Vol 2 - Cont. J. Engineering Sciences

Continental J.
Engineering Sciences 2:1 - 7, 2007

©Wilolud Online Journals, 2007.
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE IMPACT OF IMPURITIES ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

OF RECYCLED PVC EXTRUSION PIPES
Adamu Alhaji Umar1 and Raji Olalere Fatai2

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria, 2Panar Nigeria Ltd
Sharada Industrial Estate, Phase II, Kano, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
This work studied the effect of using recycled scraps in the production of rigid
PVC extrusion pipe. Different formulations with varied percentages of scraps
were extruded and various tests carried out on the sample specimen to determine
their corresponding mechanical properties. It was finally discovered that among
the two sources of scraps, the in-house scraps contained less impurities and
blending about 10% of it with virgin PVC material in the production gave
improved mechanical properties. The second type of scrap, ‘post consumer used
scraps’ were found to have higher percentages of impurities. This and other
factors including continuous re-extrusion, ageing, degradation and poor
formulation from its origin affected the properties.
SIGNIFICANCE:
The study of the effects of using recycled materials provides valuable information to
the industrialist producing PVC pipes in the country. If the use is found satisfactory
it will reduce environmental pollution, benefit manufacturers of these products and
employment opportunities will be provided in the ploughing back of waste to wealth.
KEYWORDS: Polyvinyl Chloride, Thermal Insulator, Extrusion, Die, Extruder,

Archimedean Screw, Clearance, Solid Polymer, Exudates, Homogenize,
Recycling, Tensile strength.
INTRODUCTION
Companies manufacturing PVC extrusion pipes have greatly embarked on using recycled materials
(scraps) whether as 100% or as fraction of the virgin material in order to save material cost in an
attempt to maximize profit. This has greatly introduced impurities into the production. The impurities
have as well greatly affected the service properties of the produced pipes. (Morton, 1993)
This research, therefore attempted to provide useful information on the mechanical properties of those
pipes produced from recycled PVC material and to come up with an illustration as to what extent and in
what form has the impurities affected the extruded products service properties.
The work is restricted to the study of the mechanical properties of some samples of PVC pipes extruded
from 100% virgin materials and that produced with PVC scraps. Various laboratory tests were carried out
on samples and inference made based on the end results.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Although this may be the first work involved with the investigation of the effects of impurities on the
mechanical properties of PVC extrusion pipes, a lot of work was done in general on extrusion of PVC
pipes, processes and machines, and recycling of PVC scraps.
In principle, the extrusion process comprises the forcing of a plastic or molten material through a shaped
die by means of pressure. The process has been used for many years for metals such as aluminum that flow
plastically under deforming pressure and in the earliest form of extrusion process for polymers similar ram-
driven machines were used. In the modern process, however, screws are used to progress the polymer in
the molten or rubbery state along the barrel of the machine. The most widely used type is the single screw
and twin screw extruder machines. The machines consist essentially of an Archimedean screw fitting
closely in a cylindrical barrel, with just sufficient clearance to allow its rotation. Solid polymer is feed in at
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Adamu Alhaji Umar and Raji Olalere Fatai: Continental J. Engineering Sciences 2:1 - 7, 2007
one and the profiled molten extrudate emerges from the other end, inside, the polymers melts and
homogenizes. (Elsevier, 1985)
Extrusion of PVC pipes

Commercial extrusion encompass a wide variety of products, with sheet, film, extrusion coatings, pipe
profiles, wire coatings, cable coatings, and blow mouldings as the most significant uses. From this listing, it
is apparent that any operation in which a continuous form or shape is desired readily lends itself to
extrusion. The final product is dependent on the die and the associated downstream equipment, but the
vehicle for presenting the polymer to the die in the desired state is referred to as the extruder machine.
Single screw machines are in the most widespread use because of their adaptability to virtually all extrusion
forms, and their inherent simplicity, which reflects itself in the ultimate cost. Twin-screw units, which are
more complex in nature, are widely used in processing rigid PVC pipes and profiles, and in compounding
because of their lower operating temperatures. This provides an end product with less heat history and
which is less susceptible to degradation than an equivalent made on a single-screw extruder.
Features of a single-screw extruder.

The screw of an extruder has one or two ‘flights’ spirally along its length. The diameter to the outside of
the flights is constant along the length to allow the close fit in the barrel. The ‘root’ or ‘core’ however is of
varying diameter and so the spiraling channel depth decreases. In general, the channel depth decreases from
feed end to the die end although there are variants for special purpose.
A consequence of the decreasing channel depth is increasing pressure along the extruder and this is what
drives the melt through the die. There are also the die zones, which will be examined separately.
In analyzing a single screw-extruder there are essentially four key elements: the drive train, barrel, screw
and die head.
Recycling Of Extruded Products

At the most basic level, the principles of reducing the impact of any process or product consists of avoiding
waste, recovering waste and recycling waste. In the current competitive marketplace, every industry sector
is aware of the need to avoid and recover waste where possible. The PVC industry is not alone in this but it
is in front in term of recycling waste to minimize environmental impact.
All thermoplastics are by their very nature recyclable and can be reprocessed in a variety of ways
including; Direct product re-use, Mechanical recycling, chemical recycling, In house recycling, Fabricator
recycling, Post consumer used recycling and municipal solid waste recycling.(Elsevier, 1985)
METHODOLOGY
PVC 100% virgin materials was used to extrude some lengths of pipe under the normal setting of the
extrusion machine. Some PVC pipes were produced as well from PVC material mixed with recycled
material. Right from the production stage, the machine parameters were investigated to see changes that
may occur which could in turn have effect on the properties of the extruding pipes.
Laboratory tests were also carried out in both cases (with and without recycled material) in Panar Nigeria
Limited, Sharada, Kano, Nigeria, one of the PVC extrusion pipe producing company.
Each of the produced samples was used for the determination of the following mechanical properties.
• Impact strength at 27oC
• Impact strength at 0oC
• Hydrostatic properties
• Tensile properties.
• Flattening properties.
The results of the above tests were compared with Nigeria Industrial Standards (NIS 76, 1980)
recommendation for rigid PVC pipes and the suitability of using the recycled material in the production of
2
PVC extrusion pipes was ascertained.
Formulation
PVC resin alone cannot be used directly to produce pipes, there are additives to make up the
formulation. These were mixed thoroughly in both hot cold mixers before being discharged for
extrusion. In the experiments, different formulations were attempted in extruding different pipes and
the corresponding tests carried out accordingly. The table below gives the different formulations
attempted.
Table-1: Different Formulations Attempted

Sample A B C D
Virgin PVC (kg) 100 100 100 100
Filler (CaCO3) kg 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0
Stabilizer (PbSO4) (kg) 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2

Stearic acid (kg) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
PVC-scrap (kg) Nil 10.0 20.0 30.0
Carbon-black (kg) 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
Mixing process
The mixing machine comprises of the hot and cold mixing chambers. Each formation was put into the
hot chamber (except the recycled scraps), heated to a temperature of 110oC and continuously stirred
until a homogenous mixture was obtained.
It was discharged into the cold chamber and cooled at a temperature of 35oC. At this stage, the recycled
scrap was added, stirred thoroughly and discharged into barrels for extrusion.
Extrusion Procedure
The extruder machine used for the experiments has the following parameters.
Name: Klockner Windsor Machine Type: Twin Screw Extruder
Model: Kts-120 Output: Maximum Output-120kg/Hr
Torque: 130kgm Maximum Speed: 4rpm-40rpm
Screw Dia: 65mm
Machine parameter set-up

The extruder machine temperatures were set and left for two hours before production commenced.
After successfully heating of the machine, the production was carried out using the different
formulation stated above. For the production of all the samples, the extruder was run at 40 rpm with a
torque of 90kgm.
Laboratory Tests
Laboratory tests were conducted in order to determine and compare the mechanical properties of the
various pipes extruded from the various formulations. The pipe size extruded and used for all the
experiments was having outside diameter of 110mm and wall thickness of 3.2mm.
The first step before conducting the experiment consists of preparation of the sample specimen. Each of the
specimens was a complete section of pipe, cut to a length of 300mm. The end of the specimen was cut
cleaned and squared to the axis of the pipe.
Two cases were considered in all the experimental analysis carried out.
CASE 1: Post-consumer used scraps (i.e. external scraps).
CASE 2: In-house scraps (i.e. internal scraps).
Experiment 1: Test for Impact Strength at 27oC.
3
Aim: The aim of this experiment was to determine the impact strength of the different extruded pipes at
27oC.
TABLE 1: Results of the Experiments and NIS Recommendation
NIS VIRGIN C A S E -1 C A S E -2
A B C D B C D
TESTS
Impact strength 12/14 –
14/14 7/14 0/14 0/14 14/14 13/14 8/14
at 27 oC (strikes) 14/14
Impact strength at 13/14 –
13/14 1/14 0/14 0/14 14/14 12/14 5/14
0 oC (strikes) 14/14
Hydrostatic Property
1hr 1hr 1hr 21min 11min 1hr 1hr 1hr
(22 bar)
Tensile strength at
42.2 46.9 27.3 15.6 15.6 46.9 39.1 39.1
break (MN/m2)
Elongation at break
80 79.6 1.14 0.43 0.23 71.4 53.5 22.7
(%)
Tensile modulus
- 517.86 1062.5 1250 2580 1128.21 1738.10 2433.33
(N/mm)
Toughness (J) - 342.2 58.7 16.0 8.0 123.2 68.6 49.0
Flattening Passed Passed Failed Failed Failed Passed Passed Passed
Apparatus: The apparatus comprises of a falling weight machine, guide rails, a specimen support
comprising 120o Vee block of 230mm in length, meter rule, micrometer screw gauge
(accuracy=0.01mm), and vernier calliper of accuracy 0.02mm.
For pipe size 110mm x 3.2mm, NIS recommended that:

Weight of striker = 2.75kg
Height of fall = 2m (NIS, 76, 1980)
Procedure:
Each specimen was marked with a longitudinal zero line positioned at random with a marker pen, and
from this line, further four parallel lines were marked equidistantly on the specimen. The pipe was
placed on the Vee block so that one of the marked lines is uppermost. .
A weighted striker of mass 2.75kg was allowed to fall freely through a height of 2m on to the marked
line on the pipe specimen centrally mounted on the Vee block support.
If the specimen did not fail as a result of cracking or splitting, it is rotated until the next marked line is
uppermost in the Vee block, and a second blow made by the striker. The process was repeated until all
the marked lines were tested or until a failure was recorded.
Experiment 2: Test for Impact Strength at 0oC

Aim: The aim of this experiment was to compare the impact strength of the different formulated
extruded pipe at 0oC.
4
Apparatus: The apparatus is the same as for test 1 stated above.
Procedure: The mass of the striker and height of free fall were adjusted to the values appropriate to the
diameter of the test piece.
Mass of striker used = 0.5kg,

Height of free fall = 2.0m
The tests procedure was the same as for test 1, only that each specimen was conditioned in a
refrigerator at a temperature of 0oC for 1 hour prior to the test.
Experiment 3: Hydrostatic Test

Aim: The aim of this test was to compare the short-term hydrostatic property for the sample specimen.
Apparatus: The apparatus consists of a bath of water maintained at 270c and the equipment permits the
application of a controlled internal hydrostatic pressure to the specimen to an accuracy of +/- 2%.
• Spanners for tightening the bolts and nuts.
• File for chamfering the pipe edges for easy coupling of the clamps.
Procedure: 600mm length of each specimen was cut, with the edges cut smooth and chamfered, the
pressure clamps were fixed at both ends of the specimen, water was pumped into the pipe to fill it and
pressure applied. The amount of pressure applied was governed by the formula. (Nielsen, 1992)
P = 2.δ.t
dm-t
Where δ = induced or hoop stress of PVC (in bars) P = internal pressure (bar)
T = minimum wall thickness of the pipe (mm) dm = mean outside diameter of the pipe
(mm)
Therefore
δ = 361.2 bar for rigid PVC
t = 3.2mm
dm = 110.2mm
p = 2 x 361.2
110.2-3.2
= 2311.6
107
= 21.6bar
Therefore 22bar pressure will be applied.
The specimen mounted on the apparatus and the calculated internal pressure of 22bar applied and
maintained throughout the test period of 1 hour.
Results: After 1 hour of pressure application to each sample, observations were made and recorded.
Experiment 4: Test for Tensile Properties

Aim: The aim of this experiment is to determine and compare various tensile properties like tensile
modulus, tensile strength, toughness and elongation of the produced specimen.
Apparatus: The tensile tester machine used for the experiment was having the following details.
Name: Oswaldo Filizola Tensile Tester
Model No: 5504
Maximum Capacity: 1000kg
Accuracy: 10kg
It comprises of the following major components.
5
• A fixed part which supports a clamping device

• A moveable part supporting the second clapping device
• Micrometer screw gauge with an accuracy of 0.01mm for measuring the width and
thickness of the specimen.
• Digital vernier caliper for measuring distance (length) of the specimen with an accuracy
of 0.02mm.
Procedure: A sample of 750mm long was taken at a time; it was cut open along a plane through the
axis. The specimen was heated in a thermally regulated oven at a temperature of 130oC for 7 minutes.
At the end of the heating period, the piece of pipe was taken from the oven and placed immediately
between two metal plates at ambient temperature; sufficient pressure was applied for flattening without
bringing about any perceptible variation in the initial thickness. Then a 15mm wide bar was cut from
the plate obtained in the direction corresponding with the longitudinal direction of the pipe.
Each specimen was conditioned at 27oC for 1 hour immediately before testing. Both end of each test
piece hold on to the devices of the tensile testing machine, load was applied on it and the corresponding
length of the calibrated part of the specimen was read and recorded.
From the results the followings were deduced

1. Tensile strength at brake
2. Percentage elongation
3. Tensile modulus
4. Toughness
The results were summarized as shown in the table 1.
Experiment 5: Test for Flattening Properties

Aim: The aim of this experiment was to compare the flattening properties of the extruded different
formulation.
Apparatus: Hack saw, table vice
Procedure: A ring-shape test piece 50mm long of each sample was cut and conditioned at 27 oC for one
hour. The each test piece was flattened diametrically in a parallel plate of the vice until the distance
between the plates was equal to 44mm (40% of the outside diameter of the test specimen) the rate of
loading was uniform and the compression was completed within 5 minutes.
On removal of the load, each test piece was examined for evidence of splitting, cracking, or breaking.
RESULTS
All the tests performed under this section were carried out in the Laboratory Department of Panar Nigeria
Ltd. A PVC pipes manufacturing company located at Sharada Industrial Estate, Phase II, Kano, Nigeria.
The results of the various experiments and the N.I.S values are shown in Table 1.
Discussion
Table 2 below summarized and compares the Nigeria Industrial Standard (NIS) requirements for rigid PVC
pipe production and the test results of all the experiments carried out.
From table 2, one can see that all the samples made From external scraps has a property below NIS
standard (case 1-B, C, D), while under case 2 (B, C, D) the properties of the tests samples varied, but above
all, sample B (made from 10% internal scrap) compete with sample A (made from 100% virgin) in all the
properties.
The experiment has proved the theory that if in-house scrap (scrap free from impurities) is blended with
virgin PVC material, it extend and sometimes improved the properties of the produced products’, this
experiment also shows that at least up to 10% of the recycled scraps can be blended with virgin PVC
compound and used successfully for effective and improved mechanical properties including tensile
strength, impact strength, & tensile modulus.
6
CONCLUSION
This work has studied several cases of production formulations for extrusion pipes and all the necessary
mechanical properties tested in accordance with NIS test procedure. From the experimental analysis,
internal scraps of up to 10% of the virgin PVCcompound is safe for use as it doesn’t set-back the properties
of the products but that itcan even boost some properties such as impact strength, tensile modulus etc.
Industrialists are hereby discouraged from using externally sourced PVC scraps. This work has proved that
this source of the material severely affect the mechanical properties of the extruded product, respective of
proportions used. This is due to the fact that the scraps might have undergone ageing, continuous re-
extrusion, degradation, or poor formulation from its origin. It might have also been affected by UV-light or
it may contain high degree of impurities. (Nazdaneh, 2000, Sombatsompop and Sungsanit, 2003,
Salihu, 1998)
REFERENCES
Morton, J. D.H. (1993). “Polymer Processing”, Chapman and Hall, London
Elsevier, M. J (1985). “Polymer Mixing Technology” Applied Science. London, U.K.
Nigeria Industrial Standards NIS 76, (1980). “Specification For UPVC Pipes For Cold Water Services”,
Lagos, Nigeria
Nielsen L.E. (1992). “Mechanical Properties of Solid Polymers” Van Nostrand, Reinhold, New York
Nazdaneh Y. (2000). “Effect of Repeated Extrusion on Properties and Durability of Rigid PVC”.
Konferenspresentation, MoDeSt, Palermo, Italy, 1-7 September.
Sombatsompop N and K. Sungsanit (2003). “Structural Changes and Mechanical Performances of

Recycled PVC Bottles Exposed to UV Light at 313 nm” Standard Publishers, Nai Sarak, Delhi, India.
Salihu O.S. (1998). “An Investigation of Service Properties of Recycled Steel Scraps Project.” Unpublished
B.Eng Mechanical Engineering Thesis, B.U.K, Kano. Nigeria
Received for Publication: 10/03/2007

Accepted for Publication: 05/06/2007
Corresponding Author:
Adamu Alhaji Umar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria
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Continental J. Engineering Sciences 2: 8 - 14, 2007
INVESTIGATION OF GROUNDNUT SHELL AS A COMPOSITE MATERIAL
Aji I.S Ngala G.M. Nwankwo H

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Bornu State.
ABSTRACT
The mechanical properties of groundnut shell were investigated based on varying
volume of shell and Urea formaldehyde. Tensile and compressive composite
samples were produced from aluminium mould. The material used for the work
were dried grinded groundnut shell, Urea formaldehyde (uf), digital weighing
scale, mould material, metallic sieve, electric oven and lubricating oil. Several
proportions by volume of shell and Urea formaldehyde was tested which gave
yield strength of 41.56mpa, 46,35mpa; 39.27mpa, 43.20mpa; 41.14mpa,
49.08mpa; 35.22mpa, 40.21mpa; 29.93mpa, 35.09mpa with a compressive
strength of 89.27mpa, 94.37mpa; 72.38mpa, 82.51mpa; 80.65mpa, 92.51mpa;
64..34mpa, 74.22mpa; 59.48mpa, 68.64mpa, was achieved. An established value
of 12% volume of shell plus 79g of urea formaldehyde in the sample gave the
best or optimum composite material for application as a particle board or roofing
material. Beyond the established value, the strength of sample begins to diminish.
It can therefore be inferred that, groundnut shell can be use for low strength
application in the building industry most likely as a particle board, roofing sheet
and panel board. This material is, light in weight, and resistant to corrosion. The
addition of fillers to the shell, e.g. Wood dust or calcium carbonate would
improve the composite adhesion; likewise reduction of high grams of Urea in the
solution to appropriate ratio may improve adhesion greatly, hence increasing the
strength of the composite.
KEYWORDS: mechanical properties, groundnut shell, Tensile and compressive

composite
INTRODUCTION
There are many situations in engineering where no single material will be suitable to meet a particular
requirement. However, two or more materials in combination may posses the desired properties and
provide a feasible solution to the material selection problem.
Composite materials can refer to any multi-phase material; it is usually restricted to “tailored made”
material in which two or more constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic
level while forming a single component (Veron, 1992).
Nanocomposites are materials that are created by introducing nano-particulate into a macroscopic
sample material. The nanomaterial tends to drastically add to the electrical, thermal and mechanical
properties of the original material.
There are two categories of constituent materials matrix and reinforcement. At least one portion
(fraction) of each type is required. The matrix material by and supports the reinforcement materials by
maintaining their relative position. The reinforcement impact special physical (mechanical and
electrical) properties to enhance the matrix properties. Engineering composite materials must be
formed to shape. This involves strategically placing the reinforcement while manipulating the matrix
properties to achieve a melding event at or near the beginning of the component life cycle.
Many commercially produced composite use a polymer matrix material often called a resin or resin
solution. There are many different polymers available depending upon the starting raw ingredients.
There are several broad categories each with numerous variation. The most common categories are
known as polymers, polyester, formaldehyde (pf), Urea formaldehyde (uf) and others. These matrix is
often a resin that binds the fibre together, giving the material it’s tensile strength, transferring load from
broken fibre to unbroken ones and between fibres that are not oriented along lines of tension. Also,
unless the matrix chosen is especially flexible, it presents the fibre from
8
Aji I.S et al: Continental J. Engineering Sciences 2: 8 - 14, 2007
Table 1: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GROUNDNUT SHELL

Constituents Cellulose Carbohydrate Protein Minerals Lipids
Percentage 65.5 21.2 7.3 4.5 1.2
(%)
(Reddy, 1998)
buckling in compression. Some composite use an aggregate instead of, or in addition to fibres. In terms
of stress, any fibre serves to resist tension, the matrix serves to resist shear and all material present
serves to resist compression. Composite materials are divided into two main categories; short fibre
reinforced materials and Continuous fibre reinforcement materials. (Wikipedia Com., 2006).
This paper is aimed at producing a composite material using groundnut shell for low strength use
suitable for practical engineering application. This is done by the determination and comparism of the
tensile and compressive strength of the groundnut fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composite based on
the variation in proportions by volume of the groundnut shell fibre to that of a matrix material
reinforcement agent.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Groundnut botanically belongs to Araches hypo Gaea Linn of leguminous family. Groundnut is self-
pollinated; annual, herbaceous legume crop. A complete seed of groundnut is called pod and contains
one to five kermils which develops underground in a needlelike structure called peg which grow into
the soil and then converts into a pod. Groundnut has taproot system which has many nodules, present in
root and lateral roots. These nodulus contains Rhizobium bacterial, which are symbiotic in nature and
focus atmosphere nitrogen. Outer layer of groundnut is called groundnut shell: The shell constitute
about 25-35% of the pod. The seed accounts for the remaining portion (65-75%). The colour of the
testa varies from red, brown, purple to white depending on the type. The kermel and germ are normally
white in colour.
There are four botanical types of groundnut namely Valenicia bunch, Spanish bunch, Virginia runner
and Virginia bunch. They differ in their chemical composition and oil quality.
Virginia bunch type seed are richer in oil and chemical content followed by Spanish bunch; Valenia
protein content is higher, Virginia runner have higher soluble sugar while Valenia type has highest
oleic acid.
In general, it can be stated that Virginia runner types have better chemical composition with balanced
oil quality. (Graham et al, 2002).
Various means of shelling groundnut pod to obtain the husk have been in practice. These include both
mechanised method and traditional methods despite it’s tediousness; these include pounding in motar
with pestle, beating with stick on a flat surface and cracking with a stone on top of another stone or
hard flat surface. (Atiku, et-al 2004)
Over the years, mechanical method of shelling have been developed to solve the difficulties associated
with shelling groundnut.
It has been reported that south America was the place from where cultivation of groundnut originated
and spread into Brazil, southern Bolivia and North-western Argentina. Groundnut was introduced by
the Portuguese from Brazil to west Africa and then to south-western in the 16th century (Pandey, 1998).
Though different types of groundnut differ in chemical composition and colour, groundnut shell of
different types of groundnut does not differ in any aspect, the chemical composition, colour, strength,
and general properties of the different types are the same. (Akobundu, 1987)
Over the years, groundnut shell constitute of the common solid waste especially in the developing part
of this world. It’s potential as a useful engineering material has not been investigated despite the fact
that various resins that could be used as addition are available. Presently, resins are used in the
production of particle board and woody composite.
9
Resins for particle board and woody composite include urea formaldehyde (uf), phenol formaldehyde
(pf) and to a much lesser extent melamine formaldehyde (mf). The type and amount of resins used for
particle board depend on
TABLE 2: Various proportion of shell, Urea formaldehyde and strength of sample.

Shell Uf Failure Yield failure force Compressive
Vol Volume force strength compression strength (mpa)
S/N fraction fraction tensile test (mpa) (KN)
o (%) (g) (KN)
1 6 74 5.37 41.556 5.40 89.270
2 6 79 5.99 46.354 6.01 94.370
3 8 74 4.10 39.271 3.89 72.381
4 8 79 4.51 43.201 3.14 82.514
5 10 74 4.15 41.140 3.04 80.647
6 10 79 5.93 49.081 4.20 92.506
7. 12 74 4.65 35.223 2.84 64.342
8. 12 79 4.22 40.214 2.95 74.224
9 14 74 3.74 29.927 2.13 59.482
10 14 79 3.85 35.088 2.20 68.639
the type of product desired. Based on the weight of dry resins, solids and Oven dry product weight of
the particle resin content is usually in the range of 4 to 5% but most likely 6 to 9% resins are usually
introduced in water solution containing about 50 to 60% solids. Beside resins, paraffin wax emulsion is
added to improve moisture resistance. The amount of wax ranges from 0.3 – 1% based on the Oven dry
weight of the particle diameter. (Maloney, 1989).
For the purpose of producing a composite material/product, uniformity, consistency and predictability
are accomplished by the reduction of the separated portions of plants into small relatively uniform and
consistent particle or fibre where effect of different will average out. Size reduction is sometimes
augmented by chemical treatment designed to weaken the bounds between the component. (Brent and
Chow, 1994)
Melamine formaldehyde resins are used as moulding powder and for the manufacture of laminate
adhesive and binders for shell moulding. (Ibhadode, 2001).
Urea Formaldehyde (uf) is made by condensation reaction between Urea and formaldehyde. It’s
powder is prepared in a similar way to phenol formaldehyde. The resins are light in colour such that
pigment may be added to give a wide range of colour. It gives hard and rigid material. It has good
resistance to most chemical. These resins are used in the manufacture of laminate as adhesive and
binders.
MATERIALS AND METHOD

Materials
The materials and equipment employed in this study are dried grinded groundnut shell. Maloney, 1989
established that for a composite testing, the sample range should be from 0.2 – 0.4mm in thickness, 3.0
– 30mm in which and 10.0 – 60.0mm length. Urea formaldehyde (uf), digital weighing scale with it’s
measuring capacity range from 0 – 100 grams, mould material made of pure aluminium, metallic sieve,
electric oven, lubricating oil and Graduated Beaker.
Methodology
The strength of the composite largely depends on the preparation of the shell. The shell are collected
and Sun dried, hammer milled to reduce it’s size to smaller ones and then grinded in a grinding
machine and sieved to obtain a fine uniform shape and size.
10
The mould was constructed solely for producing the composite material. The material selected for
fabrication is aluminium due to its availability, relatively low cost and resistance to corrosion. The
design and construction was carried out with technical consideration to enhance precision and accuracy
in mould cavity dimensioning.
The aluminium mould was fabricated from sand casting process; and was further machined for
acceptable surface finish on which the composite finish depends on. The mould consist of a cope/male
and a drag/female, each with semi-circular groove, symmetrical when put together.
Plate 1: Fabricated Aluminium Mould Plate 2: Sample Specimen
The groundnut shell and resin were mixed in varying proportions as seen in table 1. The mixed sample
is then compressed into the produced mould properly. Compression is done carefully to avoid build up
of air gap within the sample. The cope is then opened and sample is carefully removed from mould and
sun dried for 8hrs in a solar temperature of 38oC.
Result analysis and calculation

The strength and modulus of a composite having aligned fibre are dependent on the direction in which
they are measured (anisotropic). These properties are demonstrated mathematically by an isostrain
model known as the law of mixture. This law applies for determining the modulus of elasticity of a
continuous and aligned fibrous composite in the longitudinal direction. It is expressed as
E c = E mVn + E f V f ...............(1) (Calister ,1997)
Where E = Elastic modulus and V = Volume fracture
Subscripts c, m, and f represent composite, matrix and fibre respectively. Since the composite consist
of only matrix and fibre phase, i.e
Vm + V f = 1....................... 2
Therefore eqn (1) becomes.
E c = E m [1 − V f ] + [ E f V f ].............. 3 (Callister ,1997)
The internal bond strength (dry/wet) is 1.3 – 1.4 N/mm2 for bamboo mat sheet (sample subjected to 3
hrs boiling is dried to 12% moisture content and tested and load heaving capacity for the same bamboo
mat sheet is 4.8N/mm of width (Span length 1000mm) (bmtpc.org,2006).
11
Further more, the thickness of fibber glass roofing sheet is 1.1mm and has tensile strength of
1120kg/cm2 and compressive test of 69kg/cm2 (mamata.com;2006).
Toughness and Fibre Pullout

Toughness is a measure of amount of energy absorbed by a material as it fractures; the total area which
the material tensile stress-strain curves indicates toughness. This property does not involve in linear
combination of toughness of individual constituent of composite material as demonstrated by the law
of mixture although application in determining the toughness of the composite material is described as
Ge = V + Ge + [1 − V f ] Ge m ................ 4
This does not hold always as explained by Ashby and Jones 1997.
Establishing the relevant equation to be employed for determining the proportion of constituent in
composite sample;
From Archimedes principle:
M i = ρ iVi ..................... 5
and V f = Vi VT ....................... 6 Or Vi = V f VT
(Callister, 1997)
The total volume of the mould cavity Vf is constant.
VT = Vuf + Vo
where m = mass, ρ = density, V = volume and Vf = volume fraction
Subscript i, o, Uf, and T denote constituents shell, Urea formaldehyde and total respectfully.
Substituting equation (6) into (5) we have
mi = PiV f Vt ........................... 7
Volume of mould cavity (VT)
πd 2 L
VT = ......................... 8
4
π x (827 − 12) x 15.5
therefore = 156.152mm2
4
Area of mould cavity (A)
πd 2
A= ............................. 9 (Callister; 1997)
4
Therefore, A = (12.827)2 x п = 129.223mm2
4
12
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Yield Strength (Tensile) = F = Failure force (KN)

A (mm2)
(Density Puf = 0.9gkm2) (Ababio; 1995)
and Area = пd2/4 (Callister, 1997)
Where d = 12.827mm
Therefore A = (12.827)2 x п = 129.2mm2

4
Compressive Strength (Compression) Failure force (KN)

Area (mm2)
and Area = L X B (Callister, 1997)
where L = 3.175 and B = 19.05

A = 3.175 x 19.05 = 60.484mm2
The table below indicates the improving strength of groundnut shell composite due to varying
proportion of both shell, and Urea formaldehyde content.
Table 2 shows the various proportions of shell and Urea formaldehyde used.
From the result of this study as presented in table 1, it was observed that groundnut shell composite is
not as strong in tensile strength as it is in compressive strength due to or because of it’s brittle nature.
Furthermore it was also observed that increasing the volume of the shell further increase the strength of
the composite. As seen in table 1, the more the volume of urea formaldehyde in the sample, the greater
it’s strength. An established volume of 12% volume of shell plus 79g of urea formaldehyde in the
sample gives the best or optimum composite material for application as a particle board or roofing
material. Beyond the established value, the strength as observed, begins to diminish
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The mechanical properties of groundnut shell composite were investigated based on varying proportion
of shell and Urea formaldehyde. Composite and compressive sample was produced from aluminium
mould, several proportion by volume of shell and Urea formaldehyde were used and an established
volume of 12% volume of shell plus 79g of urea formaldehyde in the sample gives the best or optimum
composite material Various steps were taken to achieve these composite, they include drying grinding,
weighting, mixing oven drying (Heating) and testing (Tensile and compressive strength test).
This investigation has shown that groundnut shell can be employed as composite material for low
strength application. The relatively low strength of groundnut shell composite should not be seen in
negative perspective, because there are several non-structural application where the strength properties
of groundnut composite would meet the technical and product requirement, particularly where the
competitive price level, light weight, flexibility, non – degradability and corrosion resistance of
groundnut shell composite is taken into consideration. Some application of this kind of material can be
in the production of particle board, roofing sheet e.t.c.
Groundnut shell composite can be used but certain critical issues should still be needed to address and
resolved concerning.
13
i) The addition of fillers to the shell e.g. wood dust or calcium carbonate (CaCo3) to
improve the composite adhesion.
ii) Reduction of high level or grams of Urea in the solution or composite. This is because
high level Urea in the composite reduces adhesion and strength of the composite greatly.
REFERENCES
Akiii, A. O. I. (2001). Introduction to manufacturing technology. 2ND Edition, AMBIK Publishers.
Benin City.
Nigeria.
Ashby, M. F.; Jones D. R. H. (1997) Engineering material an introduction to microstructures,

processing and design,
Oxford University Press, London
Atiku A., Aviara N. and Haque M. (2004) – Performance evaluation of Bambara Groundnut shelling
machine. CIGR Journal of Scientific Research and Development
Brent, E. S. H; Chow P. (1994), Agricultural Fibres in Composition panels, processing 27th

international particle
board / composite materials Symposium Washington State University, Pullman.
Callister, W. D. J. (1997). An introduction to engineering material, 1st edition, John Wiley and Sons
U.S.A.
Maloney, T. M. (1989). Modern particle board and dry process fibreboard manufacturing, Miller
Freeman Publication, San Francisco.
Osei Y. Ababio (1990) – New School Chemistry, AFRICANA-FEB Publishers Limited, Onitsha -
Nigeria
Veron, B. J. (1992). Introduction to Engineering materials 3rd Edition Macmillan Education Limited.
Graham F, John E.O. and Golob P (2002). Principles and practice of post harvest technology. From
C.H.I.P.S.
Reddy; Chandramouli P. (1988). New Panel Board from agricultural by – Product. Word Consultation
on wood based panels. Food and Agriculture Organisation of United Nations. New York.

Aji I.S
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Bornu State.
(suleimanaji@yahoo.com;
14
EVALUATION OF THE REFRACTORY CHARACTERISTICS OF DUKKU

CLAY DEPOSIT
A. M. Yami , M. A. B. Hassan and S. Umaru

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Technology, P.M.B 2076, Yola,
Adamawa State. NIGERIA.
ABSTRACT
Dukku clay was investigated to determine its refractory characteristics. The result
shows that it has a bulk modulus of 9.27g/cm2, porosity of 27.84%, linear
shrinkage of 1.27% and cold crushing strength of 80.20kg/cm3.A thermal shock
resistance of 25 cycles was obtained with specific gravity of 2.69g and
refractoriness of 1300oC.The sample was also analyzed to determine its chemical
composition by atomic absorption spectra photometry method (AAS969). The
result of the chemical analysis shows that the alumina (Al2O3) content of the
sample is 12.88% while the silica (SiO2) content is 67.90%. The results obtained
showed that Dukku clay can be used as refractory material for metals which
melting points do not exceed 1300oC .Dukku clay can also be used for ceramics,
pottery and building bricks production.
KEYWORDS; Ceramics, Clay Deposit, Firebricks, Refractory materials,

Refractoriness.
INTRODUCTION
The demand for refractory materials for furnace building as well as other related high temperature
processes is enormous. Hassan and Adewara (1993) reported that over 80 percent of the refractory
materials are used by the metallurgical industries for the construction and upkeep of furnaces, reactor
vessels, kilns and boilers. This is beside the fact that refractory materials are also used in non
metallurgical industries such as cement, glass and hardware industries.
Refractory materials are generally considered as inorganic materials consisting of mixtures of oxides
obtained from naturally occurring minerals and capable of withstanding very high temperature
conditions without undue deformation, softening or change in composition. The most important aspect
of a refractory is that it must be able to provide necessary thermal properties, support winding (electric
resistance) and be capable of holding solid or liquid metals without entering into any undesirable
chemical reaction with them. Thus refractory materials are characterized by the ability to withstand not
only the heat but also chemical attack, abrasion, impact, and shock caused by thermal stresses.
Generally, refractory materials are classified according to their properties and characteristics. These
classifications can be approached in a number of ways. A more detailed classification which demand
consideration of the required end use and a guide to refractory compounds and the raw materials from
which they are derived have been fully discussed by Coope (1986). Major classes of refractories are
based on methods of manufacture, shape, national, and international standard, refractoriness and
mineral composition.
Refractory products are required for various processes in chemical, ceramic, petrochemical, oil and iron
and steel industries.
Nigeria is endowed with abundant mineral resources. These resources have not been sufficiently used.
Nnuka and Adekwu (1998) reported that Nigeria spends over 2.27 billion Naira every year on the
importation of refractories. The economic situation in the country has made it imperative for inward
sourcing of raw materials. Some local clay deposits have been investigated with good results.
15
A. M. Yami et al: Continental J. Engineering Sciences 2: 15 - 21, 2007
Studies on the Otukpo clay in Benue State by Nnuka and Agbo (2000) showed that the clay is
Kaolinitic and belongs to the medium duty fire clay class of aluminium silicates. Agha (1998), reported
that clays from Chanchanga, Bida, Suleja and Zungeru have better refractory and physical properties
compared with imported ones
Table 1: Chemical Composition Analysis of Dukku Clay Deposit.

Constituents Percentage
SiO2 67.90
Al2O3 12.88
Fe2O3 2.60
MgO 1.31
Na2O 1.97
K 2O 0.06
LOI 6.60
Tests on clay deposits in Onibode, Ibamajo, Ijoko in Ogun State and Are in Ekiti State by Omowumi
(2000), revealed that their properties compared favorably with imported refractories.
In view of reasons above and the fact that the Dukku clay deposit in Gombe State, is used only for local
pottery and building bricks, investigation of its refractory properties is being conducted so as to reveal
its other potentials for the refractory industry.
EXPERIMENTATION
All the experiments for this work were carried out at the National Metallurgical Development Centre,
Jos, Plateau State.
The clay sample was dug from the deposit site by the use of a hoe. The sample was sun dried to reduce
the moisture content and enhance grinding. 500g of the sun dried sample was ground to powder form a
jaw crusher. 400g of the sample was taken for the physical property tests while the remainder was
further ground to finer particles and then used for the chemical composition tests. The sample was
weighed and dried in an oven at 110oC for one hour to ensure complete evaporation of the moisture.
The sample was then mixed with 8% water and stirred to form a homogeneous plastic paste. A
cylindrical mould of steel plate, 50mm in height and 50mm diameter (American foundry mans society
standard) was constructed. The plastic paste was then poured into the mould and rammed using a 3kg
rammer. A suitable plunger was used to extrude the molded sample from the oil lubricated mould.
The prepared sample was dried in the oven at a temperature of 110oC to ensure evaporation of
moisture. It was further fired in a muffle furnace at intervals of 100oC for every 10 minutes till the
temperature of 1200oC was reached. The sample was then soaked at 1200oC for 8 hours and allowed to
cool in the furnace for 24 hours.
EQUIPMENT USED
The equipment used in this investigation include, hoe, jaw crusher, ball mill, sand mixer, sand rammer,
sieve shaker (type 4180), carbolite furnace, electric balance, cold crushing strength machine, disc die,
hydraulic press and atomic absorption spectra photometry machine (model 969).
Chemical Composition Analysis
The ground sample was dried mixed with water and filtered. The analysis was performed on the atomic
absorption spectrometry machine and the percentage composition of the various oxides recorded.
16
Table 2: Physical Properties of Dukku Clay Deposit.

Properties Values
Bulk density (g/cm2) 1.91
Apparent porosity (%) 27.15
Thermal shock resistance (cycles) 19
Linear shrinkage (%) 1.87
Specific gravity (g) 2.690
Cold crushing strength (kg/cm) 59.99
Refractoriness (oC) 1300
Cold Crushing Strength
This is the load at which cracks appear in the specimen. The test piece was prepared to standard size of
76.2mm cube on a flat surface. The test piece was fired in a furnace at 1100oC and the temperature
maintained for 6 hours. It was cooled to room temperature and then placed on a compressive strength
tester. Loads were applied axially by turning the hand wheel at a uniform rate until failure occurred.
The load that caused cracks was then recorded.
Cold crushing strength (CCS) was calculated using the formula,
MaximumLoad ( KN )
CCS = ………………………. (1)
2
Cross sec tionalArea( m )
Bulk Density
Bulk density is the weight per unit volume of a refractory material including the volume of open pore
space.
A molded brick of the specimen measuring 60mm by 60mm by15mm was prepared. The brick was air
dried for 24 hours and then oven dried at 110oC, cooled in desiccator and weighed to the accuracy of
0.001 (dry weight), after which it was transferred to a beaker and heated for 30 minutes to assist in
releasing trapped air. It was then cooled and the soaked weight (W) taken. The specimen was then
suspended in water using a beaker placed on a weight balance and the suspended weight(S) measured.
The bulk density was then calculated using the relation,
Dρ w
BulkDensity = …………………………………… (2)
W −S
Where,
D=Dried weight. ρw=
Density of water.
W=Soaked weight.
S=Suspended weight.
Thermal Shock Resistance
The sample was placed in a muffle furnace preset at 1200oC for 10 minutes. It was then cooled outside
the furnace for another 10 minutes and observed for cracks. This process was repeated until cracks
were observed on the specimen.
17
Table: 3. Comparison of the Chemical Properties with International Standards.

Chemical Dukku *Fireclay +Refractory bricks
Constituents
SiO2 (%) 67.90 55-75 51-70
Al2O3 (%) 12.88 25-45 25-40
Fe2O3 (%) 2.6 0.5-2.0 0.5-2.4
MgO (%) 1.31 <2.0
K2O (%) 0.06 <2.0
LOI (%) 6.6 12-15
*Gilchrist (1977), +Grimshaw (1971)
The number of heating and cooling (cycles) before cracking occurred was recorded and this constitutes
the thermal shock resistance.
Porosity
Porosity is the percentage relationship between the volume of the pore space and the total volume of a
refractory.
A prepared clay sample was air dried for 24 hours. The piece was oven dried at 110oC for 24 hours. It
was then fired to a temperature of 1100oC, cooled and transferred into a desiccator and weighed to the
nearest 0.01g (Dried weight). The specimen was then transferred into a 250ml beaker in an empty
vacuum desiccator. Water was then introduced into the beaker until the test piece was completely
immersed. The specimen was allowed soak in boiled water for 30 minutes being agitated from time to
time to assist the release of trapped bubbles. The specimen was transferred into an empty vacuum
desiccator to cool. The soaked weight (W) was recorded.
The specimen was then weighed when suspended in water using beaker placed on balance. This gave
the suspended weight (S). The apparent porosity was calculated using,
W −D
ApparentPorosity = × 100% …………………………. (3)
W −S
Where,
W=Soaked weight
D=Dried weight
S=Suspended weight
Shrinkage
The test piece was made into a standard slab and a line marked along the length of slab. The distance
between the two ends of the slab was measured with a vernier caliper. The sample was air dried for 24
hours and oven dried at 110oC for another 24 hours. It was then fired at 1100oC for 6 hours. The test
piece was cooled to room temperature and measurement taken. The fired shrinkage was calculated
from the relation,
D L − FL
FiredShrinkage = ………..…………………………. (4)
DL
Where,
DL=Initial fired length.
FL=Final fired length.
18
Table 4: Comparison of the Determined Properties of Dukku Clay

with Some Established Refractory Standards.
Constituents Dukku *Fireclay
Values
Bulk density g/cm2 1.91 1.71- 2.1
Apparent porosity % 27.15 20-30
Thermal shock resistance cycles 19 25-30**
Linear shrinkage % 1.87 7-10
Specific gravity g 2.690
Cold crushing strength kg/cm 59.99 15,000**
Refractoriness oC 1300 1500-1700
*Gilchrist (1977), **Omowumi (2000)
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity test is usually conducted on materials that do not dissolve in or get attacked by
water. The test piece is cut from within the core of a refractory shape and crushed to a size not
exceeding 3mm. The crushed material is then mixed and reduced to a 50g sample by cooling and
quartering. The material obtained in the above state of fineness is dried at 105 – 110oC to a constant
weight and placed in a glass stoppered weighing bottle to weigh 8 – 12g sample. A pyconometer with
stopper was dried at 105 – 110oC, cooled in a desiccators and its weight (W) noted. The pyconometer
was filled with distilled water at room temperature. The stopper was put in place. Its outer surface is
dried that has overflowed through the stopper and its weight (W1) noted. The pyconometer was
emptied of water and dried. The test sample was put in it from the weighing bottle and its weight (W)
noted, with the stopper in position. The pyconometer was filled with distilled water to about half its
capacity and boiled gently for 10 to15 minutes to avoid loss of sample due to popping. The
pyconometer was then filled with distilled water and cooled to room temperature in a water bath. The
stopper was put in position and excess water overflowing the pyconometer through its stopper was
wiped off. The outer surface of the pyconometer was dried with a towel. The weight (W2) of the
pyconometer containing the test sample and water was recorded. The specific gravity was then
calculated from the relation below,
W − WP
SpecificGravity = …………………… (5)
(W − WP ) − (W2 − W1 )
Refractoriness
This is the measure of the fusibility of a material and indicates the temperature at which the material
softens.
The parametric cone equivalence (PCE) method was used to determine the refractoriness of the Dukku
clay. The clay sample was dried and ground to pass a 30 mesh British standard (B.S 1610R1942) test
sieve and 50g was further ground to pass a 72 mesh sieve. Sieving was frequent to avoid excess of very
fine powder. The sample was then thoroughly mixed, made into a plastic mass with water and an
organic binder (0.5% maximum ash content) was added. The test piece was then formed in a suitable
mould. Calcinations of the clay were conducted at 1000oC. The mould was shaped into a pyramid with
a triangular base. One edge of the pyramid was perpendicular to the base and 3.81cm long each side of
the triangular base is 1.27cm. A tolerance of 0.16cm was allowed in the dimensions of the base.
The test piece was mounted at the center of a refractory plague and fixed with cement consisting
calcined alumina. The edge of the test piece was vertical to the base. British standard pyrometric cones
were cemented to the plague but oriented so that they would bend away from the test piece the numbers
facing inwards. The edges opposite the
19
numbers were vertical. The test piece with the surrounding pyrometric cones was placed in the
furnace, the temperature raised at the rate of 10 to 15oC per minute to an estimated temperature of 200o
below the equating temperature. The rate of temperature rise was observed by the use of an optical
pyrometer. The test continued till the tip of the test cone had bent over level with the base. The plague
bearing the specimen was removed from the furnace and the test piece examined when cold.
The refractoriness is the number of the pyrometric cones that has bent over to a large extent similar to
the test cone. The temperature is then read off from the equivalent of the cone number.
The results of our investigations are tabulated in Table 1 and Table 2.
Chemical Composition: The result of the chemical composition analysis shows that the alumina
(Al2O3) content of the sample is 12.88%, which is below the 25-45% required for fireclay and 25-40%
for refractory bricks as shown in Table 3. The alumina content in clay is a strong indicator of its
refractoriness. The higher the amount of alumina in clay, the higher is the refractoriness of the clay.
The silica (SiO2) content as shown in Table 3 is 67.90%, which satisfies both the ranges for fireclay
and refractory bricks. This means it can be used for lining of heat treatment furnaces, melting furnaces
for low melting point metals, liquid metal ladles and portions of blast furnaces. The iron oxide (Fe2O3)
content of 2.6% is slightly higher than the standard of 0.5-2.4 for refractory bricks. Such level of iron
oxide usually imparts a reddish color to clay when fired, so making it attractive as a ceramic raw
material according to Nnuka and Agbo (2000). This high iron oxide content also affects the high
temperature characteristics of the clay, such as the fired strength. This makes the clay in this category
attractive and suitable for structural Engineering works.
Physical Properties.
Apparent Porosity: The value obtained is 27.15%, which is within the range of 20-30% required for
firebrick clay as reported by Chester (1973).
Bulk Density: The average bulk density of Dukku clay is 1.91. From the comparison with the Gilchrist
(1977) range, it can be seen that Dukku clay satisfies the condition for firebricks (Table 4).
Cold Crushing Strength: The minimum requirement for refractory brick is 15000 kg/cm2 while the
value obtained for Dukku clay is 59.99 kg/cm2 (Table 4). Cold crushing strength shows the effect of
firing on ceramic bound and this may be affected by firing, sintering characteristics and pressing
methods.
Thermal Shock Resistance: As can be seen from Table 4, the thermal shock resistance of the
sample is short of the acceptable range of 25-30 cycles. The practical implication of this is that its use
restricted to lining of ladles and slag pots which are early mended at shock intervals.
Linear Shrinkage: The linear shrinkage of Dukku clay as obtained from the experiment is 1.87%, which
is lower than the internationally accepted values of 7-10%. Refractory clays which have the greater
amount of stability are supposed to be the best.
Refractoriness: The temperature obtained is 1300oC.This is an indication of poor refractoriness.

Fireclay refractory bricks should have refractoriness in the range of 1500-1700oC (Table 3). This low
value of refractoriness is as a result of the high silica content of the clay. The implication of this is that
its use is restricted to the processing of materials which melting points do not exceed 1300oC.
20
Loss on Ignition: The value obtained is lower than the range recommended for fireclays which have
values in the range of 12-15% (Table 4). Loss on ignition values are often required to be low
(Omowumi 2000). This is because of its effect on the porosity of refractory bricks. The low value is an
indication of low porosity value of the brick.
CONCLUSION
Dukku clay has been investigated and its suitability as an industrial raw material has been discussed in
view of its chemical and physical properties. It is found to be a good substitute for imported refractory
materials used in our metallurgical industries for processing refractory bricks needed for lining the
walls of furnaces, soaking pits, ovens, ladles, crucibles and kilns. Proper blending with other clays or
additives, such as sawdust and rice husk will bring the era of importing refractory bricks to an end.
Further work need to be carried out to determine other important properties like refractoriness-under-
load and slag resistance. The clay should be exploited not only for making burnt bricks but also for
agricultural, chemical and paper industries.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The following are highly acknowledged for their immense contributions
towards the success of this investigation; Mallam Yusuf, Mr Yemi, Madam Lydia, Dr Yaro and Dr
Papooola all of National Metallurgical Development Centre, Jos.
REFERENCES
Chester, J. H (1973), Refractories, Production and Properties, Metal Society, London Pg58.
Coope, R. A (1986), an Introduction to Refractories Industrial Minerals pg7-13.
Gilchrist, J. P (1977), Fuel, Furnaces and Refractories, Pergamon Press pg35-70.
Grimshaw, R.W (1971), The Chemistry and Physics of Clay and Allied Ceramic Materials, 4th Edition,
Revised. New York, Willey Inter Science pg16-89.
Hassan, S.B and Adewara, J.O.T (1993), Refractory Properties of Some Nigerian Clays, N.S.E
Technical Transaction, Vol. 25 No 3 pg 22-25.
Nnuka, E. E and Adekwu, J. O (1998), Refractory Characteristics of Kwa Clay Deposit in Plateau
State, N.S.E Technical Transaction, Vol. 32, No. 1, pg54-59.
Nnuka, E.E and Agbo J. E (2000), Evaluation of the Refractory Characteristics of Otukpo Clay
Deposit, N.S.E Technical Transaction, Vol. 35, No 1, pg32-39.
Omowumi, O.J (2000), Characterization of Some Nigerian Clays as Refractory Materials for Furnace
Lining, Nigerian Journal of Engineering Management, Vol. 2 No 3, pg1-4.

S. Umaru, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Technology, P.M.B 2076,
Yola, Adamawa State. NIGERIA. bnumar@gmail.com
21
INDIGENT PRODUCTION OF NON-DISTORTED ISARITHMIC MAPS BY RASTER

CONTOURING
Emmanuel Akintunde Okunade

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ado-Ekiti, P.M.B. 5363, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
e-mail: eaokunade@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The traditional method of using a conventional line-printer to produce rough isolines
using raster contouring techniques in indigent environments is reviewed. It is
suggested that methods where the isolines are boundaries between different symbols
and having no thickness are better, and that numeric (hexadecimal) characters are
best used to represent different levels of the dependent variable, especially where the
slope of the surface is high. A comprehensive solution is also found to the usual
problem with line-printer maps of distortion due to unequal scales in the two axes of
the coordinate system. The contouring procedure is easily adaptable for use by
indigent researchers or in indigent environments for all areal phenomena.
KEYWORDS: computer mapping, raster plotting, isopleths, line-printer maps,

monospaced fonts
INTRODUCTION
In many two-dimensional (areal) studies, it is often very useful to present the data in form of some sort of
contours or isopleths, which are used to display levels of the dependent variable over the area. Contouring
has been a traditional and highly efficient technique for presenting information visually.
In one-dimensional surveys, a curve may be fitted visually to the readings and the function value
interpolated directly from the plot. However, one can rarely visualize contour lines directly from
two-dimensional (areal) data; hence interpolation is used to locate the contours.
The basic assumption of all spatial estimation (Philip and Watson, 1986) is that there exists a mathematical
function underlying the empirical measurements made at the different locations. (In most investigations,
the data points are discrete, whether regularly-gridded or irregularly-spaced.) To fit a surface to the
measured values, a continuous, two-dimensional interpolation function, approximating or fitting exactly the
given values at the data points, is usually defined in the plane. It may also happen that in the course of
investigations into some physical phenomena a function defining a theoretical surface is produced. In either
of these cases, it may be desirable to display the surface in some sort of contour map or perspective view.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL INTERPOLATION PROCEDURES

Computer contouring inevitably requires the implementation of one or more two-dimensional interpolation
procedures. There are many schemes available, depending on whether the data points are regularly-
gridded or irregularly-spaced.
Most vector contouring procedures require the values of the dependent variable over a regular grid as the
starting position. If an investigator has control over the location of data points, he can array them in a
lattice or grid, with a uniform spacing between points. The contours can then be plotted directly from
these gridded values by vector contouring procedures. Alternatively, for purposes of raster contouring,
values of the dependent variable at all other points in the plane can thereafter be estimated from the gridded
values by a suitable interpolation procedure. In that case, interpolation can be accomplished easily by a
number of established methods, which are purely exact, i.e. the interpolated values coincide with the
known values at the data points. An overview of these numerous methods is given in Okunade (1998).
In certain investigations, as in soil surveys for instance, usually, the location of data points is beyond
the control of the investigator and does not correspond to any geometric pattern. In these and similar
cases the investigator must cope with irregularly-spaced data points. Here, interpolation procedures
22
Emmanuel Akintunde Okunade: Continental J. Engineering Sciences 2: 22 - 29, 2007
exist which are used to generate the ultimate gridded values at the mesh-points of an imposed regular grid
used for contouring. Okunade (1998) has given a comprehensive overview of these procedures. The
contours can then be plotted directly from these gridded values by vector contouring procedures.
Alternatively, values of the dependent variable over the whole plane can also be estimated from the
obtained gridded values using the same interpolation procedure used to generate the gridded values or a
different one, which is simpler and faster. Many investigators have done this in the past. For example, one
may use the full (primary) interpolation algorithm at regular grid points representing a fraction (a sixth) of
the total locations (every third horizontal and every second vertical location). Simple linear interpolation
using Newton's divided differences formula for the surrounding four points can then used for the
intervening points. This increases computational speed without having any significant effect on the nature
of the interpolated surface.
Table 1: RESOLUTIONS OBTAINABLE FOR CATEGORY A FONTS (WITH

RESOLUTION OF THE 12 POINT SIZE AT 10 CHARACTERS PER
INCH)
FONT LINE SPACING OR RESOLUTION

SIZE LEADING (characters per inch) (characters per
(points) (points) centimeter)
14 8.4 8.57 3.37
13 7.8 9.23 3.63
12 7.2 10.00 3.94
11 6.6 10.91 4.29
10 6.0 12.00 4.72
9 5.4 13.33 5.25
8 4.8 15.00 5.91
7 4.2 17.14 6.75
6 3.6 20.00 7.87
5 3.0 24.00 9.49
4 2.4 30.00 11.81
For irregularly-spaced data, schemes also exist which calculate values of the dependent variable over the
whole plane directly from the initial irregularly-spaced data, without first generating values over a regular
grid.
In the case of a function defining a theoretical surface already existing, it is not difficult to either generate
values at mesh-points of an imposed grid to be used for contour plotting, or at all locations over the whole
plane as may be required.
COMPUTER CONTOURING TECHNIQUES

Vector Method of Contour Representation
When using vector contouring techniques, the problem of computer contouring can be considered
separately in terms of the calculation of the location of the individual line segments, and the logic of the
drawing of all the segments. Straight-line segments are sometimes used, but more preferable, though more
difficult, is the production of continuous curved lines.
Many schemes have been proposed for plotting contours using vector contouring techniques. Details of
these have been provided in Okunade (1998). Most automatic contouring schemes generate a regular grid
prior to contouring. Some then complete the interpolation by drawing the contours directly, using an
interpolation formula or surface within each grid square. The original data points that do not lie on the grid
are neglected after the grid has been constructed. This approach obviously does not honour every data point
for irregularly-spaced data. Other schemes complete the interpolation by calculating interpolated values for
all the cells within each grid square before embarking on the contouring process using an appropriate
contour encoding algorithm, e.g. the one proposed by Gonzalez and Wintz (1987).
One could also have contouring without a preliminary regular grid, though. Without a grid, contouring may
be done directly through a triangulation of the data points (Lowden, 1985; Sawkar et al, 1987).
23
The problem with the contouring methods mentioned above is that they require a special and costly
hardware configuration. In most cases a digital plotter and a very large storage capacity are required.
They are also unusually inefficient and very slow for a mechanical graphic output device. Most of the
methods draw the contours as a series of straight line segments. Producing smooth, accurate contours
requires small grid cells; otherwise the contours are jagged.
The highly technical and costly equipment required with these methods are often not easily affordable
for most independent investigators, or in indigent environments. This is not the case when using the
computer to plot contours using raster displays produced on a conventional printer.
Table 2: RESOLUTIONS OBTAINABLE FOR CATEGORY B FONTS (WITH RESOLUTION

OF THE 12 POINT SIZE AT 12 CHARACTERS PER INCH)

SIZE LEADING (characters per inch) (characters per centimeter)
(points) (points)
14 7.0 10.29 4.05
13 6.5 11.08 4.36
12 6.0 12.00 4.72
11 5.5 13.09 5.15
10 5.0 14.40 5.67
9 4.5 16.00 6.30
8 4.0 18.00 7.09
7 3.5 20.57 8.10
6 3.0 24.00 9.45
5 2.5 28.80 11.33
4 2.0 36.00 14.17
Raster Method of Contour Representation

Another means of producing isarithmic maps of continuous geographic data matrices apart from using the
computer to produce vector displays on a pen plotter is by using the computer to produce crude raster
displays on the line printer (Eyton, 1984). Many investigators have used this method to display contours of
an areally distributed data in their work. Various such works are mentioned in Okunade (1998).
In this method, the map area must have been divided into a series of unit cells, each cell being the size of a
printer character. Also, the interpolation must have been completed prior to contouring for all the cells of
the whole plane using either a single interpolation formula throughout or combined methods as described
earlier.
There are two ways in which contour lines can be portrayed using raster mapping techniques:
a) As lines having a width equal to one unit cell of the map area. The variable value for each cell is
calculated using an appropriate interpolation formula. The class or variable range to which each
cell belongs is then ascertained. All cells are left blank except class boundaries which are made to
contain the printer characters representing that class. The class boundaries are found by
comparing the class of each unit cell to the classes of neighbouring cells using the criteria given
by Eyton (1984). The disadvantage of this method is the imposition of a minimum useable
contour interval. If the contour interval is too small it will cause characters (contour lines) to be
lost in high gradient areas where the contours must be closer than the normal printer character
spacing allows.
b) As boundaries (having no width) between differently shaded or differently marked variable

classes. Every cell is assigned its respective symbol, except in areas with insufficient nearby data
points to warrant interpolation and where “no value” has been assigned to the cell. The characters
available on a computer printer are used to give different shading levels representing the different
classes of the variable. Various shades can be obtained from these characters to suit the user.
Scales using density character sets (., -, /, +, *, $, &, etc.) or numerals (0, 1, 2, ... , 9) may be used,
where darker symbols or higher digits usually denote higher values of the dependent variable.
(Using a numeric scale is somewhat better in that it easily shows if any levels are missing or not
24
depicted between two neighbouring cells, especially where the slope of the surface is high, and
hexadecimal characters permit more numerous levels of the dependent variable to be depicted.) For
these line-printer maps to be suitable for publication, the contours (boundaries between different
symbols) may be traced and smoothed by hand and then superimposed on the base maps which are the
hand-prepared outlines of the geographical boundaries of the map units and some of the major
landmarks. The major advantage of this approach is that there is no imposed minimum useable contour
interval since the continuity of the contour lines can be maintained while smoothing by hand. This is
the approach recommended in this study.
Table 3: RESOLUTIONS OBTAINABLE FOR CATEGORY C FONTS (WITH RESOLUTION

OF THE 12 POINT SIZE AT 15 CHARACTERS PER INCH)

SIZE LEADING (characters per (characters per
(points) (points) inch) centimeter)
14 5.6 12.86 5.06
13 5.2 13.85 5.45
12 4.8 15.00 5.91
11 4.4 16.36 6.44
10 4.0 18.00 7.09
9 3.6 20.00 7.87
8 3.2 22.50 8.86
7 2.8 25.71 10.12
6 2.4 30.00 11.81
5 2.0 36.00 14.17
4 1.6 45.00 17.72
In either of the two methods above, a two-dimensional array would be generated containing the character to
print (blank
or otherwise) for each cell on the map.
In general, producing maps on a standard line printer with detail equal to the width of a print character
using symbols to indicate the interpolated values requires no special hardware configurations. This is a
unique advantage in terms of ease and cost of production, and making it a convenient approach in indigent
environments, and where researchers must compensate for their indigence. In practice (Crain, 1970), choice
of an interpolation and contouring method depends on the nature and ultimate purpose of the data, and the
particular hardware configuration available. Using a standard line printer, the data for each row of the map
are sent to the printer one after another using an appropriate programming language.
The Problem of Distortion in Line-Printer Maps

The problem with line printer maps, usually, is that the horizontal dimension (pitch) of a print character
(cell) is different from the vertical dimension (line spacing). Horizontally, we usually have a pitch of 10
characters per inch (i.e. a cell dimension of one-tenth of an inch) and a vertical line spacing of 6 characters
per inch (i.e. a cell dimension of one-sixth of an inch). This results in a distortion of the map because the
horizontal scale is different from the vertical scale, as evident from the works of many investigators in the
literature. The scales could be normalized prior to plotting but this would involve some complications. The
solution proposed by the author is that the section of the computer programme to print out the map should
contain a portion coded to initialize the printer for a line spacing equal to, or approximately equal to,
one-tenth of an inch. Depending on the printer used, an escape sequence, coded in the selected
programming language, is sent to the printer to initialize it to a line spacing of one-tenth, or approximately
one-tenth, of an inch, thereby setting the vertical spacing to be equal to the horizontal print pitch. Such
printers include some EPSON printers and the IBM Proprinter.
Escape sequences for EPSON ESC/P and ESC/P 2 printers (SEIKO EPSON Corporation, 1997) have been
developed for 9-pin dot-matrix and 24/48-pin dot-matrix printers. The monospaced (i.e. equal-pitch)
characters readily available on these printers have horizontal pitches or character spacings of 10, 12 or 15
25
characters per inch. The escape sequence “ESC 3 n” (in ASCII) sets the line spacing equal to n/216-inch
for 9-pin dot matrix printers and n/180-inch for 24/48-pin dot-matrix printers. Choosing an appropriate
value of n, depending on the character pitch and printer selected, gives a line spacing equal or
approximately equal to the horizontal pitch, thereby resulting in a non-distorted map.
More Refined Printer Outputs

More refined output can be produced from either the line printer or printers other than the line-printer, e.g.
page printers such as laserjet or deskjet printers. The array containing the map information is imported
whole into any of the more sophisticated word-processing applications. The output is then sent to the
printer at once in a monospaced (equal-pitch) font.
For the monospaced (equal-pitch) typefaces, the font size is inversely proportional to the resolution of the
print. If the font size (in points) is denoted by s , and the resolution (in characters per inch) is denoted by
c , then
1
c∝
s
(1)
or c.s = k
(2)
Therefore, if the resolution, c1 (characters per inch), is known for any given font size s1 , the
resolution c2 can be determined for any other font size s2 of the same typeface.
s1.c1
c2 =
s2
(3)
1 72
The horizontal spacing (pitch), p , of the characters is given by (in inches) or (in
c c
points), since 1 inch = 72 points. If the resolution, c1 (characters per inch), is known for any given font
size s1 , the pitch, p1 , for that font size or p2 for any other font size s2 of the same typeface can be
determined from:
1 s
p1 = , p2 = 2 (in inches) (4)
c1 s1.c1
72 72 s2
p1 = , p2 = (in points) (5)
c1 s1.c1
To avoid distortion due to the horizontal scale being different from the vertical scale, the vertical spacing
(line spacing) of the print must be fixed to be equal to the calculated value of the pitch for the particular
font size. The line spacing or leading can be fixed in some word-processing applications (such as Microsoft
Word, Adobe Pagemaker, WordPerfect, etc.) to a precision of one-tenth of a point, a point being one-
seventy second of an inch.
For certain typefaces (Category A), the resolution for the 12 points font size is 10 characters per inch.
12 × 10 120
Therefore, the resolution for any other font size s of such typefaces will be or (characters
s s
26
s 72s
per inch), while the pitch will be (inches) or = 0.6s (points). Such typefaces include the
120 120
Courier New, Courier10 BT, CourierPS, CentSchbook Mono BT, Lucida Console, Monospac821 BT,
Orator10 BT, Pica10 BT, Prestige12 BT, OCR A Extended, and OCR-B 10 BT.
For certain other typefaces (Category B), the resolution for the 12 points font size is 12 characters per inch.
12 × 12 144
Therefore, the resolution for any other font size s of such typefaces will be or (characters
s s
s 72s
per inch), while the pitch will be (inches) or = 0.5s (points). Such typefaces include the Letter
144 144
Gothic and the LetterGoth12 BT typefaces.
For yet certain other typefaces (Category C), the resolution for the 12 points font size is 15 characters per
12 × 15 180
inch. Therefore, the resolution for any other font size s of such typefaces will be or
s s
s 72s
(characters per inch), while the pitch will be (inches) or = 0.4s (points). Such typefaces include
180 180
the Orator15 BT typeface.
Depending on the typeface selected and the font size chosen, different resolutions of the printed map are
possible, as indicated in Tables 1, 2 and 3.
In most of the above configurations, the cap height of the print character is equal to, or approximately equal
to, the specified vertical line spacings, thereby producing maps with an even density of the print characters
over the area of the map, with the bottom of a print character just touching the top of the one underneath it,
the lines thus having little or no leading (the vertical space between lines of type in a paragraph). However,
for some fonts, the Orator15 BT font for example, the cap height is much higher than the required line
spacing corresponding to the font size to give a non-distorted map. This results in the print characters
overlapping vertically.
For geographical phenomena, the isarithmic maps will ultimately be superimposed on the base maps,
which will have been produced at specified scales. Therefore, it is necessary to be able to produce the
isarithmic maps at a scale or resolution corresponding to the existing base map, which resolution may not
be among those in the tables above. The font size to be used to produce more exact specified resolutions
(characters per inch or characters per centimeter) different from those in the tables above may be obtained
s1.c1
from Equation (1), i.e. c2 = , or
s2
s1.c1
s2 =
c2
(6)
( si in points and ci in characters per inch or characters per centimeter). The quantity s1.c1 has different
values depending on the font family, but constant for each font family. The pitch or vertical line spacing (in
points) is then obtained from p = 0.6 s , p = 0.5s , and p = 0.4 s for Category A, Category B, and
Category C fonts, respectively. The font size and line spacing (or leading) obtained may not be integral, but
this can be fixed to an accuracy of 0.1 point for both the point size and the leading, those being the
respective nudge amounts for the font size and line spacing in some word-processing applications, e.g.,
Adobe Pagemaker. (For Microsoft Word, the nudge amount for the point size is 0.5 point, but 0.1 point for
the leading.)
The raster contouring procedure described in this study is the one employed in an extensive engineering
soil mapping programme in Nigeria (Okunade, 1998). An example of such maps is shown in Figure 1. The
27
contouring procedure was found to be cheap and on machines that are easily available in an indigent
environment. It will be useful for other areal phenomena in the fields of Engineering and the Geosciences.
REFERENCES
Crain, I. K. (1970): “Computer Interpolation and Contouring of Two-Dimensional Data: A Review”, Geo
Exploration, vol. 8, no. 2, August, p. 71-86.
SEIKO EPSON Corporation (1997): EPSON ESC/P Reference Manual, Part 1, SEIKO EPSON
Corporation, Nagano,
Japan, 231 pp.
Eyton, J. Ronald (1984), “Raster Contouring”, Geo-Processing, vol. 2, no. 3, Oct., p. 221-242.
Gonzalez, Rafael C., and Wintz, Paul (1987), Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company,
Inc., Reading, Massachusetts, Ch. 6: Image Encoding.
Lowden, Bruce (1985), “A Method for Producing Smooth Contour Maps”, INFOR, vol. 23, no. 4, Nov., p.
447-468.
Okunade, B. A. (1998), “Isolines and Soil-Mapping Values of the Engineering Properties of Nigerian
Subgrade Soils”,
Ph.D. thesis, University of Benin, Benin-City.
Philip, G. M., and Watson, D. F. (1986), “Automatic Interpolation Methods for Mapping Piezometric
Surfaces”,
Automatica, vol. 22, no. 6, p. 753-756.
Sawkar, D.G., Shevare, G. R., and Koruthu, S. P. (1987), “Contour Plotting for Scattered Data”, Computers
and
Graphics, vol. 11, no. 2, p. 101-104.

28
ISARITHMS OF MAXIMUM DRY DENSITY FOR BENDEL STATE (kg/m3)

LEVEL: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
MIN. VALUE: 1400 1501 1601 1701 1801 1901 2001 2101 2201
MAX. VALUE: 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300
──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
22222 33333 44444 55555 66666 77777 88888 99999 AAAAA
22222 33333 44444 55555 66666 77777 88888 99999 AAAAA
SYMBOLS 22*22 33*33 44*44 55*55 66*66 77*77 88*88 99*99 AA*AA
22222 33333 44444 55555 66666 77777 88888 99999 AAAAA
22222 33333 44444 55555 66666 77777 88888 99999 AAAAA
────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
(* = data point)
350 360 370 380 390 400 410
┌┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴┐
430 ┤776665555444444556677777777888777777777666*777888999999999999├
│7766655555444*4556677*7777888*7777*77777777777888999999999999│
│7666665555544445566777777788887777777777777778899999999999999│
│766666555555544556667777788888777777777777777889*999999999999│
│66666655555555555666777788888877*7777777777*78899888888999999│
│6666666666555555666677778888887777777777777777888888888889998│
│6666666676666556666777778888888777776667777777777888888888888│
│766*66777777776667777777888*8888777666677777777*7778888888887│
│766667778888888777777777888888888776*667777777777777777777777│
│8877777888888888777777777788888887767777788887777777777777777│
420 ┤99888788888888888777*7777777788*88777777888888777777777777777├
│0999*78898878898877777777777778888777778888888877777777777777│
│0*098788*876789988777777777*777888777888899888887777777777777│
│000998899876**998887777666677777888888889*9888887777777777777│
│0099*99998767899988777666667777778888889999888888777777777777│
│0099999998878899988777666666677778888899998888887777777777777│
│9999999998888888998777666666667777888999888888877777777777777│
│9999999999888888888777666666666777788888888888777777777777777│
│8999999*999888888887766666*666666777788888887*777777777777777│
│8899999999988888887776666666666666677777777777777777777777777│
410 ┤8889999999988888887766666666666666666667777777777777777777777├
│7888999999888888887766666666666556666666777777777777766666777│
│88889999888*8888776665556665555555666666677777777766666666677│
│78889999888888*7766555555555555555666666667777766666666666667│
│77889999*8888887665555555555555555666666666666666666666666666│
│7788888887777776655555555555555555666*66666666666666666666666│
│778888887666676655*455555555555555666666666666666666666666666│
│77888888766*66665555555555555*556666*566666666666666666666666│
│7778887776666665555555666655555666666566766666666666666666666│
│7777877766666665555556666665566777777777776666666666666666666│
400 ┤777777777666666655555666666666778887889888776666*666666666666├
│77777777666666665555666*66666778*8888*88877666666666666666666│
│7777777777776666556666666666778888888998887766666666666666666│
│7777777777777766666666666666777888888888887766666666666666666│
│7777777777777776666556666666777888888888887766666666666666666│
│7777777777777776665555555566667788888888887766666666666666666│
│777*7777778777766655555555556667788*8888887766666666666666666│
│77777777778877766655555*5555566677888888888776666666666666666│
│777777777788*87666*555555555556667778888888777666666666666666│
│7777777777888776665555555555555566777888888877766666666666666│
390 ┤77777777777777776665555555555555*5667778888877777777766666666├
│7777777777777776665555555665555556667778888887777777776666666│
│8777777777777776665555666666655555666777888887777777776666666│
│8877777777777777666666666666665555566777888887777777766666666│
│8887777777*77777766666666666666555566677888887777777766666666│
│88877777777777777777777666*6666655566777778888877777766666666│
│8887777777777777777777776666666666666777777888887777776666666│
│8887777777777777777777776666666666666777777777877777766666666│
│7887777*77777777777777777666666666666777777*77777777666666666│
│788887777788887777777*776666555566666777777777777766656666666│
380 ┤7788888777888887777777777666555555666677777777777766655566666├
│7788887788888877777777766555555555666777777777776666566666777│
│77*888778888877767777766555555566*566777777777766666666666777│
│*7778877888*877766776665544445*66666*777*77777666666666667777│
│777*88*88*88*8766667*6654444*4566666777*777777666666666677777│
│777777777777777*66*66*65*44*55556666777777*777766666666677777│
│777777777777776666666665444555556667777777777*76*666666777777│
│7777777777777766666666765555555566777777777777776666777777777│
│77777777776*66666666778*766655666677777777777777*777777777777│
│777777777666666666666777666666666777777777777777777*777777777│
370 ┤777777777766666666666666666666666777*777777777777777777777777├
│7777777776666666666566666666666777777777777777777777777777777│
│7777877777666666555555555666667777777777777788877777777777777│
│778887777777766655555555556667777777777778888*877777777777777│
│8*88877777777765555554*55566777777888888888888877777777777777│
│8888877777777766655555555667777888888888888888887777777777777│
│8888777777777776666665556667778888888888888888888777777777777│
│8887777777777777776666666777888888888888888888888888777777777│
│8877777777777777777777777778888888888888888888888888888777777│
│77777*777*77777777777777778*88888888*888888888888888888887777│
360 ┤7777777777777777888888888888888888888888888888888888888877777├
│77777777777777788888*8888888888888888888888888888888888777777│
│77777777777*7778888888888888888888888888888888888888777777777│
│7777777777777778888888888888888888888888888888888888777777777│
│77777777*7777777888888888888888888888888888888888777777777777│
│7777777777777777888888888888888888888888888887777777777777777│
│7777777777777777888888888888888888888888888877777777777777777│
│7777777777777777888888888888888888888888887777777777777777777│
│7777777777777777888888888888888888777777777777777777777777777│
│7777777777777777788888888888877777777*77777777777777777777777│
350 ┤7777777777777777788888888888777777777777777777777777777777777├
└┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬┘
350 360 370 380 390 400 410
Figure 1: Example of Isarithmic Map Produced from Raster Contouring
29
CHARACTERIZATION OF SOME NIGERIAN CLAYS AS REFRACTORY MATERIALS FOR

FURNACE LINING
Abdullahi Madu Yami and Samaila Umaru

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Technology, P.M.B 2076 Yola,
Adamawa State Nigeria
ABSTRACT
The suitability of some Nigerian clays as refractory raw materials was
investigated. The clay samples were first analysed to determine their chemical
compositions. Fireclay bricks test specimens were prepared by standard method.
They were then tested for properties such as apparent porosity, bulk density,
thermal shock resistance, fired shrinkage, refractoriness and cold crushing
strength. The result obtained showed that both test samples qualify as high
melting fireclays. The refractory properties measured revealed them as being
usable as refractory bricks when blended.
KEYWORDS: Nigerian clays, Refractory materials.
INTRODUCTION
Refractory materials are inorganic materials which can withstand high temperatures (usually above
1500OC) under the physical and chemical action of molten metal, slag and gases in the furnace.
Refractory products are required for various processes in chemical, ceramic, petrochemical, oil,
foundry and iron and steel industries. Unfortunately there is no refractory industry in Nigeria despite
the fact that there are abundant deposits of clay and other raw materials needed for the production of
refractory products.
The raw materials for the production of various refractory products include kaolinite
(Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O), chromite (FeOCr2O3), magnesite (MgCO3) and various types of clays. Other
additives such as sawdust and binders are also available locally. Alumino silicate and magnesite
refractory products are the major types of refractories used in Nigerian manufacturing industries.
Though metallurgical industries are the major consumers of refractory products, other demands come
from chemical, glass, boiler and petrochemical industries. The refractory needs of these industries were
well over 300,000 tonnes as at the year 2000 (Omowumi 2001).
In the last few years, there have been tremendous works towards developing refractory products from
local clay deposits. Various research works have found that our local refractory clays are suitable for
use in furnace lining and steel industries.
Agha (1998) showed that some local clay have better refractory and physical properties than imported
ones. Nnuka and Agbo (2000) studied the characteristics of Nigerian clays and discovered that the
Otukpo clay has refractoriness of 1710OC, which compares well with imported refractories. Omowumi
(2001) also discovered the close relationship of the clays studied with properties of known refractory
materials. Another recent research by John (2003) has indicated the suitability of producing refractories
for base plates of stoves, bricks for furnace lining and other industrial uses from Nigerian clay deposits.
In this work, various properties of two local clays were investigated to determine their suitability for
producing refractory bricks for furnace lining.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
The clay samples were collected from deposits in Gur and Yamarkumi in Biu Local Government area
of Borno state. The samples were air dried and sieved through 100 meshes. Test pieces for various
experiments were mixed with 8 percent water and stirred to form a homogeneous plastic paste.8
percent water was determine as the optimum percentage necessary for optimum plasticity in the work
of Nnuka and Agbo(2000).A plastic mass(10cm
30
Abdullahi Madu Yami and Samaila Umaru: Continental J. Engineering Sciences 2: 30 - 35, 2007
Table 1: Chemical composition of the clay samples (%)

Sample SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO CaO L.O.I
location
Gur 59.20 21.25 15.70 0.98 1.92 11.05
Yamarkumi 41.80 19.68 8.89 0.98 1.51 14.05
*Refractory 46 - 62 25 – 39 0.4 - 2.7 0.2 - 1.0 0.2 - 1.0 8 - 18
clay
*High 53 - 73 16 – 29 1-9 0.5 - 2.6 0.5 - 2.6 4 - 12
melting
clay
*Ceramics 67.50 26.50 0.5 - 1.2 0.18 - 0.3 0.1 - 0.19 -
N.D = Not Detected, * Nnuka and Agbo (2000)
by 5cm) was then moulded for each test piece, dried at temperature of 110OC and fired in a muffle
furnace at intervals of 100OC for every 10 minutes till the temperature of 1110OC was attained before
determination of different parameters.
Equipments Used
The names of equipments used are as follows mechanical vibratory shaker, standard rammer, hydraulic
press, strength tester, permeability meter, muffle furnace.
Chemical Analysis
The chemical analysis of the samples was carried out using atomic absorption spectrophotometry
(AAS) method. The percentage composition of the various constituents is recorded in Table1.
Permeability to Air
Fired samples were completely sealed on the sides and the lower surface was exposed to an orifice. The
cylinder was filled with 2000cm3 of water and a bell jar was put in place. The orifice was opened and
the time taken for the 2000cm3 of water to displace equal volume of air through the specimen was
taken. The pressure difference between the surfaces was measured by a manometer. Permeability was
calculated from the equation below.
Vh
PA = ---------------------------------------------------- (1)
Apt
Bulk Density
Representative samples of each measuring (6cm ×6cm × 1.5cm) were cut from the fired test samples.
The specimens were air dried for 24 hours and then dried at 110OC, cooled in a desiccators and
weighed to the accuracy of 0.008(dried weight) after which the specimens were transferred to a beaker
and heated for 30 minutes to assist in releasing the trapped air. The specimens were cooled and soaked
weight (W) taken. The specimens were then suspended in water using beaker placed on a balance. The
suspended weight (S) was taken. The bulk density was calculated from equation (2).
Dρ w
BulkDensity = ------------------------------------------------ (2)
W −S
Apparent Porosity
The fired pieces were cooled and then transferred into a desiccator and weight to nearest 0.019 (Dried
weight).The specimens was then transferred to into a 250ml beaker in an empty vacuum desiccator.
Water was then introduced into the beaker until the tested pieces were completely immersed. The
specimens were allowed to soak in boiled water for 30 minutes being agitated from time to time to
assist to release trapped air bubbles. The specimens were transferred into an empty vacuum desiccator
to cool. The soaked weights (W) were recorded. The specimens were
31
Table 2; Physical properties of test samples compared with standard clay.

Sample Bulk Apparent Permeability Linear Thermal Cold Refract
location density porosity shrinkage shock crushing oriness
(g/cm3) (%) (%) resistance strength (OC)
(cycles) (KN/M2)
Gur 2.11 19.50 215 1.11 7 15438 1370
Yamarkumi 2.06 22.26 489 1 5 27008 1400
#
Fireclay 2.30 20 - 30 25 – 90 4 - 10 20 - 30 15000 1500 -
1700
**
Siliceous 2.0 23.7 - - 1 15000 1500 -
Fireclay 16000
#
Misra (1975), **Omowumi, 2001
then weighed suspended in water using beaker place on balance. This gave suspended weights (S). The
apparent porosity was calculated using equation – (3).
W −D
ApparentPorosity = × 100% ------------------------------------------------ (3)
W −S
The prepared samples were inserted in a furnace which has been maintained at 900OC. This
temperature was maintained for 10 minutes. The specimens were removed with a pair of tongs from the
furnace one after the other and then cooled for 10 minutes on firebricks. The specimens were returned
to the furnace for further 10 minutes.
The process was continued until the test pieces were cracked. The number of cycles of heating and
cooling before cracking for each specimen was recorded as its thermal shock resistance.

The test pieces were fired in a furnace at 1100OC and the temperature maintained for 6 hours. The
samples were then cooled to room temperature. The specimens were placed each on a compressive
tester and the load was applied axially by turning the hand wheel at a uniform rate until failure occurs.
The manometer readings were recorded. Cold crushing strength (CCS) was calculated from equation
(4).
MaximumLoad ( KN )
CCS = ------------------------------------------------ (4)
Cross sec tionalArea( m 2 )
Linear Shrinkage
The rectangular test pieces were marked along a line in order to maintain the same position after heat
treatment. The distance between the two ends of the slab was measured with vernier calliper. The
samples were air dried for 24 hours and oven dried at 110OC for another 24 hours. They were then fired
for 6 hours. The test pieces were cooled to room temperature and measurements taken. The fired
shrinkage linear shrinkage was calculated from equation (5).
D L − FL
FiredShrinkage = ------------------------------------------------ (5)
DL
32
Refractoriness
The test piece was mounted on a refractory plague along with some standard cone whose melting point
is slightly below that expected of the test cone. The plague was then put inside the furnace and the
temperature was raised at a rate of 100OC per minute. The test was continued until the tip of the test
cone has bent over level with the base. The plague bearing the test piece was removed and the test cone
examined when cooled to room temperature under microscope.
Loss on Ignition
50 gram of each sample was dried at 110OC and cooled in the desiccator. A porcelain crucible was
cleaned, dried and weighed (M1) to nearest 0.001gram. The dried sample was introduced into the
crucible and the crucible together with the clay sample ions weighed(M2) to an accuracy of
0.001gram.The crucible containing the sample was placed in a muffle furnace and heated to a
temperature of 900OC for 3 hours. The crucible and its contents were cooled in a desiccator and then
weighed (M3) to nearest 0.001gram. The loss on ignition was calculated from equation (6).
M 2 − M1
LOI = ------------------------------------------------ (6)
M 2− M 3
Table 1 shows the result of chemical composition test while Table 2 is the physical properties of the
test samples.
DISCUSSION
The chemical composition of both the clay samples tested showed that the alumina (Al2O3) content for
Gur was 21.25% while that for Yamarkumi was 19.68%. Both of them were found to qualify as high
melting clays but not as refractory clays. This is because the values of their alumina content lie within
the recommended range for high melting clay as shown in Table 1. (Nnuka and Agbo 2000).
The silica (SiO2) content of Gur 59.20% meets the standard for refractory clay (46-62%) while that for
Yamarkumi, 41.80% is short of the standard. Gur clay can be used for lining of heat treatment furnaces,
melting furnaces for low melting point metals, liquid metal ladles and portions of blast furnaces.
The iron oxide content of both clay samples is high and such level of oxide usually imparts a reddish
colour to clay when fired, so making it attractive as a ceramic raw material. Yamarkumi, with 8.89%
iron oxide meets the iron oxide requirement for both refractory clays and high melting clays. The high
iron oxide content of Gur (15.70%) strongly supports the reddish colour when fired to 1200OC and
affects high temperature characteristics such as fired strength. This makes the clay attractive and
suitable for structural engineering works (Nnuka and Agbo, 2000).
Loss on ignition (L.O.I)

This is the combustion of volatile matter present in the clay. They are often required to be low. As
shown in Table 1, losses on ignition for samples are lower than 18% specified upper limit for refractory
clays.
Apparent Porosity
The values for both samples fall within the standard values of 20-30% according to Omowumi as
shown in Table 2.
Bulk Density
The average bulk density of the clay samples was within the range of 2.06-2.11 g/cm3. This makes it
suitable for siliceous fireclays as reported by Omowumi (2001); and fireclays as reported by Misra
(1975). Bulk density is an important property of a steel work silica brick.
33

The essence of undertaking this test is to determine the ability of bricks to withstand stresses in service.
The values obtained for Gur and Yamarkumi clay samples were 15438 and 27008KN/M2 respectively.
These values are higher than the standard which is very satisfactory.
Permeability
The permeability numbers of both clay samples were found to be above the internationally accepted
range of 25-90. Permeability is a function of gases or liquids passing through the brick. Refractories
under the influence of liquids and gases should be impervious, that would help eliminate leakages of
gases and penetration of liquids through the walls of the furnace.
Linear Shrinkage
The average linear shrinkage for both Yamarkumi and Gur are lower than the recommended range of 4-
10% for fireclay as reported by Omowumi (2001).This is more desirable. Higher shrinkage values may
result in warping and cracking of the brick and this may cause loss of heat in the furnace.

The thermal shock of the two sample are short of the acceptable values of 25-30 cycles as compared in
Table 2.The practical implication of this is that their use is restricted to lining of ladles and slag pots
which are early mended at shock intervals.
Refractoriness
The highest temperature reached was 1400OC for Yamarkumi while Gur had 1370OC.These are lower
than the recommended range for fireclay refractories of 1500-1700OC as reported by Misra (1975).
These low values of refractoriness are as a result of the high silica content of the clays. This means that
their use is restricted to the processing of materials whose melting points do not exceed 1400OC or non
ferrous materials.
CONCLUSION
The investigations on the properties of the samples show that their values compare favourably with
imported fireclay bricks. The following can also be inferred.
1. Based on the percentage of Al2O3 content, both tested clays qualify as high melting clays.
2. The clay samples produced firebricks with apparent porosity values which are lower than the normal
20-30% specified for fireclay bricks.
3. The loss on ignition (L.O.I) values for both bricks are between 11.05 and 14.05% which were less
than the upper limit of 18% for fireclays.
4. The refractoriness of Yamarkumi is 1400OC and Gur 1370OC.This implies that they can only be used
to melt metals not exceeding these temperatures.
5. Both Yamarkumi and Gur clays has a good cold crushing strength of 27008 KN/m2 and 15438
KN/m2 respectively which are higher than the standard of 15000 KN/m2.
More research work is being undertaken to improve the properties of these clays through the use of
suitable additives and/or blending.
NOMENCLATURE AND SYMBOLS

A= cross section area of specimens (cm2).
CCS =Cold Crushing Strength.
D = Dried weight.
DL =Dried length.
FL = Fired length.
h = Height of specimen.
M1 =Mass of Porcelain crucible.
M2 =Mass of sample and porcelain crucible.
M3=Mass of fired clay sample and porcelain crucible.
P = Pressure of air in cm of water.
PA= permeability number.
34
S= Suspended weight.
t = Time in minutes.
V=volume of air (cm3).
W=Soaked weight.
ρw= Density of water.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the management of Nigeria Metallurgical Development Company
(NMDC), Jos for providing the facilities to carry out this work. The assistance of Dr Papoola, Mal
Yusuf, Dr Yaro, Mr Yemi all of N.M.D.C, Jos is hereby acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Agha O.A (1998), Testing of local refractory clay for producing furnace lining bricks, PhD thesis,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Technology Minna, Nigeria.
Borode, J.O, Onyemeobi, O.O and Omotoyinbo, J.A (2000), Suitability of some Nigerian clays as
refractory raw materials, Journal of Engineering management, Volume 1 No 3, Pp14-18.
John M.U (2003), An investigation into the use of local clays as high temperature insulator for electric
cookers, PhD thesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Technology Minna,
Nigeria.
Nnuka, E.E and Agbo, U.J.E (2000), Evaluation of the refractory characteristics of Otukpo clay
deposits, N.S.E technical transaction Volume 35 No 1 Pp34-41.
Omowumi, O.J (2000), Characterization of some Nigerian clay as refractory materials for furnace
lining, Nigerian Journal of Engineering management, Volume 2 No3, Pp1-4.

Abdullahi Madu Yami
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Technology, P.M.B 2076 Yola,
Adamawa State, Nigeria
35
DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A TOWABLE GRAVITY EVACUATION TOILET BOWSER

FOR LIGHT AIRCRAFTS
Amadu Onotu1 and Adamu Alhaji Umar2

1
Sky Power Aviation Handling Company Limited, Lagos, Nigeria, 2Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Bayero University, Kano – Nigeria
ABSTRACT
A toilet bowser is a special lavatory service cart designed to collect human wastes
from aircrafts for final disposal into the airport sewage facility. The objective of the
project is to produce a towable toilet bowser capable of providing adequate ground
support service to commuter aircraft lavatory connections located at height from
0.8m to 2.5m above the ground level. Required information was obtained from the
data of existing systems of similar usage. Design analyses of various parts were done
to come up with an overall body dimension of 2743mm x 914mm x 914mm, with an
operator height reach of 2370mm. Materials for the construction were selected from
the lots, with particular attention places on their cost and availability locally.
Standard components were selected to allow for interchangeability.
SIGNIFICANCE: The significance of the work is that it allows for a low cost
gravity evacuation system with well-constructed chassis for efficient handling
and maintenance of commuter aircraft lavatories.
KEYWORDS: Waste Collection Tank (WCT), Rinsing Water Tank (RWT),

Dump Valve, Water Pump, Elevating/Lifting Work Platform (EWP), Top Cover
Plate (TCP)
INTRODUCTION
The perusal of literatures brings home the fact that we have only fragmentary information on the
subject of toilet as a private secluded place to help the body relieve its waste [Richet, 1913]. Planes like
birds, are predisposed to the nature calls, gravity does the rest. The first toilets in airplanes were simple
buckets. Information on early flushing system is not available, however aircraft’s cabins were not
pressurized and it was easy to open doors and windows to relieve the aircraft of human wastes.
Today and happily for people leaving close to the airports, or under flight paths, there is no more
falling manure. However, planes still have to be purged of their smelly “unpaid load”. Hence the need
for special designed lavatory service carts to collect the waste for final disposal into the airport sewage
facility. Such service cart is called bowser, which is the term for a vehicle used to replenish the fuel and
water supplies of aircraft at an airfield or airport [Stewart & Stevenson, 2000]. Airline Human Waste is
collected in tanks on board the aircraft. Toilet are serviced at each stop; emptied, flushed and then
refilled to preset levels with a mixture of water and a colored, aromatic, quaternary ammonium
bactericidal compound in water – sachets, so as to disguise the toilet content. The chemical compound
liquefies solid materials and tissues. There are sophisticated aircraft lavatory systems available in the
market that require huge capital to procure; such as the Vacuum Evacuation; self – propelled toilet car,
having a vacuum pump at one end of the waste tank connected through a vacuum regulator, for the
purpose of human waste evacuation from aircrafts. Also available, is the DAFA 3200 M, and DAFA
1500 M, gravity evacuation toilet bowsers, with built- in water pump aggregate mounted on a
commercial Mercedes chassis with diesel engine.
36
Amadu Onotu and Adamu Alhaji Umar: Continental J. Engineering Sciences 2: 36 - 48, 2007
METHODOLOGY
The approach for the design was through literature review, development of suitable system shape and
size, consideration of the materials to be used, design of components and parts of the system, selection
of final dimensions, cost analysis and finally, construction, assembly and testing of the bowser.
Design Analysis
The design of the towable toilet bowser consists of two separate and independent welded sheet steel
tanks attached to the bowser`s chassis. The top of the WCT is equipped with an inspection opening
with a cover and a waste filler pipe to connect the waste hose. Emptying of tank is done through a
dump valve located at the bottom with a slide valve operated over rods because of danger of splashing.
A waste hose from the top of the WCT is connected to the toilet outlet of an aircraft and the human
wastes collected through gravity evacuation. The RWT is equipped with an inspection opening on the
top with a filler cap. A screwed joint at the bottom can be easily released if it becomes necessary to
empty the tank completely. A convectional self propel water pump positioned in-between the two tanks
enable water to be filled into the aircraft via high pressure water delivery hose, connected to the filling
nozzle of the airplane. Steering mechanism consisting of a rotating plate, wheel assembly, front and
rear solid shaft, steering bolt and a tow bar, to ensure accurate in train tracking, excellent
maneuverability and precise positioning. The EWP located at the top of the bowser; consist of an
operator’s platform, a ladder and a support bar, capable of attaining a height of at lease 2.0 meters to
facilitate the handling of commuter aircraft types.
Design of Components
Design of the EWP
In designing the EWP, the principle of virtual work was employed due to its advantages as stated thus,
“if a system of connected rigid bodies is in equilibrium, the total virtual work of the external forces
applied to the system is zero for any virtual displacement of the system” (Lindkvist, 1990)
∑F X =0, ∑F Y = 0, ∑ MA = 0
Fig 2.2.1: Free Body Diagram of the EWP
If the load is placed on the platform, so that its total weight is supported by the ladder, we shall use the
reactive force exerted by the support bar when inclined at θ = 600 to the base, as the basis for our design; a
= 1.20m, and S = 1.10m
∂U = 0 : −WD ∂y + FCD ∂s = 0 -----------------------------------(1)
To express ∂s similarly in terms of ∂θ , we first note that by the cosine rule,
S 2 = a 2 + Li − aLi cosθ ----------------------------------------(2)

2
aWD S cosθ WD S (cot θ )

FCD = = --------------------------(3)
aLi sin θ Li
37
FCD = =
( m
WD S (cot θ ) 112.5kg * 9.81 s 2 * 1.10m * cot 60)0
= 0.73 KN
Li 0.961m
Hence, the reactive force exerted by the support bar on the main ladder to overcome 1104N load and dead
weight of members is 0.73KN.
The design analysis of the effort arm
The effort arm was designed for opening and closing of the dump valve conveniently. Therefore, for
rigidity, the material used for the effort arm was mild steel. The equation employed is (Sadhu Singh, 2003)
 32 ELn  13
dE =  σbπ  ---------------------------------------------------(4)
 32 * 196 * 1.07 * 2  13
dE =   = 0.0269m (26.9mm)
 π 220 x10
6

Hence, a diameter of 20mm is use for ease of fabrication and cost effectiveness.
Design analysis of the TCP

In this design, the TCP is required to adequately support the weight of at least four persons each with an
average weight of 75 kg. A factor of safety of 1.5 is preferred for economy of manufacture. Therefore,
designed dead weight WD= 1.5 (4 x 75 kg) = 450 kg = 4414.5N
The total load acting on the TCP is 5639.341 N, (EWP`s weight inclusive) and is assumed to be uniformly
distributed. Hence, the TCP is considered as a beam of uniformly distributed load.
(Uniformly distributed load = 5639.341 N)
ts
1.829m 0.9141m
R1
Calculating the thickness of the TCP, the flexural formula was employed (Ryder, 1996)
δ max M max
= ----------------------------------------------(5),
y I
L bt 3
Where y =   and I =
2 12
 1.829   0.915 
BM (max) = 2819.670   – 3083.292 * 0.915   = 1287.884 Nm
 2   2 
38
(BM max * t S ) bt
3
From the flexural formula, I= = S

2δ max 12
6 * BM max 6 *1287.884
tS = = = 3.841x10 −5 m 2
2
Therefore,
bδ max 1.829 *110 x10 6
Therefore, t S = 3.841x10 −5 m 2 = 6.197 x 10-3 m = 6.197mm
Hence, a sheet thickness, ts of 6.0mm is use for cost effectiveness and availability of sheet size.
Design analysis of the vertical support bars for the TCP and Frame
Total load to act on the supporting bars is 674.165kg Therefore, the weight on one vertical member =
674.165 1 1 1
= 112.36kg . Selecting an angle iron of L1 x1 in of thickness in
6 2 2 4
To get the buckling load of the material (Ryder, 1996)
π 2 EI
Pc = ------------------------------------------------- (6)
4L2
Where, E = young modulus of the material (200 GN ) for mild steel, I = Moment of inertia, L =
m2
Length of bar, Pc =
Buckling load
π 2 EI π 2 * 200 x10 9 * 5.79 x10 −8
Pc = = = 26778.355 N
4 L2 4 * 1.067 2
Force 26778
Since, mass = = = 2729.70kg
g 9.81
With less than 2729.70Kg load, the angle iron will not buckle. This buckling load is by far greater than the
1 1 1
load supported by each member. Hence, an angle iron of 1 x1 x inches can be used safely for the
2 2 4
supporting bars.
Selection and calculation of the thickness of the WCT & RWT

The best material for this purpose is one that has the following properties; very light, high strength and
resistance to corrosion.
The strength of the steel sheet is 169 MN (Yield Value)

m2
The design of the tanks involves selection of the right thickness of sheet, and the theory employed is the
flexural formula of a pure bending.
39
tp
A
B
C
m
2 m
76
7 62
mm
Fig.2.2.5: Waste Collection Tank Sheet

In this case, the cover sheet is assumed to have an imaginary support at both ends and the liquid weight is
applies on it in the form of a distributed load. For easy mathematical relation, the top and sides of the tank
are removed as shown in fig.
2.2.5, with simple end supports.
δ max M max
For the flexural formula equation = (Ryder, 1996)
y I
Since pressure in fluid increases with depth, it is evident that the weight of dissolved human waste acting
on section C, is greater than those at section A and B. Thus section C precedes the design. Hence, the base
of the WCT is considered to be a simply supported, uniformly loaded thick beam.
wl 2
Bending moment = ----------------------- (7), at x = l Where w = load/unit length
8 2
At the centre where bending moment is maximum; we have, x = l = 0.381m

2
Therefore, BM max =
wl 2
=
(564.188 0.762)* 0.762 2
= 70.524 Nm
8 8
3
BM max * t P Lt P 6 * BM max 6 * 70.524
I= = ; Therefore, t P 2 = = = 7.165 x10 −6 m 2
2δ max 12 b * δ max 0.762 * 77.5 x10 6
Therefore, t P = 7.165 x10 −6 m 2 = 2.677 x10 −3 m
Hence, a plate thickness, tp of 3.0mm gauge is used for adequate strength.
Conductors sizing for flow rate of water pump requirement

The conductor used is plastic pipe because it does not corrode and has high resistance to a broad group of
industrial chemicals (Thomas & Vierick, 1970). It does not support combustion, its non-magnetic and non-
sparking; imparts no odor or taste to conductors, is light ( 1 the weight of aluminum), has low flow
2
resistance, resists weathering. The pipe
40
3
is to handle a flow rate of 60 L (or 15.82 gpm or 0.0001 m ). The maximum recommended
min s
velocity for pump suction lines is 1.2 m/s in order to prevent excessively low suction pressures and
resulting pump cavitations (Anthony Esposito, 1980) Hence to obtain the minimum inside diameter that
will provide an average fluid velocity of 1.2 m ; the minimum required pipe flow area is resolve from, V
s
Q
average = ------------------------(8)
A
Qm ( s) 3
0.0001 m( s)3
Therefore, A (m2) =
vm ( s) =
( s)
1 .2 m
= 8.33 x 10-5 m2
πDi 2
A= --------------------------------(9);
4
4A 4 * 8.333 x10 −5
Di = = = 0.0103m
π π
Therefore the minimum inside diameter of the pipe to be used is 0.0103m (10.3 mm)
From the standard pipe sizes table (Anthony Esposito, 1980), the two smallest acceptable pipe sizes based
on flow rate requirements are: -
Schedule 40: D0, 0.675 – in; 0.493 – in, Di

Schedule 80: D0, 0.675 – in; 0.423 – in, Di
Checking the two pipe sizes for appropriate working pressure

For the schedule 40:
(D0 − Di ) (0.675 − 0.493)

The wall thickness is given thus; t = = = 0.091 in
2 2
The Burst pressure (fluid pressure that will cause the pipe to burst) is
BP = 2tS -------------------------------------(10)
Di
BP = 2 * 0.091 * 55000tS = 20304.26 psi

0.493
The working pressure at which the pipe can safely operate is obtained thus;
WP = BP ----------------------------------------- (11)
FS
Since the pressure of the water is on the low side, a factor of safety of 8 is recommended to ensure the
integrity of the conductor by determining the maximum safe level of working pressure.
WP = 20304.26 = 2538.03 psi
8
NOTE: Is WP > = system’s operating pressure?
41
For the schedule 80:
The wall thickness is given thus; t =

(D0 − Di ) =
(0.675 − 0.423) = 0.126 in
2 2
BP = 2tS = 2 * 0.126 * 55000tS = 32765.96 psi

Di 0.493
WP = BP = 32765.96 = 4095.74 psi

FS 8
Both Working Pressures are greater than the system’s operating pressure, hence, acceptable. For cost
effectiveness, Schedule 40 pipe size is used.
Pressure head of water pump
RoylinCoupling
Plug
Elbow GateValve Union

Cross
Gate Valve
ER
N AT
Elbow
TA G W
K
ReducingCoupling
IN
P
NS
M
PU
RI
ER
AT
W
Elbow
Fig. 2.2.6: Piping/Conductor System of the Water Collection
DATA: The pump is adding 1 hp (746W) to the water; Pump flow is 0.0001 m3 . The pipe has 0.0125m
s
– inside diameter. The specific gravity of water is 1.0; the kinematic viscosity of water at 200C is 1.01 x 10-
6 m2 . The elevation difference between station (1) and (2) is 1ft (0.3048m). Writing Bernoulli’s
s
equation between stations (1) and (2);
2 2
P1 V1 P V
Z1 + + + H p − H m − H L = Z 2 + 2 + 2 ------------(12)
γ 2g γ 2g
P1
Since there is no hydraulic motor between stations (1) and (2), Hm = 0, V1 = 0 and = 0 (the water tank
γ
is vented to the atmosphere). Also, Z1 – Z2 = 0.3048 m
42
V (m ) =
( s ) = 1.0x10 = 0.815 m
Qm
3
−4
A(m )  π 0.0125 
Solving for V2: 2 s 2 s 2
 
 4 
2
V2 0.815 2
Therefore, velocity head at station 2 is; =
2 g (2 * 9.81)
[
V (m )* D(m )]
( )
The Reynolds number is thus; NR = s =
2
νm s
[0.815 * 0.0125] = 10086.63 ≈ 1.0 x10 4
1.01x10 −6
Since the flow is turbulent (i.e. 10086.63 > 4000), and relative roughness of plastic is considered
smooth (Sullivian, 1989). On the NR axis of the Moody diagram, the friction factor, f, is approximately
0.03.
The total length of the plastic pipe, LT = L1 + L equivalent L1 = 2.432 m
The equivalent length of the twelve 900 elbow fittings used along the stations is:
 K *D
L equivalent = 12  , (K-factor for 900 elbow = 0.75)
 f  900 elbow
 0.75 * 0.0125 
= 12  = 3.750 m
 0.03  900 elbow
Therefore, the total length of the plastic pipe, LT = 2.432 + 3.750 = 6.182 m
2
 L V  6.182 
→ From, HL = f  T  2 = 0.03 0.0339 = 0.528m
 D  2g  0.0125 
Substituting the values obtained into the Bernoulli’s equation, to solve for P2/ γ
2
P2
= (Z 1 − Z 2 ) + H P − H L − 2
V
= - 0.1524 + H P – 0.528 - 0.0339 = H P – 0.5573
γ 2g
For the pump head, we have;

PumpPower (W )
HP =
[ ( ) ( )]
γ N
m3
*Q m 3
s
----------------------------------(13)
Specific weight, γ, of water at 200C = 9792.34 N

m3
745W
Therefore, HP =
[9792.34(N m )*1.0x10 (m s )]
3
−4 3
= 761.82 m
Thus, P2 = γ water * 761.27 = 9792.34 * 761.17 = 7.45 Mpa = 1081 psiAmadu
43
Onotu and Adamu Alhaji Umar: Continental J. Engineering Sciences 2: 36 - 48, 2007
Design analysis of bowser`s shaft

Shaft design consists primarily of the determination of the correct shaft diameter to ensure satisfactory
strength and rigidity when the shaft is conveying motion under various operating conditions (Hall,
Holowenko, Laughlin, 2002). The weight of the toilet bowser is supported by two shafts, with the front
shaft forming the basis of the design since it bears more loads.
1757.1964kg * 9.81 m
Total mass acting on one shaft is =
s 2 = 8619.046 N = P
2
0.165m 0.165m
0.412m 0.412m
Ra Rb
Taking moment about Ra (Ma = 0)

4309.523 (0.165) + 4309.523 (0.659) – Rb x 0.824 = 0
Therefore, Rb = 4309.523 N
But, Ra = P – Rb = 4309.523 N i.e. sum of vertical upward forces are equal to sum of vertically
downward forces}
Torsional moment of the shaft
From the formula, torsional moment, M torsional is given as (Hall, Holowenko, Laughlin, 2002)
(1000 * 60 * KW 9550 * KW
M torsional = = -------------------------(14)
(rev ) * 2π (rev )
min min
Since the shaft is not subjected to any revolution, hence torsional moment is zero
Diameter of the shaft

The diameter of the shaft is computed from the relationship given below (Hall, Holowenko, Laughlin,
2002).
d S = (16 )
3
τ
( K b M b ) + (K t M t ) --------------------------- (15)
2 2
Where Kb = 1.5, Kt = 1.0, and τ = 55 x 106 N for shafts without key way
m2
 
Therefore,
3
dS = 
16
6 
(1.5 * 711.071)2 + (1.0 * 0)2
 π * 55 x10 
1
Therefore, dS = (9.877 x10 −5 ) 3 = 4.622 x 10-2m ≈ 46.22mm
44
Hence use 46.0mm diameter shaft, the nearest standard size and for ease of fabrications
Bearing / bushing design analysis

For this design, bushings were used to support the shafts, since the shafts are subjected to no rotational
speed. The design of the bushing is based on the formula; b0 = 0.1 * d S (Shingley & Mischke, 2001),
where b0 is the thickness of the bushing and d S is the diameter of the shaft upon which the bushing is to
be slotted on. A shaft diameter of 46.0 mm was adopted, b0 = 0.1 x 46.0 = 4.6mm
CONSTRUCTION, ASSEMBLY, TESTING AND COST ANANLYSIS

Fabrication of the waste collection and rinsing water tanks
The tanks were fabricated by cutting galvanized steel material in accordance with the given specifications,
and the edges of the various parts are then welded using Oxyacetylene gas welding to avoid leakage. The
bottoms of both tanks were sloped towards the drain. Both tanks have at their top a leak proof – access
holes of dimension 194mm x 192mm, to allow for cleaning and inspection. The RWT is equipped with a
drain plug and a 1-inch filler cap.
Fabrication of the effort arm

The mild steel rod lever was turned to 20mm diameter with length 1070mm. A linkage mechanism was
incorporated to facilitate the opening and closing of the dump valve, located at the bottom of the WCT. A
standard 100mm (4 inches) Roylin-coupling with the necessary waste hose was incorporated to allow
waste to flow by gravity into the WCT.
Fabrication of the top cover vertical support bars

The top cover vertical support bar was made from a standard angular iron of L1½ “x L1½ “of thickness ¼
“cut to specification, welded to the top cover member. The total length of each of the six support bars is
1.067m
The high-lift water pump system

This consists of a complete self-propelled water pump machine, plastic piping system, together with a high-
pressure water delivery hose. A water pump of the following specification [0.5 hp (373 W) & 35 L/min]
was adopted for cost effectiveness.
DISCUSSION AND TABULATION OF RESULTS

TABLE (1): Average Time of Discharge of Water from RWT
DESIGNATED TIME TO DISCHARGE THE AVERAGE TIME OF TOTAL AVERAGE
HEIGHT / SCALE TANK AT A PARTICULAR DISCHARGE AT TIME OF
POINTS HEIGHT SCALE POINTS / DISCHARGE /
/ (Minutes) (minutes) minutes
A / 600 (10.05)(9.25)(9.48) 10.00
10.11
B / 450 (10.09)(9.15)(9.40) 9.55
C / 300 (10.09)(9.17)(9.47) 9.58
TABLE (2): Result of Bowser`s Scale Point Height

S/No. DESIGNATED APPROXIMATE HEIGHT OF APPROX. TOTAL
HEIGHTS / BOWSER (m) ADDITIONAL HEIGHT OF
SCALE POINT HEIGHT (m) LADDER FROM
(m) GROUND
LEVEL (m)
1 A / 600 1.33 1.04 2.37
2 B /450 1.33 0.85 2.18
3 C / 300 1.33 0.60 1.93
45
Table 3: Cost analysis of the materials used

PARTS MATERIAL / SIZE QTY UNIT RATE COST
Rinsing water tank, & 8ft x 4ft x 3mm thick sheet 3 N 5,500 N 16,500
Waste collection tank
Vertical support members, 6402mm, 0.5 full length & N 3,000 N 8,750
1 1 1
Shaft frame assembly & 1 x1 x Angle iron 1250mm
Tow bar 2 2 4
Horizontal members 7314mm N 2,750 N 2,750
1 1 1
1 x1 x Angle iron
4 4 4
Waste/Faeces hose 4 inches 2.5m N 600 N 1,500
Discharge rod lever 20mm solid ext. diameter 330mm N 1, 200 N 1,200
Base cover sheet 8ft x 4ft x 5mm steel sheet 1 full size N 8,750 N 8, 750
Top cover sheet 8ft x 4ft x 5mm steel sheet 1 full size N 8,750 N 8,750
Side cover sheet, & Step 8ft x 4ft x 1.5mm Al. sheet (3 full size) & N 8,000 N 24,000 &
cover sheet (0.5m by 0.35m) (N 1,500)
Dump valve Outlet pipe 3 inches ext. diameter 1.5 inches N 800 N 800
Bolts, Nuts & Washers M10 x 1.25, & M12 x 1.25 30 pieces, 30 pieces (N 4) & (N 10) (N 120) & (N 300)
Electrode Gauge 12 1 pack N 800 N 800
Waste dump valve Mild steel component 1 N 10,000 N 10,000
Water Pump 0.5 horse power 1 N25, 500 N25, 500
Water conductor 1 inch plastic pipes 1 full length N 1,800 N 1,800
Conductor fittings/valves Plastic & Metal types 12 pieces N 50 N 600

Water delivery hose 1 inch ext. diameter hose 2.5 m N 300 N 750
Vertical members, 30mm x 30mm x 1.5mm 3full length N 2,500 N 7,500

Horizontal members,
Operator’s compartment
member
Front & Rear shaft 20mm ext. diameter (812mm length) 2 N 2,000 N 4,000
Tyres Solid tyres 4 N 800 N 3,200
Steering bolt 32 mm diameter 1 N 90 N 90
Rotating plate 406mm x 483mm x 5mm 2 N 1,200 N 2,400
A Stop 20mm x 20mm x 1.5mm 1/3 full length *** N 840
Towing eye According to design ***** ***** N 450
Water Roylin Coupling Standard size (ISO / R 47) 1 N 18,000 N 18,000
Waste Roylin Coupling Standard size (ISO / R 47) 1 N 35,000 N 35,000
Painting **** **** **** 23, 450

Total cost of Labour used **** **** **** N 25, 000. 00 K
Overall cost of **** **** **** N 234, 300: 00K
Production:
46
Fabrication of the EWP

For the vertical rail members, cut out two square pipes of length 1.2m each and produce a bevel of 450 on
one end of each pipe. To the other ends, attach a small length of circular steel pipe. For the platform
support bar, cut out two square pipes of length 1.10m each and weld it to the operator’s platform. For the
operator’s platform, cut out two square pipe of length 1.12m, 0.5m, 0.7m, and 0.35m each and assemble all
together by way of welding as shown in figure 2.
Fabrication of the shafts

The shafts were fabricated using the lathe machine. Various operations such as cutting, centering,
facing and chamfering were experienced while fabricating the shafts, to obtain the following shafts
specifications: - Material: Mild steel; Lenght: 1002mm, & Diameter: 46mm. A bushing with the
following specifications was force-fitted at the ends of the shafts before inserting it into the wheels.
Thickness: 4.6 mm; Inner diameter: 46.0 mm; Outer diameter: 55.2 mm
Fabrication of the tow bar

The tow bar was made long enough to prevent the toilet bowser and the towing tractor from contacting
each other when turning at minimum swept radius. A stop was welded to the tow bar to prevent the towing
eye from coming into contact with the ground when dropped.
ASSEMBLY
The procedure for assembling the toilet bowser is as follows
1. Weld the angle iron to produce the bed frame, attach the steering mechanism to the frame, after
the tow bar was welded to the frame.
2. Put in place the constructed tanks on the bed frame.
3. Put in place the water pump in between the tanks and connect the plastic piping system to the
RWT.
4. Bolt the top cover sheet to the horizontal support bars then bolt it to the vertical support bar. The
EWP assembly is then bolted to the TCP.
5. Lubricate all the bushings and force fit them into position and smears reasonable quantity of
grease (shell simnia or alvania BP grease) at the ends of the shafts.
6. Connect the water delivery pipe and the waste hose.
7. Fix the dump valve, effort arm and linkage assembly at the bottom of the WCT.
8. Paint the entire body of the assembled system to give it an attractive look and most importantly to
minimize the effects of corrosion.
The assembled diagram is shown in figure 1
TESTING
From the field test, the waste hose from the waste tank was connected to waste outlet of the aircraft.
Human wastes from the aircraft were collected, and left inside the WCT for 24 hours. After physical
examinations of the tank, some leakages were observed at the dump valve.
The RWT was filled to capacity and body inspection was conducted for possible leakage. With the 0.5hp
pump connected, water in the RWT was emptied. The time was noted and recorded. The above procedure
was repeated thrice and the average time it took to empty the RWT was computed as 10.11 minutes.
The EWP was extended from the lowest to the maximum height and the various heights were measured
from ground level as shown in Table (2).
CONCLUSION
Design and Development of the Gravity Evacuation Toilet Bowser saw some difficulties; however, the task
of obtaining local, simpler and more efficient mechanism that operated on the principle of gravity
evacuation of human wastes for commuter aircrafts was eventually accomplished.
47
Generally speaking, the toilet bowser combines good low profile lavatory system with simplicity in
manufacture, low maintenance costs, long unit lifetime, and hygienic operator’s environment. The
EWP was made adjustable for the purpose of serving different types of commuter aircrafts depending
on the height of their toilet outlets.
REFERENCES
1. Anthony, E. (1997). Fluid Power with Application. A Reston Book, Prentice - Hall
International. 4th edition
2. Hall A. S, Holowenko A. R., and Laughlin H. G. (2002). Theory and Problem of Machine
Design. Tata McGraw – Hill Publishing Company Limited, pp 113 - 115
3. Joseph, E. S and Charles, R. M (2001). Mechanical Engineering Design. McGraw-Hill
International Edition. 6th Edition
4. James, A. S. (1989). Fluid Power, Theory and Application. Prentice – Hall International Inc.
3rd Edition
5. Lindkvist, R.G.T. (1990). Handbook of Materials Handling. Prentice Hall Inc Publisher
6. Robert L. Mott, P. E. (1985). Machine Elements in Mechanical Design. Charles E. Merrill
Publishing Company
7. Ryder, G. H. (1982). Strength of Materials. English Language Books Society. 3rd Edition
8. Sadhu, S. (2003). Mechanical Engineer’s Handbook. Khanna Publishers
9. Stewart, S. T (2000). Operations, Maintenance, and Parts Manual for Aircraft Ground Support
Equipment. Aircraft GSE Revision 22 – July
10. http:/ www.iata.org/ighc/whatwedo/ground handling

Adamu Alhaji Umar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bayero University, Kano – Nigeria
48
DEVELOPMENT OF POTATO SLICING MACHINE
Aminu Omeiza Yusuf and Ibrahim Abdullahi

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
Existing Slicers were reviewed and the potato slicing machine was developed based
on appropriate technology. Locally available materials like mild steel, stainless steel,
brass and aluminium alloy were used in the fabrication. The machine can be adjusted
to slice potatoes to varying thickness, ranging from 4mm to 10mm. The capacity of
the machine is 184kg of potato per hour and its performance efficiency is 68%. The
production cost of the machine is Twenty five thousand two hundred and eighty two
naira, fifty kobo only (N25, 282.50).
KEY WORDS: Slicing, Machine, Machinability, Formability, Ductility, Torque.
INTRODUCTION
POTATO SLICING MACHINE
The use of machines in industries and homes is gradually taking over manual means of achieving work.
While the industries are being automated and computerized, the homes are gradually turning into a
mini-industry where different types of machines are used to do the home chores. The introduction of
these machines in our homes has brought about effectiveness, efficiency and time and energy saving.
The potato slicing machine consists of a knife that is attached at its midpoint, to a rotating shaft. Two
impacts are made by the knife on the potato in one complete rotation of the shaft. The shaft and the
knife arrangement will be housed within the casing of the machine. One end of the shaft shall bear the
knife while the other end will be connected to an electric motor that effects the rotation. The slicing
unit will be rotating within a brass bushing.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

After careful study of local method of slicing potato it was observed that it involves a lot of physical
labour and material wastes. There fore in order to improve the processing method and enhance its
hygienic level, there is the need of mechanisation of the slicing method.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH

1. The potato slicing machine is very important because of the relief it will bring to those
who have hitherto used manual means to achieve their slicing.
2. This design would provide opportunity for easy part replacement without recourse to
importation or total abandonment.
3. It’s simplicity in operation will make it user-friendly.
AIM AND OBJECTIVES

- To fabricate a machine that will serve as import substitute to suite our peculiar
situations.
- Using locally available materials and technology to produce an affordable machine to
the local populace.
- To ease the problem of slicing, especially for commercial consumption outfits.
METHODOLOGY
The following methods were followed in the development of the machine.
i. Local methods of slicing potato were studied with a view to improving the methods.
49
Aminu Omeiza Yusuf and Ibrahim Abdullahi : Continental J. Engineering Sciences 2: 49 - 57, 2007
ii. The information obtained was used to develop the machine. Selection of materials was based
on suitability to operating conditions and availability.
iii. Production of the component was mainly through Casting, machining and welding.
iv. Performance testing and evaluation.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Slicing is the process of cutting through an item using sharp-edge object. Because of the importance of
slicing of food items in our day-to-day life there is the need to employ the use of simple mechanical
devices to ease the process.
Slicing machines are either manually or electrically powered. In any of the cases, the machine consists
of a knife or set of knives arranged in a particular pattern to meet the need of the operation(s) it is
intended to perform.
PRINCIPLES OF CUTTING
Cutting involves principally the application of shearing force on an item with the help of a knife. The
knife could be stationary or on translational or on rotary motion. Slicing could be achieved in any of
the following ways.
i) A knife moving against a stationary one while getting the food cut in-between.
ii) Two knives or cutting elements moving in opposite directions against one another and thereby
getting the food item sliced in the process.
iii) A knife moving against a stationary part of the machine.
Mechanical food cutters used in modern kitchens basically consist of either rotating or reciprocating
knives. In some instance, which is not very common, the knives are made stationary while food item
travels against it and get sliced.
SYSTEM DESIGN AND MATERIAL SELECTION

SYSTEM DESIGN
The following design criteria were used:
i) Mechanical properties, which include strength, rigidity, toughness and ductility.

ii) Machinability or formability
iii) Availability of material
iv) Wear resistance of materials
v) Cost of materials
Transmission Shaft Design

The transmission shaft is stepped and carries the knife at one of its ends. It is driven by an electric
motor at the other end, see fig. 3.1
Shaft
Knife To electric motor
Fig. 3.1 Transmission shaft
The Determination of Shaft Diameter

In the determination of shaft diameter several factors are put into consideration. The shaft must have
enough strength to overcome all stresses it shall be subjected to. Such stresses are due to the following
forces.
- The reaction of potatoes, the effort of the hand and hopper cover which is also used to push
the potatoes against the slicer plate.
- The reaction of the knife on the shaft
50
- The reaction of the slicer plate on the shaft

- The force exerted by knife to slice the potato.
Reaction of Cover Plate

The cover plate is used to push the potatoes against the slicer plate. Its weight affects the overall force
acting on the shaft.
b = 86
L = 133
t =2
R = 35
Fig. 3.2 Hopper cover plate
Fp = ma = ρva
Where, FP = weight of cover plate
ρ = density = 7800 kg/m3 (Galvanised steel sheet)
v = volume = {(l x b) + ( π R2)}t
2
v = {0.145 x 0.15) + ( π x 0.0752)} 0.002 = 6.12 x 10-5m3
2
Fp = 7800 x 6.12 x 10-5 x 9.81 = 4.68N
Reaction of Potatoes
FP
Slicer plate
FC
FA
FB
Fig. 3.3. Reaction of potatoes
51
450 FA
Assuming the potatoes are pushed against the slicer plate at an angle of 450, the forces are as follows:
FA = the force against slicer plate
FB = vertical component of the force
FC = horizontal component of the force FB
Average weight of potatoes in the hopper = 1.5kg (estimated) FC

Fpo = m x a = 1.5 x 9.81 = 14.72N
The average human effort (Fh) = 200N
Assuming only half of this (100N) is applied to push the cover plate with the potatoes against the slicer
plate.
Then, the total force against the slicer plate, Fv
Fv = Fh + Fp + Fpo
Where Fh = Force exacted by hand

Fp = Reaction of cover plate
Fpo = Reaction of potatoes
= 100 + 4.68 + 14.72
Fv = 119.40N
From the figure above the vertical force, FB = FA cos 450

But FB = FV
FB = 119.40 x Cos 450
= 62.7N
Average weight of blade (stainless steel)

Length, l = 0.22m, width, w = 0.035m, Thickness, t = 0.006m, density, ρ = 8000 kg/m3, Volume
Vb = 0.22 x 0.03 x 0.006 = 3.96 x 10-5m3, m = σ x v = 8000 x 3.96 x 10-5 = 0.32 kg, Fb = 0.32 x
9.81 = 3.14N
Average weight of slicer plate (aluminium alloy)

m = density of Al x (vol. of plate + vol. of rim – vol. of slot in plate)
= ρ[πr2t + πdwt – vb]
= 2800 [(π x 0.1152 x 0.006) + (π x 0.23 x 0.01 x 0.006) – 3.96 x 10-5]
= 0.71 kg
Fsp = 0.71 x 9.81 = 6.95N
Weight of Brass nut on the shaft

Mass = ρ π/4 [l1 (r12 – l22) – l2 (r12 – r32)]
Where ρ = density of brass, l1 = length of nut, l2 = length of groove, r1 = Outer radius of nut, r2 =
Inner radius of nut, r3 = Inner radius of groove
Mass = 8530 π/4 [0.03 (0.0452 – 0.0282) – 0.006(0.0452 – 0.0372)
= 0.223kg, therefore Fn = 2.2N
Force required to slice a potato, Fs = 80N was obtained through the use of Seidner Universal Testing
Machine.
A knife was attached to the spindle of the machine. The loading lever was released until the knife cuts
through the potato, the reading on the display was recorded.
The slicing torque Ts = Fs x r
Where Fs = slicing force
r = distance from the point of application to the centre of knife
Ts = 80 x 100 = 8000Nmm
52
Total vertical force on slicer = Fv + Fsp = 119.4 + 6.95 = 126.35N

From shear force and bending moment analysis, the moment M and Torque T are:
T = Fs x r = 80 x 100 = 8,000Nmm
(6949.25)2 + (4400 )
2
M =
= 8225Nmm
The shaft diameter d is
(Cm M )2 + (CtT )
2
d3 = 16 /
πτ MAX
τmax (allowable) = 40N/mm2 per ASME code for shaft, Hall Jr. et al (1961).
Cm = 2 and Ct = 1.5 (appendix V)
d3 = 1
16
(2 x8225)2 +(1.5 x8000)2
πx 40
d = 13.7 mm
For operational convenience and its coupling with other component parts e.g nuts spring, key etc, the
smallest diameter of the stepped shaft has been taken to be 20mm while the biggest diameter which
carries the hub of the slicing unit is taken to be 35mm
Power requirement of the transmission shaft

The power was determined using the following formula
2πNT
P=
60
Where, P = Power of motor, w
N = Speed of motor, rev/min.
T = Torque, Nm.
900 rev/min was selected for good slicing operation
2 × π × 900 × 8
∴ Power, P =
60
= 0.75398 kW
0.75 kW motor is selected.
3.1.2.1 Available kinetic energy of slicing unit
KE = ½ ITω2
Where IT = total mass moment of inertia of the rotating unit.

ω = angular speed
COUPLING SELECTION
Universal joint is selected because of its suitability in connections were angular misalignment is
unavoidable.
Bearing Design
In the calculation for load carrying capacity, oil flow rates, etc, the performance of bushes and split
bearings may be regarded as identical and the choice between them in any given application will
usually depend only on their relative convenience of manufacture, supply and assembly, (Welsh 1999).
Bushes are widely employed in general engineering practice particularly in the smaller size (up to say
50mm diameter) and for the less exacting load conditions. Often under relatively poor lubrication
conditions.
53
Types of Lubrication
Based on the speed of operation and total weight of rotating unit (900rev/min and 1.6KN) hydro
dynamic lubrication is recommended.
Journal Diameter
The journal being referred to in this case is the hub which forms the shaft rotating in the bearing. With
reference to chart in appendix 2 it could be seen that the minimum recommended journal diameter is a
little less than 50mm.
Reference to Appendix3 which is for hydrodynamic film-lubricated bearing could be made too. At 900
rev/min (15 rev/s) and the region of 1600N journal load the minimum recommended journal diameter
is a little less than 50mm. The journal for potatoes slicing machine has been taken to be 55mm after
taking the dimensions of associated components into consideration.
SELECTION OF MATERIALS
The material selection was based on the mechanical properties, operational condition, availability, and
cost. The materials used are: mild steel for shaft and machine stand; aluminium alloy for slicer plate,
and hub; stainless steel for the knife; and brass for bushing.
CONSTRUCTION, TESTING AND COST ANALYSIS

CONSTRUCTION OF COMPONENT PARTS
The machine components were produced through the use of conventional machine tools. The machines
used include lathe machine, milling machine and drilling machine.
OPERATIONAL SEQUENCE
It involves the procedures to be followed in order to put the machine into use.
i) Release the latch and open the cover/hoper
ii) Using the brass and aluminium nuts adjust the knife in relation to slicer plate to set the
aperture to the desired thickness of potato slice.
iii) Close the cover and put the latch in place
iv) Connect the electric motor to the power source
v) Raise the cover plate, feed in the peeled potatoes into the hopper and replace the cover while
slightly pressing it on the potatoes via the lever.
vi) Put-on the power and immediately press the button of the capacitor and collect the sliced
potatoes coming out of the sprout.
TESTING
On completion of the fabrication and assembly, the machine was tested for performance in terms of
output and efficiency.
The output is measured in terms of mass processed per unit time.

The hopper of the machine was filled with tubers of potatoes and sliced. The time taken to slice the
potatoes was noted.
After slicing, the potatoes were sorted into three groups: right thickness, wrong thickness and waste.
Each of these were weighed and recorded.
This was done for each adjustment of blade for thickness. The efficiency was calculated based on those
slices that satisfied the required thickness.
54
3-D DIAGRAM OF THE POTATO SLICING MACHINE
13
ELECTRIC MOTOR
1
10
9
12
14
14 DISCHARGE SPROUT 1 GALVANISED STEEL SHEET
13 HOPPER COVER 1 GALVANISED STEEL SHEET
12 MACHINE STAND 1 MILD STEEL
10 HOUSING 1 MILD STEEL
9 HOPPER 1 GALVANISED STEEL SHEET
8 SLICING UNIT COVER 1 GALVANISED STEEL SHEET
1 KNIFE 1 STAINLESS STEEL
S/NO DESCRIPTION QTY MATERIAL
Output
Table 4.1 Machine Output
S/No. Blade Mass of Time Average Total mass/sec. mass/min.
opening slices (g) taken loading time
(mm) (s) times (s) taken
(s)
1 4 1200 16 12 28 42.9 2,574
2 7 1350 13 12 25 54 3,240
3 10 1250 10 12 22 56.8 3,408
153.7 9,222
The average output of the machine is

9,222/3 = 3,074 g/min = 184Kg/hr
Efficiency
Table 4.2. Machine efficiency
S/N Set Output Output wrong Wastage (g) Total weight
thickness Right thickness (g) thickness (g) (g)
(mm)
1 4 750 370 80 1200
2 7 900 386 64 1350
3 10 850 359 41 1250
55
weight of right size

Performance Efficiency of the machine = × 100
Totalweight
Case 1 (4mm blade opening) = 62.5%

Case 2 (7mm blade opening) = 66.7%
Case 3 (10mm blade opening) = 68%
COST ANALYSIS
The total manufacturing cost will be the sum of the elemental costs.
Material cost = N19, 400.00
Direct Labour costs = N 2,353.00
Overhead cost = N 3,529.50
N 25,282.50
CONCLUSION
Potato slicing machine has been successfully developed and tested. The performance efficiency of the
machine is 62.5% for 4mm blade opening, 66.7% for 7mm blade opening and 68% for 10mm opening.
The total cost of producing the machine is Twenty Five Thousand, Two Hundred and Eighty Two
thousand Naira only.
REFERENCES
Blake A., Handbook of Mechanics, material and structures, A Wiley – Interscience Publication New
York.
Faires V. M. (1970). Design of Machine Element, The Macmillan Company, New York
Green, W. C. (1958). Theory of Machines, Blakie and Sons Ltd, Glassgow
Hall Jr. A. S, Holowenko A. R. and Laughlin H. G. (1961) Machine Design, Schanm’s outline series,
McGraw-Hill
Company. New York.
Hamrock B. J., Jacobson B. and Schmid S. R, (1999). Fundamentals of Machine Elements, McGraw Hill,
New York.
Hannah J. and Stephen R. C. (1974). Mechanic of Machineries Advance Theory and Examples, Edward
Anold
Publishing Ltd, London, 2nd Edition
James, E. H, (1977), Engineering Design Graphics, Addison Wesley Publishing Company, Inc Philippines.
Nelson H. G. (1967). Design of machine element, McGraw-Hill Company: New York.
Ryder, G. H, Strength of Material, Macmillan Publishing & Co. Ltd.
Shigley J. E. and Mischke C. R. (1989), Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw Hill, New York.
Tervell, M. E. (1979), Professional Food Preparation, John Wiley & Sons Inc. U.S.A.
Tubby, P. (1979), Working with metals, Thomas Y. Growell Publications New York.
Welsh R. J (1999). Plain Bearing Design Handbook. Butterwoths, London.
56

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria.
E-Mail: baffa_y2k@yahoo.com
57
UNIVERSITY-INDUSTRY COOPERATION IN ENHANCING ENGINEERING EDUCATION IN

NIGERIA
Emmanuel Akintunde Okunade

Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Ado-Ekiti, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria, e-mail: eaokunade@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
This paper examines the benefits of University-Industry cooperation in terms of the
role and contributions of industry in enhancing engineering education in Nigeria.
Considered are the financial contributions of industry through direct and indirect
means to engineering education, which includes provision of equipment and
infrastructure, funding of research, and contributions to other engineering
educational programmes. Industry’s participation and contributions to the informal
aspect of undergraduates’ training outside the universities are also considered.
Industry’s contributions to the engineer’s education even beyond the conventional
university training to the time of attaining chartered status and throughout the
professional life of the practicing engineer are also examined in detail. In conclusion,
while the traditional research partnerships obtainable in the advanced economies
may not be available in the university-industry relationship in Nigeria because of its
low-technology-driven economy, it is found that many of the existing practices could
find beneficial applicability in other countries.
KEYWORDS: education funding, industrial contribution
INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, university-industry cooperation has been a symbiotic or mutually beneficial interactive
relationship. It is widely believed that university-industry cooperation increases technological
innovation and hence, economic development, and that this is responsible for an increase in recent
times in the number of university-industry relationships and in the level of industry’s financial support
of academic research and development programmes (Wu, 2000). Several main reasons, which are
claimed to motivate industry to increase university-industry cooperation, have been provided (Atlan,
1987; Peters et al, 1982). They are: (i) access to manpower, including well-trained graduates and
knowledgeable faculty; (ii) access to basic and applied research results from which new products and
processes will evolve; (iii) solutions to specific problems or professional expertise, not usually found in
an individual firm; (iv) access to university facilities, not available in the company; (v) assistance in
continuing education and training; (vi) obtaining prestige or enhancing the company’s image; and (vii)
being good local citizens or fostering good community relations.
Notwithstanding the benefits motivating industry to make its contributions, the focus of this paper will
be the benefits derived by the universities in the university-industry relationships, and the various
contributions of industry towards the enhancement of engineering education in Nigeria.
On the other hand, the reasons for universities seeking cooperation with industry appear to be relatively
simple. Several of these reasons have been identified (Peters et al, 1982). They are: (i) Industry
provides a new source of money for university; (ii) Industrial money involves less “red tape” than
government money; (iii) Industrially sponsored research provides students with exposure to real world
research problems; (iv) Industrially sponsored research provides university researchers a chance to
work on intellectually challenging research programs; (v) Some government funds are available for
applied research, based upon a joint effort between university and industry.
It is in the light of the above that the special contributions of industry with regard to the enhancement
of engineering education in Nigeria will be considered. However, in view of the peculiarities of the
58
Nigerian situation as a developing country, these contributions do extend much beyond the scope
already mentioned.
Historical Necessity of University-Industry Relationship in Nigeria

From a global perspective, economic and social developments are increasingly driven by the
advancement and application of knowledge (Saint et al, 2004). In the current global economic order,
the path of national development for any nation is to shift from a labor-intensive to a knowledge-
intensive economy, and to enhance the level of technological sophistication. New technology is critical
to the industrial corporations’ competitiveness. Companies can develop their technical capabilities and
products either based on internal research and development (R&D) or outsourcing. Although it remains
necessary to build own internal R&D capacity, the external sources of technologies have become more
and more important (Wu, 2000). To develop technologies externally can be conducted in several ways,
including inter-firm cooperation, industry-research institution cooperation, and university-industry
cooperation. Among them, the university-industry research cooperation (UIRC) has been considered a
top issue by many scholars regarding the national competitiveness, and that industrial companies can
benefit a lot if they are able to leverage the technical resources of universities (Wu, 2000).
The importance and role of the universities and research institutes in the growth of industry and the
economy of Nigeria has been recognized for years. This was reflected in the National Policy on
Education (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1981), which provided that: “Government will support closer
links between the universities, industry and the various research councils,” and that “Government will
encourage locally-based industries to develop direct links with research institutes and universities to
facilitate research into their products and problems.” With regards to this, the Policy further stipulated
that “a greater proportion of educational expenditure will be devoted to science and technology.”
However, funds provided by government seemed to be perpetually inadequate for the financial
implementation of the policies and programmes earmarked for national development. There appears to
be a perennial shortage of funds for the education system at all levels (UNESCO, 1998). An
examination of the overall allocation of financial resources to education in recent times shows little
discernible pattern beyond an ad hoc response to need. For example, when comparing the federal
government allocations to education, health, agriculture and defence between the years 1968 and 1978,
it was found that education came second to defence in the amount of money allocated to each sector
each year. Thereafter, the picture changed and federal allocation to education continued to decline from
24.5% of the recurrent budget in 1978 to less than 8% in 1996 (UNESCO, 1998). Unfortunately, there
had been nothing to reverse this trend since then.
All the foregoing is against the backdrop of the United Nation’s prescription of setting aside a
minimum of 26% of the annual budgetary allocation to education for meaningful national development.
However, other sectors of the economy, namely agriculture, health, social services (electricity, water,
roads, telecommunications, housing, etc.), security and defence, and others, equally demand priority
attention. The scenario is one of increasing legitimate needs with decreasing available resources.
Since the 1980s, therefore, with the realization that funding provided by government alone could not
adequately cater for the growing educational needs of a developing nation, “financial support from
corporations and communities” became an important option, and the role of industry and the
community in enhancing education generally became emphasized in Nigeria. In fact, the UNESCO has
prescribed “the strengthening of university-industry partnerships so that with funds provided by
industries, higher education institutions can carry out research and development functions for
industries, with mutual benefits for both parties” (UNESCO, 1998).
The scope of the contributions of industry to enhancing engineering education in Nigeria extends over
a wide range of relationships and functions. These will be considered under the following broad
categories: financial contributions, contributions to students’ informal training, contributions to post-
graduation training, contributions to continuing professional development, and others.
59
Financial Contributions of Industry to Engineering Education

The contributions of corporations towards the financing of education in general in Nigeria have not yet
been properly evaluated in quantitative terms. It will therefore understandably be difficult to evaluate
them with specific reference to engineering education. For example, many large corporations have
contributed to education in their operational communities either in cash or by building schools and
supplying equipment, and this often without any systematic records being taken. Undoubtedly,
engineering education, being an integral part of education in general, has benefited from such
contributions. Moreover, with the emphasis and priority accorded by the national policy on education
to scientific and technological education, coupled with the fact that these areas normally require more
funding before their needs are satisfied compared to other areas of education, it is to be expected that
engineering education would take a very large chunk of these contributions.
Under the financial contributions of industry to engineering education, we have:
1. Support for equipment acquisition

Engineering laboratory and research equipment are very costly and their acquisition is capital-
intensive. With the fragile economic base of an undeveloped nation, and with so many essential social
needs screaming for attention, the level of government funding of education is generally low.
Understandably, therefore, many of the university engineering laboratories are poorly-equipped (in
terms of the available equipment being inadequate or some of those available being obsolete and
outdated). Certain corporate organizations and industrial concerns have risen up to this challenge by
providing funds for engineering faculties to purchase laboratory and research equipment, purchasing
and supplying the equipment directly to the faculties, and/or donating old equipment to be replaced by
them to the faculties. Donations also often include computing equipment, engineering books, manuals
and design handbooks.
2. Support through Provision of Research Grants

Another avenue of industry’s support for engineering faculties is in the area of provision of funding for
general research, in the research areas of interest of the engineering faculties. This support has to some
extent arrested the “brain drain” phenomenon, which was already rising to alarming proportions. Under
this programme, seasoned academics and researchers are empowered and enabled to initiate and engage
in meaningful research. With this, instead of feeling that they are idly “wasting away”, they are able to
attain some fulfillment. They therefore remain within the developing nation’s engineering faculties,
instead of drifting away to environments with more research opportunities and more conducive to
research as obtainable in overseas institutions. Also, with the availability of research grants and more
research opportunities, indigenous academics and researchers already based in the more advanced
countries are able to return to the country. However, the level of this type of support and funding is
very low as Donwa [7] has discovered that Government support accounts for over 98% of research
funding in Nigerian universities, while a major portion of the rest comes from foreign agencies with
very little coming from industry. She suggested a more intensive approach towards the establishment of
collaborative links between universities and industries, while industry involvement in funding should
be seen as a corporate social responsibility.
3. Contract Research and Patronage of Consultancy Services

This entails funding of research activities of special interest and direct applicability in the specific
industry. Much of industrial support to universities is provided through contracts for special projects. A
good example of this is the various contracts for product development awarded to many engineering
faculties by the Raw Materials Research and Development Council, and other bodies such as the
Federal Ministry of Science and Technology and the Product Development Agency. Another area is the
engagement of the faculties in consultancy services such as design and supervision of engineering
projects. The engineering faculties and individual researchers through these means generate extra funds
which can be further ploughed into other research activities. In general, the contracted agreements to a
department or an individual investigator generate strong person-to-person interactions that favor
technical cooperation which lasts for years.
Another important activity of industry in encouraging research activities in the universities is the
organization and sponsorship of fairs and exhibitions of engineering research products and processes,
60
and the provision of outlets for research results through their adoption for further development and
commercial application in industry.
4. Indirect Contributions through the Education Tax Fund

The Education Tax Fund (ETF) was set up in 1993 by law (Federal Republic of Nigeria,1993). The
Fund was designed as an interventionist agency charged with restoring, rehabilitating and consolidating
the education sector. Its board was inaugurated and charged with the responsibility of operating,
managing and administering the fund.
Under the law, companies registered in the country are required to pay 2% of their assessable profit as
a special education tax to accrue to the Fund. A substantial amount of money has been collected and
administered under the Fund. For example, between 1994 and 1999, the Fund had collected and
administered a total of 11.2 billion Nigerian naira (Daku, 2000). This amount translates to about only
US$80 million, but in the local currency it can achieve a lot. From 1999 to 2006, the Fund had
administered a total sum of a little above 65.5 billion Nigerian naira, according to Table 1 in the
appendix, compiled as a summary of the information on intervention funds allocated annually in those
years by the Education Trust Fund to several areas of the Nigerian education sector, given by the
Education Trust Fund (Daku, 2000).
Much of the Fund’s intervention has been targeted directly at enhancing engineering education in the
country, especially in the area of building of laboratories and provision of engineering laboratory
equipment, provision of research grants, etc., while engineering education benefits from the Fund’s
other interventions indirectly as an integral part of education. Over the years, some of the contributions
of the ETF have included:
- funding of capital projects on university campuses (provision of new and rehabilitation of old
laboratory blocks, lecture halls, students’ hostels, staff offices and equipment, road networks,
transportation equipment such as buses, etc.)
- provision of infrastructure (electrification and alternative power generating facilities, potable
water reticulation schemes and provision of boreholes for water supply from underground
reservoirs, campus-based water treatment plants, health facilities, sporting and recreational
facilities, etc.)
- purchase of laboratory equipment
- acquisition of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) equipment and facilities
(e.g. internet connectivity, etc.)
- provision of research funds for academia, funding of conferences and sponsorship of academia
to attend, etc.
- library acquisition of books and journals (the collection of certain libraries had become
deplorable and outdated due to perpetual abysmally low budgetary allocations) and ICT
equipment for computerization of library services
5. Financial Contributions to the Industrial Training Fund

The Industrial Training Fund (ITF) is the body that administers the Students’ Industrial Work
Experience Scheme (SIWES), both of which will be considered in the next section. Under the law,
funding of SIWES is partly paid for through contributions from employers. Employers are also
mandated to provide welfare services for students on SIWES placement with them. Apart from these,
some individual firms and industrial concerns optionally pay ‘extra’ allowances to the students on
placement in their establishment.
6. Provision of Incentives to Engineering Students

A significant contribution of industry to engineering education is in the area of provision of
scholarships, bursaries and awards for engineering students with outstanding academic performances as
a way of encouraging students to study engineering.
Contributions to Students’ Informal Training

Apart from the afore-mentioned financial contributions of industry to engineering education in Nigeria,
industry plays an even more important role through its contributions to engineering students’ informal
training. Nigeria’s philosophy for engineering education (National Universities Commission, 1989)
61
acknowledges that the complete engineering education of engineering personnel should extend beyond
the formal training obtained in the universities to periods of tutelage in industrial environments. This is
administered under the Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) programme. The
informal portion of the engineer’s training is done in close association with industries in the country.
The Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme gives students in higher institutions of learning the
opportunity to explore the practical realities of their various fields of study by working in the field for
specified periods of time during their training. The Scheme exposes students to industry-based skills
necessary for a smooth transition from the classroom to the world of work after graduation. It affords
them the opportunity of being exposed to the needed experience in handling machinery and equipment
which are usually not available in the educational institutions.
In Nigeria, the SIWES is a major integral component of the engineering training of students. The
National Universities Commission’s Minimum Academic Standard for Engineering and Technology
(National Universities Commission, 1989) recommends a minimum of six months of supervised training in
industry. This period usually covers the whole of the second semester of the fourth year of a five-year
degree programme and the adjoining three months summer holiday. The provision of space for
attachment in this regard in industries is a major contribution of industry towards enhancing
engineering education.
Charged with administering the SIWES is the Industrial Training Fund (ITF), set up in 1971 by an act
(Federal Republic of Nigeria,1971). The ITF is charged with ensuring, amongst others, the provision
and payment of allowances for students during their industrial training placements, the provision and
payment of supervision allowances to the students’ academic (university-based) and industry-based
supervisors, as well as the general coordination and administration of the SIWES program (sourcing for
places in industry and allocating them to the students, arranging for unannounced visits to the
industries by the students’ university-based supervisors, provision of required stationery for the reports
of the students and their university-based and industry-based supervisors, etc.)
Under the ITF act, employers are mandated (i) To collaborate with the institutions in the preparation of
job specifications for the approved courses for SIWES; (ii) To provide places for, and accept students
for Industrial Attachment; (iii) To provide welfare services, e.g. medication and payment for
hospitalization of students while on attachment whenever the need arises; (iv) To participate fully in
the assessment of programmes/students by completing the necessary instrument, e.g. the assessment
forms, the logbooks, etc.; (v) To allow students have access to their facilities; and (vi) To appoint an
Industry-based Supervisor for students on attachment.
During their SIWES attachments, students are required to be exposed to different areas of training in
the industrial setup and environment, as well as the colleagues in industry taking time and pain to take
them through the rudiments of practical training. This of course calls for sacrifice of industrial concerns
whose main preoccupation may be the full and optimal utilization of their time and resources in
conducting their business. It is evident that without the cooperation of industry, this aspect of
engineering education in Nigeria would be impossible.
The contributions of industry to SIWES go beyond the aforesaid. To finance the scheme, the ITF Act
provides for subventions on the part of government, as well as for contributions on the part of
employers. Apart from the financial contributions and the welfare services they are mandated to
provide for students on industrial attachment, some individual firms and industrial concerns optionally
pay ‘extra’ allowances to the students on placement in their establishment.
Apart from SIWES, another important area of industry’s relevance in the training of engineering
students is in making their facilities available for industrial visits and excursions. These visits are a
major sacrifice on the part of industry in that they constitute a source of distraction from their primary
area of operation (economic production). Apart from the time thus wasted, they have to ensure the
safety and well-being of the students on industrial visit.
62
Contributions to Post-Graduation Pre-Registration Training

Under Nigerian law, only engineers that have attained chartered status are eligible to practice the
engineering profession in the country. This is done by the prospective engineer fulfilling all necessary
conditions for professional registration as stipulated by the regulatory body, the Council for the
Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN) and having his name placed in its register of registered
or chartered engineers.
After graduation from university, young personnel within the engineering profession desiring to be
registered professionally must receive further post-graduate industrial training under the supervision of
experienced engineers in industry for a pupilage period of at least two years before they can fully qualify
for professional registration. The programme is designed as an essential component of the requirements for
registration, and it is administered by the COREN under its Supervised Industrial Training Scheme In
Engineering (SITSIE). At the end of the tutelage period of two or more years the trainee will have qualified
to obtain from his employer a Certificate of Experience, necessary for registration, and he will be expected
to have acquired enough skills and experience to enable him perform effectively in subsequent
appointment.
While SIWES has been designed to cater for the industrial practical experience component of the trainee’s
academic programme, SITSIE has been designed to help provide the necessary post-qualification practical
experience prior to professional registration.
Contributions to Continuing Engineering Education

The engineering profession is very dynamic. It changes in response to advances in science and as a
result of changes in society. As people change their lifestyle and work patterns, the demand for new
technologies increases. In the last ten years in particular, developments in information and
communications technologies (ICT) have revolutionized the engineering profession both in its breadth
and depth of application. New courses, new areas of specialization, different tools of design and
analysis have appeared over the last few years (Antonio and Massaquoi, 2001). This rapid progress in
engineering requires that an engineer becomes a continuous learner for as long as he remains in
professional practice. He must take advantage of every reasonable opportunity available to him to ensure
that he sustains, improves and develops his knowledge and professional competence. This is done through
Continuing Engineering Education (CEE). Continuing Engineering Education (CEE) is therefore very
important in that it offers an opportunity for practicing engineers to enhance their professional
knowledge and remain in tune with changes in their profession. For sustainable development in a
fledgling economy, the continuous updating on global changes in various aspects of one’s profession is
very essential.
In Nigeria, CEE is considered not only as a necessary requirement for keeping abreast with
technological change, but also as a statutory obligation within the practice of the engineering
profession in the country. Under Nigerian law the Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria
(COREN) requires all engineers to keep abreast with current trends in the profession by attending
relevant seminars, workshops, conferences, lectures, short-term and part-time refresher courses. These
activities are allotted weightings, called Continuing Professional Development Units (CPDUs), and
participation in such activities earns an engineer CPDUs. The regulations stipulate that for any
engineering practitioner to be eligible to continue to be on the register of COREN, he or she must
accumulate a minimum of 20 CPDUs annually (Antonio and Massaquoi, 2001). A defaulting engineer
would have his or her name removed from the Register, and it is illegal for any person whose name has
been so removed to practice as an engineer for the duration of the period of such removal. The
employer of such a person is also liable to penalty. These requirements are effectively met through
membership of COREN-recognised professional associations and societies. Under CEE, an engineer is
also expected to subscribe to reputable engineering journals, and find ways and means of receiving and
studying current journals, magazines, catalogues, books, and other literature on modern technology.
The employers have a major role to play in this aspect of the engineer’s education. In principle, they
must give staff development and training grants to the engineer employee whenever he requests for
them; they must grant permission for study leave for specialist postgraduate courses; they must
subscribe to engineering journals as well as make provisions to receive other publications to avail their
employees the opportunity of studying them and keeping in touch with modern trends; they must not
63
hinder their employees from fraternizing with members, or participating in the activities, of their
professional associations and societies; etc. All the foregoing require some degree of sacrifice.
CONCLUSION
The contributions of industry to university engineering education in Nigeria take the form of financial
contributions in the provision of equipment and infrastructure, financial contributions toward research
and the other forms of encouraging research, and its involvement in the informal training of the
engineering students, and in the training of the young graduate before his professional registration, as
well as in the continuing engineering education of engineering practitioners within industry. Okojie
(2007) has highlighted the contributions of industry in University-Industry partnerships in Nigeria to
include (i) provision of social infrastructural within the universities, (ii) commissioning and funding of
specific research projects in Nigerian Universities to enhance the development of their products and
services, (iii) partnering with the universities for graduate retraining and quality enhancement, and (iv)
allowing academics into the industry on specific projects for knowledge exchange. He suggested that
the universities could facilitate this partnership through (i) focusing on demand-driven research and
development to attract patronage by the industry and government, (ii) ensuring capacity building
programmes which would further scholarship and be of relevance in the economy, (iii) collaborating in
manpower planning with inputs from the industry in curriculum reviews, and (iv) developing expertise
and alliances in specific areas through collaboration with other institutions. He stated the benefits of
such partnership to include (i) a multi-faceted synergy of access to expertise, working culture, funding
and industry knowledge, (ii) a proven means of driving technological innovation, economic growth and
industrial development, (iii) available government grants for Research and Development being
channeled mainly to basic/developmental research, (iv) the industry partner becomes more competitive
by reducing overheads through outsourcing Research and Development to Universities, (v) an
integrated and directional guide to Research and Development efforts by the government and industry
partners, and (vi) students develop leadership and team skills as they benefit from real-life experiences
not available in the classroom.
In the area of research, the traditional relationships between universities and industry obtainable in the
advanced countries are not so well-developed in Nigeria. The research linkage area of cooperation
between universities and industries alone have been further categorized (Peters et al, 1982) into six
major sub-categories, namely: (i) General Support; (ii) Contract Research; (iii) Research Centers and
Institutes; (iv) Research Consortia; (v) Industrial Associate/ Affiliate Programs; and (vi) New Business
Incubators and Research Parks
It is only the first two categories that are commonly available in Nigeria, and these have been treated
above. (i) General Support continues to be an integral part of industrial philanthropy and takes the form
of monetary gifts and/or equipment donations for teaching and research purposes. (ii) Contract
Research involves the provision of industrial support to universities through contracts for special
projects.
Because of the low-technology-driven economy of the country, the other four categories involving joint
research partnerships, as described (Peters et al, 1982), are not so well-established. (iii) Research
Centers and Institutes focusing on a certain technology are established by universities in order to
facilitate the procedures of contracting and communicating between researchers and industry, such
centers often providing the environment for the cross-disciplinary approach that industrial problems
often require. (iv) Research Consortia can be characterized as specific mission programs organized to
ensure that generic or mission-oriented research will be carried out by one or more universities.
Typically, participating companies pay a membership fee; the university offers laboratory space and
graduate students and faculty researchers. (v) Industrial Associate/Affiliate Programs are set up by
many research universities to provide member firms with access to campus research and resources. (vi)
Business Incubators and Research Parks are located on or near the campus and are intended to draw
technology-intensive firms into the university environment.
While these types of research relationships may not be available in Nigeria, the other areas of
industry’s contributions to engineering education in Nigeria in terms of contributions to informal
engineering training and financing could find applicability in other countries. For example, the notion
of an Education Tax Fund as practiced in Nigeria has been suggested for implementation in other
64
African countries to tackle the perennial problem of inadequate educational funding (Antonio and
Massaquoi, 2001).
REFERENCES
Antonio J., and J.G.M. Massaquoi (eds) (2001): “Revitalising Continuing Engineering Education in
Africa,” Report of the Expert Group Meeting on Revitalising Continuing Engineering Education In
Africa, Nairobi, Kenya, 27-28 November
Atlan, Taylan (1987): “Bring Together Industry and University Engineering Schools,” in Getting More
Out of R&D and Technology, The Conference Board, Research Report #904, as cited by Wu (2000)
Daku, Isa M. (2000): Education Tax Fund: So Far, So What?, Abuja Mirror, Abuja, Apr. 12-18
Education Trust Fund (2007): http://www.etf-nigeria.org/ss-alloc2006edited2007.xls
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1971): Industrial Training Fund Act (Decree No. 47), Official Gazette
Extraordinary, vol. 58
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1981): National Policy on Education (revised), Nigerian Educational
Research and Development Council (NERDC) Press, Lagos
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1993): Education Tax Decree No. 7, Official Gazette Extraordinary, no. 1,
vol. 80
National Universities Commission (1989): NUC Approved Minimum Academic Standards for Engineering
and Technology, NUC, July.
Okojie, J. A. (2007): “University-Industry-Government Partnerships Towards Engineering Education

in Nigeria,” Paper presented at the “Engineering Africa Conference,” March 4-6, Transcorp Hilton
Hotel, Abuja. (www.wfeo.org/documents/download/Prof.Okojie-University-Industry-Government%20
Partnerships.ppt)
Peters, Lois S. and Herbert I. Fusfeld (1982): University-Industry Research Relationships, National
Science Foundation, as cited by Wu (2000)
Saint, William, Teresa A. Hartnett and Erich Strassner (2004): Higher Education in Nigeria: A Status
Report, World Education News and Reviews, Sept/Oct
UNESCO (1998): The State of Education in Nigeria, UNESCO Lagos Office, Lagos
Wu, Vincent F.-S. (2000): “An Empirical Study of University-Industry Research Cooperation – The
Case of Taiwan,” Paper prepared for the workshop of the OECD-NIS Focus Group on Innovation Firm
and Networks, Rome, 2-3 October
Received for Publication: 10/10 /2007

65
APPENDIX
Table 1: GENERAL ANALYSIS AND SUMMARY OF ETF ALLOCATIONS TO INSTITUTIONS (1999 - 2006)
COLLEGES OF MONOTECHNIC SECONDARY PRIMARY SPECIAL

YEAR UNIVERSITIES POLYTECHNICS TOTAL
EDUCATION S SCHOOLS EDUCATION PROJECTS
1999 2,124,999,960.12 1,087,209,288.00 1,099,137,930.00 0.00 675,000,000.00 3,132,000,000.00 0.00 8,118,347,178.12

2000 1,050,000,000.00 450,000,000.00 520,000,000.00 230,000,000.00 781,800,001.75 1,117,199,997.90 248,035,944.18 4,397,035,943.83
2001 1,794,128,000.00 967,500,000.00 1,116,069,500.00 345,000,000.00 1,587,750,000.00 2,167,200,000.00 0.00 7,977,647,500.00
2002 3,243,500,000.00 1,642,500,000.00 1,742,625,000.00 448,000,000.00 2,792,750,000.00 2,709,000,000.00 0.00 12,578,375,000.00
2003 1,440,500,000.00 634,500,000.00 678,625,000.00 290,000,000.00 1,003,750,000.00 1,548,000,000.00 520,000,000.00 6,115,375,000.00
2004 1,515,750,000.00 722,750,000.00 739,625,000.00 285,000,000.00 803,000,000.00 1,855,260,000.00 65,000,000.00 5,986,385,000.00
2005 2,025,000,000.00 1,657,500,000.00 1,259,000,000.00 348,000,000.00 2,410,571,428.00 2,474,460,000.00 10,000,000.00 10,184,531,428.00
2006 2,130,000,000.00 1,122,000,000.00 1,240,000,000.00 649,000,000.00 806,650,000.00 4,199,805,000.00 0.00 10,147,455,000.00
TOTAL 15,323,877,960.12 8,283,959,288.00 8,395,082,430.00 2,595,000,000.00 10,861,271,429.75 19,202,924,997.90 843,035,944.18 65,505,152,049.95
66

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Engineering Sciences 2:1 - 7, 2007

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE IMPACT OF IMPURITIES ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Adamu Alhaji Umar1 and Raji Olalere Fatai2

KEYWORDS: Polyvinyl Chloride, Thermal Insulator, Extrusion, Die, Extruder,

Extrusion of PVC pipes

Features of a single-screw extruder.

Recycling Of Extruded Products

PVC extrusion pipes was ascertained.

Table-1: Different Formulations Attempted

Stabilizer (PbSO4) (kg) 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2

Machine parameter set-up

Experiment 1: Test for Impact Strength at 27oC.

TABLE 1: Results of the Experiments and NIS Recommendation

Toughness (J) - 342.2 58.7 16.0 8.0 123.2 68.6 49.0

Flattening Passed Passed Failed Failed Failed Passed Passed Passed

For pipe size 110mm x 3.2mm, NIS recommended that:

Experiment 2: Test for Impact Strength at 0oC

Apparatus: The apparatus is the same as for test 1 stated above.

Mass of striker used = 0.5kg,

Experiment 3: Hydrostatic Test

Experiment 4: Test for Tensile Properties

It comprises of the following major components.

• A fixed part which supports a clamping device

From the results the followings were deduced

The results were summarized as shown in the table 1.

Experiment 5: Test for Flattening Properties

Apparatus: Hack saw, table vice

Elsevier, M. J (1985). “Polymer Mixing Technology” Applied Science. London, U.K.

Sombatsompop N and K. Sungsanit (2003). “Structural Changes and Mechanical Performances of

Received for Publication: 10/03/2007

INVESTIGATION OF GROUNDNUT SHELL AS A COMPOSITE MATERIAL

Aji I.S Ngala G.M. Nwankwo H

KEYWORDS: mechanical properties, groundnut shell, Tensile and compressive

Table 1: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GROUNDNUT SHELL

TABLE 2: Various proportion of shell, Urea formaldehyde and strength of sample.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Plate 1: Fabricated Aluminium Mould Plate 2: Sample Specimen

Result analysis and calculation

E c = E mVn + E f V f ...............(1) (Calister ,1997)

Where E = Elastic modulus and V = Volume fracture

E c = E m [1 − V f ] + [ E f V f ].............. 3 (Callister ,1997)

Toughness and Fibre Pullout

From Archimedes principle:

The total volume of the mould cavity Vf is constant.

where m = mass, ρ = density, V = volume and Vf = volume fraction

Substituting equation (6) into (5) we have

Volume of mould cavity (VT)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Yield Strength (Tensile) = F = Failure force (KN)

(Density Puf = 0.9gkm2) (Ababio; 1995)

and Area = пd2/4 (Callister, 1997)

Therefore A = (12.827)2 x п = 129.2mm2

Compressive Strength (Compression) Failure force (KN)

and Area = L X B (Callister, 1997)

where L = 3.175 and B = 19.05

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Ashby, M. F.; Jones D. R. H. (1997) Engineering material an introduction to microstructures,

Brent, E. S. H; Chow P. (1994), Agricultural Fibres in Composition panels, processing 27th

Received for Publication: 10/03/2007

EVALUATION OF THE REFRACTORY CHARACTERISTICS OF DUKKU

A. M. Yami , M. A. B. Hassan and S. Umaru

KEYWORDS; Ceramics, Clay Deposit, Firebricks, Refractory materials,

Table 1: Chemical Composition Analysis of Dukku Clay Deposit.