Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Journalof
Fatigue
www.elsevier.com/locate/ijfatigue
Abstract
There are many publications about variable amplitude test results. However, very often information on loadtime histories, spectra
and testing details are missing. This fact does not allow the interpretation of test results with regard to fatigue ling and structural durability design. Therefore, this paper aims at presenting how spectra and test conditions should be clearly described and how statistics can
be applied when variable amplitude test results are presented.
2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Variable amplitude loading; Constant amplitude loading; Cumulative damage; Loadtime histories; Multichannel loading; Presentation of
spectrum; Level crossings; Range pairs; Rainow matrix; Safety; Risk
1. Introduction
The major reason for carrying out variable amplitude
loading (VAL) tests is the fact that a prediction of fatigue
life under this complex loading is not possible by any
cumulative damage hypothesis. Therefore, for the purpose
of fatigue ling, experiences must be gained by such tests
which allow to derive real damage sums by comparing
Woehler- and Gassner-lines, Fig. 1.
Applying the because of its simplicity still mostly used
PalmgrenMiner-Rule modied by Haibach [1], the damage content of a spectrum with the size Ls can be
determined
Xn
Dspec
1
N i
and with this value the real damage sum is calculated from
the experimental results:
Dreal
Dspec
N exp
Ls
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Nomenclature
C
probability of condence
D
damage sum
F
load
Ls
sequence length
LT, LTR spectrum size, test, test prolonged by risk factor
N, N
number of cycles, constant and variable amplitude loading
Nk
fatigue life at knee point
Ps, Pf, Po probability of survival, failure, occurrence
Rx, Rx load, stress or strain ratio Rx = Xmin/Xmax for
constant and variable amplitude loading
TN, T N fatigue life scatter between Ps = 10% and 90%,
for constant and variable amplitude loading
r, r
stress, constant and variable amplitude
loading
Stressamplitude a, a
N calc. =
Dreal =
Woehler curve
Cumulative frequency
distribution(spectrum)
a,max
l
m
n
sN
t
D
ni
= D Spec.
Ni
i=1
rak
e
a
eq
f
jR,C
jN
k, k 0
slope
k
1
2
Ls
Dreal
D spec.
D spec.
Ls
Gassner curve
N1
k (knee point)
N calc .
N2
n1
i = 1: steel,
aluminium
n2
N exper.
n3
k' = 2k - i
N3
4
n4
Nk
Ls
N4
k' = k
i = 2: cast
and sintered
materials
Cycles N, N
As loadtime histories depend on the particular application (oshore, aeronautics, railways, automotive,
bridges etc.) and function of the components, in the past
65 years dierent application related standard spectra were
developed, Tables 1 and 2 [6], and are still under development. Thus, this paper will not address the methodologies
for deriving testing spectra, but the principles to be
respected, when tests have to be performed with a given
spectrum.
2. Documentation and presentation of the loading
A testing spectrum is characterized mainly by following
parameters, Fig. 6:
Maximum and minimum values,
load (stress) ratio R of the maximum values,
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without mean-load uctuations has to be selected for a fatigue life assessment [3,4], e.g. Dreal = 0.2 versus 0.5 for
welded joints, 0.1 versus 0.3 for not welded components
basing on experiences. However, more research for a damage mechanics founded approach is necessary.
Figs. 7 and 8 present the documentation of two dierent
spectra, one without a mean-load uctuation (narrow
band) and the other one with a large mean-load uctuation
(wide band).
The load history for performing a variable amplitude
test is stored usually as a peak (turning point) sequence,
Fig. 9, and by the appertaining rainow matrix. (In the
past also the Markovian matrix was used.)
Generally, a spectrum does not contain the information
about the loading frequency. Often, the testing frequency
depends on the interaction between the testing machine
and the stiness of the test object, as well as on the electronical control possibilities of the frequency. However,
for variable amplitude tests of dynamic (swinging) as well
as non-linear systems, e.g. mass-damper-systems, where
the frequency content is required, the storage of the
loadtime history has to contain also the information
1.0
max
min
8.
7.
6.
5.
70000
23000
5000
7.
302500
6.
70000
4
70
5.
5000
4.
23000
2. 3.
680
3. 2.
70
1.
4.
680
Stress
(lin)
Mean stress
(is constant for all steps)
Step
4.
-1.0
N (log)
Number of cycles
R=
min /
max
Ls = 5 105
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Table 1
Overview of existing uniaxial variable amplitude loading standards
Name
Purpose
Structural detail
Year
Eight-Block
Programme
Twist
Gaussian
Falsta
MiniTwist
Helix, Felix
Helix/32, Felix/28
Cold turbistan
Wisper
Wash I
Wawesta
Carlos
1939
1973
1974
1975
1979
1984
1984
1985
1988
1989
1990
1990
Table 2
Overview of existing multi-channel variable amplitude loading standards
Name
Purpose
Structural detail
Year
Eurocycle I
Eurocycle II
Ensta
Hot turbistan
1981
1983
1987
1989
1994
1997
Carlos multi
Carlos PTM
Carlos PTA
CarloS TC
about the frequency spectrum, e.g. the power spectral density (PSD) [4], Fig. 10.
The sequence length Ls of a test spectrum may be a
value obtained after an omission of small, as non-damaging assumed amplitudes. However, in case of an omission
it must be noted that the obtained test cycles to failure correspond to service cycles to failure given by
N service N test
Ls;before omission
Ls
2002
2003
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F ( )
a a
R, Po
Spectrum size Ls
(total number of cycles N),
probability of occurance Po
Cycles N (log)
Ls
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Repeated constant
amplit udes
2.0
+1.0
+0.5
1.0
0
-0.5
amplitude
Rectangular
spectrum
k
0
+1.0
N1
+0.5
-0.5
-1.0
+0.5
0
Ls
-1.0
0.5
Repeated sequence
(linear amplitude
distribution)
+0.5
N2
Ls
t
0
-0.5
-0.5
N 1 = x Ls
N 2 = y Ls
Ls : sequence lengt h
0.2
x, y : number of
repetit ions
0.1
N1
N2
N1
N2
Cycles to failure
Nf , N f (log)
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f = const.
F
0
t1
t2
t
F
0
t
f2 > f
Fig. 12. Acceleration of tests by frequency adaptation.
lgN 2 =N 1
lgD
r1 =D
r2
xP s 10%
Tx 1 :
xP s 90%
a ; D
r or N
xr
1
1
lg
sx
2:56 T x
4
5
N mean;tests
jR;C
1=p
4n
1
TN
N P s 50%
jR;C
while n is the amount of tests performed and TN is the scatter which would be obtained for a high amount of tests (basic population); it is not the scatter resulting from few tests.
It can be estimated by testing experiences with a larger
number of specimens manufactured in a comparable way.
The risk factor in Eq. (8) is valid for a probability of condence Pc = 90%.
To calculate a fatigue life for an allowable probability of
survival Ps > 50%, the real mean value must be reduced
by the safety factor jN [1,14]:
N P s >50%
6
7
jN
N P s 50%
jN
"
1
exp
TN
10
2:36
p
jlg1 P s j
1
2:56
#
11
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Testing frequency.
Environmental conditions, e.g. temperature, corrosion.
For the graphical presentation of the test results in the
double-logarithmic plot the maximum load (stress) of the
spectrum versus the number of cycles to failure should be
preferred [35,17,18]. This is justied by following arguments which are important for the design of structures:
Distance between the maximum spectrum stress and the
structural yield strength can be evaluated. However, this
requires the determination of the local stress in the critical area of the component.
Exceedance of the Woehler-curve can be evaluated with
regard to exploitable light-weight design potential in
dependency of the spectrum applied [3], Fig. 16.
In case of a spectrum with a Gaussian distribution of the
amplitudes for achieving a fatigue life of e.g. N 1 108
cycles the constant amplitude high-cycle fatigue strength
can be exceeded by a factor of 1.50, in case of a straight line
Fig. 15. Testing requirement for covering the risk of a low number of determining fatigue life with few tests.
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Fig. 16. Inuence of spectrum shape on fatigue life and component dimensions.
6. Summary
The lack in fatigue life assessment despite more then 70
cumulative damage hypothesis [21] necessitates experimentally based knowledge for the design practice [22]. However, as the performance of variable amplitude fatigue
tests are not as simple as constant amplitude tests, a guidance on the particular testing principles, the documentation
of testing details and results and nally the presentation of
the results is needed.
The major points to be respected in variable amplitude
loading (VAL) tests are:
References
[1] Haibach E. Betriebsfestigkeit Verfahren und Daten zur Berechnung
(Structural durability Methods and data for calculation). 2nd ed.
Dusseldorf: VDI-Verlag; 2003.
[2] Eulitz KG. Kotte, KL. In: Damage accumulationlimitations and
perspectives for fatigue life assessment Materials week 2000
Proceedings, Werkstowoche-Partnerschaft, Frankfurt, 2528 September 2000. Available from: www.materialsweek.org/proceedings.
[3] Sonsino CM. Principles of variable amplitude fatigue design and
testing Fatigue testing and analysis under variable amplitude loading
conditions. In: McKeighan PC, Ranganathan N, editors. ASTM STP,
vol. 1439. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International; 2005. p.
323.
[4] Buxbaum O. Betriebsfestigkeit Sichere und wirtschaftliche Bemessung schwingbruchgefahrdeter Bauteile (Structural durability Safe
and economic fatigue design of components), 2nd ed. Dusseldorf:
Verlag Stahleisen; 1992.
[5] Gassner E. Festigkeitsversuche mit wiederholter Beanspruchung im
Flugzeugbau (Strength tests under repeated loading for aeronotical
engineering). Luftwissen 1939;6:614.
[6] Heuler P, Klatschke H. Generation and use of standardized load
spectra and loadtime histories. Int J Fatigue 2005;27(8):97490.
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