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1. Theories on intrinsic and extrinsic


motivation
2. Expectancy-Value Model
3. Review relevant research
Master of Education Programme, Sem-I, 2013-2014
Magdalena Mo Ching Mok
Department of Psychological Studies, HKIEd
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Quality of Motivation:

Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., & Deci, E. L.


(2006). Intrinsic versus extrinsic goal
contents in Self-Determination Theory:
Another look at the quality of academic
motivation. Educational Psychologist,
41(1), 19-31.

Intrinsically motivated
Extrinsically motivated

Autonomous motivation
Involves volition and choice

Controlled motivation
Being pressured or coerced

Interpersonal environment (e.g.


classroom) and its effect on motivation
Autonomy-supportive v controlling
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Intrinsic Motivation is when an individual takes on an


activity
For its own sake
For the enjoyment it provides
For the knowledge gained
For the feelings of accomplishment it brings

Harlow (1953)
White (1959)
Intrinsically motivated behaviours: those
that are not energized by physiological
drives or their derivatives

Extrinsic Motivation is when an individual performs


In order to gain some kind of reward
In order to avoid some kind of punishment separate
from the activity

Reward is the satisfaction with the activity


itself
Extrinsic motivation: means-end structure
& are instrumental for some separable
consequence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002;
Husman & Lens, 1999; Simons,
Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Lacante, 2004)

Deci, 1971, 1972


Kruglanski, Freedman, & Zeevi, 1971
Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett, 1973
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Intrinsic goals: growth, relationship, community


Extrinsic goals: Wealth, fame, image

Proactive, growth-oriented nature of


human being (p.20)

History: Kasser & Ryan (1993, 1996): individual


differences in life goals & relations with wellbeing and adjustment

White (1959): A need for competence;


experience of effectance & competence

Relative importance of extrinsic (intrinsic) goals


related negatively (positively) to well-being

deCharms (1968): a sense of personal


causation

Experimental field studies: consequences for


learning, achievement, persistence of intrinsic v
extrinsic goals (Vensteenkiste, Simons, Lens,
Sheldon, & Deci, 2004; Vensteenkiste, Simons,
Soenens, & Lens, 2004)

Nuttin (1973): experience of causality


pleasure for initiator of behaviour
Causality ~ concept of autonomy
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People want to feel in control

Reward (Deci, 1971)

Rewarded participants for engaging in an


intrinsically interesting activity

Deadlines (Amabile, DeJong, & Lepper,


1976)

Rewarded participants enjoyed the activity


less and showed less subsequent persistence

Surveillance (Enzle & Anderson, 1993)

Extrinsic rewards can demotivate intrinsically


motivating behaviour

Testing (Grolnick & Ryan, 1987)


Controlling language (Vansteenkiste,
Simons, Lens, Sheldon, & Deci, 2004)

External rewards reduces sense of control


Behaviour became controlled by reward, and
thus undermined autonomy
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Initial: Intrinsic & extrinsic motivations are


two opposite ends of a continuum ( de
Charms, 1968; Lepper & Greene, 1978)

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A second instantiation (in addition to


intrinsic motivation) of growth-oriented
endowment of human beings

Intrinsic motivation: self-determination


Later: extrinsic motivation does not
necessarily undermine intrinsic
motivation

Process of internatlization can differ


among people

Extrinsic motivation may even enhance


intrinsic motivation (Luyten & Lens, 1981)
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1. External Regulation:
Behaviour prompted by external
contingencies (e.g. rewards, punishment,
deadlines)
No internalization of the reasons for
performing the behaviour
Experienced as coercion
Perceived as an external locus of
causality (deCharms, 1968)

2. Introjected Regulation:
Engaged in an activity to comply with
internal pressure:
in the pursuit of self-aggrandizement &
(contingent) self-worth or
in the avoidance of feelings of guilt & shame

Partially internalized
Experienced as being coerced
Represented by external locus of control
(deCharms, 1968)

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3. Identification:
Identify with the value of an activity
Accept regulation of the activity as ones own
See the personal relevance of the activity
Internal perceived locus of causality
Relatively volitional ~ intrinsic
Identification & intrinsic motivation combined
into a composite of autonomous motivation
(Black & Deci, 2000; Vanstenekiste, Lens,
Dewitte, De Witte, & Deci, 2004)

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Think of two students A and B in your class. A


is intrinsically motivated. B is extrinsically
motivated
Why do you think that A is intrinsically
motivated?
Why do you think that B is extrinsically
motivated?

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1. Mary works hard because she knows that her


parents will buy her ice cream if she came first
in the exam.

1. Competence

2. Tom studied hard on his exam before


watching TV because he would feel guilty
otherwise.

3. Relatedness (Baumeister & Leary,


1995) need to feel part of a family,
group, social order individuals are
inclined to take on the values, beliefs,
and behaviours that are endorsed by
others.

3. Jack studied the course Motivation and Selfdirected Learning because he understood
the importance of this course to his role as a
teacher.
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2. Autonomy (Grolnick, Deci, & Ryan,


1997)

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Decreased drop-out (Vallerand et al., 1997)

Autonomy-Supportive Context

More deep learning (Grolnick & Ryan, 1987)

Instructors empathize with learners perspective

Greater creativity (Koestner et al., 1984)

Allow opportunities for self-initiation and choice

Less superficial information processing (Vansteenkiste,


Simons, Lens, Sheldon, et al., 2004)
Higher achievement (Boggiano, Flink, Shields, Seelback,
& Barrett, 1993; Soenens & Vansteenkiste, 2005)
Enhanced well-being (Black & Deci, 2000; Levesque,
Zuehlke, Stanek, & Ryan, 2004)

Provide a meaningful rationale if choice is


constrained
Refrain from the use of pressures and
contingencies to motivate behaviour
Provide timely positive feedback

USA, Russia (Chirkov & Ryan, 2001), China


(Vansteenkiste, Zhou, Lens, & Soenens, 2005)

(Deci et al., 1994)


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Maintains or enhances intrinsic motivation


Facilitates internalization
Facilitates integration of extrinsic motivation

Controlling Context
Pressure individuals to think, act, or feel in
particular ways

Intrinsic and well-internalized extrinsic


motivations are expected to promote adaptive
learning outcomes
When socializing agents use either overt or subtle
controlling tactics, students tend to show
impoverished and fragmented forms of
internalization and they fail to find interest in the
activity (Assor et al., 2004; Vansteenkiste, Simons,
Lens, Soenens, & Matos, 2005)

Externally controlling environments use of


overtly coercive strategies such as salient
reward contingencies, deadlines, overtly
controlling language (e.g. should, have to)
Internal control: e.g. introjected regulations,
guilt-inducing strategies, shaming procedures,
use of conditional regard
(Assor, Roth, & Deci, 2004)

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Academic competence
School achievement
Higher well-being
(Allen, Hauser, Bell, & OConnor, 1004; Boggiano
et al., 1993; Grolnick, Ryan, & Deci, 1991;
Levesque et al., 2004; Soenens & Vansteenkiste,
2005)
Negatively predict maladjustment (e.g. distress in
emotion regulation and acting out, learning
problems)
(Grolnick, Kurowski, Dunlap, & Hevey, 2000;
Grolnick, Kurowski, McMenamy, Rivkin, & Bridges,
1998)
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Reduced conceptual learning


Lower achievement
(Aunola & Nurmi; Benware & Deci, 1984;
Grolnick & Ryan, 1987)
Depression
Lower self-esteem (Barbar, Olson, & Shagle,
1994; Soenens, Vansteenkiste, Duriez, Luyten,
& Goossens, 2005)
Controlling mothers
Even 1-year-old
infants have been found to show less
subsequent free-choice play behaviour
(Grolnick, Frodi, & Bridges, 1984)
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Extrinsic
Motivation

Intrinsic goals
e.g. community contribution, health, personal growth,
affiliation
Satisfying in their own right
Provide direct satisfaction of basic psychological
needs
Expected to be positively related to psychological wellbeing and positive adjustment
Extrinsic goals
e.g. fame, financial success, physical appearance
Outward orientation
Tend to oriented toward Interpersonal comparisons,
contingent approval, & acquiring external signs of selfworth

Intrinsic
Motivation

Reasons or motives (i.e., the regulations) that


underlie students goal pursuits. That is the
why of the goals

Controlling
Social
Environments

AutonomySupportive Social
Environments

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Strong aspirations for extrinsic life goals associated


with:
Lower life satisfaction,
Lower self-esteem,
Lower self-actualisation,
Higher depression and anxiety,
Poorer relationship quality,
Less cooperative behaviour, and
Greater prejudice and social-dominant attitudes
(e.g. Duriez, Vansteenkiste, soenens, & De Witte, 2004;
Kasser & Ryan, 1993, 1006; McHoskey, 1999; Sheldon &
McGregor, 2000; Sheldon, Sheldon, & Osbaldiston, 2000;
Vansteenkiste, Duriez, Simons, & Soenens, 2006)

Goal Content: intrinsic v extrinsic


Goal Motive: autonomous v controlled (i.e.
why people are pursuing the particular goal
contents)(Deci & Ryan, 2000)
Mary works at a fast-food company after
school to earn money (extrinsic goal
content)
Because she is forced by her mother to earn
money (controlled motive)
Because she values going to university and
needs the money (autonomous motive)

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Different learning contexts place different emphasis on


intrinsic v extrinsic goals

Pursuit of intrinsic (extrinsic) goals tends to be


correlated with having autonomous (controlled)
motives (ie intrinsic (external) interest or
internalised (introjected) importance)
Intrinsic (v extrinsic) goal importance compete for
variance with autonomous (v controlled) motives
Both predicted significant independent variance in
psychological well-being (psychological health &
adjustment in relationships), academic
(mal)adjustment
(Sheldon et al., 2004)

E.g. business schools: extrinsic goals of making


money; education schools: goals of contributing to the
community
Contexts with different emphasis on intrinsic v
extrinsic goals result in different learning outcomes
Experimental manipulation of learning goals:
Long-term goal frame: intrinsic or extrinsic
Social context: autonomy supportive or controlling

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Expectancy
Can I do it?
E.g. Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997)
Reasons for Engagement
Why am I doing it?
E.g. Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000)
Integrating Expectancy & Value
E.g. Expectancy-Value theory (Eccles & Wigfield,
2002)
Integrating Motivation & Cognition
E.g. Self-regulation

Internal
Variables within the individual give rise to
motivation & behavior
E.g. Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
Process
Interaction between the individual and the
environment
E.g. Expectancy theory (Vroom)
External
Environmental elements leads to / direct /
maintain behaviour
E.g. Two-factor theory (Herzberg)

Source: Eccles & Wigfield, 2002


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Expectancy
Can I do it?
E.g. Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997)
Reasons for Engagement
Why am I doing it?
E.g. Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000)
Integrating Expectancy & Value
E.g. Expectancy-Value theory (Eccles & Wigfield,
2002)
Integrating Motivation & Cognition
E.g. Self-regulation

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Sources of self-efficacy
Mastery experiences
Emotional arousal
Vicarious experiences
Social persuasion
Self-efficacy, self-concept, selfesteem

Source: Eccles & Wigfield, 2002


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The influence of observing others on ones


behavior.
The theory considers the learners' beliefs and
expectations.
Reinforcement and punishment affect learners'
motivation, rather than directly cause
behavior.

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Build on success
Develop basic skills
Provide students with mastery experience
Provide individual feedback on students
achievement
Provide explicit information on progress
Let students know your confidence in their abilities
to succeed
Involve peers as resource
Avoid social comparison; rather, promote
continuous self-improvement
Be sure errors occur within an overall context of
success
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Expectancy
Can I do it?
E.g. Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997)
Reasons for Engagement
Why am I doing it?
E.g. Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000)
Integrating Expectancy & Value
E.g. Expectancy-Value theory (Eccles & Wigfield,
2002)
Integrating Motivation & Cognition
E.g. Self-regulation

Growth-orientation: Requires the satisfaction of


certain psychological needs to feel:
Competent (Mastery)
Self-determining (Autonomous)
Related (Part of a group)
Optimal human functioning can occur only if the
psychological needs of autonomy, competence and
relatedness are met.

Source: Eccles & Wigfield, 2002


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Set clear and realistic expectations


Help students to develop realistic goals
Provide formative feedback

AUTONOMY

Show genuine interest, warmth, & empathy


Form learning circle among students
Collaborative learning rather than competition

RELATEDNESS

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Expectancy
Can I do it?
E.g. Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997)
Reasons for Engagement
Why am I doing it?
E.g. Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000)
Integrating Expectancy & Value
E.g. Expectancy-Value theory (Eccles & Wigfield,
2002)
Integrating Motivation & Cognition
E.g. Self-regulation

COMPETENCE

Provide choices
Encourage self-directed learning
Involve students in making decisions

People who have satisfied these needs actively


internalize and integrate different external motivators
as part of their identity and values.

Source: Eccles & Wigfield, 2002


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Attainment
value

Perceived importance of Getting Distinguished


doing well on a task
Teacher Award is important to
an individual because it
aligns with her/his selfidentity as a good teacher

Cost

The price of
success/failure in terms
of effort, time,
opportunity lost, etc.

Being a teacher means one


cannot be a musician

Interest

Happiness and joyful


feeling in doing the task

The joy in seeing students


learn

Utility

Perceived future direct


or indirect importance
of doing the work

Being a teacher increases the


chance of the son/daughter to
be admitted to the same
school

(If I put in effort) How likely is it


for me to succeed?
Probability

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1. Need for Achievement () - a manifest


need for excellence, competition, challenging
goals, persistence, and overcoming difficulties

Three-Needs Theory
()

2. Need for Power () - a manifest need to


make an impact on others, influence others,
change people or events, and make a difference
in life

David McClelland
(McClland et al.,1953)

3. Need for Affiliation () - a manifest


need to establish and maintain warm, close,
intimate relationships with other people
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Look for challenges/risks


Experienced success
Sets realistic goals
Persist for longer
Value feedback from others
Enjoy performing in situations where they can be
evaluated
Confident of abilities
Are not afraid of failure
Attribute to internal factors (e.g. effort)

Are pre-occupied with failure


Motivating force is fear of failure
Do not like being evaluated
Give up easily
Long history of experiencing failure
Afraid of ridicule and disappointment
Avoid challenging tasks (e.g. Choose easy opposition)
Dislike situations where there is a 50/50 chance of
failure. Choose very easy or very hard options
Avoid personal responsibility
Attribute to external factors (e.g. Luck)
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Motivation = incentive value x


expectancy

Motivation is determined by:

Incentive value is the pride (affect) in accomplishment


Incentive value = 1 expectancy (Atkinson, 1957, 1964)
expectancy
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00

Value of that success


Values of the goal: costs in pursuing
the goal

value
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00

motivation
0.00
0.09
0.16
0.21
0.24
0.25
0.24
0.21
0.16
0.09
0.00

0.30
0.25
Motivation

Expectancy of success

0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5
0.6
Value

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Source: Schunk, D. H., Pintrich, P. R., & Meece, J. (2009). Motivation in


education, theory, research, and applications (pp. 46-49). Pearson Ed Inc.
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Motivation to Read
This generalization that motivation is highest at

Strong in
English

levels of intermediate task difficulty is one of the

Difficult
C

most often-cited findings from achievement


motivation research
B

Source: Schunk, D. H., Pintrich, P. R., & Meece, J. (2009). Motivation in


education, theory, research, and applications (p. 49). Pearson Ed Inc.

Weak in
English
49

Easy

50

Source: Schunk, D. H., Pintrich, P. R., & Meece, J. (2009). Motivation in


education, theory, research, and applications (p.51). Pearson Education Inc.
Social World

Cognitive
Processes

Motivational Beliefs

Achievement
Behaviour

Affective
Memories
Cultural Milieu
Socialisers
Behaviours
Past
Performances
& Events

Perceptions of
Social
Environment
Interpretations
& Attributions
for Past Events

Task Value

Expectancy
Goals
Judgment of
Competence &
Self-Schemas
Perceptions of
Task Difficulty

Choice
Persistence
Quality of
effort
Cognitive
Engagement
Actual
Performance

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Expectancy (): Belief that effort


leads to a particular level of performance

A persons subjective estimation on the


probability that his/her act will be followed by
an outcome
A persons estimation of the probability that
effort will lead to successful performance.
Expectancy of
ZERO

Expectancy of
ONE

Act will not be


followed by
outcome

Act will
certainly be
followed by
outcome

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Valence (): The value of an


outcome (rewards). Emotional orientations which people
hold with respect to outcomes (rewards). The depth of the
want of a student for extrinsic (praise, benefits) or intrinsic
(satisfaction) rewards.
Instrumentality (): The perception
of students whether they will actually receive what they
want, even if it has been promised by a teacher.
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Belief that effort will not result in performance


(Teachers: build self-efficacy)
Belief that performance will not result in
rewards (Teachers: keep your promise for
rewards and make it known to students)

Motivational Strength: How much


effort should I invest in this task?
Instrumentality: What is the chance
that I really get the reward?

The value a person places on certain rewards


(Teacher: understand your students)

Valence: How much do I value the reward?


Expectancy: If I work hard, will I get this done?
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I am interested in my work at school

Attitudes to School
4.0

S4-S7

3.5

3.14

3.11
2.96

3.0

2.89 2.92

2.91 2.89

2.91 2.90

SD

2.75
2.66

2.51 2.50

2.47 2.45

2.5

S1-S3

2.65

2.54 2.52

SA

S1
S2
S3

2.0

P3-P6

1.85 1.87
1.71

0%

1.5

20%

40%

60%

Experience

Achievement

General
Satisfaction

Social
Integration

Opportunity

Teacher
Student
Relationship

100%

Sample size
S4-S7: 61,544
S1-S3: 64,467
P3-P4: 79,072

1.0

Negative Affect

80%

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I am successful as a student
Gender difference, but moderated by cultural-gender
S4-S7

stereotyping of the activities and level of endorsement


of an individual on the stereotype (Eccles et al., 1998)
SD

(e.g. boys in math, girls in English)

S1-S3

A
SA

Girls had lower self-concept than boys had even at early


grades (Frey & Ruble, 1987)

P3-P6

Differences can be low (e.g. 1%, Marsh, 1989)


0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Sample size
S4-S7: 61,544
S1-S3: 64,467
P3-P4: 79,072

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60

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Attitudes to School
4.0

Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B.,


Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., et al. (1983). Expectancies,
values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.),
Achievement and achievement motivation (pp. 75146).
San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman.

3.5

3.0

2.88
2.58
2.47

2.5

2.55 2.55

2.56

2.97

2.97 2.97

2.95

3.02

2.64

M
Male
Female
F

2.0

1.82 1.80

Eccles, J. S., Wigfield, A., & Schiefele, U. (1998).


Motivation to succeed. In W. Damon & N. Eisenberg
(Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (5th ed., Vol. III,
pp. 1017-1095). New York, NY: Wiley.

1.5

1.0
Negative Affect

Experience

Achievement

General
Satisfaction

Social
Integration

Opportunity

Teacher
Student
Relationship

61

Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs,


values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 109132.

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