Integration of 3D Seismic and Advanced Structural Modeling in the Interpretation of

Segmented Extensional Fault Systems in the Llanos Basin, Colombia

Freddy Corredor, GeoStrAp Ltda., Calle 100 No. 8A 55 Piso 10, Bogot D.C., Colombia
ABSTRACT
The most common hydrocarbons exploration target in the
Llanos foreland basin of Colombia consists of three way
footwall closures against east dipping normal faults. These
faults are usually segmented along the strike separated by
relay ramps that form at many different scales during the
growth of normal fault systems as two or more offset faults
propagate towards one another and overlap, forming an
inclined relay ramp zone that accommodates further
deformation until strain exceeds the strength of the relay zone
and breaching occurs forming elongated sinuous faults with an
apparent deficit in fault slip compared to the fault length. In
recent years 3D seismic acquisition has increased in the
Llanos basin of Colombia providing an extraordinary source
of data that combined with advanced structural modeling
techniques have yield better structural interpretations of these
segmented normal fault systems, not only to produce better
models of the real extension and integrity of the structural
traps that can be targeted for hydrocarbons along these
systems, but also to better understand the seismic pitfalls
found in these complex structures. 3D models of both soft
linked and breached relay ramps along a highly segmented
trend of normal faults in the eastern portion of the Llanos
basin are presented as well as 2D analogue models to illustrate
the most common seismic pitfalls found in these systems.
High resolution amplitude and semblance seismic attributes,
as well as the geometry and distribution of hanging-wall faultrelated folds are used to constrain the displacement gradients
along continuous fault segments, and that suggests fault
growth by segment linkage. The strongly segmented
southwest-northeast striking faults are interpreted to be the
result of oblique Cenozoic extensional reactivation of
underlying zones of weakness generated by preexisting northsouth trending Paleozoic to Early Cretaceous extensional and
compressional faults forming characteristic strongly
segmented en-echelon fault arrays. These highly segmented
fault systems can produce a large variety of structural traps
with a wide range of sizes that need to be considered during
the exploration and production risk evaluations in this region
RESUMEN
El objetivo exploratorio de hidrocarburos ms comn en
la Cuenca de antepas de los Llanos Orientales de Colombia
consiste en cierres estructurales contra fallas normales que
buzan hacia el oriente. Estas fallas usualmente se encuentran
Copyright 2012, ACGGP.
This paper was selected for presentation by an ACGGP Technical Committee following review of
information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s).

segmentadas a lo largo del rumbo separadas por rampas

laterales que se forman a diferentes escalas durante el
crecimiento de sistemas de fallas normales a medida que dos o
ms fallas cercanas se elongan y propagan sobrelapandose y
formando una zona de rampa inclinada que acomoda
deformacin hasta cuando los esfuerzos logran vencer la
resistencia del material que forma la rampa lo que deja como
resultado fallas elongadas sinuosas con un dficit aparente de
desplazamiento comparado con la longitud de la falla. En aos
recientes la adquisicin de ssmica 3D se ha incrementado en
la cuenca de los Llanos Orientales, lo que ha resultado en una
fuente extraordinaria de informacin que combinada con
modelos estructurales avanzados han dado lugar a
interpretaciones estructurales de estos sistemas de fallas
normales de mayor calidad, no solamente para producir
mejores modelos de la extensin e integridad reales de las
trampas estructurales, sino tambin para entender de forma
ms adecuada los pitfalls ssmicos que ocurren a lo largo de
estos sistemas. En este trabajo se presentan modelos 3D de
rampas laterales de enlace incompleto y brechadas a lo largo
de un tren de fallas normales altamente segmentadas en la
porcin oriental de la Cuenca de los Llanos Orientales de
Colombia, as como modelos anlogos 2D que ilustran los
pitfalls ssmicos ms comunes. Datos ssmicos de alta
resolucin, as como atributos tales como la similaridad y la
geometra y distribucin de los pliegues asociados a las fallas
normales son utilizados para definir los gradientes de
desplazamiento a lo largo de segmentos de falla continuos, y
que ayudan a sugerir la interpretacin de crecimiento de estas
fallas por el enlace de segmentos. Estas fallas altamente
segmentadas de orientacin suroeste-noreste son interpretadas
como el resultado de la reactivacin extensional oblicua
durante el Cenozoico de zonas de debilidad generadas por
fallas normales e inversas pre-existentes de edad Paleozoico a
Cretcico Temprano, y que forman un patrn caracterstico de
fallas en echelon. Estos sistemas de fallas altamente
segmentadas pueden producir una gran variedad de trampas
estructurales con un amplio rango de tamaos que debe ser
considerado durante la evaluacin del riesgo exploratorio y de
desarrollo de esta regin.
INTRODUCTION
The Llanos Basin is the most prolific hydrocarbon basin in
continental Colombia. The Llanos Basin is located in the
eastern region of Colombia (Figure 1) with the northern limit
being the Colombian-Venezuelan border, extending south as
far as the Macarena high, the Vaups Arch and the
Precambrian metamorphic rocks that outcrops to the south of
the Guaviare river, east to the outcrops of Precambrian

CORREDOR, F

plutonic rocks of the Guyana Shield, and west to the eastern

foothills of the Eastern Cordillera. It covers an area of
approximately 200,000 km2. More than 3,500 MMBO of
recoverable oil has been officially documented in this basin.
Four giant fields (Cao-Limn, Cusiana, Cupiagua, and
Castilla), three major fields (Rubiales, Apiay, Tame
Complex), and more than 50 minor fields have been
discovered.

Figure 1. Location Map of the Llanos Basin, Colombia.

The Llanos basin has been the subject of an extensive
exploration effort during recent years that has included the
acquisition of multiple 3D seismic programs across the basin
(Figure 2).

Figure 2. 3D seismic programs (red polygons) shot in the

Llanos basin as of December, 2011 based on public shape files
downloaded from the National Petroleum Agency of
Colombia (ANH) website.

3D seismic has proven to be very effective in this

exploration effort as shown by the numerous recent
discoveries in the basin in recent years.
The main exploration targets in the Llanos basin of
Colombia consist of three-way closures on the footwalls of
east dipping normal faults, which represent the main structural
style across this basin (Figure 3). These normal fault systems
have played a major role in the development of the Llanos
basin and in the migration and trapping of hydrocarbons
(Moretti et al., 2009). The mapping of normal fault systems
using seismic data requires careful correlation of faults on
adjacent sections, a procedure that often leads to the
interpretation of faults as having long, continuous, sinuous
traces. Much recent work involving detailed mapping of fault
traces using three-dimensional seismic data has demonstrated
that faults are usually made up of many overstepping
segments, linked by areas of complex deformation, termed
transfer zones or relay ramps (Peacock and Sanderson, 1994).
These areas are difficult to interpret and yet are often sites of
hydrocarbon traps and proper imaging, visualization and
interpretation is important to the proper understanding of their
evolution and the formation of many oil and gas fields in the
Llanos basin. Various cases of segmented normal faults in the
Llanos basin of Colombia have been presented in the geologic
literature (i.e. Ramn et al., 2006; Chemark et al., 2009;
Moretti et al., 2009)
SEISMIC PITFALLS IN THE LLANOS BASIN
NORMAL FAULTS SYSTEMS
Seismic interpretation pitfalls are false structures on seismic
created by regional or local velocity changes, acquisition
patterns, or processing artifacts (Fagin, 1996; Trinchero,
2000). In the Llanos basin seismic pitfalls are very common
and often overlooked. Several dry holes have been drilled due
to the misinterpretation of these pitfalls (i.e. Ramn et al,
2006). In order to visualize the fault shadow pitfall that is
commonly observed in the footwall of the normal faults across
the Llanos basin, I created a simplified, two-dimensional
geologic model and constructed both a depth to timeconverted geologic section and a synthetic seismic line from
them.
Figure 4A corresponds to a simplified geologic model for
typical llanos basin east dipping normal fault, constructed
based on the interpretation of 3D seismic and well data in the
central and eastern portion of the basin. The geologic model
includes a table with the interval velocities of the stratigraphic
intervals interpreted in the model that were used for the depth
to time conversion of the geologic model using a vertical ray
tracing method (Figure 4B), that assumes a linear relationship
between velocity and depth (Marsden,1992) known as the Vo
- K method of depth conversion. Interval velocities were
obtained from sonic logs and check shot data compiled from
several wells drilled in the region. The depth to time converted
model presented in Figure 4B shows a series of subtle folds on
the footwall of the normal fault that are not real.

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SEGMENTED EXTENSIONAL FAULT SYSTEMS IN THE LLANOS BASIN, COLOMBIA

Figure 3. Regional composite seismic section across the central portion of the Llanos basin. The section shows the typical structural
style consisting of multiple widely spaced east dipping small slip normal faults.
These apparent structures are the result of the velocity
effects caused by the vertical juxtaposition of a both highvelocity and low-velocity rocks in the footwall against both
lower and higher velocity rocks in the hangingwall. The time
structure does not exist in reality.

The most common technique to remove the fault shadow

effects in the footwalls of normal faults as the ones presented
in Figure 4 is using pre-stack depth migration processing
techniques as long as a detailed and correct velocity model of
the subsurface can be obtained (Fagin, 1996).

Additionally and with the assistance from Dr. Rob

Vestrum from TBI and Darren Foltinek from Acceleware ltd.,
a PSTM processed version of a synthetic seismic section for
the original geologic model is presented (Figure 4C). The
synthetic seismic section was obtained using a seismic ray
tracing method with parameters used for the acquisition of
conventional 3D seismic in the Llanos basin. Both the depth to
time converted section and synthetic seismic section show
geometries in the footwall of the normal fault that are different
than the geometry of the original geologic model due to the
variations in seismic velocities across the fault plane.
Although there are strong differences between the depth to
time converted section and the synthetic seismic section due to
the differences in the method used to obtain both models, it is
clear that there are seismic pitfalls in both models. These types
of seismic pitfalls are very common and must be considered
during the structural interpretation of the normal faults
systems in the Llanos basin.

GEOMETRY OF NORMAL FAULT SYTEMS

Normal fault systems in the Llanos basin are generally formed
by discrete fault segments arranged in echelon and elongated
sinuous faults. These geometric patterns are usually
interpreted as the result of some kind of transtensional or
tranpressional stress field across the basin (i.e. Moretti et al.,
2009). 3D seismic acquisition in the Llanos basin has highly
improved the imaging of discrete normal fault systems in this
basin and thus the understanding of the age and kinematics of
these systems. An example of a 3D seismic volume across a
typical Llanos basin normal faults system is presented in
Figure 5. This Figure corresponds to a depth migrated seismic
volume where a sinuous fault segment and a series of discrete
fault segments arranged in an echelon pattern can be observed.
The seismic volume was cut using the interpreted surface of
the top of the Miocene sequence (Len Formation) to better
illuminate the faults across the seismic volume.

CORREDOR, F

This process eventually results in an echelon fault array

with lateral relay ramps between discrete fault segments and
elongated sinuous faults as those observed in Figure 5.
Echelon fault arrays can also be formed by oblique slip
(Crider, 2001) and can form similar fault patterns than purely
dip slip faults that grow by segment linkage, making it
difficult to properly interpret the kinematics of these systems
based only on the geometric patterns of the faults.

Figure 5. Perspective view of depth scaled 3D seismic volume

across a typical normal fault system in the Llanos basin with
fault segments with an echelon array and elongated sinuous
fault segments (volume top has been cut with top of the
Miocene surface).

Figure 4. (A) Simplified geometric model of an east dipping

normal fault showing the interval velocities used to obtain (B)
time converted section. (C) PSTM processed synthetic
seismic section obtained from the initial geologic model
(Courtesy of Rob Vestrun from TBI and Darren Foltinek from
Acceleware ltd.)
Echelon and sinuous fault arrays can be formed by purely
dip slip in extensional settings (Walsha et al., 2003), as
concluded by Crider and Pollard (1998) who showed, using a
simple geomechanical model, that interaction between discrete
fault segments of a developing normal-fault system promote
the development of connected, zigzagging fault scarps.

An alternative way to interpret the fault slip direction with

respect to the trend of the fault planes and thus to infer the
correct evolution of echelon fault arrays in normal fault
systems is using some type of stratigraphic piercing points
such as channelized systems deposited previous to the slip
along the fault planes. In the case of oblique slip normal faults
the channel systems should be displaced laterally along the
fault plane (Figure 6A), while in the case of dip slip normal
faults the channels will be offset and displaced normal to the
fault planes with lateral displacement (Figure 6B). In the
Llanos basin of Colombia this type of sedimentary sequence
occurs within the Late Eocene to Early Miocene Carbonera
sequence (Bayona et al., 2006; Cooper et al., 1995), and that
can be interpreted using 3D seismic data.
Modern high resolution 3D seismic available in the Llanos
basin allows the detailed interpretation of channelized systems
within the Carbonera Formation (Figure 7) and provides a
great tool for the proper interpretation of fault slip. Channel
systems can be observed using amplitude data as well as
geometric attributes such as similarity, dip and azimuth
(Figure 7).

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SEGMENTED EXTENSIONAL FAULT SYSTEMS IN THE LLANOS BASIN, COLOMBIA

extension normal to the fault planes with no components of

trantension or transpression. Another important conclusion
from Figure 7 is that the normal faults observed are postdating
the deposition of the sequence that contains the channels
systems.

Figure 6. Perspective and map view of en echelon fault arrays

after (A) Oblique Slip and (B) Dip Slip. Green colored
polygons represent sedimentary channels crossing the faults
(A) before and (B) after slip. En echelon fault pattern results
in both oblique and dip slip faults.
Figure 7 corresponds to a flatten horizon slice obtained for a
seismic reflector within the Carbonera Formation and with the
seismic amplitude displayed across the surface. The
sedimentary channels are very well imaged in this flatten
horizon slice and are represented as negative amplitude events
(Black color). The channels are sinuous with a NW-SE trend.
The flatten horizon slice also shows how most of the channels
are cut by linear features that trend SW-NE and that
correspond to the same fault surfaces presented in Figure 5. A
large channel is clearly observed in the left side of Figure 7
with a width of about 1 km. This channel is cut by at least
three SW-NE trending faults with offsets between 25 to 50
meters. There is no evident lateral slip along these fault planes
or for any of the faults that can be observed across the
flattened time slice in Figure 7 in a pattern similar to the
schematic model shown in Figure 6B. This is an indication
that the faults observed in this particular system are indeed
normal faults with no lateral or oblique component of slip,
suggesting that the normal faults system was form by

FAULT GROWTH BY SEGMENT LINKAGE

The interaction between discrete fault segments during
their growth and linkage give place to complex patterns of
fault slip compared to fault length (Peacock and Sanderson,
1994; Cartwright et al., 1995; Mansfield and Cartwright, 2001,
Gupta and Scholz, 2000). These patterns can be diagnostic of
this type of fault growth if properly interpreted specially using
3D seismic data. A model to illustrate this complex patter of
fault slip is presented in Figure 8. Both perspective views and
D/X (Fault Slip vs. Distance) diagrams of the schematic
models are presented in this Figure. As two fault segments
grow towards each other the slip profile shows two well
separated faults tipping in opposite directions (Figure 8A). As
the fault segments keep growing the D/X curves for the
independent faults start to overlap, but sill to separate curves
can be plotted (Figure 8B). At this point a lateral relay ramp
develops in the region between the segments of the faults that
are overlapping (Childs et al., 1995). Once the lateral ramp
begins to breach and the two fault segments begin to link, a
single fault is formed and a single D/X curve is plotted leaving
to isolated curves beneath it that represent the fault segments
that are usually abandoned near the tip or the pre-existing fault
segments after the linkage of both fault segments (Figure 8C).
The final result is an elongated sinuous fault segment with a
complex profile of slip along the strike of the fault and an
apparent deficit of fault slip when compared with smaller fault
segments that have not been linked with others. The fault slip
variations along faults formed by segment linkage are then
characterized by fault slip lows at relay zones and between the
centers of fault segments with a very sinuous fault slip profile.
Normal fault segments and entire normal fault zones and
systems can then show wide variability in displacement
distance profiles, which are not predicted by simple models
for isolated faults (Peacock and Sanderson, 1994). In the
Llanos basin is very common to observe this type of complex
fault slip profiles along the trace of elongated sinuous fault
segments. 3D seismic data allows the study these slip
variations along the normal faults systems in the Llanos basin,
and thus understand their kinematic evolution. Figure 9A
shows a colored structural map of an intra Carbonera
Formation seismic reflector where multiple fault surfaces can
be observed similar to those presented in Figure 5. To aid the
interpretation of these faults, an amplitude similarity attribute
was calculated for the seismic amplitude volume shown in
Figure 5. This amplitude similarity was the draped to the
structural map (Figure 9B). Using the depth values of the
interpreted surface I calculated the fault slip profile along the
trace of the interpreted faults (Figure 9C).

CORREDOR, F

Figure 7. Uninterpreted and interpreted flatten seismic amplitudes horizon slice across an intra-Carbonera formation seismic reflector
showing several NW-SE trending channels. The channels are truncated by multiple normal fault planes that can be observed in the
slice with no evident lateral slip across the faults.
The slip profile in Figure 9C is very complex with multiple
high and low values of fault slip along the distance of the trace
of the faults interpreted. This pattern suggests once more that
the normal faults system presented here was formed by the
linkage of multiple discrete fault segments during extension
normal to the fault planes. The interpreted discrete fault planes
that formed the now elongated fault plane are presented in
Figure 9C as colored polygons. In areas were complete fault
linkage occurs, the slip profile is continuous and variable,
while in areas of fault overlap with no linkage, the fault slip
profiles shows two sets of overlapping curves. This is very
consistent with the model of fault growth presented in Figure
8.

Figure 8. Schematic model of fault growth by segment linkage

showing perspective view and Fault Slip vs. Distance
diagrams for each phase of fault growth.

CONCLUSIONS
The normal faults system presented her is composed by
discrete fault segments with an echelon fault array and
elongated sinuous segments that based on high resolution 3D
seismic data are interpreted as formed by extension normal to
the fault trends with no component of oblique slip. Based on
the variation of fault slip along the strike of the normal faults
system, it is interpreted that the echelon fault array is the result
of fault growth by segment linkage of discrete fault segments
that interfere and link with each other forming lateral ramps
and elongated sinuous fault segments.

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SEGMENTED EXTENSIONAL FAULT SYSTEMS IN THE LLANOS BASIN, COLOMBIA

Figure 9. (A) Structural color shaded map of an intra Carbonera Formation reflector, (B) Amplitude similarity attribute draped over
the same surface and (C) Fault slip versus distance distribution diagram along the faults observed in the surface maps (dots) with
colored polygons representing the interpreted initial discrete fault segments.

As deformation evolves, displacement occurs along one

single composite fault plane that becomes the principal fault
plane. Inactivated fault segments are often preserved along the
footwall block branching from the main fault plane and at the
inflection point of the principal fault plane. Channelized
systems within the Tertiary sedimentary sequences and the
structural geometry on the hanging wall of these normal fault
systems serve as constraints for the kinematics of these
systems. Integration of 3D seismic with advanced structural
modeling if required to properly interpret the age and
kinematics of the highly segmented normal fault systems that
exist in the Llanos Basin, and in order to keep the success in
the hydrocarbons exploration efforts in this basin.

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