Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

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Mechanism and Machine Theory

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mechmt

The mathematical model and mechanical properties of variable

center distance gears based on screw theory
Fangyan Zheng, Lin Hua , Xinghui Han
School of Automotive Engineering, Hubei Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology of Automotive Parts, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 13 October 2015
Received in revised form 31 January 2016
Accepted 8 March 2016
Available online xxxx
Keywords:
Noncircular gear
Noncircular planetary gear hydraulic motor
Variable center distance gear

a b s t r a c t
Currently, researches on planar gears (including cylindrical gear, noncircular gear) are primarily concerned with those of xed center distance, that is, the center distance between two
meshing gears remains unchanged during the driving process, while those of variable center
distance are rarely touched upon. Although not widely applied as xed center distance gear
is, variable center distance gear can be found in noncircular gear shaping and high-torque hydraulic motor, exhibiting unique mechanical properties.
This paper focuses on a systematic revelation of the driving principle and mechanical properties of
this special variable center distance gear type. On the basis of screw theory, this paper rst establishes its mathematical model, including kinematic relations, instantaneous screw axis, nonconjugated pitch curves, generator, envelope surfaces and generated surfaces. And then, the
mechanical properties, forms as well as advantages of applicable variable center distance gear
train are all discussed.
2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction
With compact structure, accurate non-uniform transmission and unique dynamic performance, various applications of noncircular gear have been developed: Emura and Arakawa [1] utilized a non-circular gear for steering mechanism analysis; Dooner
[2] used non-circular gears to reduce speed and torque uctuations in rotating shafts; Litvin et al. [3] investigated the gear drives
with non-circular gears applied for speed variation and generation of functions; Ottaviano et al. [4] analyzed the non-circular
gears and cam-follower systems as function generators; H. Terada et al. [5] developed a knee motion assist mechanism for wearable robot with a non-circular gear and grooved cams; Liu et al. [6] designed noncircular gears utilized in polishing mechanisms of
optical ber end-face polishing machines to perform a gure-8 pattern. D. Mundo [7] developed a planetary gear train with noncircular gears in the design of a power drive mechanism for high performance bicycles. K.-H. Modler et al. [8] proposed a general
method for the synthesis of geared linkages with non-circular gears.
Other researches, meanwhile, have extensively focused on the generation of noncircular gear: Tong, S.H., and Yang, C. H. D. [9]
investigated the generation of identical noncircular pitch curves; Litvin et al. [10] discussed the generation of planar and helical
elliptical gears by application of rack-cutter, hob, and shaper; Figliolini, G. and Angeles, J. synthesized the elliptical gears generated
by shaper cutters [11] and the base curves for n-lobed elliptical gears [12]; Bair, B. W. et al. established the mathematical model of
elliptical gears manufactured respectively by a commonly known shaper cutter [13] and a circular-arc shaper cutters [14]; Xia, L.
et al. [15] proposed a linkage model of hobbing non-circular helical gears with axial shift of hob; Jiangang, L. et all [16] introduced
a numerical computing method for noncircular gear tooth proles generated by shaper cutters.

Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +86 27 87168391.

E-mail address: hualin@whut.edu.cn (L. Hua).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2016.03.005
0094-114X/ 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

117

Based on these researches, noncircular gear is commonly dened as gear with xed center distance, in which the center
distance of gear is set as a constant and remains unchanged during the driving process. In fact, in the process of generating
noncircular gear with shaper cutter, as discussed by Litvin et al. [3], Figliolini [11] and Dooner [17], a circular cutter is in
mesh with a planar non-circular gear element and their center distance varies. The meshing process can thus be taken as a
case of variable center distance gear (VCDG) drive; Besides, in a particular type of noncircular planetary gear hydraulic
motor [18,19], the center distance of the planetary gear changes during the driving process, making it a typical VCDG drive.
Overall, although researches on this gear type have been found as listed above, the concept of VCDG has not been denitely
proposed.
This paper then devotes to a systematic investigation of mathematical model and mechanical properties of this special VCDG
type: First, establishes the generating mathematic model: kinematic relations, instantaneous screw axis, non-conjugated pitch
curves, generator, envelope surfaces and the generated surfaces; then drawn on three cases of special gearing and triple methods
of substitution, discusses the mechanical properties; nally, combing the mathematic model and mechanical properties, develops
three gear train types with applicable advantages.
2. Mathematic model for VCDGs
2.1. Kinematic relations
Fig. 1 shows the kinematic relationship of shaping a non-circular gear in a 3-axis linkage shaping machine. The rotating axis of
shaped gear is xed on the base, while that of shaper cutter is movable along the line of centers. During the shaping process,
shaped gear rotates on its axis with an angular velocity 1, while the shaper cutter simultaneously rotates on its axis with an angular velocity 2 and translates along the line of centers. This process can also be recognized as special gear transmission since the
shaper cutter can be taken as a cylindrical gear. The peculiarity of this gearing lies in a varying center distance during the driving
process, distinguishing it from other cylindrical gear driving.
In generalization of the gear shaping case, the concept of variable center distance gears (VCDGs) is proposed in the paper. Suppose the rotating angle of drive gear is 1, then the gear ratio function is g(1) =2/1 and the translational velocity of movable
gear (dened as driven gear in this paper) is dened as v(1). Noticeably, drive gear 1 is supposed in the clockwise direction, the
positive direction of translation is dened as far away from the xed center gear, and the signal of gear ratio is set as positive
when the rotating directions of drive and driven gear are the same (i.e. internal gear pair).
The positional relations, including the angle of driven gear 2(1) and center distance function E2(1), can then be
calculated
8
Z1
>
>
>
>

g d

>
2
1
>
>
>
<
0

>
>
Z1
>
>
>
>
> E1 vd E0
>
:
0

where, the initial value for E(1) is supposed as E0, the initial value for 2(1) is set as zero and can thus be omitted.

shaped gear

shaper cutter

E
Fig. 1. Case of VCDG: shaping non-circular gear.

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F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

In designing xed center distance gears (FCDGs), a pitch curve closed condition, used to ensure continuous transmission [20],
is only related to the angle of driven gear. For VCDGs however, it is also related to the center distance, namely:
8  
2
2
>
>
>
< 2 n n
i
o
ni 1; 2; no 1; 2
 
> 2
>
>
E0
:E
ni

where, ni and no refer to the kinematic cycle of drive and driven gears respectively.
According to the discussion above, there are two distinctive cases of VCDGs design:
The shape of both drive and driven gears (including, pitch curve, tooth prole) is given, but gear ratio function g(1) and
translational velocity v(1) remain to be determined (similar to the case in shaping noncircular gear).
The gear ratio function g(1) and translational velocity v(1) are given, but the shape of drive and driven gears is left to be
determined.
To simplify the derivation, the second case is used to establish the mathematical model of the gear type. The rst case is in
turn discussed by solving equations in the second case.
2.2. Instantaneous screw axis
Fig. 2 shows the coordinate systems for investigating VCDG. Notice that z-axes of all coordinate frames are omitted since they
are along the same direction and normal to the plane of motion. The gear ratio and angle of driven gear 2 are all negative since
the shown gear is external.
Coordinate frame S0(O0 x0y0z0) is xed on the base with its z0-axis along the rotating axis of drive gear.
Coordinate system S1(O1 x1y1z1) is rigidly connected to drive gear. The rotating angle of drive gear 1 is the angle between
reference frame S1 and S0. The coordinate transformation matrix from S0 to S1 is as follows:
2

cos1
6 sin
1
6
M10 1 4
0
0

sin1
cos1
0
0

0
0
1
0

3
0
07
7
05
1

Coordinate system S2(O2 x2y2z2) is rigidly attached to driven gear. Its angle relative to S0 refers to the rotating angle of driven
gear 2 while its position relative to S0 refers to the center distance E(1). The coordinate transformation matrix from S0 to S1 is
as follows:
2

cos2 1 
6 sin 
2
1
6
M20 1 4
0
0

3
0 E1 cos2 1 
0 E1 sin2 1  7
7
5
0
0
0
1

sin2 1 
cos2 1 
0
0

y0
y2

y1

x2

P0
O2

O0 (O1 )
1

drive gear

Q0

x0

2
2

x1

Fig. 2. Coordinate systems of variable center distance gearing.

driven gear

F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

119

In terms of the denition above, the input screw (screw of input gear) in the reference frame S0 [21]:
T

Si si ; i  0; 0; 1; 0; 0; 0

where, si and i are correspondingly the primary part (main vector) and secondary part (dual vector) of the input screw.
And the output screw (screw of output gear) in the xed reference frame S0 is
So 1 so 1 ; o 1 

where, the main vector so is determined by the gear ratio function as

so 1 0 0 g 1 

And the dual vector o(1) can be calculated as follows: [22]

2

3 2
3
2
3
E1
v1
v1
o 1 4 0 5 4 0 5  so 1 4 E1 g 1 5
0
0
0

In term of the theorem of three axes [23,24], the instantaneous screw between drive and driven gears can be calculated
as
Sis 1 So 1 Si sis 1 ; is 1 
T
0; 0; g 1 1; v1 ; E1 g 1 ; 0

where, the main vector sis(1) is found to be parallel to the z0-axis, through subsequent calculation of its direction vector (the
unit vector of main vector) as follows:
s
suis 1  is 1  0
sis 1

1

10

where, if g(1) 1 b 0, the direction of suis(1) will be opposite, namely

suis 1 0

1 

And this can be ignored since the direction does not affect the geometry.
The position vector of the instantaneous screw axis can be obtained as [25]
rnis 1


E1 g 1
sis 1  is 1

g 1 1
sis 1  sis 1

v1
g 1 1

T
0

11

Further, the equation of the instantaneous axis can be presented as:

ris 1 ; t rnis 1 tsuis 1

12

Where, t refers to value of z-component. Considering that the z-component of the position vector rnis(1) equals zero and
suis(1) is along the direction of z0-axis, the instantaneous screw axis can be presented as point P0(xp, yp) in the x0y0-plane, namely, the instantaneous center, with following equations:
8
E1 g 1
>
>
>
< xp 1 rnis 1 x g 1 1
>
>
>
: yp 1 rnis 1 y

v1
g 1 1

13

In this way, the VCDG drive can be regarded as a planar gear mechanism, or even a cylindrical gear.
As is known, the instantaneous center is a xed point on the x0-axis (line of centers) for circular cylindrical gear drives [26]
while a movable point on the x0-axis for non-circular cylindrical gear drives [27]. For VCDG drives, however, the instantaneous
center is just a movable point on the x0y0-plane, much more general. This means, as shown in Fig. 2, for each gear, the polar

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F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

angles of instantaneous center (1 and 2) are no longer identical to the rotating angles (1 and 2). And the difference angle
1 , 2 between rotating angle and polar angle can be calculated as follows:
!
8


yp 1
>
v1
>
>

a
tan

a
tan

>
1
1
1
>
xp 1
E1 g 1
<
!


>
>
>
> a tan E1 yp 1 a tan v1
>
: 2
2
2
xp 1
E1

14

where, it is found that 1 = 2 = 0 when v(1) = 0. In this regard, Eq. (14) can be used to distinguish the two gear types:
VCDGs and FCDGs.
In Ref. [17], along with many other hand books, for planar gears, the gear ratio is dened as the ratio between instantaneous
center radius (pitch curve radiuses) for drive and driven gears. In this paper, as illustrated in Fig. 2, this denition is presented
as:

  !  !
g  O
1 P 0 =O2 P 0 
1

15

However, for VCDGs, this denition is invalid because

8

!
E1 g1
>
>
O

r
P

>
1
0
nis
1
>
<
g 1 1
>
>
!
>
>
: O2 P 0 E1

T

v1
g 1 1

E1
0  rnis 1
g 1 1
T

v1
g 1 1

16

T
0

and that Eq. (15) cannot be obtained.

Through observing Eq. (16), it is found that the gear ratio can be obtained by dividing the x-components of instantaneous cen!
!
ter radius in drive and driven gears (the projection length jO1 Q 0 j and jO2 Q 0 j on the line of centers), namely

  !  !
g  O
1 Q 0 =O2 Q 0 
1

17

In this connection, the gear ratio can be redened as the ratio between the projection of instantaneous center radius for
drive and driven gears on the line of centers. And it should be noted that, this new denition is suitable for FCDGs, either,
as the instantaneous center is also on the line of centers. Therefore, the new denition can be generalized for all the cylindrical
gears.

x0

x0

y2

x0
x2

O2

2
2

x2

y2

O2
2

O2

y1 P0
y2

E
1

y0

x1

x2

P0

y0
O1

y1

O1

y0
x1

P0
O1

x1

y1

(a)

(b)
Fig. 3. Pitch curves of VCDGs in different position.

(c)

F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

121

2.3. Non-conjugated pitch curves

The conjugating pitch surfaces or axodes, the reference of generating tooth prole in general, are the locus of screw axes in the
coordinate system of drive and driven gears respectively during a cycle of driving [28,29]. By transforming the instantaneous
screw axes into the corresponding coordinate systems, the axodes for both drive and driven gears can be obtained
2
3
8
v1 sin1 E1 g 1 cos1
>
>
>
1
6 v cos E g sin 7
>
>
rai 1 ; t M10 1 lis 1 ; t
4
>
1
1
1
1
1 5
>
g 1 1
>
>
<
t g 1 1
2
3
>
>
v1 sin2 1  E1 cos2 1 
>
>
1
>
6
7
>
>
r ; t M20 1 lis 1 ; t
4 v1 cos2 1 E1 sin2 1  5
>
> ao 1
g 1 1
:
t g 1 1

18

where, lis(1,t), used in the transformation, is obtained by adding element 1 to ris(1, t) in a new column. Considering that the
x-component and y-component are independent of parameter t, the pitch surfaces can be classied as non-circular cylinders,
and further simplied as planar pitch curves:
8


v1 sin1 E1 g 1 cos1
1
>
>
>
rai 1 ; t
>
<
g 1 1 v1 cos1 E1 g 1 sin1


>
>
v1 sin2 1  E1 cos2 1 
1
>
>
: rao 1 ; t
g 1 1 v1 cos2 1 E1 sin2 1 

19

Fig. 3 illustrates the pitch curves of VCDGs by setting the gear ratio function g(1) = 1 + 0.5 sin (3), translational velocity
v(1) = 8 sin (3) and the initial center distance E0 = 20. Three positions, in which 1 = 60 , 120 , 240, are covered to show the
varying center distance and rotating angle. As shown in Fig. 3, the center distance in (a) is different from that in (b), while identical in (b) and (c), due to the symmetry of v(1) in position (b) and (c). Still, difference can be found between (b) and (c), due to
the different signs of v(1), contact point P0 varies in position.
Observed from Fig. 3 and Eq. (13), the contact point P0 is located on the plane. That means, theoretically, by setting different
combinations of gear ratio function and center distance velocity, any location of P0 can be achieved. Reversely for two tangent
curves (continuous and derivable), if a conjugation condition is satised, they can be set as the pitch curves of cylindrical gear
drives [9]. The conjugation can be dened that, in pure rolling, the tangent point is always on the line of centers. For VCDGs, however, the condition is relatively loose, and may be represented as: any two tangent curves without interference. In other words,
the pitch curves of a pair of VCDGs are non-conjugated and any two tangent curves without interference can be used as pitch
curves. Fig. 4 shows an eccentric circular pitch curve (black curve in the left) meshes with elliptical pitch curve of different shapes
(1st-order black ellipse, 2nd-order blue ellipse, 3rd-order green ellipse and 4th-order yellow ellipse). For a clear illustration of the
concept of non-conjugation, all the pitch curve pairs are tangent to the same point, and generally can be arbitrarily located on
the plane.

y0

P0
O0

x0

Fig. 4. Non-conjugated pitch curves for VCDGs. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)

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F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

2.4. Generator
Generator, a special type of surface, is used to generate the surfaces of meshing gear. For VCDGs, the generator can be rack or
circular cylindrical gear, for the following reasons:
The shape of generator is proved to be determined by the spatial relationship between rotating axes of two gears [30].
Though the center distance varies during the driving progress, the rotating axes of drive and driven gears remain parallel to
each other.
The derivation of generator for cylindrical gears does not take center distance into consideration [31].
Moreover, the generation by circular gears can be regarded as a special case of VCDG driving: circular-noncircular gearing, the
same as non-circular gear shaping in Fig. 1. The generation by rack, meanwhile, can be regarded as the other special case of VCDG
driving: rack-noncircular gearing, the same as non-circular gear hobbing.
In balance, it is interesting to nd VCDG generation to be special cases of VCDG driving. This in turn indicates the applicability
of a same mathematical model to both the driving and generation of VCDGs, just like that for circular gears.
Considering the length of paper and the limitations of rack generator [10], in the paper, the discussion is limited in the generation by circular gear generator. The tooth prole of generator is set as the commonly-used involute curve as shown in Fig. 5. In
reference to Ref. [32], the tooth surface of involute gear generator is as follows:
rg u; t xv u yv u t

1

20

where,


xg u r b cosu u sinu
yg u r b sinuu cosu

and rb is radius of base circle for involute gear and can be calculated as rb =rg/ cos (); refers to the pressure angle.
Further, the normal vector of the generating surface can be deduced as


dy u; t dxg u; t T
ng u; t g
dt
dt

21

2.5. Envelope surfaces

Fig. 6 shows the coordinate systems for the generation of VCDGs, which are the same as the coordinate systems used for
VCDGs driving discussed in Section 2.1. Suppose the radius of driven gear as rg and the pitch curve of generated gear as ra(1),
the angle between the tangent vector and position vector can be calculated [33] as follows
g 1

r a 1 d1
dra 1

22

and angle
O0 P 0 O2 3=2 g 1

23

yg

Dedendum circle
Involute profile

Og
xg

Base circle

Addendum circle
Pitch circle

Fig. 5. Coordinate system for the involute gear generator.

F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

y0

O0 (O1 )

x2

ra ( 1 )

generated gear

y2

t
y1

123

P0 rg
O2

x0

2
1

x1

generator

Fig. 6. Coordinate systems for the generation of VCDGs.

And the center distance can thus be obtained in term of Cosine law
E 1

r
h
i
r a 1 2 r g 2 2rg r a 1 sin g 1

24

Meanwhile, the rotating angle of generated gear can be obtained based on the Sin law
0
1 1 1 P 0 O0 O2 1 a sin@

1
r g cos g 1
A
E1

25

Further, the rotating angle of generator can be obtained based on Sin law and the pure rolling relationship [10]

1
0
r a 1 cos g 1
sa 1
sa 1
A
P 0 O2 O0
a sin@
2 1
E 1
rg
rg

26

where, sa(1) is the length of the pitch curve of generated gear, calculated as
sa 1

Z1 q
dra =d 2 r a 1 2 d
0

Thus, the envelope equation can be deduced by transforming the generating surfaces, from coordinate system S2 to S1
rev 1 ; u; t M12 1 rg u; t

27

where, M12 is the coordinate transformation from S2 to S1, calculated as

1

M12 1 M10 1 1 M20 2 1 

2.6. Generated surfaces

The normal vector of the generating surfaces in coordinate system S1
n2 1 ; u; t L12 1 ng u; t

28

where, L01(1) is the vector transformation matrix from S2 to S1, which can be obtained by eliminating the last row and column of
coordinate transformation M12(1) [34].
Eq. (27) shows the family of generated surfaces, and based on meshing principle [17], the real tooth prole is the boundary of
the family of surfaces. In this connection, the generated surfaces can be solved by combining the envelope equation Eq. (27) and
the meshing equation below
n2 1 ; u; t  v2 1 ; u; t 0

29

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F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

where v2(1,u, t) refers to the relative velocity between the generator and generated gear, containing rotation and translation, as
follows



T
d2 1 T
dE 1
v2 1 ; u; t 0 0
 rg u; t
0 0 :
d1
d 1
3. Mechanical properties
3.1. Noncircularnoncircular VCDG driving
In practice, the movable gear (mostly driven gear) of VCDGs must be constrained by auxiliary mechanisms, such as link and
cam. Fig. 7 shows a VCDG-cam mechanism, gear 1 and 2 match a pair of VCDGs, the centers of which are rigidly attached to
the ground and slider 4 respectively. Cam 3 and slider 4 constitute a pair of translating follower cylinder cam. Cam 3 is xed
on gear 2. In term of the denition in Section 2.1, the kinematic relationships can be supposed as

g 1 Ag g sin1
30
v1 v sin1 0
where, Ag, g, v and 0 are parameters used to dene the kinematic relationships.
In term of Eq. (1), the positional relations
8
Z1
>
>
>
>
>

g d Ag 1 g cos1 g
>
2
1
>
<
0

31

Z1
>
>
>
>
>
E

vd v cos1 0 v cos0 E0
>
0
1
>
:
0

Considering the pitch closed condition shown in Eq. (2), when =2/ni

2 2=ni 2Ag
a2 2=ni a4 0 E0
and it can found that Ag 1; 12 ; 13
In term of Eq. (19), the pitch curves of both drive and driven gears can be obtained
h
i
3
v sin1 sin1 0 cos1 g sin3 Ag E0 v cos1 0 v cos0
7
6
7
6
g sin1 Ag 1
7
6
7
rai 1 6
h
i
6
7
6 cos1 sin1 0 sin1 sin3 Ag E0 cos1 0 cos0 7
v
g
v
v
5
4
g sin1 Ag 1
h
i
h
i3
2

cos g Ag 1 g cos1 E0 v cos1 0 v cos0 v sin1 0 sin g Ag 1 g cos1
7
6
7
6
g sin1 Ag 1
7
6
h
i
h
i
rao 1 6
7


6 sin A cos E cos cos sin cos A cos 7
g 1
0
g 1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
g
g
v
v
v
g
g
5
4
g sin1 Ag 1
2

32

4
2

Fig. 7. VCDG-cam mechanism.

F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

125

Fig. 8. Noncircular-noncircular VCDG pair.

And the VCDG gear pair can thus be designed based on the mathematical model above. Take E0 = 20, v = 4, g = 0.4, Ag = 1
and 0 = 0, a pair of noncircular-noncircular VCDG is then illustrated in Fig. 8. The simulation of this gear drive is included in
the attachment titled noncircular_noncircular.mpg.
3.2. Circularcircular VCDG driving
In this section, another special and interesting case of VCDG driving: cylindricalcylindrical gearing is discussed. In this case,
both the drive and driven gears are commonly-used circular cylindrical gears. The derivations are based on the kinematic relationships in Section 3.1.
Substitute g =0 and Ag = 1 into Eq. (32), the functions of the pitch curve:
"
#
8
>
1 E3 cos1 v cos0 v cos0 cos1
>
>
> ra1 3
<
2 E3 sin1 v sin0 v cos0 sin1


>
>
1 E3 cos1 v cos0 v cos0 cos1
>
>
: rao 3
2 E3 sin1 v sin0 v cos0 sin1

(a)

(b)
Fig. 9. Circularcircular gearing in different meshing position.

33

(c)

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F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

Then substitute Eq. (33) into the curvature formula [17], the curvature radius of drive and driven pitch curves are obtained:
i 1 o 1

E v cos0
2

34

where, it can be easily found that the curvature radius is independent of the rotating angle 1. It means that the curves presented
by Eq. (33) are eccentric circles. Based on basic differential geometry knowledge, the curvature center of pitch curve for drive and
driven gears are obtained:
8


1 v cos0
>
>

r
>
< i 1
2 v sin0


>
1 v cos0
>
>
: r o 1
2 v sin0

35

Thus eccentricities of both gears are found to be





ei r i 3  eo r o 3  v
2

36

which shows the eccentricities of the drive and driven gears are the same and exclusively related to parameter v. Fig. 9 shows a
pair of circular-circular gears where v = 12, 0 = 0 and E0 = 20. Take rotating angle as0, 60 and 120 respectively, the corresponding three meshing positions named as (a), (b), (c) are illustrated.
According to the discussion above, two circular cylindrical gears can mesh properly with a uniform gear ratio even though the center distance varies. This interesting nding of circularcircular VCDG driving exhibits its applicability in practice. However, since the
discussion is held under the set parameters of g =0 and Ag = 1, based on function in Eq. (30), still further researches are required for
generalization of the nding. The simulation of the gear drive is included in the attachment titled circular_circular.mpg.
3.3. Circularnoncircular VCDG driving
In this section, the case of circular-noncircular VCDG driving, comprised of one circular gear and one non-circular gear, is
discussed. In fact, this gearing, the same as non-circular gear shaping, has been discussed in the generation of the tooth prole
in Section 2.5. Whereas the discussion then is based on a known pitch curve, here, it is deviated through the given kinematic relationships (shown in Eq. (30)), and numerical solvers of the following equations:

8
8





>
>
< rai 1 ; g 1 ; v1 ; E1  r c
< rao 1 ; g 1 ; v1 ; E1  r c
2 2=ni 2=no
or
2 2=ni 2=no
>
>
:
:
E2=ni E0
E2=ni E0

37

where, rc is the given circular gear radius, the cycles ni and no, along with the tooth number zc are also given. Eq. (37) thus contains two unknown functions, g(1) and E(1). It means that, if one function is given, then the other will be solved.
Taking rc = 10, ni = n0 = 1, and E(1) = 20.58 + 4 cos (1), the gear ratio g(1) can then be calculated through the numerical
method shown in Fig. 10.

Gear ratio function g( )

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6
0

Angle of drive gear

Fig. 10. Gear ratio function for circular-noncircular VCDGS.

F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

127

Noncircle gear

Circular gear

Fig. 11. Circularnoncircular VCDGs.

Fig. 11 shows the pitch curve and tooth prole of the pair of circularnoncircular VCDGs by taking tooth number zc = 22 and
pressure angle = 20.
Considering the features of circular gear, the cycle of drive gear ni is no longer limited by Eq. (2), but determined by the following equation:
ni nc =zc

nc 1; 2; 3

It means that the cycle of drive gear can be more than 2 and further inuence the gear ratio and center distance function.
And the inuences will be illustrated in Section 3.4.3 through changing the tooth number of drive gear (the simplest method
to change the cycle of drive gear).
This drive type is of great signicance, for it can realize non-uniform gear ratio with only one non-circular gear, bringing great
convenience for its design and manufacture. Besides, it also forms the basis for the substitutability discussed in the following section, as well as for the basic gear types of the gear trains discussed in Section 4. The simulation of the gear drive is included in the
attachment titled circular_noncircular.mpg.
3.4. Substitutability
For xed center circular cylindrical gears, any two gears with the same module can realize uniform gear driving. This feature
(named substitutability in the paper) brings great convenience for its design, manufacture and inspection.
As far as variable ratio transmission is concerned, the pitch curves for xed center distance non-circular gears are strictly conjugated, meaning that the gear ratio can only be obtained through design rather than combination of gears. Considering the feature of non-conjugation in VCDGs, it is found, however, the variable gear ratio can also be implemented by combining different
shapes of gears. The substitutability is thus proved applicable to VCDGs, contributing to its further application.
Taking cylindricalnoncircular gear drives in Section 3.3 as an example, three simple substituting methods are discussed. The
rst one and the second one both change the installation of one gear, showing a more general substitutability for VCDGs. The
third method, also easy to realize, meanwhile, changes the tooth number of the circular drive gear.

y0
x2

y2

y1
P0
O0

rc

O2

ec

Oe

2e
1e

x1

Ee ( 1 )

Fig. 12. The change of eccentricity.

x0

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F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

e =0

2.0

Gear ratio function g e(

1e

e =1.5
e =3

1.6

1.2

0.8

0.4
0

Angle of drive gear

1e

Fig. 13. Gear ratio functions with different eccentricities. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version
of this article.)

3.4.1. Change of eccentricity

In this section, the substituting method by changing the eccentricity of the circular drive gear is concerned. Notice that, the
eccentricity for the circular drive gear illustrated in Fig. 11 is zero.
As shown in Fig. 12, ec is the eccentricity of the circular drive gear; Oe is the rotating center after the change of eccentricity ec;
1e ,2e are the rotating angles of drive and driven gears after the change; Ee(1) refers to the center distance function after the
change.
Based on the solved gear ratio g(1) illustrated in Fig. 10 and the given center distance function E(1), the rotating angle
2(1) can be obtained in term of Eq. (1). And based on the cosine law

Ee 1

q
ec 2 E1 2 22ec E1 cos1

38

in term of sine law, the polar pitch angle e1 can then be deduced as
8
e sin1
>
>
> 1e 1 1 Oo O2 Oe 1 a sin c
<
Ee 1
>
e sin1
>
>
: 2e 1 2 1 Oo O2 Oe 2 1 a sin c
Ee 1

39

26

Center distance function E e(

1e

e =0
e =1.5

24

e =3

22

20

18

16
0

Angle of drive gear

1e

Fig. 14. Center distance functions with different eccentricities. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)

F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

129

y0
x2

y2

y1
P0
O0

O2

rc
1

ec

x0

Oe

2f

x1

1f

Ef ( 1 )
Fig. 15. Change of eccentric angle.

Further, the gear ratio function can be calculated as

g e 1

d2e 1 d2e 1 d1

d1e 1
d1 d1e 1

40

As observed, both Eqs. (38) and (40) are functions of 1. However, the center distance function and gear ratio function are
dened as functions of the angle of drive gear. Therefore, rst representing 1 as 1 =fe(1e) by solving Eq. (39) through a numerical method, then substituting it into Eq. (38) and Eq. (40), the center distance function and gear ratio function can nally be
obtained as Ee[fe(1e)] and 2e[fe(1e)].
The gear ratio function and center distance function with different eccentricities are shown in Figs. 13 and 14 by taking e0 = 0
(black curve), e0 = 1.5 (red curve) and e0 = 3 (blue curve) respectively. It can be observed that, all the functions share a same
shape while the amplitude increases along with the increase of the eccentricities. In conclusion, the change of the eccentricity
will inuence the amplitude of gear ratio functions and the center distance functions.
3.4.2. Change of the eccentric angle
In the case of Section 3.4.1, while the change of eccentricity has been discussed, the eccentric angle is a constant, zero. As
shown in Fig. 15, however, the change of eccentric angle is concerned, and f refers to the eccentric angle. After change, the center
distance function is supposed as Ef(1) and the rotating angle for drive and driven gears are supposed as 1f and 2f respectively.
Thus, Ef(1) can be founded in the way as Eq. (38)
E f 1


ec 2 E1 2 2ec E1 cos 1 f

41

2.0

Gear ratio function g f(

1f

f
f

1.6

=0
=
=

1.2

0.8

0.4
0

Angle of drive gear

1f

Fig. 16. Gear ratio function with different eccentric angle. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

130

Center distance function E f(

1f

26
f
f

=0
=
=

22

18

14
0

Angle of drive gear

1f

Fig. 17. Center distance function with different eccentric angles. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)

likewise, 1f and 2f can be obtained in the same way as Eq. (39)


8
>
ec sin 1 f
>
>
>
>
< 1 f 1 1 f a sin
Ee 1


>
>
ec sin 1 f
>
>
>
: 2 f 1 2 1 a sin
Ee 1

42

Further, the gear ratio gf(1) can be obtained in term of Eq. (40).
Still the gear ratio function and center distance function should be represented as functions of 1f, similar to the discussion in
Section 3.4.1, namely, Ef[ff(1f)] and 2f[ff(1f)], in which f = ff(fe) can be obtained by solving Eq. (42) with a numerical method.
Taking e0 = 3, f as 0(black curve), /3 (red curve) and 2/3 (blue curve), the gear ratio functions and center distance functions are respectively shown in Figs. 16 and 17. It can be observed that, with the increase of eccentric angle, the maximum points
for both gear ratio and center distance move to the right. Concerning the amplitude, it decreases for gear ratio function, while
increases for the center distance function. In conclusion, change of the eccentricity will inuence the phase and amplitude of
both gear ratio function and center distance function.
3.4.3. Change of the tooth number
In this case, unlike change of the location as discussed in Section 3.4.1 and 3.4.2, instead, the size of one gear is changed. It
means that, one gear is being replaced by a gear of the same shape but different size. Here, the circularnoncircular VCDGs are
taken as an example, as the circular gear size can be easily altered through changing the tooth number, to investigate the inuences of change of the tooth number on the gear ratio and center distance function.

y0

y2
y1
P0

rt

rc

Ot

x2

x0

O1

1t
2t

x1t

x1
Fig. 18. Change of the tooth number in cylindrical gear.

F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

131

Gear ratio function g t( )

zt=14
zt=18
2.1

zt=22

1.6

1.1

0.6
0

Angle of drive gear

Fig. 19. Gear ratio function with different tooth number. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version
of this article.)

After replacing the circular drive gear with a different circular gear, the pitch circle arc length of the two gears is no longer
equal, yet as long as the module keeps the same, the two gears can still correctly mesh. The pitch radius thus should satisfy
the following relationships
r t zt r c =zc

43

where, zt and rt are the tooth number and pitch radius after change of the tooth number.
As shown in Fig. 18, Ot refers to the rotating center after the change; 1t and 2t are the rotating angle of drive and driven
gears after the change; Et(1) refers to the center distance after the change.
Based on the cosine law
Et 1

q
r c r t 2 E1 2 2r c r t E1 cos1 

44

where, the difference angle 1 can be calculated in term of Eq. (14).

Further, based on sine law
2t 1 2 1 a sin

rc r t sin1 
Et 1

45

Besides, the rotating angle can be found based on the pure rolling relationship [10], namely
1t 1 1 r c =r t

46

Thus the gear ratio gt(1) can be obtained in term of Eq. (40).
32

Center distance function Et(

z =14
z =18
z =22

28

24

20

16
0

Angle of drive gear

Fig. 20. Center distance function with different tooth number. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)

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F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

2'
1

Fig. 21. Two-step noncircular external gear train with four gears.

Still the gear ratio function and center distance function, similar to the discussion in Section 3.4.1, should be represented as the
functions of 1t, namely, Et(1trt/rc) and 2t(1trt/r).
Taking zt = 14 (black curve), zt =18 (red curve) and zt = 22 (blue curve), the gear ratio function and center distance function
with different tooth numbers are shown respectively in Figs. 19 and 20. It can be observed that, with the increase of tooth number, the periods and horizontal positions for both gear ratio and center distance increase, the amplitude of center distance function increases while that of the gear ratio function decreases.
Among the three simple substituting methods discussed above, the rst and second change the installation while the third one
changes the tooth number. And along with the changes, the gear ratio function and center distance function have changed either.
It can be concluded that different gear ratios can be realized through change of the parameters of only one gear or combination of
prepared gears of limited types. In other words, instead of performing a redesign, the required non-uniform gear ratio can be obtained by combing existing gears.

4. Two-step gear trains

4.1. External gear train
Generally, two-step external noncircular gear train can be congured by three or four gears. Fig. 21 shows a gear train with
four gears: gear 1 and gear 2 form the rst gear step while gear 2 and 3 form the second gear step. The advantage is the gear
ratio of each step can be assigned independently, while the disadvantage is the large gear number; Fig. 22 shows the gear

Fig. 22. Two-step noncircular external gear train with three gears.

2
2

E12

1
3

E23

E13

Fig. 23. Two-step variable center distance external gear train.

F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

133

Table 1
Parameters of center distance function for external gear train.
Pitch radius of gear 2
rc

Center distance
E13

Coefcient
A1

Coefcient
B1

Cycle
nr

10

45

6.85

22.5

1.1

train with only three gears: both gear steps contain gear 2. The advantage is the smaller gear number and the disadvantage is the
total gear ratio must be constantly 1, as the conjugating pitch surface conditions gear 1 and gear 3 to be identical in shape.
However, this defect can be overcome if VCDGs are applied, due to the non-conjugation condition. As illustrated in Fig. 23,
only the intermediate gear 1 is set of movable axis while both input gear 2 and output gear 3 are of xed axis; Besides, to promote its application, the installation requirements are set the same as those for xed center distance gear train, and the intermediate gear of VCDG train is set as a circular gear; Moreover, rather than installing an auxiliary mechanism providing the motion of
center distance, only a slider bearing is used to constraint the movable axis.
Notice that, the above discussion is held just from the perspective of kinematics. And from a practical viewpoint, the addition
of a slider bearing is likely to cause dynamical problem in high speed driving.
Based on the discussion of circular-noncircular VCDGs in Section 3.3, gear step can be designed by assuming the intermediate
gear 1 as drive gear. Apart from that, the following conditions should also be satised
E12 1 E13 1 E23

47

where E12(1) and E13(1) are the center distance functions of each gear step, and E23 refers to the center distance between input
gear 2 and output gear 3.

First gear step

Second gear step

Single gear ratio function

2.0

1.6

1.2

0.8

0.4
0

Angle of intermediate gear

Total gear ratio function

Fig. 24. Gear ratio of each step of external gear train.

3.2

2.4

1.6

0.8

0.0
0

Angle of input gear

Fig. 25. Total gear ratio of external gear train.

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F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

Fig. 26. Pitch curves and tooth prole of external gear train.

Here, the center distance function is taking as a function of intermediate gear 1, namely, E13(1) = A1 cos (1/nr) + B1 with the
parameters shown in Table 1. Combine Eq. (47) with Eq. (37), the gear ratio in each gear step, respectively g21(1) and g31(1),
can be solved as shown in Fig. 24. And the gear ratio
g 23 1

g 31 1
g 21 1

48

The total gear ratio, however, is dened as the function of input gear 2, and a transformation of the function is needed: rst,
solving Eq. (1) with a numeric method, 1 = f1(2) is deduced, and then with its substitution into Eq. (48), the total gear ratio can
be obtained as g23[f1(2)] (shown in Fig. 25).
Further, taking the tooth number of the intermediate gear as 20, the tooth prole of each gear can be obtained based on
the mathematic model above as shown in Fig. 26. The simulation of the gear train is included in the attachment titled
external_train.mpg.
This example shows that only three gears are needed to implement VCDG train. Noticeably, considering the equation for design or observing the Fig. 26, the input gear and output gear are of the same pitch curve and tooth prole. Thus, for the gear train,
only one circular gear and two identical non-circular gears are needed.
4.2. Internal gear train
In this section, a two-step internal VCDG train, of the same conguration as an external VCDG train in Section 4.1, is discussed.
By using the same mathematical model and parameters listed in Table 2, the gear ratio function of each gear step can be obtained,
respectively shown in Figs. 27 and 28. And then the total gear ratio function is shown in Fig. 29. Finally, taking the tooth number

Table 2
Parameters of variable center distance internal gear train.
Pitch radius of gear 2
rc

Center distance
E13

Coefcient
A1

Coefcient
B1

Cycle
nr

10

43

4.016

21.5

1.6

Gear ratio function

3.6

3.4

3.2

3.0

2.8

Angle of intermediate gear

Fig. 27. Gear ratio of the rst step of internal gear train.

10

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135

Gear ratio function g ( )

0.37

0.35

0.33

0.31

0.29

0.27
0

10

Angle of intermediate gear

Fig. 28. Gear ratio of the second step of internal gear train.

of the intermediate gear as 10, the pitch curve and tooth prole of each gear can be obtained, as shown in Fig. 30. The simulation
of the gear train is included in the attachment titled internal_train.mpg.
Notice that, since position of the intermediate gear here is constrained by two concave pitch curves of the input and output
gears, the linear rail constraint for external gear train is no longer held necessary here. Besides, the input and output gear shapes
are also identical in this case.

Total gear ratio function

1.30

1.15

1.00

0.85

0.70
0

Angle of input gear

Fig. 29. Total gear ratio of internal gear train.

Fig. 30. Pitch curves and tooth prole of internal gear train.

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F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

Table 3
Parameters of variable center distance external-internal gear train.
Pitch radius of gear 2
rc

Center distance
E13

Coefcient
A1

Coefcient
B1

Cycle
nr

4.06

23.03

2.1

4.3. Externalinternal gear train

Aside from the gear types mentioned in Sections 4.1 and 4.2, there is still another typical form of two-step gear train, constituted of one external gear step and the other internal gear step. Based on the center distance function mentioned in Section 4.1
and the parameters listed in Table 3, the gear ratio functions of each gear step are shown respectively in Figs. 31 and 32. And the
total gear ratio function is shown in Fig. 33. Take the tooth number of the intermediate gear as 10, the pitch curve and tooth prole of each gear can be obtained as illustrated in Fig. 34.
In fact, through the conguration of a certain number of planet gears, this gear train may constitute the major component of
a low-speed and high-torque hydraulic motor [17]. In this way, the paper provides new methods for the design and analysis of
hydraulic motor. The simulation of the gearing is included in the attachment titled external_internal_train.mpg.
5. Conclusions
This paper proposes the denition of variable center distance gear, establishes its mathematic model, discusses its mechanical
properties and investigates the corresponding gear trains. Major ndings are summarized as follows:
1) Similar to xed center noncircular gear, the axodes of VCDGs are also noncircular cylinders and can be regarded as pitch
curves. Thus, the generation of VCDGs is the same as that of xed center noncircular gear.

Gear ratio function)

0.18

0.17

0.16

0.15

0.14
0

10

12

Angle of intermediate gear

Fig. 31. Gear ratio of the rst step of external-internal gear train.

5.0

Gear ratio function

4.7

4.4

4.1

3.8

3.5
0

10

Angle of intermediate gear

Fig. 32. Gear ratio of the second step of external-internal gear train.

12

14

F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

137

Total gear ratio function

0.72

0.70

0.68

0.66

0.64
0

Angle of input gear

Fig. 33. Total gear ratio of external-internal gear train.

2) The gear ratio for VCDGs can be dened as the ratio between the projection of instantaneous center radius for drive and driven
gears on the line of centers, which is a generalization of xed center distance cylindrical gears.
3) The generation of VCDGs using a circular gear can be taken as a special VCDG drive: circular-noncircular VCDG drive. Therefore, similar to circular gear, a mathematical model can cover both the driving and generation for VCDGs.
4) While for xed center noncircular gear, a pair of pitch curves must satisfy the conjugation condition, for VCDG, they meet a
non-conjugation condition. Hence, two random gears with the same module can properly mesh and implement nonuniform gear drives. Reversely, through matching prepared gears of limited types or changing the installation, variable gear
ratio can be obtained, replacing traditional redesign and manufacture (feature of substitutability).
5) Through examining three substituting methods, the change rule of gear ratio in circular-noncircular gear drives can be obtained:
eccentricity inuences the amplitude; eccentric angle inuences phase and amplitude; tooth number inuences amplitude, phase
as well as period.
6) The two-step VCDG train congured in this paper has the following merits from the perspective of kinematics: I) Fewer gear
elements: only 3 gears are needed while for xed center noncircular gear train, 4 gears are needed and axial interference
should be taken into consideration; II) Good versatility: the input and output gears are both of xed axis, bringing the
same way of installation as in the xed center distance gear train; III) Compact structure: the intermediate gear is constrained
by a linear rail (for external gear train) or only by the geometrical shapes of other gears (for internal gear train); IV) Applicability:
two-step variable center distance externalinternal gear train has already been used in a low-speed and high-torque hydraulic
motor.

Fig. 34. Pitch curves and tooth prole of external-internal gear train.

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F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

Nomenclature
angular velocity of drive and driven gear
1 , 2
1 , 2(1) rotating angle of drive and driven gear
gear ratio function dened as g(1) =2/1
g(1)
v(1)
translational velocity of movable gear
center distance function
E2(1)
initial center distance
E0
kinematic cycle of drive and driven gear
ni ,no
M10(1)M20(1), coordinate transformation matrix
input screw (screw of input gear)
Si
primary part (main vector) and secondary part (dual vector) of input screw
si ,i
output screw (screw of output gear)
So(1)
so(1), o(1) primary part and secondary part of output screw
Sis(1) instantaneous screw
sis(1) , is(1) primary part and secondary part of instantaneous screw
suis(1) direction vector of instantaneous screw axis
rnis(1) position vector of the instantaneous screw axis
ris(1, t) equation of the instantaneous axis
P0(xp,yp) instantaneous center
1 , 2 difference angle between rotating angle and polar angle of instantaneous center
polar angle of instantaneous center of drive and driven gear
1 , 2
rai(1, t) , rao(1,t) axode of drive and driven gear, also the planar pitch curve of drive and driven gear
rg(u, v) tooth surfaces of involute gear generator
radius of base circle for involute gear
rb

pressure angle of involute gear

angle between the tangent vector and position vector of the generated pitch curve
g(1)
length of the generated pitch curve
sa(1)
rev(1, u, t) envelope equation of generated surfaces
ng(u, t) normal vector of the generating surface
n2(1, u,t) normal vector of the generating surface in coordinate system S1
v2(1,u, t) relative velocity between the generator and generated gear
Ag , g , v ,0 parameters that used to be dened the kinematic relationship of VCDGs
i(1), o(1) curvature radius of drive and driven pitch curve when g = 0 and Ag =1
ri(1) ,ro(1) curvature centers of pitch curves when g = 0 and Ag = 1
eccentricities of both gears when g =0 and Ag =1
ei , eo
giving radius of the circular gear in design circular-noncircular gearing
rc
giving tooth number of the circular gear in design circular-noncircular gearing
zc
eccentricity of the circular drive gear
eo
1e ,2e rotating angle of drive and driven gear after change of eccentricity
Ee(1) , ge(1) center distance and gear ratio function after change of eccentricity
eccentric angle of the circular drive gear
f
1f , 2f rotating angle of drive and driven gear after change of eccentric angle
Ef(1) , gf(1) center distance and gear ratio function after change of eccentric angle
tooth number and pitch radius after change of tooth number
zt , rt
1t , 2t rotating angle of drive and driven gear after change of tooth number
Et(1) ,gt(1) center distance and gear ratio function after change of tooth number
E12(1) , E23(1) center distance function of rst and second gear step
center distance between input gear and output gear in two-step gear train
E23
A1 , nr , B1 parameters used to dened the center distance function in two-step gear train
g21(1), g31(1) gear ratio function of the rst and second gear step in two-step gear train
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2016.03.005.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51575416), Innovative Research Team Development Program of Ministry of Education of China (No. IRT13087), High-End Talent Leading Program of Hubei Province (No. 201286), Science and Technology Support Program of Hubei Province (No. 2015BAA039) and Natural Science Foundation of Hubei
Province (No. 2014CFB876) for the support given to this research.

F. Zheng et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 101 (2016) 116139

139

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