HARMONICS:

THE EFFECTS ON POWER OUALITY AND TRANSFORMERS

Robert D. Henderson, PE
and
Patrick J. Rose
ated harmonics are combined with the
fundamental.

ABSTRACT
The use of non-linear devices such as
rectifiers or converters, power supplies and other devices utilizing
solid-state switching has increased
in industry during recent years.
Unfortunately, the effect of harmonic
distortion has also increased on the
industrial power system as a direct
result. This paper is based upon
actual harmonic studies on 480 Volt,
3 phase, variable speed drives and
the effects of harmonics on transformers in those systems. It also
includes the recommendations for
correction of the problems resulting
from harmonic distortion.

Harmonics are generated when nonlinear equipment draws current in

short pulses. The harmonics in the
load current can sometimes result in
overheated transformers, overheated
neutrals, blown fuses and tripped
circuit breakers (or breakers failing
to trip in some cases).
Complex power system impedances can
also be an indirect source of voltage
harmonics. Voltage harmonics are
produced when non-linear loads draw
harmonic currents that act in an
Ohms law relationship with transformer, cable, and other system impedances.

INTRODUCTION
HARMONIC DISTORTION
Any repetitive distorted (nonsinusoidal) waveform can be broken down into
pure sine waves whose frequencies are
integral multiples of the fundamental
frequency. These pure sine waves that
make up the nonsinusoidal waveform
are the harmonic components. Fourier
analysis is used to determine the
waveforms component sine wave amplitudes and frequencies. Figure 3 shows
a typical example of the distorted
waveform.

DEFINING THE HARMONICS PROBLEMS

A harmonic is a sinusoidal component
of a periodic waveform having a frequency that is an integral multiple
of the fundamental power frequency of
60Hz.
For example, 120Hz is the
second harmonic (2x60Hz), 180Hz is
the third harmonic (3x60Hz), etc.
Harmonic distortion of the power
waveform occurs when the fundamental,
second, third and other harmonics are
combined. The result is voltage and
current contaminations on the sinusoidal waveform. Figure 1 shows simplified fundamental and 3d harmonic
waveforms. When combined, the distorted waveform in Figure 2 results.
A similar but more complex distorted
waveform can be seen when all gener-

There are an infinite number of harmonics that make up a distorted wave.

As the frequencies of these harmonics
increase, their amplitudes tend to
decrease in an inverse manner. The
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is a
short version of the Fourier analysis
which limits the calculated number of
1

harmonic components to 50 (with insignificant error).

5% distortion limit established by

IEEE. The amount of harmonic distortion present at the input of sensiAfter the transform of a nonsinusoid- tive equipment can be decreased by
a1 voltage or current waveform is the use of dedicated circuits to
completed, the harmonic distortion isolate harmonic producing equipment.
resulting from each frequency can be Line reactors, custom designed harcalculated.
Harmonic distortion monic filters or K-rated transformers
describes the condition that occurs can be used with non-linear loads in
when a waveform is changed from its certain cases.
original shape by the addition of a
harmonic frequency. Total Harmonic A detailed harmonic analysis must be
Distortion (THD) describes the change performed to determine levels of
that occurs when all harmonic fre- distortion and resonant frequencies
quencies are considered.
before the correct solution is determined. An analysis may show that exDISTORTION LIMITS
cessive harmonics are being generated
by some equipment that simply need
Three classes have been established maintenance overhauls. Whatever the
on low-voltage (480V) systems by IEEE solution, it will depend on the parin Table 2 of Standard 519-1981 to ticular application, the results of a
set the distortion limits on a volt- harmonic study and a cost analysis.
age waveform that may be allowed from
static power converters. These lim- TRANSFORMERS
its are as follows:
Losses in transformers are generally
Class
DF ( % ) subdivided into core and winding
Special Application
3
losses. Core loss is of minor concern since it is due to flux generatGeneral System
5
ed in the core when a transformer is
Dedicated System
10
excited by the bus voltage. Winding
A "Special Application" is one where loss, which is made up of 12R and
the rate of change of voltage of a stray losses, is generated by curnotch might mis-trigger an event on rents passing through a transformer.
sensitive equipment.
A "Dedicated The winding loss is important because
System" describes buses that supply of relatively high load current disstatic power converters only. Most tortion levels.
industrial facilities fall under the
"General System" class.
12R loss is due to current that passes
through the winding resistance. Eddy
The distortion factor (DF) is the currents are an example of I ~ Rloss
same as Harmonic factor or Total which in turn cause losses that are
Harmonic Distortion. DF is the ratio dissipated as heat. The stray loss
of the total amount of energy con- component is due to ''stray''electrotained in the harmonics to the amount magnetic flux in the windings and
of energy in the fundamental.
other conducting transformer elements.
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO HARMONICS
PROBLEMS
Isolation transformers can be used
with harmonic generating equipment to
Several possible solutions exist fox limit the effects on the distribution
an area of a plant that exceeds the
2

system. The practice of derating a

transformer has been prevalent in
previous years. Recently , "K-rated''
transformers have emerged with a
greater ability to withstand stress
damage and overheating.

lized in the study was made available

by Ed Lethert Associates, Inc. This
software allowed the acquisition of
waveforms, storage, recall from storage, and waveform display, as well as
the calculation of harmonic content
for each waveform obtained. The software performs a Fourier analysis on
the waveform data using the Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT).

The K factor was developed by Underwriters Laboratory in UL1561. The K

factor numbers do not linearly indicate transformer harmonic tolerance.
For example, a K4 rated transformer
has 4 times the eddy current tolerance as a K1 transformer (lowest
rating). A K13 rated transformer has
approximately twice the tolerance of
a K4 and a K30 has twice the tolerance of a K13.

I. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

Generally, most of the harmonic problems found in this study were the
result of aging and failed drive components. These faulty components
raised voltage and current distortion
levels. Higher levels of harmonic
distortion in the power system caused
SCOPE
increased transformer losses, which
The objective of this power quality resulted in overheating. Excessive
analysis was to study the harmonics heat caused rapid deterioration of
generated by the variable speed the insulation, leading to premature
drives for industrial process lines, failure.
and to recommend corrective actions
DRIVE PROBLEMS
for any harmonic problems found. This A .
study was originated because of repeated failure of drive isolation The silicon controlled rectifier
(SCR) drives included in this study
transformers.
are known as 6-pulse converters. An
All three phases of the line and load internal electronic power converter
side of each drive isolation trans- changes electrical energy from one
former were monitored. Both voltage form to another, typically by "chopand current waveforms were recorded ping up" the waveform and reassemfor each phase for problem identifi- bling it in a unique manner. This
cation purposes. A total of 146 change is accomplished by using solvoltage and 146 current waveforms id-state devices such as SCR's, diodes and thyristors to switch six
were captured and analyzed.
times a cycle in the conducting cirThe voltage waveforms were captured cuits of the converter.
using a set of 1 O O O V probes and a
Tektronix 222PS oscilloscope. An AC The presence of strong triplen harmclamp-on 1200A current probe was used onics usually indicates a problem
with the oscilloscope to obtain the with the drives such as nonfunctioncurrent waveforms. Waveform data was ing parts, loose connections, etc. A
transferred to a notebook computer total of eleven drives had triplen
via an RS-232 communications cable harmonics in excess of 9%. The range
where it was saved for future analy- was from 9 . 2 % to 3 4 . 6 % . Figure 4
shows the current waveform and anasis.
lysis for the drive which had the
The harmonic analysis software uti- triplen harmonics of 3 4 . 6 % .
3

A majority of the drives surveyed

lacked some symmetry in their current
waveforms; however, Figure 5 shows an
extreme example. This waveform was
typical for five different drives and
was indicative of faulty SCRs. The
SCRs were later replaced and the
drives operated normally.
B.

DRIVE
10-6
17

TX .
(KVA) CF
118
75

1.70
1.58

THDF

NEW
RTG.

0.83
0.90

98
68

LOAD
105
101

TABLE 2
TRANSFORMER LOAD
(RUNNING LOAD)

The transformers for the two drives

listed in Table 2 have failed since
this study was performed.

TRANSFORMER LOADING

The true RMS voltage and current

readings were used to calculate the
running load (kva) on all of the
isolation transformers. The crest
factor (CF) as obtained from the
harmonic analysis was used to arrive
at the transformer harmonic derating
factor (THDF) as follows:

In addition to these drive transformers, eight

additional drive
transformers were found to be undersized per the manufacturers recommendations.
C.

DO ISOLATION TRANSFORMERS AFFECT K FACTOR AND THD?

The required K factor for these

drives varied between a low of 4 . 3
The THDF was then multiplied by the and a high of 2 0 . 1 . Many sources are
transformer kva to obtain the new indicating that a K factor of 1 3 is
transformer rating. Table 1 shows the sufficient for these types of drives.
transformers that would have been Others have indicated that K-20 is
overloaded had their drives been better. Based upon these findings, K1 3 may be sufficient, assuming the
running at full load:
drives are well maintained throughout
their life; however, it would be safe
NEW
%
TX .
THDF RTG. LOAD to suspect that this probably will
DRIVE (KVA) CF
not be the case. In this case, prop326
105
0.74
440 1.90
14
erly sized overcurrent protection has
100
0.85
255
300 1 . 6 6
17-1
not prevented these transformers from
18-2
75
1.69
0.84
63
102
burning up in the past and probably
will not in the future. A K-20 transTABLE 1
former would certainly be safer, and
TRANSFORMER LOAD
probably less expensive when the cost
(CONNECTED LOAD)
for downtime and the replacement of
Table 2 shows the transformers that transformers is considered.
were overloaded when the running
The THD for these drives varied from
(actual) loads are considered:
a low of 3 . 5 to a high of 1 2 . 9 on the
secondary of these isolation transformers. When compared to THD on the
primary side of the isolation transformer, it appears that the harmonics
are attenuated by factors varying
from a low of 1 . 9 to a high of 5 . 4 .
The average attenuation is approxi4

a bid process, it may be more

desirable to include the drive
type and horsepower in the transformer specification and require the transformer vendor to
size the transformer.

mately 3 .
D.

ADDITIONAL FINDINGS

Figure 6 shows a voltage waveform in

which the line notch in the waveform
crosses the zero axis. Many devices,
Use of isolation transformers
(i.e., other drives, control systems, D.
with a K-20 rating should be
etc.) utilize the 60Hz. frequency to
considered; especially, when
provide the timing for the operation
long term drive maintenance is
of those devices and are sensitive to
not performed.
these types of deviations causing
inaccuracies in control, loss of
Isolation transformers attenuate
memory, or loss of critical timing. E.
THD by an average of 3 times;
This wave form is a clear example of
however, they do not eliminate
why these devices should never be put
harmonics.
on the same isolation transformer
with a drive of this type.
Peak voltage or frequency sensiF.
tive devices should not be put
Figure 7 shows a voltage waveform in
on the load side of drive isolawhich the peak voltage has been
tion transformers. These devices
"flat-topped", lowering the peak
should be fed from their own
voltage. Again equipment critically
clean source of power.
dependent upon the magnitude of the
peak voltage should not be fed from
an isolation transformer serving
drives of this type.
References:
CONCLUSIONS

A.

B.

C.

Predictive maintenance of drives

could be facilitated by periodically observing their current
waveforms for non-symmetry. This
can possibly save the cost of
replacing tranformers and indicate potential problems with
drives before they happen.
Derating of drive tranformers is
necessary when K-factor rated
transformers are not used. Ignoring this requirement can be
costly.

1.

"IEEE Guide for Harmonic Control

and Reactive Compensation of
Static Power Converters", ANSI/
IEEE Standard 519-1981, New
York, 1981.

2.

"IEEE Recommended Practice for

Establishing Transformer Capability When Supplying Nonsinusoidal Load Currents", ANSI/
IEEE C57.110-1986, New York,
1986.

3.

James Moravek, PE and Edward

Lethert, "Field Study of Harmonic Loading in Modern Electrical
Systems", w, March, 1991.

At a minimum, when the drive

transformer is specified, it 4 .
should be sized according to the
manufacturer's
requirements
based upon motor horsepower.
Since the purchase of a transformer quite often goes through
5

Fluke and Phillips, "In Tune

With Power Harmonics", John
Fluke Mfg. Co., Inc., Everett,
Wa.

FIGURE 1
Fundamental and 3 r d harmonic

Fundamental and 3 r d
harmonic combined

1
FIGURE 2
Fundamental and 3 r d harmonic combined

FIGURE 3
TYPICAL DISTORTED CURRENT WAVEFORM

PHASE C

AMPS

Peak :

304

R-M-S:

203

Average:

176

AvQ-RMS:

196

C f : 4.49

6%

F f : 1.16

4%

CBEMA O f : 0.95
F i l e : D2CS-C
D a t e : 10-06-92

Harm

% Dlst

Harm

1.6
1.6
5.0
30.5

3
4
5

6
7

1.5
0.7

10

I. 9

0.9

11
12

8.1
0.9

2.8

13

2.9

Harm

% Dlst

X Dlst

14
15
16
I7

0.1

Harm

X DIst

0.4

18

4.0
0.8

20
21
22
23
24

19

2.5

25

2.0

0.6

1.1

0.5
0.9

2.7
0.8

Processed Through the 5 0 t h Harmonic

T o t a l Harmonic D i s t o r t i o n = 34.1
TH)(15) = 3 3 . 2

Kf(15)

T o t a l Odd = 3 2 . 6
Total Trlplen

4.0

Even = 9 . 9
3.0

K f a c t o r = 7.8

PHASE C

AMPS

F I l e : D2CS-C

D a t e : 10-06-92

FIGURE Q
TRIPLEN HARMONICS

AMPS

PHASE A
~

~~~

Peak :

120

R-M-S:

59

Average:

44

AVg-RMS;

49

C f : 2,02

43%

F f : 1.36

22%

CBEMA D f : 0 . 7 0
f i l e : D1075-A

Date: 10-07-92

Harm

% Dlsl

2
3
4
5
6
7

11.2
32.5
1.3
38.9
2.9
5.9

% Dl6t

9
10
11

12

1 .e
9.0
2.6
6.8
2.5

13

0.5

8
k
k

Harm

X Dlst

Harm

14
1s
16
17

0.9
4.9

20
21

1.1
3.1

0.9
2.6

la

1.5
1.1

22
23
24

0.4
1.7
0.9
1.t

19

25

II D i s t

Procesred Through the 50th Harmonic

Total Harmonic D i s t o r t i o n = 51.8

___

~~

THD(15) = 54.4

Kf(15) = 6 . 2
Even = 14.6

T o t a l Odd = 52.8

Total Trlplen

K factor = 9.0

~~

34.6

PHASE A

WS

F i l e : DlO7S-A

Date: 10-07-92

FIGURE 5
NON-SYMMETRICAL WAVEFORM

PHASE A

AMPS

Peak :

56.8

R-M-S:

50.1

Average:

49.6

AVQ-RMS:

55.2

Cf: 1-13

-2 0 %

F f : 1.01

-9%

CBEMA D f : 1 . 2 5
F i l e : D17CS-A
Date: 10-08-92

Harm

2
3

4
5
6
7

% Dlst

Harm

% Dlst

8
9
10

10.2
1.7

52.0
2.0
27.0
26.7
8.9 t
7.1 *

*
*

11
12
13

6.1
9.9
3.4
4.4

A
t

Harm

X Dlst

14

6.4

15

1.7

16
17
18

4.6
6.4
2.4

19

3.2

Harm
A

X Dlst

20
21

4.6
1.7

22
23
24

3.3
4.7

25

2.4

2.1

Processed Through the 50th Harnonic

T o t a l Harmonic D i s t o r t i o n = 7 0 . 0
THD(15) = 6 8 . 0
T o t a l Odd = 3 2 . 1
Total Trlplen = 11.6

K factor = 21.5

Kf(15) = 6 . 5
Even = 6 2 . 2

PHASE A

WS

F1 l e : DiICS-A

Date: 10-08-92

FIGURE 6
LINE NOTCH CROSSING ZERO A X I S

CIRCUIT

VOLTS

Peak:

0.067

R-M-S:

0.043

Average: 0.039
AVg-RMS: 0.043

Cf: 1,56

10%

F f : 1.11

-0%

CBEMA D f : 0 . 9 1
F i l e : D18MS-AB

Date: 10-08-92

Harm

2
3

I
5
6
7

Harm

S Dlst

Dlst

Harm

X Dlst

Harm

X Dlst

1.5
0.2
1.3
1.4
0.15

8
9
10
11
12

1.4
0.1

14
15

1.5
0.2

20
21

1.6
0.2

1.3
1.9

16
17

1.0
1.3

22
23

1.2
1. o

0.6

18

0.4

24

0.6

1.2

i3

0.5

19

0.7

25

0.8

Processed Through t h e 5 0 t h Harnonic

T o t a l Harnonic D i s t o r t i o n = 8 . 5

Kf(l5) = 1,2

THD(151 = 6 . 0
Total Odd = 6 . 3
Total Trlplen

K factor = 5 . 7

= 1.6

Even = 5 . 7

CIRCUIT VOLTS
F I l e : DlBMS-AB

Date: 10-08-92

FIGURE 7
FLAT-TOPPED VOLTAGE WAVEFORM

CIRCUIT VOLTS
Peak:

0.065

R-hi-S:

0.047

Average: 0 . 0 4 2
AVg-RMS: 0 . 0 4 7
C f : 1.37

-3%

Ff: 1.12

0%

CBEMA Df : I ,03
F i l e : LlMSS-AH

Date: 10-08-92

i '

Ham

Harm

X Dlsl

0.6
0.6

4
5

X Dlst

Harm

X Dlst

Harm

% Dist

14
1s

0.2
0.2

20
21

0.8

0.3
0.1

0.2
3.1

10
11

0.2
0.9

16
17

0.4

22

0.4

23

0.8

0.3

12

0.5

18

0.7
0.3

24

0.2

2.0

13

1 .o

19

0.2

25

0.7

0.5

Processed Through t h e 5 0 t h Harmonic

T o t a l Harnonic Distortion = 5.5

Kf(l5) = 1 , l

THD(15) = 4.9

Total Odd = 5 . 2
T o t a l Trlplen

K factor = 1 . 7

Even = 1 . 9

1.4

C IRCU I T VOLTS
F I le: L l K S - A R

Dale: 10-08-92