Relations & DIgraphs

Relations & Digraphs
Product Sets
Definition: An ordered pair 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 is a listing of the
objects/items 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 in a prescribed order: 𝑎𝑎 is the first
and 𝑏𝑏 is the second. (a sequence of length 2)
Definition: The ordered pairs 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑏𝑏1 and 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑏𝑏2 are
equal iff 𝑎𝑎1 = 𝑎𝑎2 and 𝑏𝑏1 = 𝑏𝑏2 .
Definition: If 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 are two nonempty sets, we define

the product set or Cartesian product 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵 as the set of
all ordered pairs 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 with 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 and 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐵𝐵:
𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 and 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐵𝐵}
© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 2
Product Sets
Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1,2,3 and 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑟𝑟, 𝑠𝑠 , then
𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵 =
𝐵𝐵 × 𝐴𝐴 =

Product Sets
Theorem: For any two finite sets 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵,
𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵𝐵 .
Proof: Use multiplication principle!

Definitions:
 Let 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 be nonempty sets. A relation 𝑅𝑅 from 𝐴𝐴

to 𝐵𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵.
 If 𝑅𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵 and 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑅𝑅, we say that 𝑎𝑎 is related

to 𝑏𝑏 by 𝑅𝑅, and we write 𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑏𝑏.
 If 𝑎𝑎 is not related to 𝑏𝑏 by 𝑅𝑅, we write 𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑏𝑏.
 If 𝑅𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐴𝐴, we say 𝑅𝑅 is a relation on 𝐴𝐴.

Example 1: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1,2,3 and 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑟𝑟, 𝑠𝑠 . Then
𝑅𝑅 = 1, 𝑟𝑟 , 2, 𝑠𝑠 , 3, 𝑟𝑟 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵
is a relation from 𝐴𝐴 to 𝐵𝐵.
Example 2: Let 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 are sets of positive integer

numbers. We define the relation 𝑅𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵 by
𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑏𝑏 ⇔ 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑏𝑏

Example 3: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1,2,3,4,5 . The relation 𝑅𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐴𝐴 is
defined by
𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑏𝑏 ⇔ 𝑎𝑎 < 𝑏𝑏
Then 𝑅𝑅 =
Example 4: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 . The relation

𝑅𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐴𝐴 is defined by
𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑏𝑏 ⇔ 𝑎𝑎|𝑏𝑏
Then 𝑅𝑅 =
Definition: Let 𝑅𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵 be a relation from 𝐴𝐴 to 𝐵𝐵.
 The domain of 𝑅𝑅, denoted by Dom 𝑅𝑅 , is the set of
elements in 𝐴𝐴 that are related to some element in
𝐵𝐵.
 The range of 𝑅𝑅, denoted by Ran 𝑅𝑅 , is the set of
elements in 𝐵𝐵 that are second elements of pairs in
𝑅𝑅.

Example 5: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1,2,3 and 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑟𝑟, 𝑠𝑠 .
𝑅𝑅 = 1, 𝑟𝑟 , 2, 𝑠𝑠 , 3, 𝑟𝑟
Dom R =
Ran R =
Example 6: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1,2,3,4,5 . The relation 𝑅𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐴𝐴 is

defined by 𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑏𝑏 ⇔ 𝑎𝑎 < 𝑏𝑏
Dom R =
Ran R =
The Matrix of a Relation
Definition: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 , 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑏𝑏1 , 𝑏𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛
and 𝑅𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵 be a relation. We represent 𝑅𝑅 by the 𝑚𝑚 ×
𝑛𝑛 matrix 𝐌𝐌𝑅𝑅 = [𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ], which is defined by
1, 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 , 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = �
0, 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 , 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 ∉ 𝑅𝑅
The matrix 𝐌𝐌𝑅𝑅 is called the matrix of 𝑅𝑅.

Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1,2,3 and 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑟𝑟, 𝑠𝑠 .
𝑅𝑅 = 1, 𝑟𝑟 , 2, 𝑠𝑠 , 3, 𝑟𝑟 𝐌𝐌𝑅𝑅 =

The Digraph of a Relation
Definition: If 𝐴𝐴 is finite and 𝑅𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐴𝐴 is a relation. We
represent 𝑅𝑅 pictorially as follows:
 Draw a small circle, called a vertex/node, for each

element of 𝐴𝐴 and label the circle with the
corresponding element of 𝐴𝐴.
 Draw an arrow, called an edge, from vertex 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 to

vertex 𝑎𝑎𝑗𝑗 iff 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅 𝑎𝑎𝑗𝑗 .
The resulting pictorial representation of 𝑅𝑅 is called a

directed graph or digraph of 𝑅𝑅.

Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1, 2, 3, 4 and
𝑅𝑅 = 1,1 , 1,2 , 2,1 , 2,2 , 2,3 , 2,4 , 3,4 , 4,1
The digraph of 𝑅𝑅:
Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1, 2, 3, 4 and

2
1 3
4
Find the relation 𝑅𝑅:
Definition: If 𝑅𝑅 is a relation on a set 𝐴𝐴 and 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴, then
 the in-degree of 𝑎𝑎 is the number of 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 such that
𝑏𝑏, 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝑅𝑅;
 the out-degree of 𝑎𝑎 is the number of 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 such
that 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑅𝑅.
2
Example: Consider the digraph:
1 3
List in-degrees and out-degrees of all vertices.

Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑 and let 𝑅𝑅 be the relation on
𝐴𝐴 that has the matrix
1 0 0 0
𝐌𝐌𝑅𝑅 = 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0
0 1 0 1
Construct the digraph of 𝑅𝑅 and list in-degrees and out-

degrees of all vertices.

Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1,4,5 and let 𝑅𝑅 be given the digraph
1 4
Find 𝐌𝐌𝑅𝑅 and 𝑅𝑅.

Paths in Relations & Digraphs
Definition: Suppose that 𝑅𝑅 is a relation on a set 𝐴𝐴.
A path of length 𝑛𝑛 in 𝑅𝑅 from 𝑎𝑎 to 𝑏𝑏 is a finite sequence
𝜋𝜋 ∶ 𝑎𝑎, 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 , 𝑏𝑏
beginning with 𝑎𝑎 and ending with 𝑏𝑏, such that

𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥1 𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥2 , …, 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 𝑅𝑅 𝑏𝑏.
Definition: A path that begins and ends at the same

vertex is called a cycle:
𝜋𝜋 ∶ 𝑎𝑎, 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑎

Example: Give the examples for paths of length 1,2,3,4
and 5.
1 2
3 4

Definition: If 𝑛𝑛 is a fixed number, we define a relation 𝑅𝑅 𝑛𝑛
as follows: 𝑥𝑥 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 𝑦𝑦 means that there is a path of length 𝑛𝑛
from 𝑥𝑥 to 𝑦𝑦.
Definition: We define a relation 𝑅𝑅 ∞ (connectivity relation

for 𝑅𝑅) on 𝐴𝐴 by letting 𝑥𝑥 𝑅𝑅 ∞ 𝑦𝑦 mean that there is some
path from 𝑥𝑥 to 𝑦𝑦.
Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑, 𝑒𝑒 and

𝑅𝑅 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎 , 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 , 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 , 𝑐𝑐, 𝑒𝑒 , 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑 , 𝑑𝑑, 𝑒𝑒 .
Compute (a) 𝑅𝑅 2 ; (b) 𝑅𝑅 3 ; (c) 𝑅𝑅 ∞ .

Let 𝑅𝑅 be a relation on a finite set 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 , and
let 𝐌𝐌𝑅𝑅 be the 𝑛𝑛 × 𝑛𝑛 matrix representing 𝑅𝑅.
Theorem 1: If 𝑅𝑅 is a relation on 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 , then

𝐌𝐌𝑅𝑅2 = 𝐌𝐌𝑅𝑅 ⊙ 𝐌𝐌𝑅𝑅 .


1 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
𝐌𝐌𝑅𝑅 = 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0
Compute 𝐌𝐌𝑅𝑅2 .

Reflexive & Irreflexive Relations
Definition:
 A relation 𝑅𝑅 on a set 𝐴𝐴 is reflexive if 𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 for
all 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴, i.e., if 𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑎𝑎 for all 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴.
 A relation 𝑅𝑅 on a set 𝐴𝐴 is irreflexive if 𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑎𝑎 for all
𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴.
Example:
 Δ = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎 | 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 , the relation of equality on the
set 𝐴𝐴.
 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐴𝐴| 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 𝑏𝑏 , the relation of
inequality on the set 𝐴𝐴.
Reflexive & Irreflexive Relations
Exercise: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1, 2, 3 , and let 𝑅𝑅 = 1,1 , 1,2 .
Is 𝑅𝑅 reflexive or irreflexive?
Exercise: How is a reflexive or irreflexive relation

identified by its matrix?
Exercise: How is a reflexive or irreflexive relation

characterized by the digraph?

(A-, Anti-) Symmetric Relations
Definition:
 A relation 𝑅𝑅 on a set 𝐴𝐴 is symmetric if whenever

𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑏𝑏, then 𝑏𝑏 𝑅𝑅 𝑎𝑎.
 A relation 𝑅𝑅 on a set 𝐴𝐴 is asymmetric if whenever

𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑏𝑏, then 𝑏𝑏 𝑅𝑅 𝑎𝑎.
 A relation 𝑅𝑅 on a set 𝐴𝐴 is antisymmetric if whenever

𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑏𝑏 𝑅𝑅 𝑎𝑎, then 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑏𝑏.

Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and let
𝑅𝑅 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐴𝐴 | 𝑎𝑎 < 𝑏𝑏
Is 𝑅𝑅 symmetric, asymmetric or antisymmetric?
 Symmetry:
 Asymmetry:
 Antisymmetry:

Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1, 2, 3, 4 and let
𝑅𝑅 = 1,2 , 2,2 , 3,4 , 4,1
Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = ℤ+ and let

𝑅𝑅 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐴𝐴 | 𝑎𝑎 divides 𝑏𝑏

Exercise: How is a symmetric, asymmetric or
antisymmetric relation identified by its matrix?
Exercise: How is a symmetric, asymmetric or

antisymmetric relation characterized by the digraph?

Transitive Relations
Definition: A relation 𝑅𝑅 on a set 𝐴𝐴 is transitive if
whenever 𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑏𝑏 𝑅𝑅 𝑐𝑐 then 𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑐𝑐.

𝑅𝑅 = 1,2 , 1,3 , 4,2
Is 𝑅𝑅 transitive?
Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = ℤ+ and let

𝑅𝑅 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐴𝐴 | 𝑎𝑎 divides 𝑏𝑏
Is 𝑅𝑅 transitive?
Transitive Relations
Exercise: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1,2,3 and 𝑅𝑅 be the relation on 𝐴𝐴
whose matrix is
1 1 1
𝐌𝐌𝑅𝑅 = 0 0 1
0 0 1
2
Show that 𝑅𝑅 is transitive. (Hint: Check if 𝐌𝐌𝑅𝑅 ⊙ = 𝐌𝐌𝑅𝑅 )
Exercise: How is a transitive relation identified by its

matrix?
Exercise: How is a transitive relation characterized by the

digraph?
Equivalence Relations
Definition: A relation 𝑅𝑅 on a set 𝐴𝐴 is called an equi-
valence relation if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

𝑅𝑅 = 1,1 , 1,2 , 2,1 , 2,2 , 3,4 , 4,3 , 3,3 , 4,4 .
Then 𝑅𝑅 is an equivalence relation.
Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = ℤ and let

𝑅𝑅 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐴𝐴 ∶ 𝑎𝑎 ≡ 𝑏𝑏 mod 2 .
Show that 𝑅𝑅 is an equivalence relation.

Exercises : Relations



Relations &amp; DIgraphs

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Relations &amp; DIgraphs

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Relations & Digraphs

Definition: If 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 are two nonempty sets, we define

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 3

Proof: Use multiplication principle!

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 4

 Let 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 be nonempty sets. A relation 𝑅𝑅 from 𝐴𝐴

 If 𝑅𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵 and 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑅𝑅, we say that 𝑎𝑎 is related

 If 𝑎𝑎 is not related to 𝑏𝑏 by 𝑅𝑅, we write 𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑏𝑏.

 If 𝑅𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐴𝐴, we say 𝑅𝑅 is a relation on 𝐴𝐴.

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 5

is a relation from 𝐴𝐴 to 𝐵𝐵.

Example 2: Let 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 are sets of positive integer

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 6

Example 4: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 . The relation

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 8

Example 6: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1,2,3,4,5 . The relation 𝑅𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐴𝐴 is

The matrix 𝐌𝐌𝑅𝑅 is called the matrix of 𝑅𝑅.

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 10

 Draw a small circle, called a vertex/node, for each

 Draw an arrow, called an edge, from vertex 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 to

The resulting pictorial representation of 𝑅𝑅 is called a

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 11

The digraph of 𝑅𝑅:

Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1, 2, 3, 4 and

List in-degrees and out-degrees of all vertices.

Construct the digraph of 𝑅𝑅 and list in-degrees and out-

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 14

Find 𝐌𝐌𝑅𝑅 and 𝑅𝑅.

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 15

beginning with 𝑎𝑎 and ending with 𝑏𝑏, such that

Definition: A path that begins and ends at the same

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 16

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 17

Definition: We define a relation 𝑅𝑅 ∞ (connectivity relation

Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑, 𝑒𝑒 and

Compute (a) 𝑅𝑅 2 ; (b) 𝑅𝑅 3 ; (c) 𝑅𝑅 ∞ .

Theorem 1: If 𝑅𝑅 is a relation on 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 , then

Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑, 𝑒𝑒 and

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 19

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 20

Exercise: How is a reflexive or irreflexive relation

Exercise: How is a reflexive or irreflexive relation

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 22

 A relation 𝑅𝑅 on a set 𝐴𝐴 is symmetric if whenever

 A relation 𝑅𝑅 on a set 𝐴𝐴 is asymmetric if whenever

 A relation 𝑅𝑅 on a set 𝐴𝐴 is antisymmetric if whenever

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 23

Is 𝑅𝑅 symmetric, asymmetric or antisymmetric?

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 24

Is 𝑅𝑅 symmetric, asymmetric or antisymmetric?

Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = ℤ+ and let

Is 𝑅𝑅 symmetric, asymmetric or antisymmetric?

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 25

Exercise: How is a symmetric, asymmetric or

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 26

Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1, 2, 3, 4 and let

Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = ℤ+ and let

Exercise: How is a transitive relation identified by its

Exercise: How is a transitive relation characterized by the

Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = 1, 2, 3, 4 and let

Then 𝑅𝑅 is an equivalence relation.

Example: Let 𝐴𝐴 = ℤ and let

Show that 𝑅𝑅 is an equivalence relation.

© S. Turaev, CSC 1700 Discrete Mathematics 30

Relations & DIgraphs

Relations & DIgraphs