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3.

Properties of Concrete
3.1 Properties of Concrete
Concrete is an artificial conglomerate stone made essentially of Portland cement, water, and
aggregates. When first mixed the water and cement constitute a paste which surrounds all the
individual pieces of aggregate to make a plastic mixture. A chemical reaction called hydration takes
place between the water and cement, and concrete normally changes from a plastic to a solid state in
about 2 hours. Thereafter the concrete continues to gain strength as it cures. A typical strength-gain
curve is shown in Figure 1. The industry has adopted the 28-day strength as a reference point, and
specifications often refer to compression tests of cylinders of concrete which are crushed 28 days after
they are made. The resulting strength is given the designation f'c

During the first week to 10 days of curing it is important that the concrete not be permitted to freeze
or dry out because either of these, occurrences would be very detrimental to the strength
development of the concrete. Theoretically, if kept in a moist environment, concrete will gain strength
forever, however, in practical terms, about 90% of its strength is gained in the first 28 days.
Concrete has almost no tensile strength (usually measured to be about 10 to 15% of its compressive
strength), and for this reason it is almost never used without some form of reinforcing. Its compressive
strength depends upon many factors, including the quality and proportions of the ingredients and the
curing environment. The single most important indicator of strength is the ratio of the water used
compared to the amount of cement. Basically, the lower this ratio is, the higher the final concrete
strength will be. (This concept was developed by Duff Abrams of The Portland Cement Association in
the early 1920s and is in worldwide use today.) A minimum w/c ratio (water-to-cement ratio) of about
0.3 by weight is necessary to ensure that the water comes into contact with all cement particles (thus
assuring complete hydration). In practical terms, typical values are in the 0.4 to 0.6 range in order to
achieve a workable consistency so that fresh concrete can be placed in the forms and around closely
spaced reinforcing bars.
Typical stress-strain curves for various concrete strengths are shown in Figure 2. Most structural
concretes have f'c values in the 3000 to 5000 psi range. However, lower-story columns of high-rise
buildings will sometimes utilize concretes of 12,000 or 15,000 psi to reduce the column dimensions
which would otherwise be inordinately large. Even though Figure 2 indicates that the maximum strain
that concrete can sustain before it crushes varies inversely with strength, a value of 0.003 is usually
taken (as a simplifying measure) for use in the development of design equations.

Because concrete has no linear portion to its stress-strain curve, it is difficult to measure a proper
modulus of elasticity value. For concretes up to about 6000 psi it can be approximated as

(1)

where w is the unit weight (pcf), f'c is the cylinder strength (psi). (It is important that the units of f'c
be expressed in psi and not ksi whenever the square root is taken). The weight density of reinforced
concrete using normal sand and stone aggregates is about 150 pcf. If 5 pcf of this is allowed for the
steel and w is taken as 145 in Equation (1), then

(2)

E values thus computed have proven to be acceptable for use in deflection calculations.
As concrete cures it shrinks because the water not used for hydration gradually evaporates from the
hardened mix. For large continuous elements such shrinkage can result in the development of excess
tensile stress, particularly if a high water content brings about a large shrinkage. Concrete, like all
materials, also undergoes volume changes due to thermal effects, and in hot weather the heat from
the exothermic hydration process adds to this problem. Since concrete is weak in tension, it will often
develop cracks due to such shrinkage and temperature changes. For example, when a freshly placed
concrete slab-on-grade expands due to temperature change, it develops internal compressive stresses
as it overcomes the friction between it and the ground surface. Later when the concrete cools land
shrinks as it hardens) and tries to contract, it is not strong enough in tension to resist the same
frictional forces. For this reason contraction joints are often used to control the location of cracks that
inevitably occur and so-called temperature and shrinkage reinforcement is placed in directions where
reinforcing has not already been specified for other reasons. The purpose of this reinforcing is to
accommodate the resulting tensile stresses and to minimize the width of cracks that do develop.

In addition to strains caused by shrinkage and thermal effects, concrete also deforms due to creep.
Creep is Increasing deformation that takes place when a material sustains a high stress level over a
long time period. Whenever constantly applied loads (such as dead loads) cause significant compressive
stresses to occur, creep will result. In a beam, for example, the additional longterm deflection due to
creep can be as much as two times the initial elastic deflection The way to avoid this increased
deformation is to keep the stresses due to sustained loads at a low level. This is usually done by adding
compression steel.

3.2 Mix Proportions


The ingredients of concrete can be proportioned by weight or volume. The goal is to provide the
desired strength and workability at minimum expense. Sometimes there are special requirements such
as abrasion resistance, durability in harsh climates, or water impermeability, but these properties are
usually related to strength. Sometimes concretes of higher strength are specified even though a lower
f'c value would have met all structural requirements.
As mentioned previously, a low water-to-cement ratio is needed to achieve strong concrete. It would
seem therefore that by merely keeping the cement content high one could use enough water for good
workability and still have a low w/c ratio. The problem is that cement is the most costly of the basic
ingredients. The dilemma is easily seen in the schematic graphs of Figure 3.

Since larger aggregate sizes have relatively smaller surface areas (for the cement paste to coat) and
since less water means less cement, it is often said that one should use the largest practical aggregate
size and the stiffest practical mix. (Most building elements are constructed with a maximum aggregate
size of 3/4 to 1 in, larger sizes being prohibited by the closeness of the reinforcing bars.)
A good indication of the water content of a mix land thus the workability) can be had from a standard
slump test. In this test a metal cone 12 in tall is filled with fresh concrete in a specified manner. When
the cone is lifted, the mass of concrete "slumps" downward (Figure 4) and the vertical drop is referred
to as the slump. Most concrete mixes have slumps in the 2- to 5-in range.

3.3 Portland Cement


The raw ingredients of Portland cement are iron ore, lime, alumina and silica, which are used in
various proportions depending upon the type of cement being made. These are ground up and fired in a
kiln to produce a clinker. After cooling, the clinker is very finery ground (to about the texture of talcum
powder) and a small amount of gypsum is added to retard the initial setting time. There are five basic
types of Portland cement in use today:

Type I - General purpose


Type II - Sulfate resisting, concrete in contact with high sulfate soils

Type III - High early strength, which gains strength faster than Type I, enabling forms to be
removed sooner

Type IV - Low heat of hydration, for use in massive construction

Type V - Severe sulfate resisting

Type I is the least expensive and is used for the majority of concrete structures. Type III is also
frequently employed because it enables forms to be reused quickly, allowing construction time to be
reduced. It is important to note that while Type II gains strength faster than Type I, it does not take its
initial set any sooner).

3.4 Aggregates
Fine aggregate (sand) is made up of particles which can pass through a 3/8 in sieve; coarse aggregates
are larger than 3/8 inch in size. Aggregates should be clean, hard, and well-graded, without natural
cleavage planes such as those that occur in slate or shale. The quality of aggregates is very important
since they make up about 60 to 75% of the volume of the concrete; it is impossible to make good
concrete with poor aggregates. The grading of both fine and coarse aggregate is very significant
because having a full range of sizes reduces the amount of cement paste needed. Well-graded
aggregates tend to make the mix more workable as well.
Normal concrete is made using sand and stones, but lightweight concrete can be made using industrial
by-products such as expanded slag or clay as lightweight aggregates. This concrete weighs only 90 to
125 pcf and high strengths are more difficult to achieve because of the weaker aggregates. However,

considerable savings can be realized in terms of the building self-weight, which may be very important
when building on certain types of soil. Insulating concrete is made using perlite and vermiculite, it
weighs only about 15 to 40 pcf and has no structural value.

3.5 Admixtures
Admixtures are chemicals which are added to the mix to achieve special purposes or to meet certain
construction conditions. There are basically four types: air-entraining agents, workability agents,
retarding agents, and accelerating agents.
In climates where the concrete will be exposed to freeze-thaw cycles air is deliberately mixed in with
the concrete in the form of billions of tiny air bubbles about 0.004 in in diameter. The bubbles provide
interconnected pathways so that water near the surface can escape as it expands due to freezing
temperatures. Without air-entraining, the surface of concrete will almost always spall off when
subjected to repeated freezing and thawing. (Air-entraining also has the very beneficial side effect of
increasing workability without an increase in the water content.) Entrained air is not to be confused
with entrapped air, which creates much larger voids and is caused by improper placement and
consolidation of the concrete. Entrapped air, unlike entrained air, is never beneficial.
Workability agents, which include water-reducing agents and plasticizers, serve to reduce the tendency
of cement particles to bind together in flocs and thus escape complete hydration. Fly ash, a by-product
of the burning of coal that has some cementitious properties, is often used to accomplish a similar
purpose. Superplasticizers are relatively new admixtures which when added to a mixture serve to
increase the slump greatly, making the mixture very soupy for a short time and enabling a low-watercontent or otherwise very stiff) concrete to be easily placed. Superplasticizers are responsible for the
recent development of very high strength concretes, some in excess of 15,000 psi because they greatly
reduce the need for excess water for workability.
Retarders are used to slow the set of concrete when large masses must be placed and the concrete
must remain plastic for a long period of time to prevent the formation of "cold joints" between one
batch of concrete and the next batch. Accelerators serve to increase the rate of strength gain and to
decrease the initial setting time. This can be beneficial when concrete must be placed on a steep slope
with a single form or when it is desirable to reduce the time period in which concrete must be
protected from freezing. The best known accelerator is calcium chloride, which acts to increase the
heat of hydration, thereby causing the concrete to set up faster.
Other types of chemical additives are available for a wide range of purposes. Some of these can have
deleterious side effects on strength gain, shrinkage, and other characteristics of concrete, and test
batches are advisable if there is any doubt concerning the use of a particular admixture.

3.6 The ACI Code


The American Concrete Institute (ACI), based in Detroit, Michigan, is an organization of design
professionals, researchers, producers, and constructors. One of its functions is to promote the safe and
efficient design and construction of concrete structures. The ACI has numerous publications to assist
designers and builders; the most important one in terms of building structures is entitled Building Code
Requirements for Reinforced Concrete and Commentary. It is produced by Committee 318 of the
American Concrete Institute and contains the basic guidelines for building code officials, architects,
engineers, and builders regarding the use of reinforced concrete for building structures. Information is
presented concerning materials and construction practices, standard tests, analysis and design, and
structural systems. This document has been adopted by most building code authorities in the United

States as a standard reference. It provides all rules regarding reinforcing sizes, fabrication, and
placement and is an invaluable resource for both the designer and the detailer.
Periodic updates occur (1956, 1963, 1971, 1977, 1983, and 1989), and this text makes constant
reference to the 1989 edition, calling it the ACI Code or merely the Code. Documents and officials also
refer to it by its numerical designation, ACI 318-89.

3.7 References
Boethius, A. and Ward1-Perkins, J. B. (1970). Etruscan and roman Architecture, Penguin Books, Middlesex, England.
Cassie, W. F. (1965). "The First Structural Reinforced Concrete," Structural Concrete, 2(10).
Collins, P. (1959). Concrete, The Vision of a New Architecture, Faber and Faber, London.
Condit, C. W. (1968). American Building, Materials and Techniques from the First Colonial Settlements to the Present, University of
Chicago Press.
Drexler, A. (1960). Ludwig Miles van der Rohe, George Braziller, New York.
Farebrother, J. E. C. (1962). "Concrete - Past, Present, and Future," The structural Engineer, October.
Mainstone, R, J. (1975). Developments in Structural Form, The MIT Press, Cambridge

Scientific Principles
What is in This Stuff?
The importance of concrete in modern society cannot be overestimated. Look around you and you will
find concrete structures everywhere such as buildings, roads, bridges, and dams. There is no escaping
the impact concrete makes on your everyday life. So what is it?
Concrete is a composite material which is made up of a filler and a binder. The binder (cement paste)
"glues" the filler together to form a synthetic conglomerate. The constituents used for the binder are
cement and water, while the filler can be fine or coarse aggregate. The role of these constituents will
be discussed in this section.
Cement, as it is commonly known, is a mixture of compounds made by burning limestone and clay
together at very high temperatures ranging from 1400 to 1600 [[ring]]C.
Although there are other cements for special purposes, this module will focus solely on portland
cement and its properties. The production of portland cement begins with the quarrying of limestone,
CaCO3. Huge crushers break the blasted limestone into small pieces. The crushed limestone is then
mixed with clay (or shale), sand, and iron ore and ground together to form a homogeneous powder.
However, this powder is microscopically heterogeneous. (See flowchart.)

Figure 1: A flow diagram of Portland Cement production.


The mixture is heated in kilns that are long rotating steel cylinders on an incline. The kilns may be up
to 6 meters in diameter and 180 meters in length. The mixture of raw materials enters at the high end
of the cylinder and slowly moves along the length of the kiln due to the constant rotation and
inclination. At the low end of the kiln, a fuel is injected and burned, thus providing the heat necessary
to make the materials react. It can take up to 2 hours for the mixture to pass through the kiln,
depending upon the length of the cylinder.

Figure 2: Schematic diagram of rotary kiln.


As the mixture moves down the cylinder, it progresses through four stages of transformation. Initially,
any free water in the powder is lost by evaporation. Next, decomposition occurs from the loss of bound
water and carbon dioxide. This is called calcination. The third stage is called clinkering. During this
stage, the calcium silicates are formed. The final stage is the cooling stage.
The marble-sized pieces produced by the kiln are referred to as clinker. Clinker is actually a mixture of
four compounds which will be discussed later. The clinker is cooled, ground, and mixed with a small
amount of gypsum (which regulates setting) to produce the general-purpose portland cement.
Water is the key ingredient, which when mixed with cement, forms a paste that binds the aggregate
together. The water causes the hardening of concrete through a process called hydration. Hydration is
a chemical reaction in which the major compounds in cement form chemical bonds with water
molecules and become hydrates or hydration products. Details of the hydration process are explored in
the next section. The water needs to be pure in order to prevent side reactions from occurring which
may weaken the concrete or otherwise interfere with the hydration process. The role of water is
important because the water to cement ratio is the most critical factor in the production of "perfect"
concrete. Too much water reduces concrete strength, while too little will make the concrete
unworkable. Concrete needs to be workable so that it may be consolidated and shaped into different
forms (i.e.. walls, domes, etc.). Because concrete must be both strong and workable, a careful balance
of the cement to water ratio is required when making concrete.
Aggregates are chemically inert, solid bodies held together by the cement. Aggregates come in various
shapes, sizes, and materials ranging from fine particles of sand to large, coarse rocks. Because cement
is the most expensive ingredient in making concrete, it is desirable to minimize the amount of cement

used. 70 to 80% of the volume of concrete is aggregate keeping the cost of the concrete low. The
selection of an aggregate is determined, in part, by the desired characteristics of the concrete. For
example, the density of concrete is determined by the density of the aggregate. Soft, porous
aggregates can result in weak concrete with low wear resistance, while using hard aggregates can make
strong concrete with a high resistance to abrasion.
Aggregates should be clean, hard, and strong. The aggregate is usually washed to remove any dust, silt,
clay, organic matter, or other impurities that would interfere with the bonding reaction with the
cement paste. It is then separated into various sizes by passing the material through a series of screens
with different size openings.
Refer to Demonstration 1

Table 1: Classes of Aggregates

class

examples of
aggregates
used

uses

vermiculite
ultralightweight concrete which can be sawed or
ceramic spheres
lightweight
nailed, also for its insulating properties
perlite
expanded clay
lightweight shale or slate
crushed brick

normal
weight

crushed
limestone
sand
river gravel
crushed
recycled
concrete

steel or iron
heavyweig shot
ht
steel or iron
pellets

used primarily for making lightweight concrete


for structures, also used for its insulating
properties.

used for normal concrete projects

used for making high density concrete for


shielding against nuclear radiation

Refer to Demonstration 2
The choice of aggregate is determined by the proposed use of the concrete. Normally sand, gravel, and
crushed stone are used as aggregates to make concrete. The aggregate should be well-graded to
improve packing efficiency and minimize the amount of cement paste needed. Also, this makes the
concrete more workable.

Refer to Demonstration 3
Properties of Concrete
Concrete has many properties that make it a popular construction material. The correct proportion of
ingredients, placement, and curing are needed in order for these properties to be optimal.
Good-quality concrete has many advantages that add to its popularity. First, it is economical when
ingredients are readily available. Concrete's long life and relatively low maintenance requirements
increase its economic benefits. Concrete is not as likely to rot, corrode, or decay as other building
materials. Concrete has the ability to be molded or cast into almost any desired shape. Building of the
molds and casting can occur on the work-site which reduces costs.
Concrete is a non-combustible material which makes it fire-safe and able withstand high temperatures.
It is resistant to wind, water, rodents, and insects. Hence, concrete is often used for storm shelters.
Concrete does have some limitations despite its numerous advantages. Concrete has a relatively low
tensile strength (compared to other building materials), low ductility, low strength-to-weight ratio, and
is susceptible to cracking. Concrete remains the material of choice for many applications regardless of
these limitations.
Hydration of Portland Cement
Concrete is prepared by mixing cement, water, and aggregate together to make a workable paste. It is
molded or placed as desired, consolidated, and then left to harden. Concrete does not need to dry out
in order to harden as commonly thought.
The concrete (or specifically, the cement in it) needs moisture to hydrate and cure (harden). When
concrete dries, it actually stops getting stronger. Concrete with too little water may be dry but is not
fully reacted. The properties of such a concrete would be less than that of a wet concrete. The
reaction of water with the cement in concrete is extremely important to its properties and reactions
may continue for many years. This very important reaction will be discussed in detail in this section.
Portland cement consists of five major compounds and a few minor compounds. The composition of a
typical portland cement is listed by weight percentage in Table 2.

Cement Compound

Weight
Percentage

Chemical Formula

Tricalcium silicate

50 %

Ca3SiO5 or 3CaO.SiO2

Dicalcium silicate

25 %

Ca2SiO4 or 2CaO.SiO2

Tricalcium aluminate

10 %

Ca3Al2O6 or 3CaO .Al2O3

Tetracalcium
aluminoferrite

10 %

Ca4Al2Fe2O10 or
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3

5%

CaSO4.2H2O

Gypsum

Table 2: Composition of portland cement with chemical composition and weight


percent.
When water is added to cement, each of the compounds undergoes hydration and contributes to the
final concrete product. Only the calcium silicates contribute to strength. Tricalcium silicate is
responsible for most of the early strength (first 7 days). Dicalcium silicate, which reacts more slowly,
contributes only to the strength at later times. Tricalcium silicate will be discussed in the greatest
detail.
The equation for the hydration of tricalcium silicate is given by:
Tricalcium silicate + Water--->Calcium silicate hydrate+Calcium hydroxide + heat
2 Ca3SiO5 + 7 H2O ---> 3 CaO.2SiO2.4H2O + 3 Ca(OH)2 + 173.6kJ
Upon the addition of water, tricalcium silicate rapidly reacts to release calcium ions, hydroxide ions,
and a large amount of heat. The pH quickly rises to over 12 because of the release of alkaline
hydroxide (OH-) ions. This initial hydrolysis slows down quickly after it starts resulting in a decrease in
heat evolved.
The reaction slowly continues producing calcium and hydroxide ions until the system becomes
saturated. Once this occurs, the calcium hydroxide starts to crystallize. Simultaneously, calcium
silicate hydrate begins to form. Ions precipitate out of solution accelerating the reaction of tricalcium
silicate to calcium and hydroxide ions. (Le Chatlier's principle). The evolution of heat is then
dramatically increased.
The formation of the calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrate crystals provide "seeds" upon
which more calcium silicate hydrate can form. The calcium silicate hydrate crystals grow thicker
making it more difficult for water molecules to reach the unhydrated tricalcium silicate. The speed of
the reaction is now controlled by the rate at which water molecules diffuse through the calcium
silicate hydrate coating. This coating thickens over time causing the production of calcium silicate
hydrate to become slower and slower.

Figure 3: Schematic illustration of the pores in calcium silicate through different stages of hydration.
The above diagrams represent the formation of pores as calcium silicate hydrate is formed. Note in
diagram (a) that hydration has not yet occurred and the pores (empty spaces between grains) are filled
with water. Diagram (b) represents the beginning of hydration. In diagram (c), the hydration continues.
Although empty spaces still exist, they are filled with water and calcium hydroxide. Diagram (d) shows
nearly hardened cement paste. Note that the majority of space is filled with calcium silicate hydrate.
That which is not filled with the hardened hydrate is primarily calcium hydroxide solution. The
hydration will continue as long as water is present and there are still unhydrated compounds in the
cement paste.
Dicalcium silicate also affects the strength of concrete through its hydration. Dicalcium silicate reacts
with water in a similar manner compared to tricalcium silicate, but much more slowly. The heat
released is less than that by the hydration of tricalcium silicate because the dicalcium silicate is much
less reactive. The products from the hydration of dicalcium silicate are the same as those for
tricalcium silicate:
Dicalcium silicate + Water--->Calcium silicate hydrate + Calcium hydroxide +heat
2 Ca2SiO4 + 5 H2O---> 3 CaO.2SiO2.4H2O + Ca(OH)2 + 58.6 kJ
The other major components of portland cement, tricalcium aluminate and tetracalcium aluminoferrite
also react with water. Their hydration chemistry is more complicated as they involve reactions with the
gypsum as well. Because these reactions do not contribute significantly to strength, they will be
neglected in this discussion. Although we have treated the hydration of each cement compound
independently, this is not completely accurate. The rate of hydration of a compound may be affected
by varying the concentration of another. In general, the rates of hydration during the first few days
ranked from fastest to slowest are:
tricalcium aluminate > tricalcium silicate > tetracalcium aluminoferrite > dicalcium silicate.
Refer to Demonstration 4
Heat is evolved with cement hydration. This is due to the breaking and making of chemical bonds
during hydration. The heat generated is shown below as a function of time.

Figure 4: Rate of heat evolution during the hydration of portland cement


The stage I hydrolysis of the cement compounds occurs rapidly with a temperature increase of several
degrees. Stage II is known as the dormancy period. The evolution of heat slows dramatically in this
stage. The dormancy period can last from one to three hours. During this period, the concrete is in a
plastic state which allows the concrete to be transported and placed without any major difficulty. This
is particularly important for the construction trade who must transport concrete to the job site. It is at
the end of this stage that initial setting begins. In stages III and IV, the concrete starts to harden and
the heat evolution increases due primarily to the hydration of tricalcium silicate. Stage V is reached
after 36 hours. The slow formation of hydrate products occurs and continues as long as water and
unhydrated silicates are present.
Refer to Demonstration 5
Strength of Concrete
The strength of concrete is very much dependent upon the hydration reaction just discussed. Water
plays a critical role, particularly the amount used. The strength of concrete increases when less water
is used to make concrete. The hydration reaction itself consumes a specific amount of water. Concrete
is actually mixed with more water than is needed for the hydration reactions. This extra water is added
to give concrete sufficient workability. Flowing concrete is desired to achieve proper filling and
composition of the forms. The water not consumed in the hydration reaction will remain in the
microstructure pore space. These pores make the concrete weaker due to the lack of strength-forming
calcium silicate hydrate bonds. Some pores will remain no matter how well the concrete has been
compacted.

Figure 5: Schematic drawings to demonstrate the relationship between the water/cement ratio and
porosity.
The empty space (porosity) is determined by the water to cement ratio. The relationship between the
water to cement ratio and strength is shown in the graph that follows.

Figure 6: A plot of concrete strength as a function of the water to cement ratio.


Low water to cement ratio leads to high strength but low workability. High water to cement ratio leads
to low strength, but good workability.
The physical characteristics of aggregates are shape, texture, and size. These can indirectly affect
strength because they affect the workability of the concrete. If the aggregate makes the concrete
unworkable, the contractor is likely to add more water which will weaken the concrete by increasing
the water to cement mass ratio.
Time is also an important factor in determining concrete strength. Concrete hardens as time passes.
Why? Remember the hydration reactions get slower and slower as the tricalcium silicate hydrate forms.
It takes a great deal of time (even years!) for all of the bonds to form which determine concrete's
strength. It is common to use a 28-day test to determine the relative strength of concrete.
Concrete's strength may also be affected by the addition of admixtures. Admixtures are substances
other than the key ingredients or reinforcements which are added during the mixing process. Some
admixtures add fluidity to concrete while requiring less water to be used. An example of an admixture
which affects strength is superplasticizer. This makes concrete more workable or fluid without adding
excess water. A list of some other admixtures and their functions is given below. Note that not all
admixtures increase concrete strength. The selection and use of an admixture are based on the need of
the concrete user.
SOME ADMIXTURES AND FUNCTIONS

TYPE

FUNCTION

AIR ENTRAINING

improves durability, workability, reduces bleeding, reduces


freezing/thawing problems (e.g. special detergents)

SUPERPLASTICIZ increase strength by decreasing water needed for


ERS
workable concrete (e.g. special polymers)
RETARDING

delays setting time, more long term strength, offsets


adverse high temp. weather (e.g. sugar )

ACCELERATING

speeds setting time, more early strength, offsets adverse


low temp. weather (e.g. calcium chloride)

MINERAL
ADMIXTURES

improves workability, plasticity, strength (e.g. fly ash)

PIGMENT

adds color (e.g. metal oxides)

Table 3: A table of admixtures and their functions.


Durability is a very important concern in using concrete for a given application. Concrete provides good
performance through the service life of the structure when concrete is mixed properly and care is
taken in curing it. Good concrete can have an infinite life span under the right conditions. Water,
although important for concrete hydration and hardening, can also play a role in decreased durability
once the structure is built. This is because water can transport harmful chemicals to the interior of the
concrete leading to various forms of deterioration. Such deterioration ultimately adds costs due to
maintenance and repair of the concrete structure. The contractor should be able to account for
environmental factors and produce a durable concrete structure if these factors are considered when
building concrete structures.

Concrete Summary
Concrete is everywhere. Take a moment and think about all the concrete encounters you have had in
the last 24 hours. All of these concrete structures are created from a mixture of cement and water
with added aggregate. It is important to distinguish between cement and concrete as they are not the
same. Cement is used to make concrete!
(cement + water) + aggregate = concrete
Cement is made by combining a mixture of limestone and clay in a kiln at 1450[[ring]] C. The product is
an intimate mixture of compounds collectively called clinker. This clinker is finely ground into the
powder form. The raw materials used to make cement are compounds containing some of the earth's
most abundant elements, such as calcium, silicon, aluminum, oxygen, and iron.
Water is a key reactant in cement hydration. The incorporation of water into a substance is known as
hydration. Water and cement initially form a cement paste that begins to react and harden (set). This
paste binds the aggregate particles through the chemical process of hydration. In the hydration of

cement, chemical changes occur slowly, eventually creating new crystalline products, heat evolution,
and other measurable signs.
cement + water = hardened cement paste
The properties of this hardened cement paste, called binder, control the properties of the concrete. It
is the inclusion of water (hydration) into the product that causes concrete to set, stiffen, and become
hard. Once set, concrete continues to harden (cure) and become stronger for a long period of time,
often up to several years.
The strength of the concrete is related to the water to cement mass ratio and the curing conditions. A
high water to cement mass ratio yields a low strength concrete. This is due to the increase in porosity
(space between particles) that is created with the hydration process. Most concrete is made with a
water to cement mass ratio ranging from 0.35 to 0.6.
Aggregate is the solid particles that are bound together by the cement paste to create the synthetic
rock known as concrete. Aggregates can be fine, such as sand, or coarse, such as gravel. The relative
amounts of each type and the sizes of each type of aggregate determines the physical properties of the
concrete.
sand + cement paste = mortar
mortar + gravel = concrete
Sometimes other materials are incorporated into the batch of concrete to create specific
characteristics. These additives are called admixtures. Admixtures are used to: alter the fluidity
(plasticity) of the cement paste; increase (accelerate) or decrease (retard) the setting time; increase
strength (both bending and compression); or to extend the life of a structure. The making of concrete
is a very complex process involving both chemical and physical changes. It is a material of great
importance in our lives.

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Concrete Basics

Concrete is a mixture of two components: aggregates and paste. The


paste, comprised of cement and water, binds the aggregates (usually
sand and gravel or crushed stone) into a rocklike mass as the paste
hardens because of the chemical reaction of the cement and water.
Supplementary cementitious materials and chemical admixtures may
also be included in the paste.
For more on concrete basics, click here.

Materials for Use in Concrete

Cement
Cements set and harden by reacting chemically with water. During this reaction, called hydration,
cement combines with water to form a stonelike mass, called paste. When the paste (cement
and water) is added to aggregates (sand and gravel, crushed stone, or other granular material) it
acts as an adhesive and binds the aggregates together to form concrete, the worlds most
versatile and most widely used construction material. More.

Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCM)


Supplementary cementitious materials are generally divided into:

Pozzolans (fly ash, silica fume, and natural pozzolans, such as calcined shale, calcined
clay or metakaolin)

Slag cements

These materials when used in conjunction with portland or blended cement, contribute to the
properties of the hardened concrete through hydraulic activity, pozzolanic activity, or both.
Additional references:
Supplementary Cementing Materials For Use in Concrete CD
Fly Ash, Slag, Silica Fume, and Natural Pozzolans
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures
Supplementary Cementing Materials for Use in Blended Cements
Benefits of Ternary Mixtures

Aggregates
Aggregates are classified by ASTM C33 (AASHTO M 6/M 80) as fine or coarse. Fine aggregate
consists of natural sand, manufactured sand, or a combination thereof with particles that are
typically smaller than 5 mm (0.2 in.). Coarse aggregate consists of either (or a combination of)
gravel, crushed gravel, crushed stone, air-cooled blast furnace slag, or crushed concrete, with

particles generally larger than 5 mm (0.2 in.). The maximum size of the
coarse aggregates is generally in the range of 9.5 to 37.5 mm (3/8 to 1
in.).
More on why we use aggregates in concrete.
More on recycled aggregates, click here.

Water
Water Content: Why Less Is More
The quality of hardened concrete is greatly influenced by the amount of water used in relation to
the amount of cement. Higher water contents dilute the cement paste (the glue of concrete).
Here are some advantages of reducing water content:

Increased compressive and flexural strength


Lower permeability, thus increased watertightness and lower absorption

Increased resistance to weathering

Better bond between concrete and reinforcement

Less volume change from wetting and drying

Reduced shrinkage and cracking

ASTM Specification for Mixing Water.


More about Adding Water On-Site.

Chemical Admixtures
Admixtures are those ingredients in concrete other than portland cement, water, and aggregates
that are added to the mixture immediately before or during mixing.
For basics on chemical admixtures, click here.
A wide range of admixtures are available. The table below provides a list of common types of
chemical admixtures. The effectiveness of an admixture in concrete depends upon many factors
including cementitious materials properties, water content, aggregate properties, concrete
materials proportions, mixing time and intensity, and temperature.
Type of Admixture
Air-entraining
admixture (AEA)
More.

Standard Specifications
ASTM C260 and C233
(AASHTO M 154 and T
157).

Desired Effect
To stabilize microscopic bubbles in
concrete, which can provide freeze-thaw
resistance and improve resistance to
deicer salt scaling.

Water reducing admixture ASTM C494 (AASHTO M


(WR)
194)

Reduce the water content by 5 to 10%,


while maintaining slump characteristics.

Mid-range water reducer ASTM C494 (AASHTO M


(MRWR)
194)

Reduce the water content by 6% to 12%,


while maintaining slump and avoiding
retardation.

High-range water reducer


ASTM C494 (AASHTO M
(HRWR)
194),
(also called
ASTM C1017
superplasticizer)

Reduce the water content by 12% to


30%, while maintaining slump.

Retarding admixture

ASTM C494 (AASHTO M


194)

To decrease the rate of hydration of


cement.

Accelerating admixture

ASTM C494 (AASHTO M


194)

To increase the rate of hydration of


cement.

Shrinkage-reducing
admixtures

Reduce drying shrinkage (and related


cracking) in concrete

ASR-inhibiting admixtures

Reduce or eliminate deleterious expansion


due to alkali-silica reaction

Corrosion inhibitors

ASTM C1582

Minimize steel reinforcement corrosion

Identifying Material Incompatibilities


The wide variety of materials options and mix proportions possible in concrete allows it to be
customized for a wide range of applications and placement and service environments. However,
the cementitious materials (cements, fly ashes, slag cements, etc.) and chemical admixtures
(accelerators, retarders, water reducers, etc.) are all chemically complex and this complexity can
lead to problems when they dont work together properly. Even when all materials meet and
exceed their specification requirements individually, problems can arise under field conditions.
Although these problems are relatively rare, the resulting construction delays, performance
issues, and loss of confidence in concrete as the preferred construction material are
unacceptable. FHWA and PCA co-sponsored research into these phenomena, with the goal of
minimizing or preventing these problems in the field. The project developed relatively simple
protocols for evaluating concrete material combinations both pre-construction and during
construction. More on identifying material incompatibilties.

Early-Age Cracking

Early-age cracking can be a significant problem in concrete. Early age for


concrete is the first seven days starting with final set, which is when the concrete
has obtained a benchmark level of stiffness. During this time, concrete undergoes
a significant amount of volume change caused by many variables, such as the hydration reaction
(chemical shrinkage), water content (drying shrinkage and swelling), and temperature changes
(thermal dilation).
Volume changes in concrete will drive tensile stress development when they are restrained,
which is the case with most concrete. Tensile stresses are forces trying to pull apart the concrete
and are opposite from compressive stresses. Cracks can develop when the tensile stress exceeds
the tensile strength. While concrete is strong in compression, the tensile strength is generally
only 10% of the compressive strength. At early ages, this strength is still developing while
stresses are generated by volume changes. Controlling the variables that affect volume change
can minimize cracking and create a higher quality concrete placement. More on early-age
cracking.

Mass Concrete
Mass concrete is a hot topic. Owners desire long service lives so engineers design concrete
mixtures for low permeability. These mixtures typically have high cementitious materials
contents, which results in high temperatures within the concrete. To avoid cracking and other
temperature related damage to the concrete, contractors must control the temperature and
temperature difference in the concrete. This can pit the schedule against the service life.
When all involved parties work together, appropriate changes can be made to achieve the desired
service life with minimal impacts to the schedule. The key is an understanding of mass concrete.
Selection of an appropriate concrete mixture is the first step. More on mass concrete.

Self-Consolidating Concrete
Flow with Show: Self-Consolidating Concrete Offers New Opportunities for
Architectural Concrete
What is Self-Consolidating Concrete (SCC) and how is it tested?

Concrete As a Carbon Sink


The topic of global climate change is frequently in the news. The International Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) reports that the increase in the concentration of many compounds in the
atmosphere will impact global climate. The most notable of the long-lived greenhouse gases are
carbon dioxide and methane. Using concrete for building structures and infrastructure can
contribute to the emission of carbon dioxide. Almost all construction processes from
manufacturing, through transportation of materials and installation use energy, and much of this
energy may come from the burning of fossil fuels.
What most people do not realize is that the release of CO2 from calcination in the manufacture of
portland cement may be part of a cyclic process and is partially carbon neutral in smaller
timeframes such as decades. It may be fully carbon neutral in longer timeframes. Concrete can
absorb carbon dioxide and store it in a process commonly referred to as carbonation. This may
be viewed simply as an additional, alternative loop of the complex carbon cycle. Carbon dioxide
may be absorbed by concrete in its many forms such as buildings, bridges and pavements.

Concrete does not even necessarily have to be directly exposed to the


atmosphere for this process to occur. Underground concrete piping and
foundations can absorb CO2 from air in the soil, and underground and underwater
applications might absorb dissolved carbon dioxide (carbonates) present in
groundwater, freshwaters and saltwaters. Read the complete article by Liv Haselbach.

Self-Cleaning Concrete
Self-cleaning buildings and pollution-reducing roadways: These may sound like futuristic ideas,
but they are realities of some of todays concrete. Recently introduced formulations of cement
are able to neutralize pollution. Harmful smog can be turned into harmless compounds and
washed away. Anything made out of concrete is a potential application, because these cements
are used in the same manner as regular portland cements. These products provide value through
unique architectural and environmental performance capabilities.
Proprietary technology (based on particles of titanium dioxide) is what makes this cement special
capable of breaking down smog or other pollution that has attached itself to the concrete
substrate, in a process known as photocatalysis. More on self-cleaning concrete.

Standards
Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials (STP169D)
(LT205)
In a very real sense, specifications are the letter of the law. But for the professional that needs
to know the how and why behind the development, this encyclopedic reference is the place to
turn. Ever wonder how much strength a test cylinder will lose from rolling and bumping around in
the back of a pickup truck or from being dropped from waist level? How about the effect of
bearing strips on test cylinders used for splitting tensile strength? Which DOT performed the
original research for strength determination using maturity? How much heat contribution should
I expect from each of the four major cement compounds? This is the type of information that can
help avoid headaches and avert disasters. This peer-reviewed work is a must have for the
cement and concrete professional producing, using, or testing materials in conformance with
ASTM specifications.
Read a review of the book.
More information or to purchase.

Durability is the ability to last a long time without significant deterioration.


A durable material helps the environment by conserving resources and
reducing wastes and the environmental impacts of repair and
replacement. Construction and demolition waste contribute to solid waste
going to landfills. The production of new building materials depletes
natural resources and can produce air and water pollution.

The design service life of most buildings is often


30 years, although buildings often last 50 to 100
years or longer. Most concrete and masonry
buildings are demolished due to obsolescence
rather than deterioration. A concrete shell can
be left in place if a building use or function
changes or when a building interior is renovated.
Concrete, as a structural material and as the
building exterior skin, has the ability to
withstand natures normal deteriorating
mechanisms as well as natural disasters.

Light shelves and


sunlight shafts that
reduce energy use
and air conditioning
load.
Patent-pending
Technology Reduces
Heat Loss in Winter
and Heat Gain in
Summer
Sensible House is
Smart, Affordable, &
Neighborly

The heavily traveled


Wacker Drive
replacement in
downtown Chicago was
designed for a 75 to
100-year life. (PCA No.
16263)

Durability of concrete may be defined as the


ability of concrete to resist weathering action,
chemical attack, and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering
properties. Different concretes require different degrees of durability
depending on the exposure environment and properties desired. For
example, concrete exposed to tidal seawater will have different
requirements than an indoor concrete floor. Concrete ingredients, their
proportioning, interactions between them, placing and curing practices,
and the service environment determine the ultimate durability and life of
concrete.

High Humidity and Wind-Driven Rain: Concrete is resistant to winddriven rain and moist outdoor air in hot and humid climates because it is
impermeable to air infiltration and wind-driven rain. Moisture that enters a
building must come through joints between concrete elements. Annual
inspection and repair of joints will minimize this potential. More
importantly, if moisture does enter through joints, it will not damage the
concrete. Good practice for all types of wall construction is to have
permeable materials that breathe (are allowed to dry) on at least one
surface and to not encapsulate concrete between two impermeable

Concrete
condominiums will
stand the test of
weather, time
Earth Rangers
Centre Achieves
Multiple Green
Objectives with
Concrete
Certification sought
for New Regional
Communication and
Emergency
Coordination Center
A Learning Curve
With Slag Cement
Near-Zero Energy
Home Features
Building Envelope
Technologies
Concrete Builds a
Strong Case for
Sustainability in
New Model Home
Facility Valued as

surfaces. Concrete will dry out if not covered by impermeable treatments.


Portland cement plaster (stucco) should not be confused with the exterior
insulation finish systems (EIFS) or synthetic stucco systems that have
become popular but may have performance problems, including moisture
damage and low impact-resistance. Synthetic stucco is generally a fraction
of the thickness of portland cement stucco, offering less impact resistance.
Due to its composition, it does not allow the inside of a wall to dry when
moisture gets trapped inside. Trapped moisture eventually rots insulation,
sheathing, and wood framing. It also corrodes metal framing and metal
attachments. There have been fewer problems
with EIFS used over solid bases such as concrete
or masonry because these substrates are very
stable and are not subject to rot or corrosion.
Ultraviolet Resistance: The ultraviolet portion
of solar radiation does not harm concrete. Using
colored pigments in concrete retains the color in These 3x5-ft concrete
concrete long after paints have faded due to the panels with decorative
finishes were displayed
suns effects.
outdoors in the
relatively severe
Inedible: Vermin and insects cannot destroy
weather in the Skokie,
concrete because it is inedible. Some softer
materials are inedible but still provide pathways Illinois, area (near
Chicago). With only a
for insects. Due to its hardness, vermin and
few exceptions, their
insects will not bore through concrete. Gaps in
appearance changed
exterior insulation to expose the concrete can
very little after more
provide access for termite inspectors.
than 40 years of
exposure to bright sunModerate to Severe Exposure Conditions
light, wind, snow, acid
for Concrete: The following are important
rain, freezing and
exposure conditions and deterioration
mechanisms in concrete. Concrete can withstand thawing, hot summers,
and cold winters (PCA
these effects when properly designed. The
No. 2101)
Specifiers Guide for Durable Concrete is
intended to provide sufficient information to
allow the practitioner to select materials and mix
design parameters to achieve durable concrete
in a variety of environments.
Resistance to Freezing and Thawing: The
most potentially destructive weathering factor is
freezing and thawing while the concrete is wet,
particularly in the presence of deicing chemicals.
Deterioration is caused by the freezing of water
and subsequent expansion in the paste, the
aggregate particles, or both.

Resistance to
weathering, including
freezing and thawing
(from
www.cement.org)

First of Its Kind in the


Country to Receive LEED
Certification
Annotations based on
MasterSpec Section
09220
Annotations based on
MASTERSPEC 07460

With the addition of an air entrainment admixture, concrete is highly


resistant to freezing and thawing. During freezing, the water displaced by
ice formation in the paste is accommodated so that it is not disruptive;
the microscopic air bubbles in the paste provide chambers for the water to
enter and thus relieve the hydraullic pressure generated. Concrete with a
low water-cementitious ratio (0.40 or lower) is more durable than
concrete with a high water-cementitious ratio
(0.50 or higher). Air-entrained concrete with a
low water-cementitious ratio and an air content
of 5 to 8% will withstand a great number of
cycles of freezing and thawing without distress.
Chemical resistance
Chemical Resistance: Concrete is resistant to
(from
most natural environments and many chemicals.
www.cement.org)
Concrete is virtually the only material used for
the construction of wastewater transportation and treatment facilities
because of its ability to resist corrosion caused by the highly aggressive
contaminants in the wastewater stream as well as the chemicals added to
treat these waste products.
However concrete is sometimes exposed to substances that can attack
and cause deterioration. Concrete in chemical manufacturing and storage
facilities is specially prone to chemical attack. The effect of sulfates and
chlorides is discussed below. Acids attack concrete by dissolving the
cement paste and calcareous aggregates. In addition to using concrete
with a low permeability, surface treatments can be used to keep
aggressive substances from coming in contact with concrete. Effects of
Substances on Concrete and Guide to Protective Treatments discusses the
effects of hundreds of chemicals on concrete and provides a list of
treatments to help control chemical attack.
Resistance to Sulfate Attack: Excessive amounts of sulfates in soil or
water can attack and destroy a concrete that is not properly designed.
Sulfates (for example calcium sulfate, sodium sulfate, and magnesium
sulfate) can attack concrete by reacting with hydrated compounds in the
hardened cement paste. These reactions can induce sufficient pressure to
cause disintegration of the concrete.
Like natural rock such as limestone, porous concrete (generally with a
high water-cementitious ratio) is susceptible to weathering caused by salt
crystallization. Examples of salts known to cause weathering of concrete
include sodium carbonate and sodium sulfate.

Sulfate attack and salt crystallization are more


severe at locations where the concrete is
exposed to wetting and drying cycles, than
continuously wet cycles. For the best defense
against external sulfate attack, design concrete
with a low water to cementitious material ratio
(around 0.40) and use cements specially
formulated for sulfate environments.

Confederation Bridge,
spanning the
Northumberland Strait
between Prince Edward
Seawater Exposure: Concrete has been used Island and New
in seawater exposures for decades with excellent Brunswick, was
performance. However, special care in mix
specifically designed for
design and material selection is necessary for
high durability in a
these severe environments. A structure exposed severe environment and
to seawater or seawater spray is most
a 100-year life. The
vulnerable in the tidal or splash zone where
bridge has to resist
there are repeated cycles of wetting and drying freezing and thawing,
and/or freezing and thawing. Sulfates and
seawater exposure, and
chlorides in seawater require the use of low
abrasion from floating
permeability concrete to minimize steel
ice. (PCA No.
corrosion and sulfate attack. A cement resistant IMG15714)
to sulfate exposure is helpful. Proper concrete
cover over reinforcing steel must be provided, and the water-cementitious
ratio should not exceed 0.40.

Chloride Resistance and Steel Corrosion:


Chloride present in plain concrete that does not
contain steel is generally not a durability
concern. Concrete protects embedded steel from
corrosion through its highly alkaline nature. The
high pH environment in concrete (usually
greater than 12.5) causes a passive and
noncorroding protective oxide film to form on
Corrosion resistance
steel. However, the presence of chloride ions
(from
from deicers or seawater can destroy or
www.cement.org/)
penetrate the film. Once the chloride corrosion threshold is reached, an
electric cell is formed along the steel or between steel bars and the
electrochemical process of carrions begins.
The resistance of concrete to chloride is good; however, for severe
environments such as bridge decks, it can be increase by using a low
water-cementitious ratio (about 0.40), at least seven days of moist curing,
and supplementary cementitious materials such as silica fume, to reduce
permeability. Increasing the concrete cover over the steel also helps slow
down the migration of chlorides. Other methods of reducing steel
corrosion include the use of corrosion inhibiting admixtures, epoxy-coated

reinforcing steel, surface treatments, concrete overlays, and cathodic


protection.
Resistance to Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR):
ASR is an expansive reaction between reactive
forms of silica in aggregates and potassium and
sodium alkalis, mostly from cement, but also
from aggregates, pozzolans, admixtures, and
mixing water. The reactivity is potentially
harmful only when it produces significant
expansion. Indications of the presence of alkali- Resistance to alkaliaggregate reactivity may be a network of
silica reaction
cracks, closed or spalling joints, or movement of (ASR) (from
portions of a structure. ASR can be controlled
www.cement.org/)
through proper aggregate selection and/or the
use of supplementary cementitious materials (such as fly ash or slag
cement) or blended cements proven by testing to control the reaction.
Abrasion Resistance: Concrete is resistant to
the abrasive affects of ordinary weather.
Examples of severe abrasion and erosion are
particles in rapidly moving water, floating ice, or
Abrasion resistance
areas where steel studs are allowed on tires.
(from
Abrasion resistance is directly related to the
strength of the concrete. For areas with severe www.cement.org/)
abrasion, studies show that concrete with compressive strengths of
12,000 to 19,000 psi work well.
Why does concrete crack?
Concrete, like most materials, will shrink slightly when it dries out.
Common shrinkage is about 1/16th of an inch in a 10-foot length of
concrete. The reason contractors place joints in concrete pavements and
floors is to allow the concrete to crack in a neat, straight line at the joint,
where concrete cracks due to shrinkage are expected to occur. Control or
construction joints are also placed in concrete walls and other structures.
Why do concrete surfaces spall?
Concrete spalling (or flaking) can be prevented. It occurs due to one or
more of the following reasons.
1.) In cold climates subjected to freezing and thawing, concrete surfaces
have the potential to spall if the concrete is not air-entrained.
2.)Too much water in the concrete mix will produce a weaker, more
permeable and less durable concrete. The water-cementitious ratio should
be as low as possible (0.45 or less).

3.) Concrete finishing operations should not begin until the water sheen
on the surface is gone and the excess bleed water on the surface has had
a chance to evaporate. If this excess water is worked into the concrete
because finishing operations have begun too soon, the concrete on the
surface will have too high of a water content and this surface will be
weaker and less durable.

BOOKMARK

Bob Harris' Guide to Stained Concrete Floors (2004)


Bob Harris, Decorative Concrete Institute, Item Code LT283, 100 pages
Guide to Stained Concrete Floors is a 100-page, full-color resource with detailed information and
practical tips on staining concrete interior floors. This publication is available for $35 at the
Portland Cement Association Bookstore.
Bob Harris' Guide to Stamped Concrete (2004)
Bob Harris, Decorative Concrete Institute, Item Code LT284, 144 pages
Available for $45. The guide covers topics of vital importance for anyone planning to stamp
concrete, including: - Nine sources for stamping design ideas - Maximizing your profits by
knowing what to charge - Concrete mix considerations for stamping concrete - Site conditions
affecting stamped concrete work and how to prepare or avoid them - How to prepare concrete
for stamping, including tips for striking off and finishing - Three important steps to applying color
hardener - Tools that are essential for successful stamping - How and when to start stamping Important issues to avoid when stamping - Fixing minor flaws in stamped concrete work Effective techniques for the application of sealers - 10 ways to promote and sell your stamped
concrete work - How to distinguish your stamped concrete work from competitors
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, 14th Edition (2002)
S.H. Kosmatka, B. Kerkhoff, and W.C. Panarese, Portland Cement Association, Item Code EB001,
372 pages
Available for $80 Definitive reference on concrete technology covers fundamentals and detailed
information on freshly mixed and hardened concrete. Extensively updated and expanded, this
new edition discusses materials for concrete, such as portland cements, supplementary
cementing materials, aggregates, admixtures and fibers; air entrainment; procedures for mix
proportioning, batching, mixing, transporting, handling, placing, consolidating, finishing, and
curing concrete; precautions necessary during hot- and cold-weather concreting; causes and
methods of controlling volume changes; commonly used control tests for quality concrete;
special types of concrete, such as high-performance, lightweight, heavyweight, no-slump, rollercompacted, shotcrete, mass concrete and many more. Applicable ASTM, AASHTO, and ACI
standards are referred to extensively.
Effects of Substances on Concrete and Guide to Protective Treatments (2001)
PCA #IS001, 36 pages

Available for $25. Improve concretes durability by knowing what chemicals attack it and what
you can do to protect it. A comprehensive list of materials, a description of their effects on
concrete, and recommended protective treatments are given. Also listed are dozens of products
suitable for protecting concrete, including a list of coating manufacturers with addresses, phone
numbers, and websites.
Masonry Designers' Guide, Fourth Edition (2004)
Portland Cement Association. Item Code: LT305
Available for $105. This book is one of the most popular design and teaching resources related to
masonry because it provides comprehensive coverage, extensive code references, and numerous
practical examples.
Masonry Mortars (2004)
Portland Cement Association. Item Code: IS040
Available for $10. This document includes coverage of mortar properties and current masonry
standards used in the United States and Canada. Discusses component materials, batching and
mixing procedures, the use mortar in hot and cold weather, and special techniques of mortar
production.
Specifiers Guide to Durable Concrete (2005)
PCA No. EB221, 72 pages
Available for $30. This publication is an instruction guide and basic reference for those
responsible for writing and implementing concrete specifications. This reference covers the basic
concepts of concrete technology as it relates to durability, and is intended to be a companion and
supplement to Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. It provides sufficient information to
allow the practitioner to select materials and mix design parameters to achieve durable concrete
in a variety of environments. It also warns the user when expert help is recommended.
Maintenance requirements to assure long-term performance are provided Several case studies
provide real-world examples.
Concrete: The Choice for Sustainable Design
Taking Shelter from the Storm, Building a Safe Room inside your House (2004)
FEMA. Publication Number 320
This is a guide to building safe rooms within houses in high risk weather area. It has information
on how to assess, plan, and build a safe room.
Changes In Store (2006)
Wal-Mart showcases green concrete technologies at its store in Texas.
This 4 page article was originally featured in the May 2006 edition of Concrete Producer
Magazine, by Hanley Wood. Wal-Mart testing a range of green strategies at this prototype store
in McKinney, TX. Along with other green strategies, concrete was used as interior finish flooring,
reducing VOC's and maintenance, and pervious pavement in the parking area to improve ground
water quality and quantity.
Concrete as a Carbon Sink
Liv Haselbach, Associate Professor Civil and Environmental Engineering Washington State
University
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute (2006)
An industry resource website
Concrete's Contrubition to Sustainable Development
Concrete is the most widely used building material on earth. It has a 2, 000 year track record
ofhelping build the Roman Empire to building today's modern societies. As a result ofits
versatility, beauty, strength,and durability, concrete is used in most types ofconstruction,

including homes, buildings, roads, bridges, airports, subways, and water resource structures.
And with today's heightened awareness and demandfor sustainable construction, concrete
performs well when compared to other building materials. Concrete is a sustainable building
material due to its many eco{riendly features. The production ofconcrete is resource efficient and
the ingredients require little processing. Most materials for concrete are acquired and
manufactured locally which minimizes transportation energy. Concrete building systems combine
insulation with high thermal mass and low air infiltration to make homes and buildings more
energy efficient. Concrete has a long service life for buildings and transportation infrastructure,
thereby increasing the period between reconstruction, repair, and maintenance and the
associated environmental impact. Concrete, when used as pavement or exterior cladding, helps
minimize the urban heat island effect, thus reducing the energy required to heat and cool our
homes and buildings. Concrete incorporates recycled industrial byproducts such as fly ash, slag,
and silica fume that helps reduce embodied energy, carbon footprint, and waste.
Green Streets Calculator
Concrete roads deflect less under loading, so trucks get better fuel mileage and require less fuel
to construct than asphalt roads.
With more attention than ever being focused on energy conservation, vehicle fuel efficiency, and
new alternatives such as hybrid cars and bio-diesel, few people realize the significance of roadtype on energy use.
ICF Points to LEED (2008)
Insulating Concrete Form Systems contribute to LEED credits
This two page .pdf summarizes the credits available to designers and building owners when using
high performing insulating concrete forms in wall construction. Documents available for download
to ICFA members.
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association
Industry resource for ready mixed concrete.
Polished Concrete Can Be Green (2007)
L&M Concretenews, January, 2007: Volume 7, Number 1
A durable, long lasting, attractive polished concrete floor is a value-loaded option within the
reach of almost any facility today.
Tile Roofing Institute
Website of non-profit industry association.

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