1-3

5 - 16

17 - 22

23 - 29
30 - 65
66 - 71
72 - 78

79 - 81

An architecture design process is a progress from conceptual to construction. There are few stages in a design
process. One of the design process included the preparation of construction drawings, which is the key in this process.
We are given an opportunity to visit the construction site of low rise or medium rise buildings from this project. In this
project, we need to produce a complete documentation and an analysis of construction elements, understand and be
able to explain current construction technology on local sites after we go to the site. We use visual images, sketches
and drawings to show the analysis and explanation.

02

Astana P8
In this construction project, there will be few different types of semi-d :
1.
TYPE A - a 2 storey semi-d with built-up 7,682 sf, included 4 + 2 bedrooms, 4 + 2 bathrooms and an individual lift.
2.
TYPE B1 - a 3 storey semi-d with built-up 6,869 sf, included 3 + 1 bedrooms, 3 +3 bathrooms and an individual lift.
3.
TYPE B2 - a 3 storey semi-d with built-up 6,889 sf, included 3 + 1 bedrooms, 3 + 4 bathrooms and an individual lift.
4.
TYPE B3 - a 3 storey semi-d with built-up 6,057 sf, included 5 + 1 bedrooms, 5 + 2 bathrooms and an individual lift.
5.
TYPE C - a 3 storey semi-d with built-up 7,340 sf, included 3 + 1 bedrooms, 3 + 3 bathrooms and an individual lift.
6.
TYPE C1 - a 3 storey semi-d with built-up 7,325 sf, included 3 + 1 bedrooms, 3 + 3 bathrooms and an individual lift.

TYPE A

SITE PLANS

TYPE B1

TYPE B2

TYPE B3

TYPE C

TYPE C1

04

A construction site is one of the most dangerous place you can be around and working within the
construction site is considered a 3-D (Dirty, Dangerous and Difficult) job. According to the
Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH) in 2015, 88 construction workers die, which
is the highest recorded death compared to other industries. Another 149 other construction
workers suffer from disabilities due to accidents in the construction site. Thus, it is important that
workers working in this area are protected and equipped with safety equipments to reduce their
chances of death and injuries.

Safety Attire & Equipment

Helmet - Protects the workers head from

impact from falling impacts or side collision

Safety Shoes - Protects workers feet from

falling objects as well as increasing grip
between soils and ground to prevent slipping.

High Visibility Jacket - Allows the workers to

be seen from far distance and even at night.

Rubber Boots - Waterproof and protects the

workers feet in wet areas.

All workers entering and working are required to put on a helmet, high visibility jackets as well as
safety shoes. Depending on the job, workers may require to put on additional equipment such as
rubber boots, earplugs and masks.

Workers with safety attire working within the

site

Masks - Ensure workers do not inhale

dangerous fumes and dust during
construction. Only used when working in
dusty areas or dangerous fumes.

Ear Plugs - Protects workers ears from

constant loud noises from machinery.

06

At the entrance of the site, signboards are placed to warn visitors and workers about the
dangers and hazards of the construction site. A guard house is placed at the entrance to
prevent unauthorised entrance into the construction sites.

Safety signboards are placed at the entrance and visitors must be registered and
checked before entering

Map of assembly areas within the construction site. Contains location of fire extinguisher around
the sites.

Fire Extinguisher. Found

around the site.

First Aid Kit. Location

within the site office

Within the construction sites, there are a few emergency assembly points as well as fire
extinguishers throughout the construction sites. A first aid kit is also on standby within
the site in case of minor injuries.

07

Scaffoldings and safety nets are commonly used although the buildings are only three to four stories
high. Guard rails made out either with strong ropes or aluminum bars are also placed at stairwells
and high places to keep workers safe. These scaffolds can be used in conjunction with guard rails to
prevent workers from falling down and safety net on frame to catch heavy objects or materials that
fall from the scaffolding platform itself. These are some of the safety precautions when climbing up
or erecting scaffolding.

Ensure the scaffolding is on a level ground to provide maximum stability

Site surrounding the scaffolding must be cleared
Do not overload the scaffolding platform and keep scaffolding platform clear.
Scaffolding should be anchored down firmly to the ground using weights.
Scaffolding planks should be slip-resistant, in uniform thickness and not overlapped
with other planks
Ensure safety nets are installed properly to avoid obstructing the path on the platform.

Scaffoldings and safety nets surround the

building itself

08

MACHINERIES
Most, if not all construction sites uses modern machinery to complete various tasks that are
impossible or takes a long time using manual labour work. From time to time, different machineries
are used for different tasks and different construction stages. Most of the machinery as
transported into the site through the entrance and temporary roads are laid for the machinery to
reach the specified location within the site. Most of the machinery used are movable and specialise
in low to midrise buildings. These are some of the machinery used within the site.

Mobile Telescopic Crane

As the building is between three and four stores and
the size of the building is small, mobile telescopic
cranes are used instead of the large tower cranes
commonly used in highrise construction. These cranes
are mobile by design and can be moved around the site
when needed. During lifting, outrigger stabilising jacks
are deployed to keep the crane balanced during heavy
lifting. These cranes can lift thousands of tonnes of its
own weight thanks to the principles of Pascals law
and hydraulics. The lifting capacity can be changed by
adding counterweights behind the boom crane to
increase the weight of the crane to balance the load.
These cranes are commonly used to lift up heavy
materials as well as concrete mixture up to the third
floor or the roof using a crane skip.

USED FOR - Carrying large loads such as bricks and concrete buckets
DURING - Structural Construction (Roof/Walls/Floors/Pillars)

09

Excavator
Another common machinery used in the construction site is the excavator. It is commonly used during the
early stages of the construction especially during landscaping, digging foundations and trenches to lay
utilities such as water pipes and cables. An excavator consists of an undercarriage where the tracks are
located. The cabin, engines and hydraulics are attached to the undercarriage to enable the boom arm and
bucket to rotate a full swing. The boom arm is powered by hydraulic pumps that moves the motors and
actuators within the boom arm and the bucket. Although the excavators boom arm could only move up and
down, the arm could reach a considerable distance from the cabin itself. The bucket allows the excavator to
scoop as well as dump dirt or anything that has been dug up.

USED FOR - Clearing land/Digging trenches for utility pipes

DURING - Earthworks/External Works

10

Hydraulic Piling Rig

Piling rigs, also called pile drivers are used especially during the construction of the foundation of the buildings. These piling rigs
are designed to drive piles into the ground. These piles are used for structural foundation and can be used in different soil
conditions. Typical piling rigs use weights above the pile and and the weights are dropped, driving the pile into the Earth. There are
many types of piling rigs such as the diesel piling rig and vibratory hammers. However for this construction site, hydraulic drivers
are used instead due to the nature of the site as there are residential homes and build-up areas around the site. Hydraulic drivers
uses hydraulic fluid inside cylinders to generate the driving force needed to push the pile down to the ground. Hydraulic drivers
produces no vibration that could affect the stability of the soil and existing buildings around the site as well as being far quieter
than diesel and vibration drivers.

USED FOR - Driving foundation piles into the ground

DURING - Foundation

Steamroller
A steamroller is used to smooth out the land and the dirt roads within the site itself. It is mostly used to compact the land and
the dirt roads to avoid heavy machineries to sink into the soft soil. A steamroller consists of one or two very heavy drums
which compacts the land as the steamroller moves. The drums can be modified to make them heavier to compact harder stuff
at the expense of speed or lubricated to prevent materials from sticking to the rollers.
USED FOR - Compacting soft soil/Paving temporary dirt roads
DURING - Earthworks/Structural Construction (Flatten Dirt Road Evenly)

11

Concrete Mixer Truck

One of the most common construction material used in the site is concrete, where it is used as the roof and the support beam in conjunction with steel reinforcement. As such, a continuous supply of
concrete is needed to ensure the building is completed on schedule. The concrete mixing plant is located outside the site, thus a concrete mixer truck is used to transport mixed concrete. To ensure that
the concrete does not harden during transport, the agitator drum rotates continuously to ensure the concrete stays in a liquid form and does not harden and stick to the drum. An average concrete mixer
truck can hold up to 4 to 6 cubic meters of concrete with a time limit of 90 minutes after it is poured into the trucks. The concrete is discharged through a chute and sometimes further transported using
crane skips or concrete pumps.
USED FOR - Pouring and transporting prepared concrete to the site
DURING - Structural Construction (Floors/Roofs)

12

Boom Concrete Pump

Commonly used in a mid rise buildings, these mobile boom
concrete pump allows concrete to be pumped up high into
the air and at a considerable distance. An electric or
diesel pump pumps concrete up through pipes mounted on
the boom and can be directed to any direction within its
radius. This method is much faster than transporting
concrete using cane skips and typically used where
pouring concrete is time-critical. The boom can be moved
around the site as it is mounted to a truck.

USED FOR - Providing and pumping concrete up to high

places
DURING - Structural Construction (Floors/Roof)

Backhoe Loader
A backhoe loader is essentially a combination of an excavator and a bulldozer in a smaller unit. It has a
similar look to a tractor, the cab is located in the center with all round vision to enable the driver to
operate either of the bulldozer bucket or the excavator bucket. Just like the mobile cranes, a backhoe
loader has hydraulic outriggers which is deployed during excavation, as the backhoe loader does not have
enough weight on its own to support itself during excavation. Due to its compact size, it can go to places
with tight corners and spaces where other machineries can't. The back and front bucket can be switched
with blades, grab buckets and borers to perform different tasks.

USED FOR -Digging trenches for utility pipes/Excavating

extra soil in tight spaces.
DURING - Earthworks/External Works

13

Dump Truck
Commonly used to transport materials onto and off the construction site. The most common dumper used is the tandem
dump truck, where the cargo is unloaded using a hydraulic operated tipping skip. These trucks can travel on rough
terrain but theyre usually slow especially when carrying heavy loads.

USED FOR - Transporting materials and

excess soil/sand/waste
DURING - Earthworks (Soil/Sand/Foreign
objects)/Structural Construction
(Materials/Waste)

Generator
Seen alongside heavy machineries such as cutting machine, drills, portable concrete mixers and bending machines,
these generators are needed to power these high-power machines as the main power supply is too far from the site or
not enough wattage provided through the mains. Power outage is common within construction sites as new wires are
laid or damaged during construction so a generator is needed to keep the construction on schedule. These generators
are usually powered by diesel and very noisy.
USED FOR - Providing power to machineries and important facilities
DURING - Entire construction phase

14

Facilities
These facilities are temporary buildings that are used to provide services, information and
convenience to the workers in the construction site. These buildings, such as site offices,
storages, sanitary conveniences that will be removed upon completion of the construction etc.
The facilities may be moved from time to time to a suitable location as construction
progresses. Usually, these facilities are either located in a completed building or the carpark to
minimise movement of the facilities as moving them costs thousands of ringgits.

Meeting Room - This room allows visitors and workers to communicate and conduct
meetings/briefings without interruption from the noise outside. Progress reports, plans and schedules
are pinned to the wall to be easily seen.

Permit by the governing body of the city is still required even to setup the temporary facilities
here as these buildings are considered service and office buildings. These permits are usually
pinned onto the notice board outside the office for inspection by local authorities.

Inside the meeting room, where we

are given a brief about the
construction site.
Notice Board - Allows workers and inspection team to look at general announcements, flow charts
and permits for the construction site itself.

Inside a site office

Site Office - Houses the operation office for the site. Plans, material samples and important
documents are located here. Most of the operations carried out at the site are coordinated
here.

Notice boards outside the site office

15

Portable Toilets - Located just across the guard house and the site office and each worker has its
own responsibility to keep the toilets clean at all times.

Trash/Dump Area - Located throughout the site. Waste materials are dumped into these big
containers and are sent away once it is full.

One of the many dump areas

around the site

A typical portable toilet. They are found next to the

guard house across the site office.
Storage - Located throughout the site. Materials delivered to the site are offloaded to the side of
the road to be used later.

Materials being offloaded and

stored outside

16

General Information - Referencing

Shallow foundation - shallow foundation is a type of foundation which transfers building
loads to the earth very near the surface, rather than to a subsurface layer or a range of
depths as does a deep foundation.
Deep foundation - deep foundations extend down through unsuitable or
unstable soil to transfer building loads to a more appropriate bearing
stratum rock or dense sands and gravels well below the superstructure.
End bearing pile
Pile foundation - A foundation (spread footing or grillage supported on
piles). Usually consists of a base of spread footing on grillage supported
by piles at their bottom. Piles distribute the load of structure to the soil in
contact either by friction alone (friction pile)or by friction combined with
bearing at their ends (end bearing pile).

Friction pile

Process
1. Setting up
Block setting out are done by licensed surveyors/contractor before
any form of piling works are carried out. Which included the pile
point numbering on site.
2. Piling
There are different type of piling machine such as drop hammer piling
machines and Injection piling machine is used to drive in the piles.
Those method is chosen to suit the condition of the site.
3. After piling done, a pit is excavated to install the pile cap. Before
installing the pile cap. Timber is then used as formwork on the
concrete of the pile cap. The concrete must reach the requirement set
by government which is Grade 30.

24

Construction process
Specific case study - On site
Deep foundation is used in this project due to it was a medium rise rise semi D which is
4 storeys height and to ensure the load of the structure is transferred down through the
upper weak layer of the topsoil to the stronger layer of subsoil below.
1.Excavation
Preliminary activity of the construction project. It starts from
the pits for the building foundations and continues up to the
handing over of the project. Excavator will dig a hole to set up
piling work including position of each pile.

2.Piling
Injection method is used due to the noise level produced can
not be higher than 95 decibels measures 15 m from the
source. The deviation is controlled under 75mm on plan from
its correct location.

3.Pile load test

After piling contractor are responsible to carry out a pile load
test procedure shall be as JKR specifications or BS. 8004 and
requirements shall be performed in accordance with the
direction of the engineer.

5.Completion
Timber formwork is removed after 28 days when concrete is
set and completed piles was surveyed by a licensed surveyor
to ensure the actual position of piles (pile offsets) in As Built piling plan, to be endorsed by the same surveyor.

4.Pile Cap
Timber is then used as formwork, rebar is added for
reinforcement, pile stump reinforcement is added as well.
Concrete is then pour into the timber formwork, inspection
also take place in this phase.

25

Hydraulic Jack in Piling

In this particular project hydraulic jack piling machines is used for piling due to the site condition which is near
to the government office areas and istana to minimize the noise produce and impact to the surrounding area.
1. Preparation for pitching pile
(i) The nominated pile segment drawn towards the machine using the on-board crane.
(ii) The pile then lifted by the on-board crane to facilitate the pile head to locate in the pile position.

2. Jacking Pile
(i) Insert pile into the Jack-In system clamp by using the on-board crane.
(ii) Clamped the pile and detach the crane cable.
(iii) Final vertical check and positioning by moving in the X and Y direction.
(iv) Commence jacking pile by applying jacking force onto the clamp device to press down the pile.

3. Jointing
The pile will be joined in accordance to conventional method or by way of MIG / CO2
welding.

4. Set
When the jacking pile reaches certain depth and refuses penetration at the desired
corresponding pressure, the pile may have set. If required, dolly may be used to jack-in
excess pile length to below ground level.

26

Reinforced Concrete pile

Precast concrete pile are formed using a high quality controlled concrete and
reinforced by steel bars and usually came in a rectangular form. To carry the
stresses during transportation and the loads from the structure precast
concrete piles need heavy reinforcement. The condition of the soil may decided
either the cast iron or steel shoe need to be added to the precast concrete piles
to aid the driving process.

Precast Reinforced Concrete piles [ R.C. piles]

Advantages:

1. High load capacities, corrosion resistance can be attained, hard

driving possible
2. Cylinder piles in particular are suited for bending resistance.
3. Cast in place concrete piles are formed by drilling a hole in the
ground & filling it with concrete. The hole may be drilled or
formed by driving a shell or casing into the ground.

Disadvantages: 1. Concrete piles are considered permanent, however certain

soils (usually organic) contain materials that may form acids
that can damage the concrete.
2. Difficult to handle unless prestressed, high initial cost,
considerable displacement, prestressed piles are difficult to
splice.
3. Salt water may also adversely react with the concrete unless
special precautions are taken when the mix proportions are
designed.
4. Cannot be driven if the diameter of the pile is very large or in a limited
Space condition.

27

Pile Cap
Pile Cap - Piles are driven closely together in group or clusters that contain
from two to twenty-five piles each. The load is distributed over the head of the
piles in the group by means of a reinforced cast in-situ concrete pile cap. To
provide structure continuity the reinforcement in the piles is bonded into the
pile cap; this may necessitate the breaking out of the concrete from the heads
of the piles to expose the reinforcement. The heads of piles also penetrate the
base of the pile cap some 100mm to 150mm to ensure the continuity of the
members.
1. Excavation to the required level with open cut slope at safe angle
2.Blinding layer to the foundation level.
3.Erect formwork by using plywood according to the pile cap design.
4.Pile cap steel reinforcement is added.
5.The base is cleaned up before concreting.
6.Concrete discharging point will be established.
7.Sufficient vibrating poker is used to compact the concrete.
Pile cap section
Pile cap
column

Reinforcement bar

piles

28

Pile Cap specification

Capacity of pile group is the sum of the individual capacities of piles, but it is influenced by
the spacing between the piles.The structural load is applied to the pile cap that distributes
the load to individual piles. If piles are spaced sufficient distance apart, then the capacity of
pile group is the sum of the individual capacities of piles. However, if the spacing between
piles is too close, the zones of stress around the pile will overlap and the ultimate load of the
group is less than the sum of the individual pile capacities especially in the case of friction
piles, where the efficiency of pile group is much less.

In this project the most of the pile caps are 1 or 2 piles pile
caps due to structural load of the semi-D does not need the
large group piles pile cap to support. Thus the smaller piles
group of pile cap is sufficient enough to support the structure
which also reduce the cost and the piling duration.

R.C. piles specification

BS 8110 & BS 8004
MS 1314 : 2004
1.
Characteristic strength of concrete to be 45 N/mm
2.
Ordinary Portland Cement (MS 522)
3.
Maximum size of aggregate to be 20mm (MS 29)
4.
Steel Reinforcement (MS 144 & MS 146)
5.
Mild Steel Plate (BS EN 10025 : 1993)
6.
Admixture Superplasticizer (BS 5975 - 3 :1985)

29

SLAB
General Information - Referencing
Definition :
Concrete slab, a very common and important structural element, are constructed to provide flat , parallel and horizontal surfaces as construction of floor , wall or ceiling .The depth of a concrete slab floor
is very small compared to its span whose thickness ranges from 10 to 50 centimetres .Most of the slab are comprises of carefully worked out steel reinforcements in order to provide tensile strength to
the structure which is Reinforced Cement Concrete Slab ( RCC Slab ) .Formwork differs with the kind of slab. For a ground slab, the formwork may consist only of sidewalls pushed into the ground
whereas for a suspended slab, the form-work is shaped like a tray, often supported by a temporary scaffold until the concrete sets.

Slab can be classified into Ground Slab and Suspended Slab

Ground Slab

Suspended Slab

31

Ground Slab

2. Waffle raft slab

Type of soil condition :

There are several different variations in slabs. The type of slab youll need will depend on the
type of soil youre building on, and how reactive it is. Generally, the following classifications
of soil are used:
Class A - This denotes very 'stable' ground - mostly sand and rock, not affected by
moisture
Class S - Slightly reactive soil, slight movement due to moisture
Class M - Moderately reactive soil, moderate movement due to moisture
Class H - Highly reactive soil, a high amount of movement due to moisture
Ground Slab can be divided into several sub-categories :

These slabs are constructed entirely above the ground by pouring concrete over a grid of
polystyrene blocks known as 'void forms'. Waffle raft slabs are generally suitable for Class
A,Class S, Class M, Class H and Class E soils These types of slab are only suitable for very
flat ground. On sloping ground or with more complex designs, a stiffened raft slab is normally
the better option

3.

Infill slab

Class E1.- Extremely

reactive
soil, extreme movement due to moisture
Stiffened
raft slab
Class P - 'Problem' soil, which experiences land slip, mine subsidence and so forth.

Pre-poured concrete beams set in channels through the middle of the slab, creating a kind of
supporting grid of concrete on the base of the slab ,suited to Class M, Class H and Class E
soils .

Infill slabs are simply poured between existing walls, so no formwork is required.The
masonry wall and concrete slab must be separated from one another because they shrink or
expand at different rates. If they are not separated the risk that the slab may develop
unsightly cracks along the wall edge is increased.Can only be constructed on Class A or
Class S sites

32

Suspended Slab & Beam

The choice of type of slab for a particular floor depends on many factor , the design loads, required spans, serviceability requirements, and strength requirements are all important .For beamless slabs, the
choice between a flat slab and a flat plate is usually a matter of loading and span.
There are several types of Reinforcement design in RCC Slab criteria :
One-way slab - Main reinforcement is provided in only one direction ,
cast integrally with parallel supporting beams .

Waffle slab

- Main reinforcement is provided in 2 way direction with supporting

ribs to able to carry heavier loads and span longer distances .

Two-way slab - Main reinforcement is provided in 2 way direction, cast

integrally with supporting beams on 4 sides of square bays.

flat slab

- Does not have beams and girders for reinforcement .Loads

are transferred directly to the supporting concrete columns.

32

Construction Process of Slab

Specific Case Study - On Site
1.

Excavate

2.

Construct form

3.

Prepare subsurface
a.

Spread sand or gravel and level

b.

Install drains ,pipes ,utilities

c.

Install moisture barrier

4.

Install reinforcement bar

5.

Constructing special forms

6.

Pouring the concrete

7.

Embed anchors

33

1.

2. Construct the forms

Excavate

Trenches for piping

At this point , the building has already been located and batter boards are in
place .Now, trenches or excavations are made for the footings ,drains ,and
other floor features. These must be deeper than the rest of the slab.The
locating and digging for slab footings is the same as for foundation footing
,The trenches can be be dug and rough lines are used for guides. The
excavation are then checked for depth level for main utility lines .

Batter board

After the excavation is done ,the corner are relocated. Lines are restrung on batter boards
and the corners are plumbed .Lumber is brought to construct the forms . Monolithic forms are
made like footing forms which top board is placed and leveled first with the corner ,Next
,sand or gravel is dumped inside the form area .

3. Preparing the Subsurface

First of all ,the ground under any type of slab must be prepared for moisture control . Water must be kept
from seeping up through a slab and drained from under the slab .Outside moisture can be reduced by using
good siding methods and stepped up the edges of the slab using bricks .Once the sand is leveled, the
moisture barrier is laid .As a rule, plastic sheet are used for moisture barrier to cover the whole subsurface
area .The strips should overlap at least 2 inches at the edges .

34

All the opening in pipes are then covered to prevent them from clogging with dirt or
concrete. Metal or plastic pipes are used for the drain while conduit which laid under
the the slab are used for electrical wires .

Insulating the edges .Insulation is laid around the outside

edges after placement of the moisture barrier which is called
perimeter insulation .The insulation is extended to the bottom
of the footing area at least 12 inches and rigid foam of 1 inch
thick is used .

35

4. Install Reinforcement Bar

Concrete is a material which is strong in compression and weak in tension and if the
member is overloaded its tensile resistance may be exceeded leading to structural
failure. Hence steel bar are used to provide the tensile strength for RC Slab
.Reinforcement is placed as near to the outside fibres as practicable , a cover of
concrete over the reinforcement to protect the steel bar from corrosion and to provide
a degree of fire resistance .

Condition before loading

Condition after loading

36

Type of Reinforcement
Specific Case Study - On Site
Format A , Square mesh is type of steel reinforcement fabric is used in our site with
standard sheet size ~ 4.8m long x 2.4m wide
standard roll size ~ 48m and 72m long x 2.4m wide
Grade notation : Mild steel
Grade 250 or 250N/mmcharacteristic tensile strength ( 0.25% carbon , 0.06%
sulphur and 0.06% phosphorus )
Square twisted steel bars
Standard bar diameter ~ 6,8,10,12,16,20,25,32 and 40mm

37

5. Constructing special forms

6. Pouring the concrete

Special form such as stepped edge helps drainage to prevents

rainwater from flowing onto the floor .Lower surface area are
common for garages , entry way and so forth.The extension
form is built inside the outer form as a nailing base .The lower
area can then be leveled separately .

After the corner of the forms are levels with a transit , the volume of concrete needed is
estimated .When pouring is ready ,the builder spread ,carry and level the concrete .As the
concrete is poured , it was spreaded and tamped by using a board or shovel .Tamping
helps get rid of air pocket to make the concrete solidly fill all the form. This is done with
a long board called a strike-off .

Bull floats concrete

Darby concrete

38

Second Floor

Ground Floor

First Floor

Beam Structure details

Specific Case Study - On Site

39

Columns
General Information - Referencing
A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the
structure above to other structural elements below .Most of the high rises building uses Reinforced Cement Concrete techniques include our
site construction . In an RCC framed structure, the load is transferred from a slab to the beams then to the columns and further to lower
columns and finally to the foundation which in turn transfers it to the soil. The walls in such structures are constructed after the frame is
ready. Cement concrete is strong in compressive strength but weak in tensile strength. To increase tensile strength in the structure ,we use
mild steel bars in cement concrete. Usually steel bars are roughened or corrugated to further improve the bond or cohesion between the
concrete and steel .Curing of all concrete is done at least for 20 days.

40

Construction Process of RCC Column

Specific Case Study - On Site

1.

Column layout work

Location of columns are determined practically on the site. It is done by laying rope according to grids shown in
the drawing and then mark the location of columns related to rope.In drawing , column locations are shown related
to grid-line with dimension which in field, ropes are our grid-line. So we place columns related to rope-line by
measuring dimension shown in the drawing.

2. Column reinforcement work

After marking the column locations, we then start to place reinforcement as instructed in the structural
drawing.The rebar diameter, number , rebar spacing and shape are determined to be as approved drawing and bar
bending schedule .Rebar and existing concrete slab are then presented for inspection before placing shutters .Prior
to erecting the shutters , box out and cast in items are installed .

41

3.

Column formwork

The formwork has been erected to retain the wet concrete and resist the initial hydrostatic pressure .Clamps or
yokes are used at equal centres for batch filling and at varying centres for complete filling in one pour to keep the
thickness of the formwork material to a minimum . Column forms are located at 75 to 100mm high concrete plinth
or kicker which has the dual function of location and preventing grout loss from the bottom of the column
formwork .

4.

Pouring concrete into column

Crane , concrete bucket , pumps ,chute and shovel are used to spread concrete. Concrete are delivered within 75 minutes after
adding the water to the cement and compacted within 45 minutes of arrival . Mechanical vibrators are used to prevent
formation of construction joint with the previous layer which has not taken initial settlement .

Concrete bucket

42

Column and Beam Layout Plan

Specific Case Study - On Site
Lower Ground Floor

Ground Floor

ALL BEAMS SHALL BE 200 X 600 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED .

ALL CONCRETE GRADE SHALL BE G30 .
ALL SLAB SHALL BE 125mm THICK UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED .
ALL DISCONTINUOUS SLAB REINFORCEMENT TO BE BRC A8(T) X 75D UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED .

ALL DISTRIBUTION BARS SHALL BE T 10-200 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED .

RC ROOF BEAM

First Floor

Second Floor

ADMIX CRYSTALLINE WATERPROOFING ADDITIVE RC ROOF

43

Column Schedule
Specific Case Study - On Site

44

Walls
General Information - Referencing
A wall is a continuous, usually vertical structure, which is thin relative to its length
and height. The prime function of an external wall is to provide shelter against wind,
rain and the daily seasonal variations of outside temperature normal to its location,
for reasonable indoor comfort.

Functional requirements :
The function of a wall is to enclose and protect a building or to divide space within a building.
-

Strength and stability

Resistance to weather and ground moisture

Durability and freedom from maintenance

Fire safety

Resistance to the passage of heat

Security

Aesthetics

45

Types of walls
Loadbearing wall
Wall that bears a load resting upon it by conducting its weight to a foundation structure.The
materials most often used to construct load-bearing walls in large buildings are concrete,
block, or brick. Depending on the type of building and the number of stories, load-bearing
walls are gauged to the appropriate thickness to carry the weight above them.
Housing
Tall buildings

Non-load bearing wall

Walls that are only intended to support themselves and the weight of the cladding
or sheathings attached. Non-load bearing walls provide no structural support and
may be interior or exterior walls. Materials are wood framing, light gauge steel
framing, concrete masonry units, curtain walls.

Wall partition
Protection from the elements

46

Masonry wall system

Masonry walls consist of modular building blocks bonded together with mortar to form walls
which are structurally most efficient in compression.
The most common types of masonry units are:
Bricks
Concrete block
Masonry bearing are typically arranged in parallel sets to support wood, steel, or concrete
spanning system. It provide strong spatial definition and enclosure, weather protection, and an
integral and durable wall finish with a single material.

Mortar :
Used to joint masonry units together, bond reinforcing steel to the masonry, and seal
the masonry wall against wind and rain penetration. It consists of Portland or
masonry cement, hydrated lime, aggregate, and water.

47

Bricks
Bricks are walling units within a length of 337.5mm, a width of 225mm and a height of
112.5mm. Standard size of brick is 215mm x 102.5mm x 65mm.
Types of brick :
Clay bricks
Calcium silicate bricks ( sand-lime )
Concrete bricks

Special bricks
Dimension :

Types of bricks

48

Brickwork

Running Bond

Common Bond

Stack Bond

The simplest pattern which is used in cavity

and veneer walls.

Similar to running bond except for a header

course at every 5th, 6th or 7th course.

Units do not overlap, longitudinal

reinforcement is required in unreinforced
walls.

Dutch Bond

English Bond

Alternating stretching and heading courses

Pattern consist of alternating stretcher and

header courses.

Flemish Bond
Each course consists of alternating headers &
stretchers.

49

Types of Mortar Joint

Tooling compresses the mortar and forces it tightly against the mortar and forces it tightly
against the mortar. Tooled joints provide maximum protection against water penetration and
are recommended in areas subject to high winds or heavy rains. In trowled joints, the mortar is
cut or struck off with a towel. The most effective of these is the weathered joint since it shed
water. Raked joints are for interior use only.
Jointing :Finish of the mortar joints between bricks that is fairface.
Pointing :Filling mortar joints with a mortar selected for colour and textured to brickwork.

50

Wall finishes
Plastering

Painting

Wall Tiling

Plaster is a wet mixed material applied to internal

walls as a finish to fill in any irregularities in the wall
surface and to provide a smooth continuous surface
suitable for direct decoration.

Function : To provide an economic method of surface

protection and decoration to building materials and
components which is easy to clean and maintain.

Bedding of internal wall tiles are considered to be inert in the

context of moisture and high temperature environment.

Gypsum plaster

Types of tiles :
Glazed wall tile
Ceramic mosaic tile
Quarry and Paver tiles

51

Masonry wall
Specific Case Study - On Site
Stretcher bond/ Running bond is used.

Brick - common clay brick ( 18mm x 98mm x 68mm )

Solid Masonry: Solid masonry walls consists of solid load bearing clay bricks unit. Adjacent
wythes in both bearing and nonbearing walls bonded with metal ties.

Mortar joint :

Concave , flush and raked joint are used.

Metal ties

Metal ties

Concave

Flush

Raked ( Interior only )

52

Masonry wall
Specific Case Study - On Site

Legend :
Internal wall

External wall

Load bearing wall

Non-load bearing wall

First floor plan

53

Construction of Masonry wall

1.

Preparation

2.

Laying the bricks

iii. Remove the dry course from the foundation, then throw a mortar line on the foundation.
iv. Furrow the mortar with the point of trowel. Divide the mortar cleanly with the trowel.

Preparation
3.
Filling the leads
i. Mix the Mortar Mix with water until smooth, plastic-like consistency.

ii. Make a dry run by laying a course of stretcher bricks along the chalk line for the
entire length of the wall.

54

Construction of Masonry Wall

Laying the bricks
i. Lay the first course of stretcher bricks in the
mortar. Beginning with the second brick, apply
mortar to the head joint end of each brick

Vi. Use the two half bricks to begin the

second, or header, course.

ii. Make sure that the head joint thicknesses

correspond with your chalk marks.

vii. To finish the second course of the

lead, lay three header bricks and make
sure that they are plumb and level.

iii. Throw another mortar line alongside the

first course, then begin laying the second, or
backup, course.

iv. Before beginning to lay the second, or

header, course, cut two bricks to half length.

viii. Build another lead on the other end

of the foundation. As the mortar begins
to set, it is best to stop laying bricks
and use a concave jointer to finish the
mortar joints.

55

Construction of Masonry Wall

Filling the leads
i. Stretch a mortar's line between the
completed leads, then begin laying the outer
course. Work from both ends of the wall
toward the middle. When you reach the final
brick, mortar both sides of it and push it
straight down to squeeze the mortar out from
the joints.

ii. Move the mortar's line to the back of the

wall and begin laying the backup course.

iii. The fifth, or top, course is laid exactly

like the first. Move the mason's line up,
throw a mortar line, and begin laying the
bricks. Apply a generous amount of mortar
on the face of each brick, then shove the
brick firmly into place

vi. Scoop mortar onto the trowel

and use the concave jointer to fill
in the joints on the top course.

iv. To build a higher wall, simply build

more five-course leads at each end of the
wall.

56

Internal Wall Finishes ( Plastering )

Internal wall finishes can be classified as wet or dry. The traditional wet finish is plaster which is
mixed and applied to the wall in layers to achieve a smooth and durable finish suitable for
decorative treatments such as paint and wallpaper. Most plaster are supplied in 25kg paper sacks
and require only the addition of clean water or sand and clean water according to the type of
plaster being used.

Undercoat - 8mm to 10mm thick (2hrs)

Finishing coat - 2mm thick (1 hr )

Process of Application :
1.

Preparation

2. Undercoating

3. Finishing

57

Installation of Porcelain wall tiles

1.
Preparation of mortar
Mix thoroughly the appropriate thinset to a
toothpaste consistency.

4. Spacers
It is advisable to use tile spacers to
ensure accurate spacing between the tile.

2. Apply mortar
First apply mortar using the flat side of the
trowel to promote substrate contact. Then,
using the recommended notch trowel at a 45degree angle, spread the mortar uniformly in a
ridged pattern. Continue applying mortar in a
straight pattern.

5. Tap down tiles

To prevent any voids or air pockets under
the tile, use a grout float or rubber mallet
and carefully tap the top of each tile to
ensure complete contact with mortar.

3. Set tiles
Press tile into mortar with a slight twisting motion. Check often for
uniform lines

6. Allow tiles cure for 24hrs

without disturbance.

58

Stairway

General Information - Referencing

Construction designed to bridge a large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical distances, called steps. A set of steps formed or constructed to allow vertical movement, safely, from one level to
another, rising in one direction between floors as a straight flight of steps. It is the vertical access between floors in buildings.

Function of staircase :

Requirements :

Provide circulation between floor levels

Strength and stability

Provide a safe travel between floor levels

Ease of use

To allow easy movement

Fire safety

Important links of building in circulation scheme

Control of impact sound

A stairways may be approached and departed either axially or

perpendicular to the stairs run.

Safety in use
Durability
Aesthetics

59

Stairway
General Information - Referencing
Stair terminology
Baluster/Spindle - the vertical member, plain or decorative,
that acts as the infill between the handrail and baserail (or
tread if cut string).

Continuous Handrail - using straight lengths of handrail

connected to handrail fittings and ramps, the handrail flows over
the tops of newel turnings creating a continuous run of handrail.
Newel - accommodates the strings, handrails and treads/risers
of stairs.
Nosing - the edge of the tread projecting beyond the face of
the riser and the face of a cut string.
Rake - the pitch of the stairs.
Riser - the board that forms the face of the step. The
maximum individual rise for domestic flights is 220mm.
Tread - the top or horizontal surface of a step.
Winders - are radiating steps narrower at one end that are
used to change the direction of a stairs through 90or 180
.

60

Stairway

General Information - Referencing

Materials of staircase
1.
-

Bricks stair
Mostly founded in village area
Its very much easy and less costly
Fire resistive
Consumes more space due to absence of waist slab
Not attractive/ decorative
Mostly used at entrance of the building

1.
-

Stone stair
Stronger compared to the brick stair
Fire resistive
Mostly found in temple areas
Need dressing, skilled masons are required
Less costly except ornamental stones

1.
-

Concrete stair
Widely used in residential and commercial buildings
Strongest compared to all
Fire resistive
Used as permanent staircase
Can be moulded in various shapes

4. Wooden stair
Mostly temporary used
Less costly
Afraid of fire hazard
Easy to construct
Least strong among all
5. Metal/Steel stair
Strong and ductile
High cost
Commercial purpose
High load carrying capacity
Less thick

61

Stairway

General Information - Referencing

Stair Plan types

(a)Straight flight stairs with or without intermediate landing

(f) Open-well (half-turn) stairs

(b) Straight flight stairs

(g) Open-well stairs with quarter-turn

(c) Quarter-turn stairs

landing

(d) Half-turn stairs

(h) Part-circular stairs

(e) Branching stairs

(i) Spiral stairs

(j) Helicoidal stairs

62

Stairway

Specific case study - On Site

Open riser steel stairs ( timber covered )
Consists of no handrails and risers so that there is a space between the treads, with treads overlapping each other by at least 16mm ( not suitable for disable used , but had been solved by an
elevator ).

Steel staircase ( 16mm(T) steel plate with 6nos of 10 mm diameter

anchor stud )
Timber flooring ( Solid Merbau )
Rise 176mm
No opening which will allow 100mm diameter sphere to pass through
Each steps overlap 16mm
No handrail

Section drawing

63

Stairway - stair plan type

Specific case study - On Site
L-shaped / Quarter landing
The L shaped stair is a variation of the straight stair with a bend in some portion
of the stair. This bend is usually achieved by adding a landing at the bend
transition point. The bend is often 90 degrees.

Advantages :
Visually interesting. Provide a visual barrier between floors, have better
privacy. Helps in sound transmission. The landing provides a place to
rest while ascending.
Disadvantages :
Harder to build. Handrails required more skill to construct.
Applied on every floors except 2nd floor.
25 number of steps.

First floor plan

64

Stairway - stair plan types

Specific case study - On Site
Straight Run
Rises from floor to floor in one direction with/without an intermediate landing . Physically
tiring & psychologically forbidding. 12 max between landing.
Advantages :
Easiest to go up and down. Easy to built. Straight stairs only need to be connected at
the top and the bottom(no intermediate supporting structure is required)
Disadvantages :
Used up a fair amount of linear space. Does not offer privacy. Required landing to
breakup the span.

2nd floor stairway

Riser : 171.43mm Tread : 300mm (21
nos. of steps
GARDEN STAIRCASE
Riser: 171.43mm (21 nos.of riser)
Tread: 300mm

Second floor plan

65

DOORS & WINDOWS

Nyatoh Door

General Information - Referencing

Characteristic of Nyatoh Door

Doors and windows are very special components of walls. Doors and doorways
provide approach from the outside into the interior of a building as well as passage
between interior spaces. Doorways should have large spaces which allow people to
move through easily and accommodate the moving of furnishings and equipment.
Doorways should be located so that the patterns of movement they create between
and within spaces are appropriate to the uses and activities housed by the spaces.

a trade name for the wood of a number of hardwood species.

pale pinkish or reddish wood.

commonly discovered in Philippines, Indonesia or India.

Windows allow for simultaneous control of the passage of light, air, and sight
through walls. There are various sizes of windows which affects not only the
physical appearance of a building, but also the natural lightning, view potential and
spatial quality of the buildings interior spaces.

Materials of the Doors

60mm Solid Nyatoh Door
40mm Nyatoh Core with Nyatoh Plywood
40mm Nyatoh Core with Waterproof Board Plywood
40mm Nyatoh Frame with Nyatoh Louvers

Timber door frame with hardwood Red Balau

Sub frame with Keranji

low-cost
Is relatively soft wood compared to most exotic hardwoods

Advantage of Nyatoh wood

To effectively tackle climate change we must remove carbon from the atmosphere as well as reduce net
carbon emissions into the atmosphere. Wood manages to achieve both of these.
Exposure to wooden furniture and fittings has real and measurable health and wellbeing benefits. It helps
lower heart rate and stress responses and encourages greater interaction between people.
Wood itself is a natural insulator due to air pockets within its cellular structure.
It is consistently the most cost-effective source.

Wood is naturally beautiful and aesthetically pleasing.

Disadvantage using Nyatoh wood
reported to cause irritation to mucous membranes
faces a risk of extinction in the wild
doesn't have much natural resistance to rot or insects and deteriorates rapidly if left outdoors without the
protection of a finish.
Wood is a hygroscopic material. This means that it will adsorb surrounding condensable vapors and loses
moisture to air below the fiber saturation point.

67

Construction Process
As shown in the illustration below, panel doors are made
from a framework of stiles and rails that hold wood
panels. This construction method is common because it
minimizes the effects of woods tendency to shrink,
warp, and swell with variations in humidity.

Sub Frame System

Consists of a sub frame and a main frame.
The sub-frame is installed at the early stage of construction. The installation of the main frame will only
commence after the completion of the internal trades.
Sub frame is fabricated with a smaller width (about 10mm) than the main frame to allow adjustment for
any misalignment.

The advantages of sub frame system are:

Prevent damages to the main frame and save cost and time from undesirable abortive works.
No staining of door frame by cement mortar and paint.

68

Types of the windows used on the site

Specific Case Study - On Site
a) fixed glass windows
b) top hung windows
Fixed Glass Windows
-A window that cannot opened
-function is limited to allowing light to enter
-no ventilation is possible
-maintaining the ambient temperature inside the house
-Designed mainly for providing view and for aesthetics purposes

Top Hung Windows

-the sash is connected by friction stays at the top of the window frame
-Designed mainly for providing view, admitting light and allowing for natural
ventilation
-Allows airflow through almost the entire area of the window opening

69

Aluminium Frame Glass Windows

Aluminium Frame Glass Window is the only window that has been built on the site.
Advantages of using aluminium:
-Aluminium has a high strength-to-weight ratio, meaning it is durable yet lightweight.
-Aluminium naturally generates a protective oxide coating and is highly corrosion resistant.
-Completely impermeable and lets neither light aroma or taste substances out.
-Achieve the highest standard for air and water infiltration and structural integrity.
-provides architecture, theme-matching and color flexibility advantages.
Disadvantages of using aluminium:
-Aluminium doors will oxidate. This oxidation appears as white residue and pitting (cavity).
-Aluminium can be water-stained easily.
-Aluminium can corrode quickly if suitable precautions against electrolysis are not taken.
-Welding of Aluminium requires specialized equipment and training compared to standard welding of steel.

70

Installation of the window main frame

Methods of installing the window on site
A)
Cast-in Window System
B)
Sub- Frame System

B) Sub-Frame System
The sub-frame system comprises a subframe which is either cast in or anchored to
the wall. The main frame is then installed onto the subframe at a much later stage of
the construction.

A) Cast-in Window System

The implementation of cast-in window system requires
coordination
between the window fabricator and the precaster.

Proper handling and protection are important throughout the

precast process, delivery and erection of the precast wall panels.
Protection of the frames should remain intact throughout the
construction phase to avoid physical damages to the frames,
which could be costly to rectify or replace.

1. Position the subframe using aluminium

plates and ride up block.

3.Sealing of anchor/bolt heads and joints

between external wall and subframe.

2. Insertion of stiffeners near the anchoring/bolting points

4.Fitting the main frame onto sub-frame.

71

Definition
Roof can be defined as the external upper covering of a house or other building, a
frame for supporting, the highest part or summit. Besides, it also defined as
something that in form or position resembles the roof of a house, as the top of a
car, the upper part of the mouth and etc. It also can be a noun that refers to a
house.
7.1. GENERAL INFO (REFERENCES)
7.1.1. TYPES OF ROOF
Gable roof designs are one of the more simple styles when it comes to roofs. The
gable roof style looks like an inverted/upside down V. Gable roofs are not ideal for
areas with high wind because they easily can catch the wind much like a sail
would.

Flat roofs are common especially with commercial buildings. Flat roofs are
definitely the most simple roof to build because they have little to no pitch. The
most common types of roofing systems used with flat roofs are rubber roofing
systems.

Hip roofs are a common residential style roof. This type of roof is more
difficult to construct when compared to flat roofs and gable roofs because
they have a more complicated truss and rafter structure. A hip roof style
roof has four sloping sides with zero vertical roof lines/walls. Hip roofs
can be both square and rectangular.

Gambrel roof is best descript as barn roof. It is most commonly used on

barns. However, it is also used in residential construction. This type of
roof has the benefit of providing a good amount of space in the attic. In
fact, it provides so much extra space that it is often turned into bedrooms
or other living areas.

Dutch hip roof is basically a hip roof with a small gable at either end. The
gables can be used as ventilation.
Shed roof is basically a flat roof but has more pitch. It is frequently used
for additions on homes or other roof styles.

73

Mansard roof is a french design and is more difficult to construct than the hip or
gable roof.

Butterfly roof is not a roof style that is widely used.The style provides plenty of
light and ventilation but is not the effective when it comes to water drainage.
Winged gable roof varies slightly from the tradition gable roof. It varies by
extended outwards from the peak of the roof.
Frame roof is very popular for churches, cottages, homes, and other structures.
The roof acts as both the roof and the walls for a structure.
Folded plate roof has limited use in single family homes. It looks like a series of
small gable roofs placed side by side of each other.

ROOF MATERIALS
Asphalt shingles are the most commonly used steep slope/residential roofing
material used on roofs in the United States. Asphalt shingles vary in quality and are
produced by multiple manufacturers.
Wood shake shingle is the inspiration for the modern day asphalt shingles. Similar
to the asphalt shingle, the wood shake overlaps each other making the roof or
siding weather proof. A down side to shake is that they often need more
maintenance than newer asphalt or fiberglass shingles. An upside to shake the
unique rustic look they give to a structure.
Slate shingles are created out of a sedimentary rock. This rock can be split into
thin sheets that are ideal for roofing shingles.
Metal is a very common material used for roofs. There are many different types of
metal roofing systems available. The types of metal used with available systems
varies from zinc to steel, copper, aluminum, and tin.
Membrane roofing products are used on flat roofs. Some of the various brands or
variations of rubber roofs are modified bitumen, thermoplastic membrane, epdm,
single ply, tpo, cpa, cpe, nbp, and others.
Tile is one of the more expensive materials used for roofs. Although the traditional
clay tile is probably the most well known tile material it is not the only one. Other
materials that are used to create tile products are metal, concrete, slate, and
various synthetic compositions.

74

FROM SITE VISIT

Specific case study - On Site
7.2.1. SITE
The site we visited is an A 4-storey semi-detached house, which is located in Wilayah Persekutuan
Putrajaya, Malaysia. The project name is Astana P8. The proposed construction and completion is 56
units landed strata 2 and 3 storey residential, a recreation centre, a connection park,
infrastructure work and other associated works at plot 8-4G, precinct 8 Putrajaya.
7.2.2. ROOF ON SITE
The roof type on the site, ASTANA

P8, the 4-storey semi-detached house, is metal deck roof.

7.3. METAL ROOF DECK

7.3.1. INTRODUCTION
Metal Roof Deck is designed for flat, pitched, or arched construction on virtually all
types of buildings. Roof deck is commonly used because it is strong, light in weight,
economical, and easy to install.

7.3.2. TYPES
1.Type A Roof Deck is a 1 1/2" deep, narrow rib, structural metal roof deck section
that provides a wide support surface for various types of roofing materials, and
thinner rigid insulation. Roof deck products act alone in transferring horizontal and
vertical loads into the building frame, and do not work compositely with other
building materials. Type A metal roofing deck is available in 22, 20, 18, and 16 gauge
with either a galvanized (G60 or G90) finish or prime painted (gray or white) to
inhibit rust while in transit (primer is not a finish coat). Material is typically in stock
in 20 gauge, G90 or Gray Primer in 36 cover width.

2.Type B Roof Deck is a 1 1/2" deep, wide rib, structural metal roof deck section
that provides a support surface for various types of roofing materials, and 1 or
thicker rigid insulation. Roof deck products act alone in transferring horizontal and
vertical loads into the building frame, and do not work compositely with other
building materials. Type B metal roofing deck is available in 24, 22, 20, 18, & 16
gauge with either a galvanized (G60 or G90) finish or prime painted (gray or white)
to inhibit rust while in transit (primer is not a finish coat). Material is typically in
stock in 22, 20 & 18 gauge, G60, G90 or Gray Primer in 36 width.

75

3.Type F Roof Deck is a 1 1/2" deep, intermediate rib metal roof deck that
provides an economical roofing system of structural load carrying capacity and
roofing insulation materials. Roof deck products act alone in transferring horizontal
and vertical loads into the building frame, and do not work compositely with other
building materials. Type F Metal Roof Deck is available in 22, 20, & 18 gauge with
either a galvanized (G60 or G90) finish or prime painted (gray or white) to inhibit
rust while in transit (primer is not a finish coat). Material is typically in stock in 22
& 20 gauge, G90 or Gray Primer in 36 cover width.

4.Type N Roof Deck is a 3" tall, deep rib metal roof deck, that is designed to provide
an economical roofing support surface when longer spans are required between roofing
supports. Roof deck products act alone in transferring horizontal and vertical loads
into the building frame, and do not work compositely with other building materials.
Type N Metal Roof Deck is available in 22, 20, 18, & 16 gauge with either a galvanized
(G60 or G90) finish or prime painted (gray or white) to inhibit rust while in transit
(primer is not a finish coat). Material is typically in stock in 20 & 18 gauge, G60 or
Gray Primer in 24 cover width.

76

CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
1. Pre Start: Prior to commencement of deck installation, a system of fall protection and
safe access must be in place.
2.Weather conditions: Decking bundles should not be opened if all the sheets in the bundle
cannot be fixed or left in a safe condition at the end of the shift. Consideration must be
given during periods of bad weather and any unfixed sheets should be secured at the end
of each day by using a temporary strap secured to the frame or decking.
3.Supporting structure: Fixings the minimum bearing requirements for the decking are
50mm on steelwork (this is increased to 60mm where sheets are to receive thru deck
welded shear studs) and 70mm on masonry or concrete.
4.Access to Level: Wherever possible the decking installation should be planned to
commence from the corner of a building or phase, so that the number of leading edges are
limited.
5.Laying decking sheets: Using the access provided, the installer should straddle the first
bundle of decking to remove the banding. The first decking sheet will then be pushed out
onto the steelwork to be used as a working platform from which to lay the remaining
sheets in that bay. Decking sheets should then be lapped together, lined up and fixed into
place once the adjacent bay has been laid and the troughs of the decking have been lined
through.

77

6.Cutting / Notching: Decking sheets are detailed to be delivered to site at the correct
square cut length. Where decking ribs sit over beams that are to receive welded shear
studs, around columns and other protrusions, notching is required. This should be carried
out by trained operatives using petrol driven disc cutters with appropriate blade or plasma
cutters.
7.Decking fixings: Fixing of the deck and edge trim to the supporting steelwork will be
carried out using low velocity powder actuated cartridge tools ('shot firing') or in certain
circumstances using self-tapping screws.
8.Side Laps: The side laps of decking sheets are stitched together using self--tapping
screws, installed with 110v screw guns, provided to side laps at maximum 1.00m centers.
9.Sealing and finishing off: Gaps up to 5mm are acceptable as they are not sufficient to
allow concrete aggregate to escape. Note: The decking is not intended to provide a
watertight finish and a degree of fines and water seepage can be expected from the panel
ends and joints.

10.Edge trims: Generally supplied in 3.00m standard lengths, each length should be fixed at
the perimeter and straps fixed at centers as indicated in Edge Trim & Flashings section with
self-tapping screws.
11.Forming holes and openings: Where trimming steels are provided, the decking sheets may
be cut to suit the size of the opening and edge trim installed. Where there is no supporting
steelwork the voids will need to be decked over. The opening should then be formed by the
concreting contractor who will box out the opening prior to pouring the concrete.

Some types of openings require no special treatment. Prior to placing of concrete the
opening is boxed out. When the slab has cured the deck is cut by others, using a nonpercussive tool.

78

We are appreciate that Ar. Sateerah Hassan assisted us to choose the site and arranged the time
for us to have a meet up with the person in charge of the site in the chosen construction site.
Furthermore, we also get to know about the profession skill of architects, project manager, and
contractor in the during the construction, not only that we also have an brief idea about the job
scope of each professionals that take part in construction project. We learnt the importance of
doing construction drawings , finding relevant data about structures in a design process, which is
a complex work to do and need long time to complete the tasks. Through this project we learnt
the process how does an design idea translated into reality. Teamwork among each members in
this group is also the key to complete this project efficiently.
Last but not least, we felt lucky to have an opportunity to visit a site which is under construction
to enhance our knowledge of building construction.

80

SITE & SAFETY

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