CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

This system is made up of the heart, blood, blood vessels, and lymphatics. It is the bodys delivery
system, concerned with circulating blood to deliver oxygen and nutrients to every part of the body.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The purpose of the digestive system is to turn the food you eat into something useful for the body. When
you eat, your body uses this system to digest food so your cells can use it to make energy. The organs
involved in this system include the mouth, stomach, and intestines.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
This system is made up of a collection of glands, including the pituitary and thyroid glands, as well as the
ovaries and testes. It regulates, coordinates, and controls a number of body functions by secreting
chemicals into the bloodstream. These secretions help control moods, growth and development, and
metabolism.

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
This system consists of the skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands. Its main function is to act as a barrier to
protect the body from the outside world. It also functions to retain body fluids, protect against disease,
eliminate waste products, and regulate body temperature.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
This system is made up of muscle tissue that helps move the body and move materials through the body.
Quite simply, muscles move you. Muscles are bundles of cells and fibers that work in a simple way: they
tighten up and relax.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is the control center of the human body. It is made up of the brain, spinal cord, and
nerves. It receives and interprets stimuli and transmits impulses to organs. Your brain uses the
information it receives to coordinate all of your actions and reactions.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The human reproductive system ensures that humans are able to reproduce and survive as a species. It
is made up of organs such as the uterus, penis, ovaries, and testes.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The primary function of the respiratory system is to supply the blood with oxygen in order for the blood to
deliver oxygen to all parts of the body. The respiratory system does this through breathing. It consists of
the nose, larynx, trachea, diaphragm, bronchi, and lungs.

SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeletal system provides the shape and form for our bodies in addition to supporting and protecting
our bodies, allowing bodily movement, producing blood cells, and storing minerals. This system consists
of bones, cartilage, and joints.

URINARY SYSTEM
The purpose of the urinary system is to filter out excess fluid and other substances from your
bloodstream. Some fluid gets reabsorbed by your body but most gets expelled as urine. The organs found
in this system are the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.

ORGAN SYSTEMS: STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS

As part of this course, you must be knowledgeable about various organ
systems, their key structures, and the main functions of each organ
system. These notes will give you an overview of these organ systems and
important information about each system.
CIRCULATORY (CARDIOVASCULAR) SYSTEM:
PURPOSE:
o transport substances throughout the body
nutrients such as glucose from DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
transported to cells
oxygen from RESPIRATORY SYSTEM to cells
carbon dioxide (a waste gas) from cells to
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM for removal
hormones from the ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
immune cells from the IMMUNE SYSTEM
proteins secreted by cells
KEY STRUCTURES:
o heart:
bundle of muscle arranged into four chambers that fill
with blood and contract to pump blood throughout the
body

ATRIUM (ATRIA plural): smaller chambers of the

heart that receive blood from veins; contract to
pump blood into VENTRICLES
VENTRICLES: larger, more muscular chambers of
the heart that pump blood into ARTERIES(blood
vessels that carry blood away from the heart)
o blood
made of two major parts
fluid called serum (made mostly of water, which
allows it to dissolve most substances for transport)
cells
o red blood cells: carry oxygen to cells and
carry carbon dioxide away from cells
o white blood cells: immune cells that fight
infection
o VASCULAR TISSUE (blood vessels): any tube that transports
blood
arteries: carry blood directly away from the heart
arterioles: smaller than arteries; form as arteries branch
into smaller tubes; found between arteries and capillaries
capillaries: smallest blood vessels in body; only blood
vessels with thin enough walls to allow exchange of
substances between blood and cells
venules: tubes that form when capillaries merge together
into larger blood vessels; bring blood back from the
capillaries to the heart
veins: large blood vessels that form as venules merge
into larger blood vessels; deliver blood directly into ATRIA
(chambers of the heart that receive blood)
o VASCULAR TISSUE IN PLANTS: although plants do NOT
have a circulatory system, they do need a means of
transporting substances through the plant structure
xylem: tubes primarily responsible for transporting water
from the roots to the leaves
phloem: tubes primarily responsible for transporting
glucose throughout the plant (in whatever direction is
needed)

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:
PURPOSE:
o allows gas exchange between circulatory system and external
environment
gases move by simple diffusion
oxygen moves into the blood of the circulatory
system
carbon dioxide moves out of the blood of the
circulatory system
o NOTE: this is the only system that allows gas exchange
between the blood and the external environment
KEY STRUCTURES:
o lungs
o bronchi
o bronchioles
o alveoli
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
PURPOSE:
o breaks apart large, complex molecules found in food until they
are small enough to be absorbed into the circulatory system for
transport to cells;
nutrients absorbed are primarily for energy and used in
building other molecules needed by the organism
KEY STRUCTURES:
o esophagus
o stomach
o small intestine
o large intestine
URINARY & EXCRETORY SYSTEM:
PURPOSE:
o waste removal (except for gases, which are removed by the
respiratory system)
KEY STRUCTURES:
o URINARY SYSTEM:
kidneys

urinary bladder

NERVOUS SYSTEM:
PURPOSE:
o transmitting nerve impulses to coordinate an organisms
movements; storing information; controlling perception
KEY STRUCTURES:
o NEURONS: nerve cells; typically organized into large,
interconnected networks to send nerve impulses throughout the
body
AXON: portion of a neuron capable of transmitting nerve
impulses to other neurons
DENDRITE: portion of neuron that receives nerve
impulses from other neurons
o brain
o spinal cord
o sensory organs
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:
PURPOSE:
o controls many bodily processes and helps
maintain HOMEOSTASIS through the production of chemical
messengers called HORMONES
HOMEOSTASIS: an organisms or cells ability to
maintain a stable internal environment
temperature: humans maintain a relatively stable
body temperature by shivering when cold and
sweating when hot
water balance: osmosis plays a major role in the
ability of humans to maintain appropriate levels of
water within their cells
pH:
KEY STRUCTURES:
o GLANDS: structures that secrete HORMONES
o HORMONES: chemical messengers typically produced
by GLANDS in one part of the body and transported by the
circulatory system to a different area of the body where they
will have their effect

INSULIN:
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE:

MUSCULAR SYSTEM:
PURPOSE:
o stimulated by nervous system to cause movements (often by
pulling on the structures of the skeletal system)
CONTRACTIONS: shortening of muscle that cause
movements; stimulated by nerves of the nervous system
KEY STRUCTURES:
o muscles made of contractile proteins (contractile fibers)
organized into groups and often attached to bones of the
skeletal system by tendons
SKELETAL SYSTEM:
PURPOSE:
o provides support and structure for the body
o protects vital organs
o provides attachment sites for muscles of the MUSCULAR
SYSTEM to allow more effective movements
o plays a role in blood cell formation
KEY STRUCTURES:
o bones
o marrow
o joints
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:
PURPOSE:
o allows production of offspring essential to the sustainability of a
species from generation to generation
o provides a means by which genetic information can be passed
from parents to offspring
KEY STRUCTURES:
o gonads
o gametes
o zygote

o ANGIOSPERMS: flowering plants reproduce sexually when a

pollen grain containing a sperm cell fuses (merges) with a egg
cell
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM:
PURPOSE:
o provides a first-line defense against foreign substances
entering the body
KEY STRUCTURES:
o skin
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM:
PURPOSE:
o works closely with circulatory system to filter substances in the
blood and detect infections
o plays a role in returning fluids back to the circulatory system
KEY STRUCTURES:
o lymph nodes
o lymph
IMMUNE SYSTEM:
PURPOSE:
o fights infections and protects organisms from foreign
substances that enter the organism
KEY STRUCTURES:
o macrophages
o B-cells
o T-cells

Body Systems and Their Functions

Organ Systems - There are 11 different organ systems in the human

body. These include the (1) Integumentary (Skin); (2)Muscular;
(3) Skeletal; (4) Nervous; (5) Endocrine; (6) Circulatory; (7) Lymphatic;
(8) Respiratory; (9) Digestive; (10) Urinary; and (11) Reproductive.
o Integumentary System This system includes skin and hair as
organs. The skin protects all of the other organs of the body from

o
o

o
o
o

attack by germs and viruses, and helps the body to minimize water
loss. Hair helps to protect the body from heat loss and protects the
skin from ultraviolet rays (sunburn).
Muscular System This system includes muscles as an organ. There
are three kinds of muscle tissue: skeletal muscles that move the
skeleton, smooth muscles are provide control and movement in other
organs, and cardiac muscles that pump blood through the heart. In
addition, the connective tissue (tendons) connects muscles to bones.
Skeletal System This system includes bones and joints as
organs. This system protects vital organs of the body, such as the
lungs, heart, brain and spinal cord, and provides support for all of the
organ systems. By working with the muscular system, it also allows
the body to move, secure food and protect itself.
Nervous System This system includes the brain, spinal cord and
nerves as organs. It receives information from all the other body
organs and then directs each organ how to operate as a team.
Endocrine System This system includes the pancreas and pituitary
gland. It controls homeostasis (under direction from the nervous
system) by releasing hormones that control chemical reactions in the
body.
Circulatory System This system includes the heart, veins and
arteries as organs.
Lymphatic System This system includes the spleen and thymus. It
removes dead cells and foreign bodies from body fluids.
Respiratory System This system includes the lungs and trachea as
organs. It takes oxygen from the air and transfers it into the blood
stream, and takes carbon dioxide from the blood stream and exhales it
out of the body.
Digestive System This system includes the stomach, small
intestines and large intestines as organs. It processes food into
glucose, minerals and amino acids, which it passes to the circulatory
system for delivery.
Urinary System This system includes the kidneys and bladder as
organs. It maintains a proper balance of water and chemicals in the
blood filters out waste products from the blood and flushes the waste
products out of the body.
Reproductive System This system includes the ovaries and
testes. It allows for the continued survival of the species by creating
new organisms.

Cooperation Between Systems All of the organ systems help one another
to keep the body functioning as a whole. For example, the digestive system
processes food into glucose that every cell of the body uses as food, and the
respiratory system processes air and filters out the oxygen that every cell of
the body needs to burn the glucose to create energy. Neither system could
complete their jobs without the circulatory system delivering the glucose and
oxygen to each cell, or without the nervous system (brain) directing and
coordinating all of these jobs.

The human body is made up of several organ systems that work together as one unit. Ten major
organ systems of the body are listed below, along with several organs that are associated with each
system.
Organ Systems
Circulatory System: transports nutrients and gasses to cells andtissues throughout body.
Cardiovascular: heart, blood vessels, blood
Lymphatic: Lymph vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, tonsils

Digestive System: breaks down food polymers into smaller molecules to provide energy for the body.
Primary organs: mouth, stomach, intestines, rectum
Accessory organs: teeth, tongue, liver, pancreas

Endocrine System: helps to maintain growth andhomeostasis within the body.

pituitary gland, pineal gland, hypothalamus, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland

Integumentary System: protects the internal structures of the body from damage, prevents
dehydration, stores fat and produces vitamines and hormones.
skin, nails, hair, sweat glands

Muscular System: enables movement of the body.

muscles

Nervous System: monitors and coordinates internal organ function and responds to changes in the
external environment.
brain, spinal cord, nerves

Reproductive System: enables the production of offspring through sexual reproduction.

Male: testes, scrotum, penis, vas deferens, prostate
Female: ovaries, uterus, vagina, mammary glands

Respiratory System: provides the body with oxygen via gas exchange between air from the outside
environment and gases in the blood.
lungs, nose, trachea, bronchi

Skeletal System: supports and protects the body while giving it shape and form.
bones, joints, ligaments, tendons, cartilage

Urinary/Excretory Systems: removes wastes and maintains water balance in the body.
kidneys, urinary bladder, urethra, ureters

It is important to keep in mind that these systems don't just exist as individual units. The final product
of these cooperating systems is one unit called the body. Each system depends on the others, either
directly or indirectly, to keep the body functioning normally.

Integumentary
A. Functions
1. protect underlying tissues from injury
2. prevent excessive loss or absorption of water and the consequent effect on
tissues
3. aid excretion and absorption of specific metabolites and ions
4. almost all sense organs are derived in part from the integument
B. Components
skin: composed of epidermis above and the dermis below as well as the
derivatives of these two layers (e.g., scales, hair, feathers)

Skeletal
A. Functions
1. provide a framework for all body sustems
2. provide attachments for muscules, tendons, and fascia
3. enclose and protect vital organs
4. serve as a reserve storehouse for minerals
B. Components
1. bones, cartilage and ligaments divided into the axial skeleton (skull,
vertebral column, ribs) and the appendicular skeleton (pectoral and pelvic
girdles, limbs)

Muscular
A. Functions
1. movement of body and parts
2. maintenance of posture
3. internal transport and expulsion (movement of food through digestive tract,
blood through vessels, germ cells through reproductive tract, bile from
gallbladder, urine from kidneys, feces from alimentary canal)
4. homeostatic adjustments such as size of opening of the pupil of the eye, the
pylorus, the anus, and blood vessels; heat production in some vertebrates
B. Components
1. smooth (nonstriated) muscles of involuntary control found primarily in wall
of digestive tract, genital ducts, and blood vessels
2. cardiac muscle of involuntary control restricted to the heart
3. striated muscles generally under voluntary control found attached to the
skeleton so intimately that the name "musculoskeletal system" is often

applied; tendons (the connective tissue bands that bind striated muscle to
bone)

Digestive
A. Functions
1. capture and physical/chemical disintegration of food
2. absorption, detoxification, alteration, storage, and controlled release of the
products of digestion and metabolism
B. Components
1. alimentary canal: mouth and oral cavity with associated teeth, tongue, and
jaws; pharynx (associated intimately with the respiratory system);
esophagus, stomach. intestine (divided and specialized in various ways)
2. accessary glands: salivary, liver, pancreas

Circulatory
A. Functions
1. transport of materials to and from cells
2. transport, formation, and storage of blood cells for oxygen transport,
defense, and immunogenic functions
3. drain fluids from between cells and return it to the regular circulatory
system from which it leaked
B. Components
1. heart, arteries (from the heart to the tissues), arterioles (small arteries),
capillaries (extremely small vessels connecting arterioles and venules),
venules (small veins), veins (from tissues to the heart
2. spleen (and other sites in various vertebrates, but always intimately
associated with the digestive tract and/or skeletal system)
3. lymphatic system

Respiratory
A. Functions
1. exchange of gases (primarily intake of oxygen and discharge of carbon
dioxide) between the organism and its environment (water or air)
2. various accessary functions from production of sound to nest building
B. Components
1. lungs, gills, and/or skin, depending on which groups of vertebrates are
under discussion; lungs and gills are derived from and intimately connected
with the pharyngeal region of the digestive system

Excretory
A. Functions
1. chemical, and to a lesser extent physical, homeostasis (maintenance of a
constant internal environment) by (a) excreting toxic and metabolic waste
products, especially those containing nitrogen; (b) maintaining proper water
balance; (c) maintaining proper concentration of salts and other substances
in the blood; (d) maintaining proper acid-base equilibrium in body fluids
B. Components
1. kidneys and excretory ducts variously aided by the gills, lungs, skin, and/or
intestines.
2. the mode of development and use of common ducts makes this and the
reproductive system inseparable morphologically so that the two are often
referred to as the urogenital system.
Reproductive
A. Functions
1. formation of zygotes by the union of two gametes to produce new
individuals of the same biological species
B. Components
1. primary sex organs in the form of male (testes) or female (ovaries) gonads
2. secondary sex organs concerned with transport of gametes from their site of
formation to their site of union
3. accessary sex organs assuring union of gametes, such as glands and external
genitalia

Endocrine
A. Functions
1. regulation and correlation/integration of body activities through chemical
substances (hormones) carried by the blood.
2. as opposed to the method of action of the nervous system, the endocrine
system is slower acting, being limited by the rate of blood flow, but it is
capable of long, continuous action.
B. Components
1. a large number of cell types discharge secretions that have regulatory effects
on other cells. In more primitive vertebrates, these cells tend to be widely
scattered in other tissues. More advanced vertebrates have discrete
aggregations of these cells to form endocrine glands.

Nervous
A. Functions
1. regulation and correlation/integration of body activities through conduction
within and between individual cells or neurons, which eventually cause a
response in some other system (especially muscular contractions). The
nervous system is fast acting; conduction may be faster than 90 meters per
second.
B. Components
1. Central nervous system (CNS): brain, spinal cord
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS): craniospinal nerves, which exit from the
protective skeletal sheath of the cranium and vertebrae and may be either of
a voluntary nature (to striated muscles) or involuntary (to smooth muscles);
nerves of the latter type are often referred to collectively as the autonomic
nervous system. Sensory nerves from either complex sense organs (e.g.,
eye, ear) or simple receptors (e.g., cutaneous sensory nerves) enter the CNS
via the craniospinal nerves.
ORGAN SYSTEMS REVIEW
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Components: skin, hair, nails, sweat glands
Function: covers and protects body
Specific features:
-Protection against injury
-Sensory receptors in skin tell about the environment (touch, pressure, heat, cold,
pain)
-Prevents drying out of cells
-Helps maintain body temperature (capillaries and sweat glands in skin)
-Sweat glands excrete water and some wastes
-Skin has Vitamin D precursor, which is converted to Vitamin D by sunlight

SKELETAL SYSTEM
Components: bones, cartilage, ligaments
Function: supports and protects body; muscles attached to bones; provides calcium
storage; site of blood cell formation
Specific features:
-Supports body via bony framework
-Protects delicate vital organs (for their weight, bones are nearly as strong as steel)

-Bones are levers that transmit muscular forces; muscles are attached to bones by
bands of connective tissue called tendons. When muscles contract, they pull on
bones. Bones are held together at the joints by bands of connective tissue called
ligaments.
-Marrow inside some bones produces blood cells (specifically inside flat bones: skull,
ribs and breastbone)
-Bones serve as banks for storage and release of minerals like calcium and
phosphorus

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Components: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle
Function: moves parts of the skeleton, locomotion; pumps blood; aids movement of
internal materials
Specific features:
-Muscle cells contract and become shorter and thicker; because muscle cells are long
and narrow, they are called fibers
-Skeletal muscles are attached to bones; they are voluntary muscles, which make our
bodies move. They are striped or striated in appearance.
-Cardiac muscle is found in the walls of the heart; it contacts involuntarily and is also
striated.
-Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the digestive tract, uterus, blood vessels and
other internal organs. The fibers are not striated and they are involuntary.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Components: nerves and sense organs, brain and spinal cord
Function: receives stimuli from external and internal environments, conducts
impulses and integrates activities of other systems
Specific features:
-Two divisions of the nervous system: central and peripheral
-Central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord
-Peripheral nervous system consists of the sense organs (eyes, ears, taste buds,
olfactory receptors, touch receptors) and the nerves which connect the spinal cord
with the rest of the body. These nerves are classified as either afferent (transmit
information from the periphery to the spinal cord) or efferent (transmit information
from the spinal cord to the periphery).
-Peripheral nervous system is subdivided into two divisions: somatic division
(consists
of receptors and nerves concerned with changes in the outside environment; the sense

organs and afferent nerves) and the autonomic division (regulates the internal
environment; primarily the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems of the efferent
system of nerves).

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Components: pituitary gland, adrenal gland, thyroid gland, hypothalamus gland,
pineal gland, kidney, pancreas, ovaries, testes and other ductless glands (which are
defined as tissues that secrete hormones that diffuse into the blood vessels)
Function: regulates body chemistry and many body functions
Specific features:
-These glands are regulated by feedback control: information about hormone levels
or
their effect is fed back to the gland to regulate the hormone's release
-Endocrine activity is controlled by the hypothalamus gland (which is located in the
brain). This gland links the nervous and endocrine systems. As a result of nervous
stimuli, it secretes several releasing and inhibiting hormones that affect the activity of
the other glands.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Components: heart, blood vessels, blood; lymph and lymph structures
Function: transports materials from one part of the body to another; defends body
against disease
Specific features:
-Consists of two subsystems: the cardiovascular system (includes the heart which
pumps the blood through the blood vessels) and the lymphatic system (which helps to
preserve fluid balance and protects the body against disease)
-Transports nutrients from the digestive system to all parts of the body
-Transports oxygen from the lungs to all the cells of the body
-Transports carbon dioxide and other metabolic wastes from the cells to the excretory
organs
-Transports hormones from the endocrine glands to the target tissues
-Helps maintain normal body temperature
-Helps maintain fluid balance
-Protects the body against disease-causing organisms. The lymphocytes, which are a
type of white blood cell, are formed in the lymph tissue: lymph glands, spleen,
thymus, tonsils and lymphoid tissue in the gut. There are two types of lymphocytes:
T lymphocytes (the mediators of cellular immunity; these cells destroy the invader)
and B lymphocytes (the antibody-producing cells; humoral immunity).

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Components: lungs and air passageways
Function: exchanges gases between the blood and the external environment
Specific features:
-Respiration includes breathing, gas exchange between lungs and blood, transport of
gases through the body by the blood, gas exchange between the blood and the cells
and cellular respiration (the chemical reaction pathways by which chemical energy is

obtained from food).

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Components: mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas
Function: ingests and digests foods, absorbs them into the blood
Specific features:
-Salivary glands, liver and pancreas are not part of the digestive system but secrete
digestive juices into it
-The digestive system involves four major processes:
1. Ingestion-taking food into the mouth, chewing and swallowing
2. Digestion-breakdown of food into smaller pieces (catalyzed by enzymes)
3. Absorption-transfer of digested food through the wall of the intestine and into
the circulatory system
4. Elimination-removal of undigested and unabsorbed food from the body (in feces)
URINARY SYSTEM
Components: kidney, bladder and associated ducts
Function: excretes metabolic wastes; removes substances present in excess from the
blood
Specific features:
-Urine is made by the kidneys; it's transported from the kidneys to the bladder by the
ureters; the bladder stores the urine then the urine leaves the bladder and exits the
body via the urethra.
-95% of urine is water. Also present is urea, which is produced in the liver (urea is the
excretion form of nitrogen waste).
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Components: testes, ovaries and associated structures
Function: reproduction, which provides for continuation of the species