LECTURE 12

Take-off and landing characteristics of airplanes.

At the previous classes we considered problems connected with the motion of the
airplane in the air. Now, let us study the motion of the airplane on the ground take-off
and landing. A flight of the airplane begins f with take-off and ends with landing on the
landing field. Therefore, unsatisfactory take-off and landing characteristics, even with
excellent in-flight ones make the airplane impossible for operation.
Takeoff and landing speed grows with the growth of flight speed of an airplane. As
a result, the lengths of landing run and take off run grow too. This, in turn, leads to the
necessity of increasing the runway length. If we take into account, that construction of a
permanent (concrete) runway requires significant investments, we can see that
improvement of take off and landing characteristics becomes extremely important.
The desire to obtain the highest possible speeds of flight with good take off and
landing characteristics has lead to the idea of creation of vertical take off and landing
aircraft and an aircraft of shortened take off and landing.
The airplanes of vertical take off and landing has the following peculiarities as a
result of deviation of jet stream:
Secondary forces appear. They decrease lifting force of the airplane and create
undesired moments at rolling of the aircraft.
The temperature of environment grows, which leads to drop of thrust of engines.
Erosion (destruction) of soil occurs because of high-speed jets thrust. There is a
possibility of outside objects getting into air intake.
Jets of engines create additional noise, which influence the structure and decrease
its life.
Along with creation of vertical take off and landing and shortened take off and

landing aircrafts, intensive research is taking place to improve existing mechanics, to

boundary layer control, which leads to increase of lift of the wing and decrease in take off
and landing run. To decrease the length of take off and landing run, different kinds of
devices are used, such as: accelerators, catapults, brake parachutes, reverse thrust, etc.

Takeoff

Takeoff is a motion of an airplane from the start of motion to the moment of

minimal safe height and speed of flight.
The trajectory of motion of an airplane having high enough power-to-weight ratio at
take off could be represented as in Fig. 12.1.

Fig. 12.1
The value of take off distance consists of take off run and the rest of the distance
where the airplane that has taken off the runway climbs with simultaneous acceleration.
On the part of take off run an airplane moves along the runway with steadily
growing speed from V 0 at the initial point (point 1) to some point where speed of take
off Vl .off

is enough to create the lifting force equal to the weight of the airplane. Upon

reaching Vl .off , the airplane transits from movement on land to flight in the air.
At the beginning of the take off run the airplane moves on three points: the main

wheels and auxiliary forward or trailing wheel (depends on type of landing gear). Already
at comparatively low speed auxiliary wheel separates from the surface of a runway and the
following motion continues on main wheels only up to the moment of take off.
Therefore, when calculating the take off run, it is possible to assume that the whole
run occurs while resting on main wheels only.
At take off run the following external forces act on the airplane: traction force P ,
weight G , lift force Ya , drag force X a , friction force acting on wheels from the surface of
runway F and reaction force of wheels N (Fig. 12.2).

Fig. 12.2
Assuming that the direction of thrust force is parallel to the surface of runway,
which is assumed to be horizontal, i.e. neglecting the small angle ( ) , write equations
of motion of an airplane at take off run as:
m V P X a F ,
G Ya N .
Friction of wheels equals to the product:

F fN f ( G Ya ) ,

(12.1)

(12.2)

where f coefficient of friction, which depends on the type of runway surface, pressure
in pneumatics of wheels, speed of airplane. It changes in a wide range:
for dry concrete f 0.02 0.04 ,

for solid soil f 0.045 0.07 ,

for grassy surface f 0.1 0.12 ,
for saturated soil f 0.25 0.35

Substitute expression for F (12.2) to the first equation of motion (12.1), we shall
obtain

mV P ( X a F ) P X a f ( G Ya )
P fmg C x a

V 2
2

S C ya

V 2
2

S,

from where we have

P ( X a F ) P X a f ( G Ya )
V

m
m
V 2
V 2
P fmg C xa
S C ya
S
2
2

.
m

(12.3)

This expression allows to analyse the change in acceleration during take off run.
The greater is the velocity of take off run, the greater are the values:

V 2

V 2

S and fYa fC y a
S.
2
2
Because these values contribute to the expression (12.3) with opposite signs, then
X a C xa

increase of X a and fYa does not influence acceleration greatly. Thus, acceleration during
take off run is not high, especially for the airplanes with turbojets. As it will be shown
below, with analytical methods of calculation it is allowed to take acceleration as constant,
equal to its average value.
Let us consider the question, at what angle of attack should the take off run be
performed to obtain the maximal acceleration. Note, at take off run, which is different
from straight flight, there is no straight connection between speed, which changes in
straight flight, and angle of attack. During take off run, a pilot can change angle of attack

in the known range and values of X a and F will change too. Increasing of angle of attack
will increase X a and decrease F and vice versa. It is obvious that the greatest
acceleration at any take off run speed will be at such , when value ( X a F ) is at
minimum.
To find or C ya , at which ( X a F ) is at minimum, take derivative of
( X a F ) on C ya and equate to zero.

Basic algebra shows that ( X a F ) is at minimum when C ya

l .
2

f . Indeed, the

polar of an aircraft near land could be represented as a parabola, assuming that

C xa t .off C xa

where C x a

0 t .off

0 t .off

C xa

i t .off

C xa

0 t .off

C 2y

ap

(12.4)

coefficient of profile and parasitic drag of an airplane at take off

run, i.e. with extended landing gear and high lift devices, l . fictional aspect ratio of the
wing upon the land influence.
X a C xa t .off

V 2

V 2

S C xa

0 t .off
2
( X a F ) X a f G Ya

C xa

V 2
0 t .off

Values C x a

0 t .off

C 2y

a t .off

l .

V 2
2

C 2y

a t .off

V 2

l .

S fG fC y

S,

V 2
a t .off

S.

and f do not depend on C ya , therefore

d X a F 2C ya t .off V 2
V 2

S f
S,
dC ya
l .
2
2
from where we get
2C ya t .off V 2
V 2
S f
S 0
l .
2
2

and

(12.5)

C ya t .off

l .
2

f.

(12.6)

The value C ya t .off , for which the sum X a F is minimal, is proportional to f ,

as expected. The greater is friction coefficient f , the better is to perform take off run at
greater value C ya t .off , increasing the lifting force Ya and decreasing the friction force F ,
.
which leads to increase in acceleration V .

However, one should note that minimum of X a F is not explicit, which follows
from Fig. 12.3.

Fig. 12.3
Even strong deviation from optimal value C ya t .off does not change the value

X a F

greatly. And acceleration at take off run does not depend greatly on angle of

attack of an airplane. Therefore, in calculations of take off run length it is usually assumed
that the take off run takes place at C ya t .off , defined by formula (12.6), while actually
angle of attack changes during take off run.

For the airplanes that have landing gear with nose wheel, it is not hard to obtain the
length of the take off run, assuming before to V 0.7Vl .off the airplane runs on three
wheels with value of C ya that correspond to such position. And at high speeds it does the
take off run with lifted-off nose wheel at C ya C ya t .off

l .
2

f.

We have noted above that at speed equal to the take off speed the lift force becomes
equal to the weight of the airplane. To make true the equality Ya G at low speed, it is
necessary that value of C ya at take off be the greatest value possible. If we define the
value C ya at take off as C ya l .off and speed at take off as Vl .off , then

Vl .off

2G
.
SC ya l .off

(12.7)

The pilot, desiring to take off at lowest possible take off run length, to lift-off, has to
provide such angle of attack that C ya l .off has greatest possible value. Also, Vl .off has
minimal value. It is obvious, the lower is take off velocity, at which the take off run ends,
the shorter is the length of take off run. Then in calculations of take off run length
accelerations is derived in assumption that take off run takes place at C ya t .off

l .
2

f,

and lift-off at speed, defined by formula (12.7), e.g. to decrease the speed of lift-off (or
take off run length) the angle of attack is being increased right before the take off, such
that at the moment of take off C y a l .off will be significantly greater than C y a t .off .
Following the flight safety standarts, a pilot may not increase the angle of attack
above the value, at which C y a l .off becomes equal to approx. 0.85 C y a max taking into
account the influence of land surface.
Because of great value of angle of attack at lift-off and therefore great value of the
angle built on two vectors: direction of thrust and direction of velocity of the airplane, the

projection of thrust on axis oy a changes value of Vl .off significantly.

Indeed, at the lift-off moment, when friction force equals to zero, weight is balanced
by not only lift force but also by the projection of thrust on oy a axis (Fig.12.4)

Fig.12.4
Ya P sin( ) G ,
or
C ya l .off

Vl2.off
2

S G P sin( ) ,

from where

Vl .off

2G P sin( )
.
SC ya l .off

(12.8)

For the airplanes with turbojets we can adopt approximately:

Vl .off ( 1.1 1.15 )Vmin theor . .

For the airplanes with engines

Vl .off ( 1.05 1.1 )Vmin theor . , where Vmin theor .

2G
SC ya max

- minimal speed

without running engines.

For the airplanes with propeller engine the speed of lift-off is approx. 5% less than
for the airplanes with turbojets because the wing ventilation of screw stream with
operating engine at maximum engine operation regime increases C y a max by approx. 10%,

and increases C ya l .off by approx. the same percentage amount.

Thus,
m V P fG

V 2
2

S C xa fC ya .

dV dV dL dV

V
Making the next substitution V
dt
dL dt dL

(12.9)
in the previous equation

and integrating, we shall obtain the formula for the length of take off run of the airplane
Vl .off

Ll .off m

VdV
P fG

V 2
2

S C xa fC ya

(12.10)

Integration could be done either graphically in the limits from 0 to take off velocity
or by methods of numerical integration.
Get time of take off run by integrating equation (12.9)
Vl .off

t l .off m

dV
P fG

V
2

S C xa fC ya

(12.11)

For the modern airplanes, especially for the heavy transport ones and for the
bombers with heavy wing load the value of take off run length comes out very high, which
causes the need to build long runways. And, as we already mentioned above, a big
problem is the decrease of the take off run length of the airplanes.
As it could be noted from the formula, it is possible to decrease the length of the
take off run in two ways. On the one hand, Lt .off decreases when thrust force P of the
engine grows. To decrease Vl .off we could increase the lift force coefficient C ya at liftoff and, deflect the thrust vector P . Also, it is possible to increase C ya , by deflecting
flaps (high lift devices extension) of the airplane. However, upon high lift devices
extension, apart from C ya the drag coefficient C xa increases but the influence is not

significant at the take off run, therefore it is better to deflect flaps by 20 30 .

To illustrate this, introduce aerodynamic characteristics of the wing with high lift
devices extension and without it in Fig.12.5.

Fig.12.5
As it is seen from Fig.12.5, C y a l .off could be decreased significantly by deflecting
the flaps (extending the high lift devices), and greatly decrease the length of the take off
run.
To increase the thrust force P at take off run, apart from boosting the engine, the jet
assistance take off units are used those are engines of a rocket type (often powder
powered), capable for significant thrusting force for a short period of time. After take off
start accelerators are often dropped.
The assumption on constant nature of tangential acceleration at take off run, leads to
more simple formulae for calculation of take off run length and time:
Vl .off

Ll .off m

VdV
P fG

V 2
2

S C xa fC ya

Vl .off

2
dV 2 Vl .off

, (12.12)
jx
2 j x av .

Vl .off

t l .off

Vl .off
dV
,

jx
j x av .

(12.13)

where
j x av .

Pav . fG

2
Vav
.

S C xa fC ya

2
Pav .

Vav
.SC
(12.14)
g
f

fC
xa
ya
2 mg
mg

average value of acceleration at take off run; C xa and C ya are defined at pitch

2
2
angle at rest; Vav
. 0.5Vl .off .

Thrust av . l .off is found at speed of 0.7Vl .off .

Length and time of take off when wind is present are defined by formula
Ll .off W

l .off

Wx

2 j x av .

t l .offW

Vl2.off
Wx

2 j x av .
Vl .off

Vl .off W x
2 j x av .

t l .off

L
l .off

1 Wx
V
l .off

1 Wx

Vl .off

Where W x longitudinal component of the wind velocity (Fig.12.6)

Fig.12.6

, (12.15)

(12.16)

Approximate method for calculation of the take off acceleration length and
length of climb.

After lifting-off the airplane begins the flight with climb and acceleration.
The total take off acceleration length and length of climb Lc lim b could be obtained,
using the energy method provided by A. S. Pishnov. Assume, under conditions of
simultaneous climb and acceleration the value P P X a changes, but not much.
At the moment of lift-off the energy of the airplane equals to:
E1

mVl2.off
2

(12.17)

Upon reaching a safe height of 10.7 m and speed, which is equal to Vc limb ,
mVc2lim b
E2
10.7 G ,
2

(12.18)

where Vc lim b 1.3Vl .off for the airplanes with turbojets.

The increase of energy E 2 E 1 equals to the work done by external forces Pav . ,
acting in the direction of motion. Therefore,
E 2 E 1 Pav .Lc lim b

m Vc2lim b Vl2.off
2

10.7 G G Vc2lim b Vl2.off 10.7 .

2g

From where we have

Lc lim b

2
2

G Vc lim b Vl .off

10.7 .

Pav .
2g

(12.19)

Defining the quantity of Pav . from expression Pav . 0.5( Pl .off Pc lim b ) we
should obtain the values Pl .off and Pc lim b while not taking into account the influence
of the land surface, because at gaining 4 5 m m of height this influence will be small;
assuming, flaps are deflected by 15 20 ; assuming, at Vl .off landing gear are extended

and at Vc limb retracted.

It follows from (12.19) that if we are doing calculations by the average value P ,
which is possible, then length of holding and climb should not depend on the flight pass
which follows the airplane until the altitude of 10.7 m . Also, it will not depend on whether
the climb was accompanied by acceleration or initially after the lift-off it accelerated and
later climbed at constant speed.
Thus, the take off distance equals:
L Ll .off Lc lim b .

(12.20)