LEVEL OF STRESS IN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

By

AIMAL MALIK

BS (Hons) Psychology
6th SEMESTER

A term paper is submitted for the completion of research in this session.

BACHELORES OF SCIENCES

IN

PSYCHOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY OF WAH
WAH CANTT
i

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am thankful to ALLAH ALMIGHTY who have enabled me to conduct the

research work. i wish to express my gratitude and thanfulness to Mam, Saima Arzeen
under whose guidance this research is completed. I am very grateful to her for constant
advice and inspiration with out which this project could not have been completed.

I am also thankful to the students of University of Wah, who helped me in

gathering data for my research.

Finally I want to express my deep gratitude to my parents, my family members

and my friends, their moral support and prayers made it easy for me to complete this
research project.

AIMAL MALIK

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Abstract

The main purpose of this study is to examine stress level of university students according
to certain variables. The participants are students attending different classes and
departments of University of Wah, Wah Cantt. The sample includes 10 boys and 10 girls,
5 from BS (hons), BA (hons) and 5 from M.Sc, M.A, MBA, etc. The scale is Likert’s scale
include 10 items. Data is analyzed using statistical technique, namely Mean, Standard
Deviation, t-test. The result of the research shows that there are significant differences
between the variables related to educational characteristics when they are analyzed with
respect to the level of stress.

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Cognitive and Emotional symptoms of stress

Table 2 Physical and Behavioral symptoms of stress

Table 3 Gender differences in stress in university students using Mean, Standard

deviation, t-test

Table 4 Stress level in university students using Mean, Standard Deviation, t-test

CONTENTS

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Acknowledgments i

Abstract ii

List of Tables iii

CHAPTER-I: INTRODUCTION 1

Stress 2

Background 2

Definition of stress 2

• Cohen’s point of view

• Modern definition

Types of stress 3

• Eustress
• Distress
• Hyperstress
• Hypostress

Fight or flight response 5

• Biology of the stress response

• Physiology of the stress response
• Psychology of the stress response
• Behavioral manifestations of fight-or-flight
• Negative effects of the stress response in humans

General Adaptation Syndrome 9

• Definition

5
 • Description
• Stages
1. Alarm reaction
2. Resistance
3. Exhaustion

Diagnosis 12

Treatment 13

Sign and symptoms of stress 14

Causes of stress 15

• Environmental stressor
• Family and relationship stressor
• Work stressor
• Social stressor

Internal causes of stress 17

Top ten life stressful events 17

Stress and environment 18

Stress and heredity 19

Coping strategies 20

• Moving with
• Moving towards
• Moving against
• Moving away

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CHAPTER- II: METHOD 22

Objectives 23

Hypothesis 23

Definition of variables 23

• Stress
• Coping strategies

Sample 24

Instruments 24

• Likert scale

Procedure 27

CHAPTER- III: RESULTS 29

CHAPTER- IV: DISCUSSION 32

Limitations 33

Suggestions 34

Conclusion 34

REFERENCES 36

ANEXURE 37

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CHAPTER I

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INTRODUCTION:

Stress is defined as an organism's total response to environmental demands or

pressures. When stress was first studied in the 1950s, the term was used to denote both
the causes and the experienced effects of these pressures. More recently, however, the
word stressor has been used for the stimulus that provokes a stress response. One
recurrent disagreement among researchers concerns the definition of stress in humans. Is
it primarily an external response that can be measured by changes in glandular secretions,
skin reactions, and other physical functions, or is it an internal interpretation of, or
reaction to, a stressor; or is it both?

Background:

In 1925 a second year medical student named Hans Selye observed that people
suffering from a wide variety of somatic (physical) disorders all seemed to have the same
or similar symptoms. For example, many of these people reported: decreased appetite,
decreased muscular strength and endurance, and lowered levels of ambition or drive.
Selye, unable to find a common disease or disorder to explain these behaviors, called this
group of symptoms, the SYNDROME OF JUST BEING SICK. In addition, he found
that these symptoms occurred whenever: the human organism needed to adapt to a
changing internal or external environment. This was the first observation and
identification that eventually led to the term STRESS.

Definition of stress:

“Stress is define as a term refer to a nonspecific response of body to

any demand made on it; the arousal, both physical and mental, to si-

-ituations or events that we perceive as threatening or challenging”.

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According to Cohen:

“Stress can be defined as a process in which environment demands strain an

organism’s adaptive capacity, resulting in both psychological as well as
biological changes that could place a person at risk for illness”.

According to modern definition:

“Stress is defined as a psychological and physical response of the body that

occurs whenever we must adapt to changing conditions, whether those conditions
be real or perceived”.
Types of stress:
Richard Lazarus published in 1974 a model dividing stress.
There are four major types of stress.
1. Eustress.
2. Distress.
3. Hyperstress.
4. Hypostress.

Eustress:

Definition:

“The optimal amount of stress which helps promotes health and growth.
Unfortunately, most humans (especially Americans) are more likely to be in
distress. When psychologists speak of controlling stress or stress management, it
usually means quantitatively reducing the amount of stress that we experience
and an active attempt to change distress into eustress”.

Distress:

Definition:
 “Stress due to an excess of adaptive demands placed upon us. Thus, this is the
BAD stress. Results when the demands upon us are so great that they lead to
bodily and mental damage. Distress is damaging, excessive or pathogenic
(disease producing) stress”.

Hyperstress

“Hyperstress occurs when an individual is pushed beyond what he or she can

handle. Hyperstress results from being overloaded or overworked. When someone
is hyperstressed, even little things can trigger a strong emotional response. A Wall
Street trader is likely to experience hyperstress”.

Hypostress

“Hypostress is the opposite of hyperstress. Hypostress occurs when an individual

is bored or unchallenged. People who experience hypostress are often restless
and uninspired. A factory worker who performs repetitive tasks might experience
hypostress”.

Fight-or-flight response
The fight-or-flight response, also called the fright, fight or flight response,
hyperarousal or the acute stress response, was first described by Walter Cannon in
1915. His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the
sympathetic nervous system, priming the animal for fighting or fleeing. This response
was later recognized as the first stage of a general adaptation syndrome that regulates
stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms.
Biology of the stress response

Normally, when a person is in a serene, unstimulated state, the "firing" of neurons

in the locus ceruleus is minimal. A novel stimulus (which could include a perception of
danger or an environmental stressor such as elevated sound levels or over-illumination),
once perceived, is relayed from the sensory cortex of the brain through the hypothalamus
to the brain stem.

That route of signaling increases the rate of noradrenergic activity in the locus
ceruleus, and the person becomes alert and attentive to the environment. Similarly, an
abundance of catecholamines at neuroreceptor sites facilitates reliance on spontaneous or
intuitive behaviors often related to combat or escape.If a stimulus is perceived as a threat,
a more intense and prolonged discharge of the locus ceruleus activates the sympathetic
division of the autonomic nervous system (Thase & Howland, 1995).

This activation is associated with specific physiological actions in the system,

both directly and indirectly through the release of epinephrine (adrenaline) and to a lesser
extent norepinephrine from the medulla of the adrenal glands. The release is triggered by
acetylcholine released from preganglionic sympathetic nerves. The other major factor in
the acute stress response is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (Sternberg 2001).

Physiology of the stress response

These catecholamine hormones facilitate immediate physical reactions associated

with a preparation for violent muscular action. (Gleitman, et al, 2004) These include the
following:

• Acceleration of heart and lung action

• Inhibition of stomach and intestinal action
• General effect on the sphincters of the body
• Constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body
• Liberation of nutrients for muscular action
• Dilation of blood vessels for muscles
 • Inhibition of Lachrymal gland (responsible for tear production) and salivation
• Dilation of pupil
• Relaxation of bladder
• Inhibition of erection
• Auditory Exclusion (loss of hearing)
• Tunnel Vision (loss of peripheral vision)

Psychology of the stress response

A typical example of the stress response is a grazing zebra, calmly maintaining

homeostasis. If the zebra sees a lion closing in for the kill, the stress response is activated.
The escape requires intense muscular effort, supported by all of the body’s systems. The
sympathetic nervous system’s activation provides for these needs. A similar example
involving fight is of a cat about to be attacked by a dog. The cat shows accelerated
heartbeat, piloerection (hair standing on end, normally for conservation of heat), and
pupil dilation, all signs of sympathetic arousal (Gleitman et al, 2004).

Though Cannon, who first proposed the idea of fight-or-flight, provided

considerable evidence of these responses in various animals, it subsequently became
apparent that his theory of response was too simplistic. Animals respond to threats in
many complex ways. Rats, for instance, try to escape when threatened, but will fight
when cornered. Some animals stand perfectly still so that predators will not see them.
Others have more exotic self-protection methods. Some species of fish change color
swiftly, to camouflage themselves.

These responses are triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, but in order to
fit the model of fight or flight, the idea of flight must be broadened to include escaping
capture in either a physical way or in a sensory way. Thus, flight can be disappearing to
another location or just disappearing in place. And often both fight and flight are
combined in a given situation. The fight or flight actions also have polarity - the
individual can fight or fly against or away from something that is threatening, such as a
hungry lion, or fight or fly for or towards something that is needed, such as the safety of
the shore of a raging river.

It is relatively rare that a threat from another animal results immediately in fight
or flight. Usually there is a period of heightened awareness, during which each animal
interprets behavioral signals from the other. Signs such as paling, piloerection,
immobility, sounds, and body language communicate the status and intentions of each
animal. There may be a sort of negotiation, after which fight or flight may ensue, but
which might also result in playing, mating, or nothing at all. An example of this is kittens
playing: each kitten shows the signs of sympathetic arousal, but they are aware of each
other’s intent not to inflict real damage.

Behavioral manifestations of fight-or-flight

In prehistoric times when the fight or flight response evolved, fight was
manifested in aggressive, combative behavior and flight was manifested by fleeing
potentially threatening situations, such as being confronted by a predator.In current times,
these responses persist, but fight and flight responses have assumed a wider range of
behaviors. For example, the fight response may be manifested in angry, argumentative
behavior, and the flight response may be manifested through social withdrawal, substance
abuse, and even television viewing (Friedman & Silver 2007).

Behaviorally, the fight or flight response describes men’s reactions to stressful

situations better than women’s. That is, men are more likely to cope with stress via social
withdrawal, substance abuse, and aggression. Some researchers believe that these aspects
of the fight or flight response in men contribute to their earlier mortality, relative to
women. Women are more likely to cope with stress through social support, that is, by
turning to others to both give and receive instrumental and emotional aid. This pattern of
responding has been called “tend and befriend,” and refers to the fact that during
stressful times, women are especially likely to show protective responses toward their
offspring and affiliate with others for shared social responses to threat (Taylor et al,
2000). This can also be explained as being the tendency of men to direct their fight or
flight actions in an "against" or "away from" manner, while women tend to direct their
actions in a "for" or "towards" manner.

Negative effects of the stress response in humans

Although the emergency measure of the stress response is undoubtedly both vital
and valuable, it can also be disruptive and damaging. In most modern situations, humans
rarely encounter emergencies that require physical effort, yet our biology still provides
for them. Thus we may find our stress response activated in situations where physical
action is inappropriate. This activation takes a toll on both our bodies and our minds.
Also, simple stresses that can be acted upon quickly are more easily overcome allowing
the body to return to homeostasis, but with the more complex stresses of modern
societies, with many factors and individuals involved, the danger may seem unavoidable
and stress may continue indefinitely, which ends up compromising the system rather than
helping the system.

Disruption of the sexual response and the digestive system are common negative
results. Diarrhea, constipation, and difficulty maintaining sexual arousal are typical
examples. These are functions which are controlled by the parasympathetic nervous
system and therefore suppressed by sympathetic arousal. Prolonged stress responses may
result in chronic suppression of the immune system, leaving the sufferer vulnerable to
infection by bacteria and viruses. Repeated stress responses can be caused not only by
real threats, but also by mental disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder, in which
the individual shows a stress response when remembering a past trauma, and panic
disorder, in which the stress response is activated apparently by nothing.

General adaptation syndrome

Definition

“General adaptation syndrome, or GAS, is a term used to describe the body's

short-term and long-term reactions to stress”.
 Stressors in humans include such physical stressors as starvation, being hit by a
car, or suffering through severe weather. Additionally, humans can suffer such emotional
or mental stressors as the loss of a loved one, the inability to solve a problem, or even
having a difficult day at work.

Description

Originally described by Hans Selye (1907-1982), an Austrian-born physician who

immigrated to Canada in 1939, the general adaptation syndrome represents a three-stage
reaction to stress. Selye explained his choice of terminology as follows: "I call this
syndrome general because it is produced only by agents who have a general effect
upon large portions of the body. I call it adaptive because it stimulates defense....I call
it a syndrome because its individual manifestations are coordinated and even partly
dependent upon each other." Selye thought that the general adaptation syndrome
involved two major systems of the body, the nervous system and the endocrine (or
hormonal) system. He then went on to outline what he considered as three distinctive
stages in the syndrome's evolution. He called these stages the alarm reaction (AR), the
stage of resistance (SR), and the stage of exhaustion (SE).

Stage 1: Alarm reaction (AR)

The first stage of the general adaptation stage, the alarm reaction, is the
immediate reaction to a stressor. In the initial phase of stress, humans exhibit a "fight or
flight" response, which prepares the body for physical activity. However, this initial
response can also decrease the effectiveness of the immune system, making persons more
susceptible to illness during this phase.

Stage 2: Stage of resistance (SR)

Stage 2 might also be named the stage of adaptation, instead of the stage of
resistance. During this phase, if the stress continues, the body adapts to the stressors it is
exposed to. Changes at many levels take place in order to reduce the effect of the stressor.
For example, if the stressor is starvation (possibly due to anorexia), the person might
experience a reduced desire for physical activity to conserve energy, and the absorption
of nutrients from food might be maximized.

Stage 3: Stage of exhaustion (SE)

At this stage, the stress has continued for some time. The body's resistance to the
stress may gradually be reduced, or may collapse quickly. Generally, this means the
immune system, and the body's ability to resist disease, may be almost totally eliminated.
Patients who experience long-term stress may succumb to heart attacks or severe
infection due to their reduced immunity. For example, a person with a stressful job may
experience long-term stress that might lead to high blood pressure and an eventual heart
attack.

Stress, a useful reaction?

The reader should note that Dr. Selye did not regard stress as a purely negative
phenomenon; in fact, he frequently pointed out that stress is not only an inevitable part of
life but results from intense joy or pleasure as well as fear or anxiety. "Stress is not even
necessarily bad for you; it is also the spice of life, for any emotion, any activity, causes
stress." Some later researchers have coined the term "eustress" or pleasant stress, to
reflect the fact that such positive experiences as a job promotion, completing a degree or
training program, marriage, travel, and many others are also stressful.

Selye also pointed out that human perception of and response to stress is highly
individualized; a job or sport that one person finds anxiety-provoking or exhausting
might be quite appealing and enjoyable to someone else. Looking at one's responses to
specific stressors can contribute to better understanding of one's particular physical,
emotional, and mental resources and limits.

Causes and symptoms

Stress is one cause of general adaptation syndrome. The results of unrelieved

stress can manifest as fatigue, irritability, difficulty concentrating, and difficulty sleeping.
Persons may also experience other symptoms that are signs of stress. Persons
experiencing unusual symptoms, such as hair loss, without another medical explanation
might consider stress as the cause.

The general adaptation syndrome is also influenced by such universal human

variables as overall health and nutritional status, sex, age, ethnic or racial background,
level of education, socioeconomic status (SES), genetic makeup, etc. Some of these
variables are biologically based and difficult or impossible to change. For example,
recent research indicates that men and women respond somewhat differently to stress,
with women being more likely to use what is called the "tend and befriend" response
rather than the classical "fight or flight" pattern. These researchers note that most of the
early studies of the effects of stress on the body were conducted with only male subjects.

Selye's observation that people vary in their perceptions of stressors was reflected
in his belief that the stressors themselves are less dangerous to health than people's
maladaptive responses to them. He categorized certain diseases, ranging from
cardiovascular disorders to inflammatory diseases and mental disorders as "diseases of
adaptation," regarding them as "largely due to errors in our adaptaive response to
stress" rather than the direct result of such outside factors as germs, toxic substances, etc.

Diagnosis

GAS by itself is not an official diagnostic category but rather a descriptive term. A
person who consults a doctor for a stress-related physical illness may be scheduled for
blood or urine tests to measure the level of cortisol or other stress-related hormones in
their body, or imaging studies to evaluate possible abnormalities in their endocrine glands
if the doctor thinks that these tests may help to establish or confirm a diagnosis.The
American Psychiatric Association (APA) recognizes stress as a factor in anxiety
disorders, particularly post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and acute stress disorder
(ASD).

These two disorders are defined as symptomatic reactions to extreme traumatic

stressors (war, natural or transportation disasters, criminal assault, abuse, hostage
situations, etc.) and differ chiefly in the time frame in which the symptoms develop. The
APA also has a diagnostic category of adjustment disorders, which are characterized
either by excessive reactions to stressors within the normal range of experience (e.g.
academic examinations, relationship breakups, being fired from a job) or by significant
impairment in the person's occupational or social functioning.

Treatment

Treatment of stress-related illnesses typically involves one or more stress

reduction strategies. Stress reduction strategies generally fall into one of three categories:
avoiding stressors; changing one's reaction to the stressor(s); or relieving stress after the
reaction to the stressor(s). Many mainstream as well as complementary or alternative
(CAM) strategies for stress reduction, such as exercising, listening to music,
aromatherapy, and massage relieve stress after it occurs.Many psychotherapeutic
approaches attempt to modify the patient's reactions to stressors. These approaches often
include an analysis of the patient's individual patterns of response to stress; for example,
one commonly used set of categories describes people as "speed freaks," "worry
warts," "cliff walkers," "loners," "basket cases," and "drifters."

Each pattern has a recommended set of skills that the patient is encouraged to
work on; for example, worry warts are advised to reframe their anxieties and then
identify their core values and goals in order to take concrete action about their worries. In
general, persons wishing to improve their management of stress should begin by
consulting a medical professional with whom they feel comfortable to discuss which
option, or combination of options, they can use.

Selye himself recommended an approach to stress that he described as "living wisely

in accordance with natural laws." In his now-classic book The Stress of Life (1956), he
discussed the following as important dimensions of living wisely:
 • Adopting an attitude of gratitude toward life rather than seeking revenge for
injuries or slights.
• Acting toward others from altruistic rather than self-centered motives.
• Retaining a capacity for wonder and delight in the genuinely good and beautiful
things in life.
• Finding a purpose for one's life and expressing one's individuality in fulfilling that
purpose.
• Keeping a healthy sense of modesty about one's goals or achievements.

Signs and symptoms of stress

To get a handle on stress, you first need to learn how to recognize it in yourself.
Stress affects the mind, body, and behavior in many ways— all directly tied to the
physiological changes of the fight-or-flight response. The specific signs and symptoms of
stress vary widely from person to person.

Some people primarily experience physical symptoms, such as low back pain,
stomach problems, and skin outbreaks. In others, the stress pattern centers on emotional
symptoms, such as crying jags or hypersensitivity. For still others, a change in the way
they think or behave predominates.

Stress Warning Signs and Symptoms

Cognitive Symptoms Emotional Symptoms

• Memory problems • Moodiness
• Indecisiveness • Agitation
• Inability to concentrate • Restlessness
• Trouble thinking clearly • Short temper
• Poor judgment • Irritability, impatience
• Seeing only the negative • Inability to relax
• Anxious or racing thoughts • Feeling tense and “on edge”
• Constant worrying • Feeling overwhelmed
• Loss of objectivity • Sense of loneliness and isolation
• Fearful anticipation • Depression or general unhappiness
 Physical Symptoms Behavioral Symptoms
• Headaches or backaches • Eating more or less
• Muscle tension and stiffness • Sleeping too much or too little
• Diarrhea or constipation • isolating yourself from others
• Nausea, dizziness • Procrastination, neglecting
responsibilities
• Insomnia • Using alcohol, cigarettes, or drugs
to relax
• Chest pain, rapid heartbeat • Nervous habits (e.g. nail biting,
pacing)
• Weight gain or loss • Teeth grinding or jaw clenching
• Skin breakouts (hives, eczema) • Overdoing activities (e.g.
exercising, shopping)
• Loss of sex drive • Overreacting to unexpected
problems
• Frequent colds • Picking fights with others

Causes of stress

The potential causes of stress are numerous and highly individual. What you
consider stressful depends on many factors, including your personality, general outlook
on life, problem-solving abilities, and social support system. Something that's stressful to
you may not faze someone else, or they may even enjoy it. For example, your morning
commute may make you anxious and tense because you worry that traffic will make you
late. Others, however, may find the trip relaxing because they allow more than enough
time and enjoy listening to music while they drive.

The pressures and demands that cause stress are known as stressors. We usually
think of stressors as being negative, such as an exhausting work schedule or a rocky
relationship. However, anything that forces us to adjust can be a stressor. This includes
positive events such as getting married or receiving a promotion. Regardless of whether
an event is good or bad, if the adjustment it requires strains our coping skills and adaptive
resources, the end result is stress.
Causes of stress include:

• Environmental stressors – Your physical surroundings can set off the stress
response. Examples of environmental stressors include an unsafe neighborhood,
pollution, noise (sirens keeping you up at night, a barking dog next door), and
uncomfortable living conditions. For people living in crime-ridden areas or war-
torn regions, the stress may be unrelenting.

• Family and relationship stressors – Problems with friends, romantic partners,

and family members are common daily stressors. Marital disagreements,
dysfunctional relationships, rebellious teens, or caring for a chronically-ill family
member or a child with special needs can all send stress levels skyrocketing.

• Work stressors – In our career-driven society, work can be an ever-present

source of stress. Work stress is caused by things such as job dissatisfaction, an
exhausting workload, insufficient pay, office politics, and conflicts with your boss
or co-workers.

• Social stressors – Your social situation can cause stress. For example, poverty,
financial pressures, racial and sexual discrimination or harassment,
unemployment, isolation, and a lack of social support all take a toll on daily
quality of life.

Internal Causes of Stress

Not all stress is caused by external pressures and demands. Your stress can also be
self-generated. Internal causes of stress include:

• Uncertainty or worries
• Pessimistic attitude
 • Self-criticism
• Unrealistic expectations or belief
• Perfectionism
• Low self-esteem
• Excessive or unexpressed anger
• Lack of assertiveness

Top Ten Stressful Life Events

1. Spouse’s death
2. Divorce
3. Marriage separation
4. Jail term
5. Death of a close relative
6. Injury or illness
7. Marriage
8. Fired from job
9. Marriage reconciliation
10. Retirement

Stress and environment:

Stress in humans results from interactions between persons and their environment
that are perceived as straining or exceeding their adaptive capacities and threatening their
well-being. The element of perception indicates that human stress responses reflect
differences in personality, as well as differences in physical strength or general health.
Risk factors for stress-related illnesses are a mix of personal, interpersonal, and social
variables. These factors include lack or loss of control over one's physical environment,
and lack or loss of social support networks. People who are dependent on others (e.g.,
children or the elderly) or who are socially disadvantaged (because of race, gender,
educational level, or similar factors) are at greater risk of developing stress-related
illnesses. Other risk factors include feelings of helplessness, hopelessness, extreme fear
or anger, and cynicism or distrust of others.

Generally, environmental events of a challenging sort as well as the body's

response to such events. Of particular interest has been the relationship between stress
and the body's adaptation to it on the one hand and the body's susceptibility to disease on
the other. Both outcomes involve behavioral and brain changes as well as psychosomatic
events, that is, changes in body function arising from the ability of the brain to control
such function through neural output as well as hormones. One problem is that both
environmental events and bodily responses have been referred to interchangeably as
stress. It is preferable to refer to the former as the stressor and the latter as the stress
response.

The stress response consists of a cascade of neural and hormonal events that have
short- and long-lasting consequences for brain and body alike. A more serious issue is
how an event is determined to be a stressor. One view is to define a stressor as an
environmental event causing a negative outcome, such as a disease. Another approach is
to view stressors as virtually any challenge to homeostasis and to regard disease
processes as a failure of the normal operation of adaptive mechanisms, which are part of
the stress response.

With either view, it is necessary to include psychological stressors, such as fear,

that contain implied threats to homeostasis and that evoke psychosomatic reactions.
These are reactions that involve changes in neural and hormonal output caused by
psychological stress. Psychosomatic reactions may lead to adaptive responses, or they
may exacerbate disease processes. Whether the emphasis is on adaptation or disease, it is
essential to understand the processes in the brain that are activated by stressors and that
influence functions in the body.

Among the many neurotransmitter systems activated by stress is noradrenaline,

produced by neurons with cell bodies in the brainstem that have vast projections up to the
forebrain and down the spinal cord. Stressful experiences activate the noradrenergic
system and promote release of noradrenaline; severe stress leads to depletion of
noradrenaline in brain areas such as the hypothalamus. This release and depletion of
noradrenaline stores results in changes at two levels of neuronal function:
phosphorylation is triggered by the second-messenger cyclic AMP and occurs in the
presynaptic and postsynaptic sites where noradrenaline is released and where it also acts;
synthesis of new protein is induced via actions on the genome. Both processes enhance
the ability of the brain to form noradrenaline when the organism is once again confronted
with a stressful situation. Other neurotransmitter systems may also show similar adaptive
changes in response to stressors.

Stress and heredity:

The effects of human activity on natural ecosystems have increased the risk of
extinction for many animal and plant populations. Human activities have caused an
increase in stochastic fluctuations in population sizes, changed the interactions between
predators and their prey and led to changes in the genetic structure within and between
populations.

These factors could potentially result in inbreeding and/or out breeding depression
and loss of genetic variation (Crnokrak and Roff, 1999; Frankham, 2005). For these and
other reasons, a fitness decline has accelerated during the last decades in many
populations and this process is likely to continue in the future. To set conservation
priorities, it is important to assess the relative threats posed by the different factors
causing fitness declines.

Conservation biologists need rapid and reliable techniques for detecting

reductions in fitness inflicted by demographic and environmental insults. From a genetic
point of view, acquiring more knowledge about how to detect inbreeding and out
breeding depression and loss of genetic variability under natural conditions at an early
stage and to evaluate its consequences are the main priorities. Recognizing the presence
of genetic and environmental stresses before their effects become deleterious is one of the
most important but at the same time difficult tasks.

Developmental instability (DI) refers to an individual's inability to produce a

specific phenotype under a given set of environmental conditions. A number of studies
have shown that DI is positively associated with the level of stress that individuals
experience. Therefore, DI has been suggested as a sensitive method for use in population
surveys that would be valuable in indicating whether individuals or populations are
harmed by the presence of (genetic) stress. However, to validate the use of DI as a
decision tool in conservation biology, we need to know its accuracy and reliability as an
indicator of stress.

Coping strategies

The German Freudian psychoanalyst Karen Horney defined four so-called coping
strategies to define interpersonal relations, one describing psychologically healthy
individuals, the others describing neurotic states.

1. Moving With

These are the strategies in which psychologically healthy people develop

relationships. It involves compromise. In order to move with, there must be
communication, agreement, disagreement, compromise, and decisions. Karen Horney
describes the other strategies as a neurotic. This means that they are unhealthy strategies
people utilize in order to protect themselves.

2. Moving Toward

The individual moves towards those perceived as a threat to avoid retribution and
getting hurt. The argument is, “If I give in, I won’t get hurt.” This means that if I give
everyone I see as a potential threat what ever they want, I won’t be injured (physically or
emotionally).
 3. Moving Against

The individual threatens those perceived as a threat to avoid getting hurt.

4. Moving Away

The individual distances themselves from anyone perceived as a threat to avoid

getting hurt. The argument is, “If I do not let anyone close to me, I won’t get hurt.” A
neurotic, according to Horney desires to be distant because of being abused. If they can
be the extreme introvert, no one will ever develop a relationship with them. If there is no
one around, nobody can hurt them. These Moving Away people fight personality, so they
often come across as cold or shallow. This is their strategy. They emotionally remove
themselves from society.
 CHAPTER II

METHOD

Objectives

1. To measure the levels of stress of university students.

2. To identify the coping strategies the students frequently use to cope with stress.
3. To explore the relationship of levels of stress with COPE.
Hypothesis

1. University students will show higher level of stress.

2. Girl students score higher on the level of stress as compared to boys.

Definition of variables

Stress
Stress can be defined as a process in which environment demands strain an
organism’s adaptive capacity, resulting in both psychological as well as biological
changes that could place a person at risk for illness (Cohen et. al., as cited in Depuse,
1999).

In the present study, stress has been identified as a particular pattern of disturbing
psychological and physical reactions in any situation as rated by the individual on Likert
scale.

Coping Strategies
Coping is not a single strategy that applies to all circumstances. People cope
differently with hassles, loses, dangers and challenges. And the technique they use change
over time and circumstances, depending upon the nature of stressor and the particular
situation (Carver, Scheier & Terry, as cited in Riaz, 2002).

In the present study the coping strategies has been identified as particular
behavior patterns or reaction to stress or a problem either to solve it or adapt to it.

Sample
A sample of 20 students was randomly selected from University of Wah, Wah
Cantt. The sample consisted of both male and female students, (10% male and 10%
female), were taken from BS (Hons) and M.Sc classes of different departments of the
university. The age range of students was 18-28 years.
Instruments

Likert scale

A Likert scale is a psychometric response scale often used in questionnaires, and

is the most widely used scale in survey research. When responding to a Likert
questionnaire item, respondents specify their level of agreement to a statement. The scale
is named after Rensis Likert, who published a report describing its use.

Sample question presented using a five-point Likert item

An important distinction must be made between a Likert Scale and a Likert item.
The Likert Scale is the sum of responses on several Likert items. Because Likert items
are often accompanied by a visual analog scale (e.g., a horizontal line, on which a subject
indicates his or her response by circling or checking tick-marks), the items are sometimes
called scales themselves. This is the source of much confusion; it is better, therefore, to
reserve the word 'Likert scale' to apply to the summated scale, and 'Likert item' to refer to
an individual item.

A Likert item is simply a statement which the respondent is asked to evaluate

according to any kind of subjective or objective criteria; generally the level of agreement
or disagreement is measured. Often five ordered response levels are used, although many
psychometricians advocate using a seven or nine levels; a recent empirical study found
that data from 5-level, 7-level and 10-level items showed very similar characteristics in
terms of mean, variance, skewness and kurtosis after a simple transformation was
applied.

The format of a typical five-level Likert item is:

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neither agree nor disagree
4. Agree
 5. Strongly agree

Likert scaling is a bipolar scaling method, measuring either positive or negative

response to a statement. Sometimes a four-point scale is used; this is a forced choice
method since the middle option of "Neither agree nor disagree" is not available.

Likert scales may be subject to distortion from several causes. Respondents may
avoid using extreme response categories (central tendency bias); agree with statements as
presented (acquiescence bias); or try to portray themselves or their organization in a more
favorable light (social desirability bias). Designing a scale with balanced keying (an
equal number of positive and negative statements) can obviate the problem of
acquiescence bias, since acquiescence on positively keyed items will balance
acquiescence on negatively keyed items, but central tendency and social desirability are
somewhat more problematic.

Scoring and analysis

After the questionnaire is completed, each item may be analyzed separately or in

some cases item responses may be summed to create a score for a group of items. Hence,
Likert scales are often called summative scales.

Whether individual Likert items can be considered as interval-level data, or

whether they should be considered merely ordered-categorical data is the subject of
disagreement. Many regard such items only as ordinal data, because, especially when
using only five levels, one cannot assume that respondents perceive all pairs of adjacent
levels as equidistant.

On the other hand, often (as in the example above) the wording of response levels
clearly implies a symmetry of response levels about a middle category; at the very least,
such an item would fall between ordinal- and interval-level measurement; to treat it as
merely ordinal would lose information. Further, if the item is accompanied by a visual
analog scale, where equal spacing of response levels is clearly indicated, the argument for
treating it as interval-level data is even stronger.
 When treated as ordinal data, Likert responses can be collated into bar charts,
central tendency summarized by the median or the mode (but not the mean), dispersion
summarized by the range across quartiles (but not the standard deviation), or analyzed
using non-parametric tests, e.g. Chi-square test, Mann-Whitney test, Wilcoxon signed-
rank test, or Kruskal-Wallis test.

Responses to several Likert questions may be summed, providing that all

questions use the same Likert scale and that the scale is a defendable approximation to an
interval scale, in which case they may be treated as interval data measuring a latent
variable. If the summed responses fulfill these assumptions, parametric statistical tests
such as the analysis of variance can be applied. These can be applied only when the
components are more than 5.

Data from Likert scales are sometimes reduced to the nominal level by combining
all agree and disagree responses into two categories of "accept" and "reject". The Chi-
Square, Cochran Q, or McNemar-Test is common statistical procedures used after this
transformation.

Consensus based assessment (CBA) can be used to create an objective standard

for Likert scales in domains where no generally accepted standard or objective standard
exists. Consensus based assessment (CBA) can be used to refine or even validate
generally accepted standards.

Level of measurement

The five response categories are often believed to represent an Interval level of
measurement. But this can only be the case if the intervals between the scale points
correspond to empirical observations in a metric sense. In fact, there may also appear
phenomena which even question the ordinal scale level. For example, in a set of items A,
B, C rated with a Likert scale circular relations like A>B, B>C and C>A can appear. This
violates the axiom of transitivity for the ordinal scale.
Rasch model

Likert scale data can, in principle, be used as a basis for obtaining interval level
estimates on a continuum by applying the polytomous Rasch model, when data can be
obtained that fit this model. In addition, the polytomous Rasch model permits testing of
the hypothesis that the statements reflect increasing levels of an attitude or trait, as
intended. For example, application of the model often indicates that the neutral category
does not represent a level of attitude or trait between the disagree and agree categories.

Procedure

In the first step of the study, an exercise was done to find out the cultural relevance

and comprehensibility of level of stress in adolescents. For this purpose 4 male and 4 female

students of University Of Wah were asked to rate the items. The response showed that the

Likert scale is culturally relevant and comprehendible for university students.

In the second step, Instructor approach was used for the difficult item after using

Instructor approach items no. 3, 7, 10 were rephrased and modified and then scale was

finalized.

In the third step for the purpose of collection of data students were approached

individually, after getting consent they were informed about the research purpose and then

questionnaire was handed over to them. The instructions were given verbally to the

participants, and written instructions were also available. They were asked to attempt all the
questions. The participants were allowed to ask if there was any confusion. The participants

were assured that the information provided by them would be kept confidential and will only

be used for research purposes. At the end of data collection all participants were thanked for

their cooperation. Data collected was statistically analyzed and the inferences were drawn.

CHAPTER III
 RESULTS

The data of the present study was analyzed to identify the levels of stress
and coping strategies among university students. The t-test was computed for male
and female students. The results are shown in the form of tables showing Mean,
Standard Deviation, and t-test analysis between males and females.

Table 1

Difference between male and female scores on Likert scale (N=20)

Scale Male Female

(n=10) (n=10)
 _________________________________________________________________
_ M SD M SD t
p
_________________________________________________________________
_Likert 35.8 5.43 34.2 5.16 0.675
1.734
_________________________________________________________________

Table 1 shows no significant between male female scores on Likert scale. The
score of male (M = 35.8) and female (M = 34.2). The t-values show no significant
difference (p < 0.05). Results show that there is no significant difference between
male and female scores. The findings reject the hypothesis no. 2 that female
students will score higher on scale than male students.

Table 2

Means, Standard Deviations, t-test analysis on Likert scale (N = 20)

Scale A (n=10) B (n=10)

M SD M SD t p
Likert 30.9 3.985 39.1 2.079 5.7695 2.878
Table 2 shows significant scores on Likert scale. The score of A is (M = 30.9) and
for B (M = 39.1). The t-value shows significant difference (p < 0.05). Results
show that there is significant difference on the scores of levels of stress in
university students. The finding accepts the hypothesis no. 1 that university
students will show higher level of stress.

CHAPTER IV
 DISCUSSION

The present study was aimed at exploring the relationship of general life stress,
levels of stress and stress coping strategies among university students. The study further
investigated the gender differences, educational differences and age differences on stress
and coping strategies among university students.

For conducting this study and measuring the variables Likert scale was used
(Rensis Likert), contains 10 items to measure coping strategies.

The first hypothesis of this study was that students will show high levels of stress,
but results show that 100% confidence level, which is significant and have high levels of
stress. The result supports the first hypothesis of the present study. In one research it was
found that very less number of students showed stress and it was in very less amount
(Fuatae & Soon, 2001). The results of the present study give support to the earlier
researches.

The second hypothesis was that the female students would score higher on stress
as compared to males. The results showed that there is no significant difference between
scores of males and females. There were no differences in the mean scores of male was
(M = 35.8) and mean score of female was (M = 34.2). The results did not support the
hypothesis that females will have higher levels of stress and will score higher on Likert
scale than males. There are inconsistent findings regarding gender differences on stress
scale (Likert).

Limitations

Like others researches in the social sciences, present research has also encountered
with some limitations.

1. Although the sample size was small consisted of 20 students. So in order to

increase generalizability the ratio of students or the overall sample size can be
increased.
2. For the present study only student of the University of Wah were approached,
more meaningful findings could be obtained if students of other universities were
also included in the sample and more variation could be found in the exploration
of the levels of stress in university students.

The area of stress in university students has not been explored in Pakistan, in this
regard, the present research calls attention to overall need for further research in this area.
There is need to encourage the researchers to explore this important area, which has a
great influence on students level of stress, and coping strategies.
Suggestions

1. In the present study only levels of stress among university students ere explored.
The research can be more meaningful if the process of stress coping strategies is
also studied. Because it will provide a better understanding of the underlying
causes of stress.

2. Considering the importance of educational setup can be included as important

variable in study of levels of stress in university students in the future researches.

3. In order to make the research more focused the small sample of students can be
taken.

Conclusions:

With the result of present study it was concluded that level of stress is high among
university students as compare to other levels of education. These findings point out
towards the causes of stress present in university of stress that must be coping by
removing the problems of students. So, university student must be given the opportunities
to cope and use a wide variety of measures to maximize stress and overcoming those
problems which create stress.
REFERENCES

Ron de Kloet, E; Joels M. & Holsboer F. (2005). "Stress and the brain: from adaptation to
disease". Nature Reviews Neuroscience 6 (6): 463-475. PMID 15891777.

http://www.thehealthcenter.info/teen-stress/types-of-stress.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response

http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/common/standard/transform.jsp?requestURI
=/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/general_adaptation_syndrome.jsp

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coping_strategies
http://www.macses.ucsf.edu/Research/Psychosocial/notebook/coping.html

http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/tandf/spae/2004/00000093/00000006/art00021

http://parenthood.library.wisc.edu/Berkowitz/Berkowitz.html

http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/330/7486/301.

ANEXURE
 LEVEL OF STRESS IN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

INSTRUCTIONS:

This questionnaire is designed to find out “the level of stress in university students”. The
statements in the questionnaire describe the level of stress. The each question is five
levels Likert item which describe different responses. Please fill self information. Data is
collected only for research purpose.

PERSONAL INFORMATION:

NAME: …………………………………………………………………
AGE: ……………………………………………………………………
EDUCATION: ………………………………………………………….
LEVEL: ………………………………………………………………...
UNIVERSITY: …………………………………………………………
SPECIALIZATION: ……………………………………………………
AREA: ………………………………………………………………….
SEX: ……………………………………………………………………

QUESTIONS:

Encircle the desired option.

1. Is education is the basic reason of increasing stress in university students?

• Strongly disagree.
• Disagree.
• Undecided.
• Agree.
• Strongly agree.

2. Is educational burden and overload is the reason of stress?

• Strongly disagree.
• Disagree.
• Undecided.
• Agree.
• Strongly agree.

3. Is educational problems and discomforts produce stress in university students?

• Strongly disagree.
• Disagree.
• Undecided.
 • Agree.
• Strongly agree.

4. Is girl’s student will score higher on level of stress as compared to boy

students?
• Strongly disagree.
• Disagree.
• Undecided.
• Agree.
• Strongly agree.

5. Is a university student will show higher levels of stress as compare to collage

students?
• Strongly disagree.
• Disagree.
• Undecided.
• Agree.
• Strongly agree.

6. Is a university student will show higher level of stress because of economical

problems?
• Strongly disagree.
• Disagree.
• Undecided.
• Agree.
• Strongly agree.

7. Is a university student will show higher level of stress because of fewer resources?
• Strongly disagree.
 • Disagree.
• Undecided.
• Agree.
• Strongly agree.

8. Is university students with higher level of stress acquire bad ways to cope?
• Strongly disagree.
• Disagree.
• Undecided.
• Agree.
• Strongly agree.

9. Is examination system is the biggest reason of stress among university

students?
• Strongly disagree.
• Disagree.
• Undecided.
• Agree.
• Strongly agree.

10. Is future career thoughts are the biggest reason for the stress in university
students?
• Strongly disagree.
• Disagree.
• Undecided.
• Agree.
• Strongly agree.
_________________________________