AND

the

The

variations
deduced

values

only be regarded,even
approximations.

in the

at

value of the

variable

clearly
emphasisethe

mean

obtained

value

of

the assay- values can

favourable
cases, as close
from

most

personalknowledge of the ore and

values in a mine extendingover
a considerable
periodcan often
his
the
the
of
so adjust
experience
past as to make a
averages by
very close estimate of the quantity and value of ore in newly
mines.
developedground in the same or adjoining
The discrepancy
that often exists between the sampler's
estimate
and the mill returns, in the case of gold-ores
particularly,
may be
A

due

mining engineerwith

to

one

or

enumerated

several

causes,

which

among

the

be

followingmay

"

sudden

(1)A

of width

increase

of

without

ore

corresponding

increase of values.
sudden

(2) A

decrease in values ;

horse
by
levels.

into

(3) A

is a

contained

was

contingencyvery
in the

vein

narrow

less in width
where

cases

stripping
easy,

the

is not

ore

stretch of

ore

both
carried out

the

the

(5)Inadequateallowance
mine

is sent

the

vein

breast

are

proportionof

two

to

the

samples. This

in the

of the

split

breakingof
the vein
or

well denned

tonnage of

ore

is
In

face.

and

rock introduced with

where
to be very great, especially
likely
before it is broken.
is stripped

(4)Imperfect
tallyof
sampling of

rock

or

occur

width

the

walls of

the

between

where
stopes, especially

than
the

reunite

in the examiner's

liable to

be

payshootmay

which

greater proportionof mullock

mill than

The

legs

two

the

or

sent

to the mill.

for moisture.
for valuation

and mentally.
physically

ing,
purposes is most exhaustWhen
has been
the work

and conscientiously,
the
carefully

mine-examiner

should

be

preparedto stand by his results.

The
examiner
remember
he is the
that
confidential
must
adviser of his principals,
and for that reason
must
keep a discreet

silence about
to the

cuts

of

Dumps

is divided into
or

other.

examination,and of his opinionas

probablevalue of the mine.

Sampling
ore

the results of his

trenches

or

number

of Ore.

Paddocks
of small

passingthrough

the

blocks
ore

at

"

The

stack of

by two systems of
rightanglesto each

194

MINING

GEOLOGY.

be sampled separately
(a) Each block can now
by picking
piecesof ore from its four sides.
(b)Or the material excavated from the trenches can be wheeled
to a clean piece of ground, spawled into small
pieces,
until a sample of convenient
mixed, and quarteredrepeatedly
size is obtained.

largerpiecesof
in the

must

ore

Before

quartering the

each

to half their diameter

be broken

quartering.
preceding

(c)Or the material

from

the

trenches

be crushed

can

breaker,mixed, and quartereddown

tillthe

in

assay

rock-

sample

is obtained.

Sampling

of
Tailings. If the accumulation
be sampled in separate sections,as
liable to vary considerably
in value in

of

Heaps

is large it should
tailings
largepilesof sands are
different

parts.

Stake

off the

heap, so as to
Make
a
diagram

yards square.

Record

sections.
each

section

by

Sample each
(1)With

dimensions

the

it"into sections about

field-book

in

of the

as A, B, C, etc.
letter,
section,beginningwith section A

from
and

to
corresponding

is

over

the section at,

values

the

for every

foot of

depth.

sampling-ironavailable,holes

quarteringto

4 feet
to

obtained

sand

6 feet.

or

clean

convenient

the

into another

be taken
no

not

are

bottom, put the top material into one

; or, if necessary, separate

to

intervals of every
holes are wheeled

the
required,

that

believe

to

top

two.

or

the lower

bag
samples can
there

and distinguish
sections,

take samples all

sampling-iron

same

(3) If

divide

say, every foot

(2) If there is reason

If

"

The

place,mixed,

dug

are

at

from

the

reduced

by

depths can

be

sands
and

size.
from

different

kept separate.

Salting of
enrichment

Mines.

of the

ore,

By

"

with

the illegal
"salting" is meant
the
the object of giving
property

fictitious value.

a
-

The

mine-examiner

should

by unscrupulous persons,
of his principals.
A
and

common

for this

method
reason

so

is to
the

be familiar with the methods

as

to be able to

adopted

protectthe interests

tamper with the examiner's samples;

samples should always be

until the assay results are known.

known
where
the sample-bags have
Cases are

in safe
been

custody
enriched

It is therefore a wise
samples were
put into them.
precautionto keep the sample-bags in a lock-upsack until they

before

the

MINE-SAMPLING

required.And

are

inside out and

In the

case

Fraud
rich

foot

having

intervals

obscured

by

liberal

outcrops have been

of

and

strong solution of chloride

of

mud.

In

stacked with

been

at

working face, the jointsbeing

the

at

splashesof
prepared.

have

ore

been

different

Dumps

with

more

or

mine-examiners
on
by stretches
practised
built
into
the
wall
of a level
skilfully

been

has

ore

bag

vigorouslybefore use.
soft ore has been artificially
enriched
gold-mines,

of

each

turn

shake
of

depth of
gold.

to

it is advisable to

then

even

195

ORE-VALUATION.

AND

the

rich

same

the sides and

on

ore

artificial

way

imposture of this kind is at once disclosed by

the process of trenchingwhen procuringsamplesfor assay.
by pamiing
Samples of gold-wash intended for examination
have been enriched,either before or during the washing,by the
of gold-bearing
tobacco-ash,pelletsof clay,and goldagency
The gold obtained from the panning of goldbearingfinger-nails.
under the microscope.
wash or tailings
should be examined
Bulk
samples of ore have been salted duringthe process of
in the battery,either by the addition of gold or
treatment
amalgam.
be unlawfully
enriched
The examiner's samples may
at any
material
the
of
in
the
from
the
mine
to the
breaking
stage
assaying in the laboratory.Strong solutions of gold chloride
have been injectedinto the bags with a syringe,and gold-dust
Fraud
added
is so easily
to the lithargeand fluxes.
practised
An

top surface.

materials
of

or

placedat

test those

days of

these

In

should

stage that the examiner

in this

stackingor

circumvented
intended to

his
in

ore

the watchful

by

supplyhis
disposal.

mine- valuation

saltingof the

either

own

assay

by systematicsampling,cases
the mine are rare, and easily

examiner.

But, besides

covert

acts

the examiner
beguile,
may be misled by the suppression
of importantdevelopments,
of workings
or by the blocking-up
results might be obtained.
where unfavourable
his

On

be careful not to assume

distrust towards those connected with

part the mine-examiner

attitude of restraint and

an

the

management.

honest

as

most

men

In

the

; and
from

must

writer's
if

they

experience,miners
sometimes

put

the

before you it is more

to their
a
feelingof loyalty
than a deliberate desire to deceive.
Probablynot more
hundred

in

to

enrich

a
one

would

your
clever rogue,
man

you

laboratory.

mislead
wilfully

samples.
and

must

But

needs
take

the

close
no

you, or
hundredth

watching;

are

best

employers
than

unlawful

use

man

and

is

one

means

generally

because

risks,either in the mine

as

side

or

of this
in the

IX.

CHAPTER

VALUATION

AND

EXAMINATION

THE

OF

MINES.
Contents
:
Concerns
Valuation
"

"

of Metal
Valuation
Classification of Ore
of Alluvial Ground.

Mines"
in

Developed

Mine

Mines

Valuation

"

and

of Coal

Going
Areas

"

is manifestlya
payable ore in a vein or coal in a seam
certain finite quantity; therefore the greatestcoalfield and largest
And
must
if the
eventuallysee a day of exhaustion.
ore-deposit
total quantityof ore or coal and the annual
output are known,
is a matter
of simplecalculation.
the date of exhaustion
The

mining property blessed

with

that is,
good constitution
valuable
of
the
from
a
quantity
ore,
date of discoveryto the point of exhaustion
naturallypasses
the
successive
of
hood,
y
outh,
stages
through
infancy,
full-grownmanA

endowed

"

considerable

with

"

age, old age, and extinction.

is the discoverystage of mine

middle

Infancy

existence;youth, the

in the
development stage ; full grown, the payablegoing concern
meridian of life ; middle age, the going concern
past the meridian ;
and exhaustion.
all this is
But
age, the periodof decadence
that survives the earlystages of existence,
true only of the mine
be termed
full and profitable
and lives what
a
life,
leaving
may
old

honoured

an

behind.

name

of

their

later

in early
vigour even
infancy,and others that are weakly in infancy develop into a
The greatestmortality
takes placein infancyand
robust manhood.
vive
youth. Scores of promising mineral discoveries are unable to surbecome
the stage of development. They never
going concerns.
Some

But

mines

sudden

the very
vigorousmines

old

ore

or

reserves

give promise

exhaustion
young

mine.

coming
in

is not

way

to

an

There
sudden

not

affection
are

end

many

peculiarto
notable

through

expected or

the very
examples of

exhaustion

of the

provided for by

the

management.
The

mine-examiner

will,therefore,like the careful physician,

196

198

MINING

ledgehas
for the

(b)that
or

seam

located

been

prospector,and

the

legaltitle obtained

ground,forming what may be termed a surface-show; or

the claim has been pegged out on position
alone,no vein
of valuable mineral being exposedat the surface.

Surface Shotv.

prospectedby
the

by

GEOLOGY.

In this

"

and

trenches

width, direction of

the

case

outcrop has probably been

shafts,sufficient to disclose

shallow

strike,and dip of the deposit.

and
Having providedhimself with the best topographical
will proceedwith
geologicalmaps obtainable,the mine-examiner
his

examination, which

will

embrace

consideration

of

the

followingpoints:

"

(1 )

The

features.
geological
with reference to the
(2) The physical features,particularly
the
of
subsequent working
property, should the results
this course
warrant
such pointsas the backs available
; note
that

"

is,if the vein

if not, mention
and

mine-timber

(3)Sample

the
the

mines

(5) Make

at

different

points,noting the

of structure.
peculiarities
proximity,or absence,of valuable

dry,

or

width

worthless

in the district.

as
inquiries

to

past historyof the

officialstatistics when

(6)Gain

but,

etc.
water-power available,

outcrop

of vein and

(4) Mention

worked

be

water-free ;
if sinking is likely
to be wet
or
can

field,obtaining

possible.

of the
personalknowledgeof the local peculiarities
in the neighbouringmines, especially
ore-deposits
noting
a

width and value of ore, accessory

vein-structure,
average
influence of different kinds
of
minerals, country-rock,
methods
of treatment,
country, faults,intrusive dykes,
etc.
monthly output, mining costs,
When

should make
a
ground, the mine-examiner
he
information
point of acquiringall the generaland particular
obtain
his
future
for
reference
and
can
guidance.
The results of the sampling and observations
factory,
be satismay
but the experienced
mining engineerwill be careful not
to commit
himself to a definite opinionas to the potential
value of
the property upon surface indications alone.
The young
engineer
be afraid to report to his principals that the developnot
must
ment
work
is insufficient to enable me
to form a definite opinion
the probable value of the property."The experienced
to
as
in doing so.
engineerfinds no difficulty
once

on

the

"

Bear
lodes

in mind

are

surface;

that the

lead,zinc,and copper
outcrops of silver,

often less valuable than

while

those

of

gold

they are
are

at

in many

some
cases

depth below
more

the

valuable.

EXAMINATION

THE

AND

VALUATION

Hence, with the former, the judgment

OF

199

MINES.

be

guided more
by
considerations than by sampling.
geological
If the outcrop values and generalsurroundings
are
satisfactory,
will in most
the examiner
be warranted
in recommending
cases
further developmentwork being undertaken
in order to open up
must

and
mineralogical

the

ground

for

his

knowledge of

fuller examination.

the

ground,

The

will be

mine-examiner, from

able

the nature, extent, and probablecost

principals
this

In

it will

case

indicate

to

of such

to

his

work.

ing
manifestlybe to the interest of the intendthe

purchasersto acquirea working optionover

property for

twelve

months, or, may be, if the work to

is considerable,
be undertaken
two years.
The deed of optionshould
be legallyexecuted
between
the

periodof six,nine, or

interested

parties
specifythe term of purchase,and state
; clearly
which party is under obligation
and
to pay rents,taxes,royalty,
labour
with
the
regulations,
etc.,during the currency of
comply
the option.
The vendor may sometimes
requirean immediate cash payment
of money
the execution of the deed of option,
of an agreedsum
on
such

to be considered

sum

should the
part of the purchase-money

that a certain
covenant
property be taken over; or he may
be spent in mine-development,
either monthly or
sum
specified
the
whole
the
during
period of
option,as a guarantee that the
with vigour.
work will be prosecuted
It should be remembered, however, that the engineerfor the
the
purchaseris generally

spent

reliable

be

of

doinggood

niggardlypolicywith
its own

judgedon
far

So

with

positionof

to

warrant

levels

this
justify

hand,

be lost

hand,

by pursuing
must

case

surface

outcrops gave

taken
developmentbeing under-

keep in

shaft

or

or
ore-body,
by

shafts.

aforesaid levels

mind

permanent

of the

course

therefrom, or by

the

or

shafts it is in

of these
possibility

working of the

mine,

works

should

the

course.

surface

insufficient to warrant
other

further

sites for the

advisable to

Again, the

the other

Therefore,each
the

that

i.e. along the

being utilised in the

results

not

be

to form

of

"

the
selecting
cases

should

vendors.

him

outcrops,the ore-vein will be prospected

by levels

on"

and

business
the

On

should

sum

critical
opening up the ground for a more
of the surface and
According to the configuration

the

"end

cross-cuts

most

to what
to enable

assumed

view

examination.

In

as

merits.

have

we

sufficient values

driven

judge

necessary
of
the
value
of
the
opinion
property.

the chance
a

best

developmentwork

in the

outcrops may

any
the value of the

be worthless

and

the

prospects

on
expenditure
prospecting.On

property may

be

so

obvious

the

that the

200

GEOLOGY.

MINING

mine-examiner

bed-rock

this
until

the examiner

case

no

firm

should
prospecting

optionof

immediate

be undertaken

by
acquiredon

purchase has been

terms.

such

Undevelopedpropertiesof
hence

the

in recommending
justified

is

purchase. In

caution

extreme

recommending

value

be exercised

are

rare,

the examiner

by
purchase. Ledges of

must

immediate

an

obvious

and

before

silver-lead

ore

ore-bodies have been discovered in situations

and gossans of pyritic
that left littleroom
for doubt as to their great value,even
from surface
a

samplingand examination;and the same has provedtrue of not

of magnetite,
few valuable deposits
iron,and manganese.
specular
if the examiner
have the immediate
But even
purchase of the

property in his mind, he

will seldom

have

much

in
difficulty
purchase)to spend a

obtainingthe right (underan option of

month
two
in sampling and surveying preparatory to the
or
completionof the purchase.
an
Pegged on Position. This is generally
undeveloped
property,
indications
surface
valuable
of
often possessing
ore
no
or mineral.
"

It

is,however,

discussed.

nothing.

In
For

iron-mines,or

not

an
example,

oil-wells

of faults

valuable

peggedout
to

up
claim

the

by
on

or

"

area

occurringin the

Section of Valuable

the

strike of

boundary is

formation,in the

same

an

valuable

lode that has

Deposit.
area

alreadyproved

mines.

proved to

valuable
potentially

Or
be

claim

payable

property. Or

lode,seam, or bed that

flat-lying
has been provedto be valuable by the outcrop mines is a property,
in the absence of great faults,
igneousdykes,or a change of rockformation,that may prove to be of great value.
In the above
figure,A is an outcrop claim assumed to be

peggedout

on

the

we

by workingcoal-mines,

Bedded

igneous dykes,is

have

already
in
others,
everything
;

cases

surrounded

to
juxtaposition

its

the

positionmeans

cases

some

Fig. 74.

absence

all-fours with

on

dip of

Digitized
by

EXAMINATION

THE

valuable.

Here

AND

and

potentialvalue will

their

of the

ore-body

as

VALUATION

claims

are

pegged

the mine

by

201

MINES.

and
position,

on

the value

depend upon

disclosed

OF

and

istics
characterin the outcrop

working

claim.
the value of claims B and C can onlybe determined
Manifestly
by shafts or by bore-holes. In the majorityof cases boringwill
be resorted to as being cheaper,quicker,
and affording
the means
the deposit
of testing
of points.
at a greater number
Claim D has been pegged out on position.It is next to the

out-crop claim, but

being situated on
counts for nothing.
depositits position
In the
be

case

worth

steeplodes,claims peggedout

of

little commercially,
from

would
mining operations
In this example claim
value than

more

The
The

Claim

valuation

of

mine-examiner

the

the

dip-side
may
which
at
depth

on

extreme

to be conducted.

have
B may
C.

be, for all practical

purposes, of

position
propertiespresents many
will

of the

examination

the foot-wall side of the

therefore

ore-bodies

in

need
the

*-_-A

Fio. 75.

difficulties.

make

adjoiningmines,

critical
of

the

Section of

"

to

no

SteepLode.

of the country, and a particular

structure
search for
geological
of
dykes,faults,or change country.
The pointswhich the examiner
will bring under the notice of
his

are
principals

(1^Situation
(2) Area

(3) Title

as

follows

"

of claim and

of claim and
"

name

i.e.leasehold

or

means

of

of

access.

owners.

freehold"

with

of rents,
particulars

labour conditions,
etc.
royalties,
features.
(4)Geological
(5) Physicalfeatures,mentioningclimate,forests,
water-power,
etc.
Digitized
by

202

MINING

GEOLOGY.

work done.
(6) Particulars of vein-outcrops,
prospecting
(7) Values obtained from sampling.
(8) Discussion of generalsurroundings.
(9)Opinionas to future prospects,and recommendations.

Three

courses

i.e.the

"

he

may

pursued,accordingto
be

property may

the

circumstances

"

(a) Rejected.
(b) Secured on working option.
(c) Purchased.
If the

engineer recommends

that an
option be secured, he
full
details
the
and
of
character
extent of the proposed
give
for the work, its effect when
work, its probablecost,time required
and
completed,
proposedmethod of supervision.

should

Developed Mines
valuation

of

and

the

upon

"

value

of

and quantity
of
developed,

ore

beingdeveloped.
profit
per ton.

ore

net

annual

certain

output

to

yield a

profitper

net

cent,

on

capitalisation.

(4) The probablelife of

The

commercial

(1) The quantityand

quantityof

further

The

"

this stage is based

mining property in

considerations
following

(2) The
(3) The

Going Concerns.

mine.

that

ore

might

be

expectedto

be

openedup by

sightof. But the

and the
quantityand value of such ore are unknown
quantities,
the mine value
importanceto be attached to them in calculating
in every
be determined
must
case
by the character of the

developmentwork

ore-bodyand
In all

must

the value of the

the fundamental

cases

be

not

ore

lost

alreadydevelopedand

basis of mine

valuation

won.

is the net

in sight.
profit
Some

notoriously
patchy,while others are equally
as metal-producers
; hence no safe rule can be laid down
prospectivevalue of undevelopedground. The local

veins

consistent
to the

as

conditions

must

govern
remember

engineer to
more

are

liable to sudden

As in the former

each

case.

that

the

It is, however, well for the

ore-values of vein-deposits
are

variation than
cases, the

ground equipped with

the

those of bedded

proceedto the
and
geological
topographical

mine-examiner
best

obtainable; also official reports and

maps
available.
When

once

to

on

pursue

the
the

ground, the

deposits.

will

if any
statistics,

examiner

course
following

of

will find

are

tageous
it advan-

procedure,
althoughit
Digitized
by

THE

be

must

EXAMINATION

AND

understood
clearly

suggestionsgiven here
be modified

to

explainthe

the

with

the

"

mine

the

of the

manager

underground

outcrops (if any), and

the

note

physicalfeatures.

and carefully
note
boundary-lines,
the

dip and

being worked

seam

must

mine-plan. Get

surface

respect to

(d) Note

case

The

cases.

and
special,

than

generalscope and extent

and
geological

(c)Examine

of each

the

alter

circumstances

general rather

to suit the needs

workings.
the
(b) Examine

or

that

are

examine
(a)Carefully

VALUATION

relation

of the

course

their
vein

position

ore-body

in the mine.

of the

underground workings

to

the

at

the

surface boimdaries.

(e)Have

look at the

rock

(/) Examine
When

the

on

to

the

surface,also

dump.

ing
equipment,includmills and
all metallurgical
plant and appliances.
and
describingsteam-engines,give the number
and

make

of the surface

note

maker's
cylinders,

size of

by

coming

ore

name,

carried

pressure of steam

boiler,etc.

day or two is spent in gettingyour bearings,and

and notingwhat manner
with the manager
becoming acquainted
the surface in prehe is. A few days occupiedon
of a man
liminary
The

first

work
facts

offered to you.
side be careful to offer none.

Do

presentedor

your

spent. Make

well

generallytime

is

not

note

of any
and on
opinions,
a

note

the

(g) Examine

underground workings accompaniedby the

mine manager
of
or his deputy. According to the extent
the workings,it may take a day or two to do this.

(h) Again

examine

them

the mine

plans.

from
intelligently

the

will be able

You

information

you

to

have

follow

gained

underground.
have

You
You

have

among
be the

next

to

determine

questionsthat will

the

condition

the

naturallycome

of

the

examination.
mine

into your

; and

mind

will

:
following
"

(1) Is

this

(2) Is

this

(5) Is

young

mine

with

prosperous

future ahead

of if?

mine doomed
to earlyexhaustion ?
young
1
this mine reached its maximum
pointof production

(3) Has
(4) Is this
The

reached the critical stage in your

now

this

answer

an

old mine

an

old mine
to these

approachingexhaustion 1
with the eyes pickedout ?

questionsis

to

be

found

in the

quantity

204
and

GEOLOGY.

MINING

value of

in

ore

Do

sight.

wellforgetthat in a vigorous,
will be commonly two years

not

the developmentwork

managed mine

of the mill.

ahead

(i)Go undergroundwith
(j) Sample the
week

of

scheme

your

out

may

take

This

manner.
systematic

weeks, according to the magnitude

several

or

sketch

sampling.
in

mine

and
assistant,

own

your

workings and size of ore-bodies.

(The general
of mine-samplingare described in the chapter
principles
and Ore- valuation.")
treatingof Mine-sampling
Get mine returns of
(k)Completeyour surface investigations.
of the

"

output of

and

ore

values

mining
exported,

or

verifydoubtful

(I)Before

extracted,or of mineral shipped

and

Carefully

milling costs, etc.

points.

leavingthe

district make

tion
examina-

completean

as

will
neighbouring mines as circumstances
permit,noting character of country, ore-bodies being
of the

said

worked, general characteristics

of

returns, methods

costs

of

treatment,

of

output,

ore,

mining

and

milling.
On

own

your

allow

to
yourself

time.

be hurried

Cultivate

in your examination.
deliberate
temperament.

of your facte ; and in

report be careful to differentiate between facts and opinions.

Base

estimates

your

your
Your
you

account

no

Take

next

must

be

on

facts,but

be

sure

is the assay of your mine

guided by local considerations.
care

and
samples,

If you are
assay office for

for you to hire an

assayer, it is preferable
crucibles,
fluxes,
etc.,and
two, supplyyour own

Plot your assay values

consider the results.

The

form

on

skilful

day or

perform your

assays ; or your assistant will probablybe able to do

of assayingis done, it is
In whatever
way the work
and reliable.
be accurate
that the results must

(m)

in this

so

for you.

imperative

and
tracingsof mine-plans,

of your reportwill depend upon

Manifestlythe propertymay be

your

own

then

tions.
recommenda-

"

(1) Rejected.
(2) Secured on option.
(3) Purchased at once.
it will be
If, in your opinion,the property should be rejected,
unnecessary

to

furnish

elaborate

details

concerningit.

But

if

206

MINING

tained in

more

The

and

phraseore
two,

one,

on

or

They are onlyappliedto

a profit.

sides.

It may thus be
fall
into
disuse.
to

more

defined
simpleand clearly
Ore

(i)
$
(ii)

O""
re

of limited size

treated at
in sightis ambiguous,and

therefore be allowed
A

rectangularblocks

all sides.

by workingson
be extracted

less

or

GEOLOGY.

may

of

"

ore

Blocks

"

is as

ore

can

exposed

ore

and
misleading,

classification of

Developed. Blocks
Partly Developed.

mean

exposed
that

ore

should

follows

exposedon four sides.

of ore
exposedon three

"

or

sides.

two

Ore Expected to be Developed. Blocks of ore

that may be
(iii)
reasonablyexpectedto exist beyond or below the last
visible ore.
Exposedon one side.
ore
Philip
Argalll considers that the three phrasesore-developed,
"

and
being developed,
a

expectantshould

mining engineeris called

In the

is

ore

no

ore

of

estimates

to make.

upon

vein

exposedby surface outcrops only,there

that the values may be high.
sight,
notwithstanding

case

in

all the

cover

/Cofty
Fig. 76.

exposedin

Ore
and

The

hollows

Section
Longitudinal

One

Dimension.

number

of

There
between
the

patches,or
the
1

New

the

letters a, 6, c,
of a lode.
course

the

on

assumed

samplesselected

be

to
at

obscured

each

outcrop

Manifestlyany estimate of
be mere
guesswork.
that the payable ore is continuous
is nothing to show
the different outcrops It may or may not be so.
Again,

payable ore

been

Course of Lode.

fig.76

In

"

the presence of valuable

the quantityof payableore would

showed

on

represent prominent outcrops

these outcrops are
between

overburden.

by

"

the

at

the

truncated

of considerable

ore.

different
remains

dimensions

be

outcrops may
of

mere

local

pay-shootthat may have

priorto the later sculpturingof
a

country.
Rickard, The
York, 1904.

T. A.

Sampling and

Estimation

of

Ore

in

Digitized
by

Mine,

p.

80,

EXAMINATION

THE

In the above

example

in accordance
affords
Ore

with

basis for the

no

exposed

estimation

proved the
fig.77, and that

sunk

shaft

The

of
triangles

of

the

on

dimensions

of the

equal to

the width

ft.,and

the

exposedin the shaft.

ore

ft.,b c=35

or

ft.,and
=

6"

4 ft.

60

Assuming

of the

that the

have

shaft,we

two

mean

payable
triangles

partlydeveloped.

ore

the above

second principle,
get the mining engineer's
ore-bodyexposed in two dimensions givesa triangleof ore

From
TJiat

pay-shoot

sunk

of Lode.

and

of the

shaft has been

that

assume

now

continuance

Section
Longitudinal

"

sight.
will

60 feet.

thickness of pay-ore
values continued to the bottom

width

We

6 exposes two
sides or
c b e for a thickness

at

ore

of the breast of
35
Let a 6

in

ore
"

have

Fig. 77.

207

MINES.

the

Dimensions.

in Two

OF

principle,
proof of the first
are-body exposed in one dimension

an

pointsa to e,
at point b to a depth of

vein

VALUATION

have

we

which

surface excavations
from

AND

an

we

only partlydeveloped.
Ore
driven
the

on

the

"

of the

course

surface,and

Sides.

Four

exposedon

another

In

this

vein,and

rise from

the limits of the

example

rise

to

n.

level has been

put up from point/

The

dotted line

to

snm

shaft.
pay-shooton
b
b
lock
ore
developed
rectangular
efc. The
irregularblock b s m e v" exposed on three sides,and therefore
contains ore not fullydeveloped. The reliance to be placedupon

shows
The

now

the west

side of the

includes the

the characterof value in this block will depend upon

istics
The capacityof these
of the ore-bodyand local conditions.
be calculated for any given width.
ore-bodies can easily
estimates

That an
get the third principle,
dimensions
in
gives a rectangular area
four
exposed
From

the

developedof

above

known

we

approximate

mean

width

and

value.

ore-body
of

ore-

208

MINING

It

is manifest

that

rectangular
body of
be, ef,

and

triangleb k
the

are

is

known

GBOLOGY.

dimensions

three

If in the

ore.

as

the

known

an

unknown

do

above

not

fullyexpose

take sides

examplewe

dimensions,then the value of the

quantity. Again, if e b, b c, and of

dimensions, then

the

triangleof

ore

kf

is

unknown.

Fig. 78.

In

Section
Longitudinal

"

developmentwell

the

working mines, with

mill,the levels and rises by

of Lode.

of which

the

in advance

of the

is cut up into
blocks for stopingafford four dimensions or sides for
rectangular

examination

Only in
twice the

means

ore

and

sampling.
cases
exceptional

height.

The
of

will be the estimates

the

lengthof

smaller the blocks the

ore

of Tonnage.

Estimation

should

"

more

block exceed

trustworthy

developed.
This

is found

in
of cubic feet of solid ore contained
The
of cubic feet of solid ore in a ton.

the
by dividing
the block by the
number

number
number

of cubic feet in

gravityof the
specific

the
ore, and varies
lbs.
2000
of
ton
feet
for
cubic
15
a
from 12 to
allowance must
In measuring up groundwhich is fully
developed
horses of rock and pillars
of ore
for faults,
be made
dykes,probable
of

ton

ore

dependson

will

Probable
be

never

be

taken

Ore Reserves.

assuming
working faces or

in
justified

below

the

exercise

"

great caution.

out.

In

deduction

of 10 per cent, will

no
be sufficient in most
cases
empiricalrule can
; but obviously
and containing
The character of the ore-body
be laid down.
rock,
will afford the safest guidesto follow.
and local experience,
that

many
that the

cases

the

payable

ore

mine-examiner
extends

above

may
or

he must
open ground. In this matter
His onlyguide is the generalmetalliferous

EXAMINATION

THE

character

of the

VALUATION

AND

extend
pay- shoot may
the face, or below the

The

alreadywon.

ore

hundred, or only a few, feet beyond

Strong pay-shootshave been known
heightof a stope or two ; and for this reason
clearlydiscriminate between ore developedand

level.

Valuation

of Coal
field

knowledgeof
valuation

of

Areas.

"

area.
coal-bearing

the

cut

no

in

out

examiner

'probable

ore.

mining is a
and
of

of coal is a member

seam

providehimself

of its extent

the

with

the

must

examination

in the

therefore the determination

should

examiner

to

departmentof

as
geologyso requisite

formation,and
geological
is a geological
problem.
The

In

209

MINES.

OF

best

graphical
topo-

and any officialreports

geological
maps obtainable,
district.
with
the
the
dealing
geologyof
himself familiar
When
the ground is reached,he will firstmake
with the different members
of the coal-bearing
series, noting
and

their physical
character,thickness,fossilcontents, the
particularly
in which

horizon

of roof and

the

coal

or

seam

seams

occur,

and

the character

floor of coal.

A visit to the
the examiner

to

-neighbouringcoal-mines,if any exist,will

valuable

obtain much

and

necessary

enable

information

the above.
respecting
The

point is

next
to

measures

determine

to

and
the underlying

the

of
relationship

overlyingformations.

the

coal-

This

is

by running cross-sections across the line

of strike at different intervals,carefully
noting distances and
elevations of prominent outcrops and changes of rock-formation.
ture
strucHaving made himself familiar with the generalgeological
determined
readily

most

of the
and more
with the members
district,
particularly
will proceedto plotthe boundaries of
the examiner
coal-measures,
of the

the

rocks
coal-bearing

also mark

he will
topographical
map, whereon
strike,dip,angle of dip or inclination
etc.
faults,
dykes,coal-outcrop,

his

the direction of

beds, thickness of

of

on

seams,

outcrop is recorded in the field-book,

of seam, character of coal,fireclays,
as
ironstone,associated rocks,etc.
A

cross-section of each

with remarks

to thickness

angle of inclination of the coal-measures and contours of

in the
the possibility
of coal-outcrops
existing
ground preclude

If the
the
area
as

examination,the examiner will have to base his opinion

the coal-bearingprospects of the ground solelyupon

under
to

geologicalconsiderations.
of the
structure
geological
will be
existed.

And

more

exact

in many
selected
boringat
and depth of the coal.

In

case

field and

and

cases

this

his examination

of the

critical than

if

of the

mines
neighbouringcoalnumerous

he will be warranted

in order to determine
points,

outcrops

recommendin ing
the thickness

210

MINING

majorityof
following
points:
the

In
the

GEOLOGY.

examiner's

the

cases

report will deal with

"

and

(I)Situation

of

means

Area, title,
?2)
owners,

access.

rents

etc.
royalty,

or

structure,illustrated with cross-sections.

(3) Geological
waterrainfall,
(4)Physicalfeatures,with reference to forests,
etc.

powers,

of seams, and
of faults and

Thickness

i?i

Existence

(8)Probable

tonnage

(9) Qualityof
Give

(Thisshould

coalfield.

(5) The area of

plan.)

coal.

be shown

of

presence

on

coloured

stone-partings.

dykes.

and ironstone.
of coal ; presence of fireclay
Is it hard and strong,or soft and friable ]
coal

analysesof

state whether

itis useful for steam,

Discuss
smelting,etc., purposes.
portion
pro-

household, gas,

sulphurpresent,water, ash, etc.

if any portionof the field lies so as to
of

(10) State

and, if so, what

be

water-free,

and

probable

area.

probablecost of

mine-development.
(12) Cost of surface equipment.
(13) State probablecost of production.
Give

(II)

situation

(14) State

transportof

cost of

(15)Discuss

extent

(16)State the
In

outcrops and

to calculate the

and

dykes, the

calculated

on

same.

the

quantityof
it is

ton.

coal is deduced

the

the

approximatearea
for broken

allowance

quantity of coal
basis :
following

coal

that

can

and

coal,
pitchcoal,
bituminous
coal,
cannel coal,
anthracite,

foot of brown

"

thickness

coal,
along outcrop, faults,
extracted

be

"

that

"

of coal and

"

vein

attempt
of

may

be

"

"

Seams

to

surface

exactness.

Tons

For every

from

needless refinement

quantityof coal with mathematical

due

and

coal, access

etc.
market, probablecompetition,

of

few boreholes

Having determined
made

for

probablenet profitper

in which

area

an

of market

beds of shale

is,by cuttinga

planeof the

narrow

per Acre.

1000
1100
1200

1300
.

1500
.

sampled in

the

same
way as a
roof
floor
from
at right
to
groove
Surface outcrops should be dressed
are

dip.
pick before the sample is broken, as outcrop coal is
the cracks are filled with fine
often waterlogged; and sometimes
sediment or sand carried over the exposure by runningwater or rain.

anglesto the
down

with

EXAMINATION

THB

VALUATION

AND

Valuation

Alluvial

op

OF

211

MINKS.

Ground.

either for dredging

placerdeposits,
the amount
of
is affected by determining
or
hydraulicsluicing,
goldcontained in a measured quantityof material obtained from
under
shafts or boreholes placedat regularintervals in the area
valuation

The

of alluvial

or

consideration.

of Sampling. First survey the block of ground,and

Work

The

"

say, 2 chains to the inch for

paper to a large scale
between 50 and 100 acres, and 1 chain to the inch for areas

plotit on
areas

under

"

50

acres.

Divide
The

the

shape

ground on

of

the

blocks

the

plan into

will

depend

drainage,and

the direction of the

blocks of 1 to 5
the

on

the

or

surface

acres.

contours,

probabledirection of the

gold-leads.
In
or
are

some

both

the

cases

sides of

in many
Make

blocks

river ; in others,terrace lands in

intersected by lateral streams.

cases

in the centre

mark

stripsituated

ground is a long narrow

in consecutive

of each

block,and

Proceed

order.

to

the

on

then number

the

ground and put

flagin the centre of each block. These stakes mark

samplingholes.
depthof gravelmay vary from nothingto 40 feet,or more

stake

one

which
valley,

or

the

sites of the
The

very deepground.
Where
the ground is
holes

dry and

not

deep it is customary

to

in
sink

points. The whole of the material

measured
the hole is carefully
in a box of known
the
by cradling, goldcontents weighed,and the

shafts at the selected

or

excavated

from

washed
capacity,
results recorded.

record of each

The

hole embraces

information

on

the

following

points:
"

(1) Depth of ground.

Character

of bottom

Character

of

"

that is,whether

slate

or

if beds
gravels(noteparticularly

falsebottom.
of

clay,large

exist in ground).
or drift timber
boulders,
excavated
material
of
in cubic yards,
plus20 per
(4) Quantity
both small and great,must be included
the boulders,
cent, (all
in the

measurement).
(5) Quantityof goldobtained.
(6)Quantityof goldper cubic yard.
In

ground where

the

sinkingof

holes would

considerable extent

by water, itisusual
selected points. The

bore-holes at the
and
the material
wooden

extracted

trough,washed, and

the

to

put

holes

sand

be

down
are

impededto
5-inch

or

lined with

any
6-inch

tubing,

collected in

by
pump,
the goldcontents weighed.
Digitized
by

212

MINING

Record
from

the

depth of

the

hole,and calculate the cubic

the outside diameter

is added

excess

calculated

because

from

the

GEOLOGY.

of the

contents

The
per cent.
that the goldvalues

pipe,plus 20

experiencehas

shown

of
displacement

the

pipe

alone

are

always

due to
the actual returns.
This is,no doubt, largely
the circumstance
that a higher extraction or savingof the goldis

higherthan

effected in the

samples from
has

streams

the

faces or
from
open
often led to erroneous

for
impossible

Pannings

the

Furthermore,

the

to

be
a

wages
dividends

In these

places

concentrated,thus renderingit
an

are

inferred

small

approximateestimate

usually very
that

of

misleading.

placerclaim which

will
working mates
working on a largescale.
are
always on the track of

party

to a company
small scale the miners

floor of small

or

of

toe

obtained

not

If the lead is

sides

test

courses
gravel faces and from waterbut inferences
gravelsare interesting,

the

gold

it must

good
necessarily
pay
Working on
a

from

the

practice.
the
of selecting

conclusions.

form

to

gravels.

returns

on

examiner

taken

from

gold.

the

less

or

value of the

through

cut

drawn

the

"

gold is generallymore

the average

in actual

of Sampling. The method

Methods

Wrong

than

samplingtests

of

the fact is known

lost,

at

once

; but

ing
work-

of quantity
is an important
shifting
invested,
adequatereturns for the capital
alike
moved, thereby reducing the
are
gravels

where
largescale,

the

factor in order to insure

rich

and

poor

generalaverage.
the Average Value.
Calculating
found
is
the
by multiplying
yard

"

cubic
and
in

yard found
dividingthe

feet,as

in each
sum

hole

of these

average value per cubic

of grainsof gold per
number
The

by the depth of the

productsby the sum

follows :

"

Digitized
by

hole in
of the

feet,

depth

INDEX.
Ages

of

Alluvial

time, 4.
geological

Blue carmine, 173.

tion
deposits,
samplingand valua-

Blue

ground, 154.
22.
Bog-irondeposits,
72.
71,
Bonanzas,
Borate of soda, deposits
of,25.
Borax, deposits
of,25, 37, 147.

of,211-213.
Alum, 142, 143.
Aluminium, 144.Alum shales,142,
Alunite,142, 143.

143.

Boric

acid,123, 147.
Bornite,occurrence
of,42, 58.
Anamorphism, 68.
5
minerals
found in, 6.
Bosses, ;
Anatase, 91.
in
Brasses
coal,30.
Andesites,minerals found in, 6, 7 ;
Brine springs
70.
7 ; propylitisation
as indicators of salt,
of,112,
affinities,
Bromide of silver,
occurrence
of,44.
113, 116.
of, 29 ; lignite Bunches, 71.
Anthracite, age
changed to, by basalt,30.
Cainozoic
period,4.
Antimonite, 144.

Cairngorm,associated with sapphires,

Antimony, 144.
Apatite,177.
occurrence
Argentite,
lodes,54.
Arsenic,144,

22.

of,42,

180 ; in

Calamine, 185.
Calcite,vertical distribution of, 76
quartz pseudomorphsof, 91.

145.

in
Arsenopyrite,

Cambrian

veins,61, 144,
with, 84.

ore

145 ; minerals associated

Asbestos,145.

Asphaltum, 145, 146.

Augite,a product of
morphism, 127.
Balks, 30.
Banket, mode
34, 164.

of

contact

occurrence

meta-

Carboniferous age, 4.
Cas8iterite. See Tinstone.
Cat's eye, associated with

of, 33,

Cellulose,absorptionof

Blende, in
at

Cement

ore, 166.

Broken

45 ;

in

veins, 61

Hill,

39,
deposits,
44 ; at

gash veins, 52

by,

Cement, 147, 148.

Asphaltum.

contact

copper

80.

Bismuth, 147.
See

sapphires,

22.

Bauxite, 142, 143, 144.

Benches, 71.
Biotite,change of,91.

Black-band

age, 4.

Carbon, association of productiveores

with, 83.
Carbon dioxide,
115, 121, 134.
Carbonation
of minerals,68

Barytes,146, 147.
of,7.
Basalt,affinity

Bitumen.

127 ;

Duckton,
in

;
; vertical distribution

with gold,16,
placers

17.

Cementation, belt of,68.

occurrence
Cerussite,
of,43, 44.
occurrence
of, 44, 46,
Chalcopyrite,
tribution
58 ; in ore veins,61 ; vertical disof,75 ; minerals associated
with, 84.

Chalybeatespringsas

indicators of

iron, 70.

ore

of,

76 ; minerals associated with, 84 ;

of zinc,185.
the main source

a
Chiastolite,
product
metamorphism, 127.
Chimney-shoots,71.

214
Digitized
by

of

contact

215

INDEX.

Chloride of silver,
occurrence
of,58.
minerals associated with,84.
Chlorite,
Chromite,minerals associated with,
84 ; in

peridotite,
108, 130 ; in
108, 148 ; uses of,149.
serpentine,
Chromium, 148, 149.
145.
Chrysolite,
*

Cinnabar, minerals associated with,

84 ; deposits
of,117, 118, 119.
Clastic rocks.

See Sediments.
Clay,absorptive
power of,for
79, 80 ; formation
of, 79 ;

absorbed

by, 80.

Coal, origin of, 27-29

29 ; age

occurrence,

produced in,
varieties

metal,
leum
petro-

by

mode

of

; effects
dykes, 30 ;

of, 29

tion
; stages in forma33 ; world's production

of, 32

of, 32,

of,149.
Coal areas, valuation

Coal seams,

of,209, 210.
positionof,29 ; faulting

of,29, 30.
Cobalt,149,

leads with gold,14, 15, 16.

Deep mining,limits of,88, 89.
Deep

Denudation, 2, 3.
Devonian

age, 4.

Diabase,affinitiesof,7.
Diamond

21,
placers,

22

Kimberley,38

; at

Dip of strata,26, 27.

98.
Dip faults,
diamonds
in, 157.
Dolerite,
Downthrow, 96, 100.
18.
Dry-blowingplacers,
Dykes, 5 ; minerals found
effects producedby, 30.

Earth,

Embolite, occurrence

Colemannite,147.

Enargite,

Elements, distribution of,

80.
Comb
structure,67.
3.
Conglomerates,

6 ;

in

the

earth's crust, 107.

occurrence

metals,

in,

evolution of the, 2.

Cobaltine,149.
absorb

sapphires,
Kimberley

mines, 153-155 ; parent

rock, 155, 156 ; genesisof, 156 ;
in dolerite,157 ; largest,158 ;
supplyof,158.
Diorite,affinitiesof,7.

156.
Eclogite,

of,to

diamond

150.
Cobalt ores, minerals associated with,
84 ; occurrence
of,150.

Colloids,
power

157.

Diamonds, associated with

of,43,
of,62.

180.

Eocene

age, 4.
Equisetums in

Carboniferous

age,

28.

Erubescite,

of,

occurrence

38 ;

in

Contact

contact
39.
deposits,
deposits,
38-46, 124-127.
Contact metamorphism, 124-127.
Excelsior diamond, 158.
of, 34, 35, 38 ;
Copper, occurrence
40 ;
ores
of, in contact deposits,
Fahlbands, 9, 46, 47,82, 127.
ores
of,in veins,70 ; absorption
of,42.
of, Fahlore,occurrence
in
coal
80
in
cellulose,
by
29, 30 ; extent
serpentine, Faults,
seams,
;
30
and
sources
109,
130;
etc.,
of, ; alongveins,72 ; definition,
duction
proof, 150-152.
93, 94 ; dynamics of, 93, 104.
in
contact
Copper-glance
deposits, Felspar,
change of,to kaolin,58 ; to
39

; in

lodes,58.

Copper
stockworks,38 ; in
lodes, 53, 57, 58 ; in serpentine
and
other rocks,72, 73 ; pseudomorphous after wood, 83.
ore

in

occurrence
Copperpyrites,
of,38, 45 ;
in contact deposits,
127.
39,
occurrence
of,36.
Coprolites,
influence
Country,
of, on ore veins,

72, 73, 81, 82, 134,

topaz,184.
Ferns,geological
developmentof,28.
158.
Fireclay,
83.
Flinties,

Floater,67.

Flucan, 72.
Fluorite

159.
(fluor-spar),

Folds

in coal,31, 32.
Forests of Carboniferous

age, 28.

135.

Courses,71.

Galena,

in contact

39, 127
deposits,

Cretaceous

at

Crush

143, 152.
Cryolite,

52 ; in
distribution
veins,61 ; vertical

Cullinan

76 ; minerals associated with, 84 ;

age, 4.
zone, 42.

diamond, 158.
of,38.
Cuprite,occurrence

Broken

45 ;

in

Hill, 44

; at

Duckton,

gash veins,

pseudomorphsof,after wood,

ore

of,

116.

216

INDEX.

Garnets,associated

with gold, 18;

associated with, 84 ; a

minerals

productof

metamorphism,

contact

127.
173.
Garnierite,

Iron hat, 69.

Iron ore in limestone,73.
in contact deposits,
Iron pyrites,
39,
41, 43, 127 ; near granite,41 ; at
Broken Hill,44 ; in fahlbands,46
in lodes,56, 57 ; in ore veins,61
vertical distribution of, 75, 76
oxidation of,78 ; minerals associated

Gaws, 30, 31.

of,4.
time, 2 ; periods
Geological
18 ; associates
Gold, forms of alluvial,
of alluvial,
18 ; originof alluvial,
with, 84 ; occurrence
of,in fissures
of basalt,117 ; in metamorphic
18, 19 ; precipitates
of,19, 20 ; in
the Rand banket reefs,33, 34 ; in
rocks,127 ; goldreduced by, 141.
Ironstone blows, 69.
Treadwell mines,37, 38 ; in contact
4940; in saddle-reefs,
deposits,
Jurassic
51 ; in lodes,53-57 ; in veins,70 ;
age, 4.
in

bonanzas, 72 ; in clay, 79 ;
indicator beds for,82, 83 ; minerals
Kaolin, 158.
associated with, 84 ; in andesites, Katamorphism,68.

114,

in

115 ;

water, "135

sea

and yieldof,
sources, production,
159-161
; sampling and valuation
of alluvial
deposits containing,

in

Gold

of,
secondaryenrichment
tion
77 ; diminuweathering,
of,with depth,81, 82.
10-19, 159, 160.
placers,
ores,

zone

of

Gossan, 69.
Granite,tin
of,7.
30 ; sources

in, 6

; classification

and

uses

formation

of,

of,165.

Mogul diamond, 158.

of,25, 36
Gypsum, deposits

of

and

in, 6.

of,

occurrence
ores,
lodes, 53 ; in

36 ;

limestone,
yieldof,168.

in
73 ;

Leader,75.
ores,

in contact

deposits.

40.
in
Lepidodendrons

Carboniferous age,

Lignite,age of, 29
; sources

of,165, 166.
fault,93, 94.

Haematite, in lodes,57 ; deposits

of,
166, 167.
Heave
of faults,
99, 100.

Hornblende, a product
metamorphism, 127.
Hornsilver.

Lead

28.

Great

Hade

age, 4.
5 ; minerals found

Lead-zinc
;

Gravels,3.

uses

Laurentian

Lava,

sources
ore

Graphite,age of, 29

and

Land, originof surface features of,2.

secretion,
theoryof,134-141.

Lateral

211-213.

Gold

154.
Kerargyrite,
Koh-i-nor diamond, 158.

See

of

contact

Kerargyrite.

Horses,30, 67, 68.

Hydrationof minerals,68.
Hydrogen sulphide,79, 111, 118,

; mode

of

rence
occur-

of,32, 33.
Limestone,3.
Limonite, depositsof, formed
by
descending waters, 23, 24, 166,
167.

Lodes, characters of, 53-58 ; width

of, 63, 64; length of, 64, 65;
strike of, 65 ; dip of, 65, 66 ;
depth,66 ; arrangement of matter
in, 66, 67 ; recovery of lost,101104.

Lycopodiums

in

Carboniferous

age,

28.

119, 120, 1581.

Magmas.

rocks. See Plutonic rocks.

Ilmenite, associated with tinstone,
Igneous
20 ;

change of,91.

9, 47-48.
Impregnations,
Indicator beds,82, 83, 160.
occurrence
of,43, 44.
Iodyrite,
and production
of,166Iron, sources
168.

See Plutonic rocks.

of
Magmatic segregation

ores, 106-

110, 129-133.

Magnesite,169.
Magnetite, in
associated with

sands, 12;
gold,18 ; with tin

beach

ore, 20 ; in contact

minerals

39 ;
deposits,

associated with, 84 ; occurrence

107 ; a
of, in magmas,

217

INDEX.

productof contact and of regional Ore deposits.See Mineral deposits.

metamorphism, 127 ; depositsof, Ores, distribution of, in depth,
75-77.

166, 167.

Manganese,depositsof, 23-25
and production
of,169.

; ores

Ore

veins,characters of,59-92.

Organic matter, reducing power

Marbles,3.

of,

83.

184.
Organisms,gradualsuccession of,in
Megabasite,
See
Quicksilver.
time, 3, 4 ; as indicators of geoMercury.
logical
4.
Mining geology,scope of,1.
periods,
Mesozoic period,
4.
Orthoclase,
pseudomorphs of tin ore
after,90 ; quartzpseudomorphsof,
Metamorphism of sediments,3 ; of
91.
igneous rocks, 6 ; of sedimentary
Osmosis as an agent in ore formation,
rocks,89.

Metasomatic

classification

processes,

of,92.
Metasomatic

replacementof minerals,

89-92.

Mica,

of

product

and

duction
pro-

186-196.
Mine-sampling,
Mineral
deposits,classification of,
8-58

105-128

modes
;

of

of,
geneticclassificationof,
occurrence

106.
Mineral oil. See Petroleum.
and valuation
Mines, examination

of, 196-213

; successive stages in
tion
et seq. ; valua-

developmentof,196
of

metal, 197-209

75, 76, 77, 78, 81.

of iron, absorptionof, by
80.
pulverised
silica,
Ozokerite,146.

morphism, Oxide
meta-

contact

127; sources
of,170-172.

90, 107.
94.
Overlapfaults,
Oxidation of minerals,68, 69, 70,

of coal

areas, 209-210.
Miocene
age, 4.

Paleozoic

4.
period,
84.
Paragenesis,

Patches,71.
Pay dirt,10.
Pay shoot,71, 72.
Pay streak,10.
of,12.
Pay wash, 10 ; position
Peat, 32.

Peridot,associated

with

sapphires.

22.

Periods of

145.
Mispickel,
Molybdenite,
113, 172, 173.
Molybdenum, ores, sources

Permian

time, 4.
geological

age, 4.

Molybdite,172.

Petrography,
importanceof,7.
Petroleum,absorption
of,by clay,80 ;
and yieldof,175, 177.
sources
and
Phosphates,sources
yield of,

Monazite, 182, 183.

Mosses,geological
developmentof,28.

177-179.
Pipes,71.

and

duction
pro-

of,172, 173.

Placer

Nests, 71.
Nickel in fahlbands,46 ; use of,175.
Nickel-iron in serpentine,
etc.,109,
Nickel ores, minerals associated with,
and yieldof,173-175.
84 ; sources

Nips,30, 31.
Normal
faults,
94, 97.
Nuggets of goldin

drift and in veins,

19.

shale,175.

minerals
Olivine,
occurrence

associated with, 84 ;
in magmas,
107,

of,

108.
Ore against
ore, 74.

10 ;

of,10-22.

characteristicof different
Plants,types
28.
geological
periods,

Platinum

130.

Oil

deposits,definition of,

various kinds

associated

with

gold, 18 ;
eruptive
and yieldof,

of,109, 110 ; in

occurrence

rocks, 130

; sources

179-180.
Platinum placers,
21.
Pleistocene age, 4.
Pliocene

age, 4.

Plutonic

rocks,forms of,4, 5

tion
; altera-

fication
of, 5 ; contents of, 5 ; classiof,6 ; mineral contents of,
106-110; fusion of, 110, 111;
mineral changes during Cooling
of,
124-127.

218

INDEX.

Pockets,71.
Pot-blows,
SO, 31.
4.
Primaryperiod,

formation

earth's

of, 3;

tinuous
formed of, 3 ; alteration
chiefly
of,3.
minerals associated with,
Serpentine,
crust

of minerals,89, 91.
Pseudomorphism

Psilomelane,
of,23, 24, 169.
deposits
Pyrite. See Iron pyrites.
Pyrolusite,
of,23, 24, 169.
deposits
Pyroxene,minerals associated with,
84.
occurrence
Pyrrhotite,

of,46, 46, 173,

174, 175 ; in lodes, 57 ; vertical
distribution
of, 76 ; minerals
associated with, 84 ; in metamorphic rocks,127.

84.

Shaken

coal,30, 31.
Shales,3.
166.
Siderite,
Silica,depositions
of,77, 111-117

and
absorptive
powers of gelatinous
pulverised,
80; pseudomorph of,
after wood, 116.
Silurian age, 4.

Silver,occurrence

fahlbands,46

of, 35, 36, 44

; ores

; in

of, in veins,

70 ; in limestone,
73 ; in clay,79 ;
gangue of minerals,59,
and yieldof, 180, 181.
vertical distribution of,
sources
Silver-lead ores, in contact deposits,
75 ; absorptionof oxide of iron
40 ; sources
and yieldof,181.
80 ; minerals associated
by pulverulent,

Quartz,

as

66, 67

after calcite and

Slates,3, 181, 182.

72.
Slickensides,

depositsof

29.
Slips,

with,84

pseudomorphous

orthoclase,91 ;
113, 114,
cbalcedonic,

Smaltite,149.

115.

Solfataric

3.
Quartzite,
sources
Quicksilver,

Realgar,
76.
Recent

and

yieldof,180.

vertical distribution of,

166, 167.

age, 4.

Redruthite,occurrence
of,42.
Regent diamond, 158.
94.
Reversed faults,
affinitiesof,7.
Rhyolite,
Rider,67.
Rocks, temperatureof,85, 88.
Rubies, associated with gold, 18

179.
Sperrylite,
associated with gold,18.
Spinel,

Step-faults,
29, 30, 100.
vertical distribution of,76.
Stibnite,

Stockworks,9, 37, 38.

Strike of strata,26.
;

with

22.
sapphires,
21, 22.
Ruby placers,
RutUe, pseudomorphousforms of,91.

Saddle-backs,
Saddle

action,effects of, in producing

111-128.
deposits,
Specular iron,in contact deposits,
39, 127 ; a product of regional
metamorphism, 127 ; depositsof,
mineral

30.

reefs,42, 45, 49, 50, 160,

161.

Salt,deposits
of,25.

"Salting" of mines, 194, 195.

Sampling,methods of ore, 186-196.

See Copper
Sulphide of copper.
pyrites.
Sulphideof lead. See Galena.
Sulphideof silver. See Argentite.
Sulphideof zinc. See Blende.
of gold,19,
Sulphides,
precipitants

78, 83, 141 ; vertical distribution

of,75,76, 77,78, 79 ; oxidation of,
78 ; formation of, 114, 141 ; in
siliceous sinters,
121 ; in

eruptive

rocks,130.

Sands, 3.
Sandstones,3.
22.
Sapphireplacers,
a productof
Scapolite,
morphism, 127.

Strike-faults,
95, 97.

Sulphur,deposits
of,25, 26, 37, 111,
117, 118, 119, 120, 123, 124;
contact meta-

of, 70

; sources

as

and

dicator
in-

an

yield

of,182.
Sulphurdioxide,
111, 123.
formation
Sulphuricacid,
of,78.
31.
30,
Swellies,

184.
Scheelite,

Schists,3.

of,2.
Seas,origination
4.
Secondaryperiod,
first
originof, 2;
Sediments,

sulphuretted
hydrogen

con-

Syenite,affinitiesof,7.

219

INDEX.

Talc,

Veins, originof cavities in, 60

182.

Telluride

of

gold,

of,

occurrence

56.

of

of, 61-63
filling

68,

Tellurium,minerals

associated

with,

Temperatureof rocks,85-88.
period,4.
Tertiary
Thickness

of

enrichment

ary
of,72 ; secondpoverishme
of, 77-80 ; im-

of, with

beds,27.

; age

outcrops of,

69 ; condition of metallic contents

of, 70 ; positionof contents,

71 ; wall movements

84.

depth, 80-

Thorium, 182, 183.

of lost, 101-104
recovery
theories of formation
of,129-139

Throws,

valuation of, 192, 193

Thrust

82

29.

plane,98.

;
;

Veins,fissure,
9, 52-58, 112.

Tin, originof stream,

20 ; in

57.
Tin placers,
20, 21.

Tinstone, 20, 38

; occurrence

lodes, Veins,gash,9, 51, 52.

Veins, segregated,
9, 48, 51.
Vesuvianite,and product of
of, 47,
metamorphism, 127.

contact

48 ; in lodes,53 ; in granite,72,
130 ; minerals associated with, 84 ;
Want, 30.
pseudomorphous,after orthoclase, Water, action of, 2, 3, 136-140;
when
90; in eruptiverocks, 130, 131,
descending,
22-24, 137, 139,
and yieldof,183, 184.
132 ; sources
140 ; at high temperatures, 110Titaniferous

iron in sands, 21 ; in
123 ; when
ascending,122, 123,
rocks,130.
eruptive
137, 138, 139, 140.
Topaz,associated with gold,18 ; with
Weathering,belt of,68.
sapphires,22 ; change of felspar Wolfram, minerals associated with,

to, 184.

84, 184, 185

Tourmaline,minerals associated with,

84.

Trachyte,affinitiesof,7.

of

contact
product
metamorphism,127.
of gold,19 ; of
Wood, a precipitant

Triassic age, 4.

horn

Troubles,29.

pseudomorphs

Trough-faults,
100, 101.
Tungstateof lime,185.
Tungsten,184, 185.

116 ; and

83
silver,

; of copper

of

ores, 83 ;

galena after,

of silica after,
116.

Wulfenite,172.

Zinc, sources
Zinc

Upthrow,

of,173.

; occurrence

Wollastonite,a

ore

in

and yieldof,185.
limestone,73.

Zircon,associated with gold,18.

96.

PRINTED

BY

NEILL

AND

CO., LTD., EDINBURGH.