The Pelican History of Art

The

Art

and Architecture

of India

Buddhist Hindu Jain

-

Benjamin Rowland

N.X.

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THE PELICAN HISTOR Y OF ART

Joint Editors: Nikolaus Pevsner and Judy Nairn

Benjamin Rowland

THE ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA

Buddhist

Hindu / Jain

Benjamin Rowland, who died on

October 1972, was

a Professor of

University, his original interest being the history of Western art.

On

Fine Arts

at

Harvard

his special field of research,

the Italian and Spanish art of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, he published a book and
various papers. After a long journey to the Far East in 1932, his attention became particularly
directed to the art and architecture of India; and the fruit of a second Eastern journey in 1936-7,
particularly to Afghanistan,

was

his

book on The

Wall-Paintings of India, Central Asia, and Ceylon.

Dr Rowland began teaching Oriental art at Harvard. He was also

and examples of his work may be found in various American museums.
In 1933

a painter in water colour,

Benjamin Rowland

THE ART AND ARCHITECTURE

OF INDIA
Buddhist

Hindu \ Jain

Penguin Books

Penguin
Penguin
Penguin
Penguin
Penguin

Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England

New York, New York 10010, U.S.A.
Books Australia Ltd, Ringwood, Victoria, Australia
Books Canada Limited, 2801 John Street, Markham, Ontario, Canada L3R 1B4
Books (N.Z.) Ltd, 182-1 go Wairau Road, Auckland 10, New Zealand

Books

Ltd,

Books, 40 West 23rd Street,

First published

1953
Reprinted 1953, 1954

Second revised edition 1956

Reprinted 1959
Third revised edition 1967
First integrated edition, based on third hardback edition, 1970
Reprinted 1974
Reprinted with revisions and updated bibliography by J. C. Harle 1977
Reprinted 1981, 1984
Copyright
Copyright

Benjamin Rowland, 1953, 1956, 1967, 1970

the Estate of Benjamin Rowland, 1977

All rights reserved

Library of Congress catalog card number: 73-125676

Printed in the United States of America by
Kingsport Press, Inc., Kingsport, Tennessee
Set in Monophoto Ehrhardt

Designed by Gerald Cinamon

Except
this

United States of America,

sold subject to the condition

in the

book

is

it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise,

be lent, re-sold, hired out, or otherwise circulated
without the publisher's prior consent in any form of
binding or cover other than that in which it is
published and without a similar condition
including this condition being imposed
on the subsequent purchaser

that

To Lucy and

the girls

This edition

is

based on the

first

integrated

edition issued in 1970, with revisions

and

completely updated bibliography contributed

by Dr

J.

C. Harle.

The drawings were made by

and the maps by Sheila Waters.

P. J. Darvall

CONTENTS

Note on the Integrated Edition

Chronological Table

Pronunciation Guide
Glossary

Maps

10

16-19

Part One : The Prehistoric and Epic Periods

1.

Introduction

2.

The

Art and Religion

21

Proto-Historic Period:

The Indus

Valley Civilization

S$.

The Epic

Period: Vedic and Pre-Maurya Civilizations

(4.

The Epic

Period

51

<

h.

(8.

Part

Two

The

First Indian

The Sunga

~P

in

The

The

Religions of India

Empire The Maurya

Empire:
Maui Period
:

Period (185-72 B.C.)

95

Sanctuaries of Early Buddhism

9.

Art under the Kushans

10.

Art under the Kushans

59

77

Early Andhra Period (72-25 B.C.)

Part Three : Romano-Indian Art

II.

43

49

The Early Classic Periods

The Rock-cut

I.

31

in

113

North- West India and Central Asia

Gandhara: Greco-Roman Form and Indian Iconography

Mathura: The Indian Phase

11. Afghanistan

12.

Buddhist Art

13.

The

The Road
in

to Central Asia

Turkestan

Art of Kashmir

149

199

185

165

121

CONTENTS

Part Four : The Golden Age and

lj

Lb 14.

The

Later Andhra Period

End of Buddhist Art

207

15.

The Golden Age: The Gupta

16.

Late Buddhist Art in India, Nepal, and Tibet

Period

215
255

Part Five : The Hindu Renaissance

%ihj. The

Period of the

.1; 8. South
*1

[9.

^1.
22.

Ceylon

273

327

Painting of the Period of the

Pa rt Six
20.

Hindu Dynasties

Indian Bronzes

Hindu Dynasties: Wall-Paintings and Miniatures

Indian Art in Ceylon and South-East Asia

359

Cambodia: The Art and Architecture of the Khmers

Art and Architecture in Siam

^23. The Art and

1/24. Java

Notes

Architecture of

445

469

Bibliography

487

List of Illustrations

Index

505

495

423

Burma

439

385

341

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF DYNASTIES AND PERIODS

CEYLON

INDIA
w Indus Valley Period

^Vedic

2$oo-c. 1500 B.C.)

(c.

Period (1500-800 B.C.)

SjUs

-jL*sr^L*

Early Period at Anuradhapura (4th cent, b.c8th cent, a.d.)

Saisunaga-Nanda Dynasty (642- 322

B.C.)

Late Period at Polonnaruwa (8th-i 5th cent, a.d.)

'-"^Maurya Dynasty (322-185 B.C.)

-""Sunga Dynasty (185-72

i^Early Andhra Dynasty

Bactrian

Monarchy (322

Indo-Parthian Period

CAMBODIA

B.C.)

32

(c.

b.c.-c. a.d. 50)

b.c.-^. a.d. 50)

(c.

200

B.C. -A.D. 50)

Pre-Khmer or Funan Period (5th-8th cent, a.d.)

Khmer, Early Classic Period (802-1250)
Khmer, Late Classic Period (1250-f. 1450)

u-^Kushan Dynasty and successors in north-west

India and Afghanistan
'-'"Later

Andhra Dynasty

(c

(c.

a.d.

a.d.

50- 7th

cent.)

50-320)

-^"Gupta Dynasty (320-600)

Period of the

Khmer

Hindu Dynasties

Solanki Dynasty of Gujarat (765-1197)

.a-A)Pala and Sena Dynasties Bengal 50-1200)

of
(j
**t"
Gahga Kingdom ofOrtssd

siam

(1 076-1

586)

Chandella Dynasty of Bundelkhand

(c.

ykuvJUuv^P

Dvaravati Period (6th-ioth cent, a.d.)

Period, Lopburi,

(ioth-i3th cent.)

etc.

Suk'otai Period (i3th-i4th cent.)

Ayudhya Period
JAVA

(1

&^Cry->

350-1 757)
\<y

%-ft

800-

L<

Indian Period in Western Java ( 1 st-6th cent, a.d.)

/Indian Period in Middle and Eastern Java
xChalukya Dynasty of the Deccan (550-642)
kj (7th-8th cent.)
^astrakuta Dynasty of the Deccan (757-973)
Hoysala and Yadava Dynasties of Mysore & .^ailendra Period (732-860)
Javanese Empire in Middle Java (860-915)
(ini-1318)
fCPallava Dynasty (600-750)

Chola Dynasty

{c.

Pandya Dynasty

3n9^4M

907-1053)

(1

251-13 10)

Vijayanagar Dynasty

(1

370-1 565)

Rajput Dynasty (i6th-i9th cent.)

Eastern Javanese Period (950-1478)

BURMA
Pagan or Talaing Period (8th

cent. a.d. -1287)

Burmese Empire of Shan-Thai (1287-1760)

10

PRONUNCIATION OF INDIAN WORDS

and Vernacular

Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit,

Avoid accent

(stress) altogether,

but pay

strict

attention to quantity (short and long vowels).

Every
each

letter

must be sounded. The sound of

letter is invariable.

Italian,
cially

Pronounce vowels

as in

consonants as in English. Note espe-

America

as in

as in father

always long, as in kte

as in

as in ee\

b/'t

always long, as in note

as in foot

as in boot

bh

as in ca/>-/*orse

church

as in

ch

as in church-housz

as in drum.

dh

as in

mzd-houst

kh

as in

inborn

as in lu//

n or

ph

rh as in

smg

as in uph\\\

ri

as in

memly

ri

as in

marme

as in shut.

as in ?rue

th

as in an//nll

Most important
(never like
laya,

ma

'a'

is

the
or

pronunciation of
'a'

in late): in

'a'

Hima-

requires twice the time of the other

syllables. Final

is

man

in

rolled;

'a'

's' is

is

always lightly sounded;

sibilant;

V corresponds to sh.

GLOSSARY

Abhanga. Stance, or pose with

slight flexion.

Abhdya mudrd. Gesture of reassurance. The right

hand is held palm outward and the fingers extended
upward.
fire

god.

The sacrificial

place where

it is

fire

of the god Agni, or the

angel to humanity; emanation of a dhyana

kindled.

Airdvata. Elephant, the vehicle of Indra and symbol

of the clouds.

Amalaka. Crowning lotiform member of sikhara

temple.

Anda. Egg, the hemispherical dome of the Buddhist

Buddha before Enlightenment.

Bot. Temple (Siamese).
Brahma. The absolute creator of all
the Hindu Trinity with Vishnu and

Apsaras.

Nymph of the sky or atmosphere.

things.

Chief of

Siva.

Brdhmanas. Ritual texts of early Hinduism.

caste.

Courtesan

The wheel, emblematic of the sun and the

dominion of the Buddha's law.
Cakravdla. The successive rings of mountain ranges
which in Hindu cosmology are believed to encircle
the world mountain, Meru.
Cakra.

of Indra's heaven.

Asana. Seat, throne.

Asura. Demon, enemy of the gods in Brahmanic epics.
Asvamedha. 'Horse sacrifice', the ceremony performed
by kings to ensure the welfare of the realm. A
selected stallion, after being allowed to

wander under

the guardianship of royal youths for a

number of

was brought back and committed

to ritual

Carana.

'Pillar',

life

and

'Motion', 'Force'. In Indian painting

which the pictorial elements

around a main axis or pillar
the whole arrangement.

a type of composition in

are centred or rotated

that stabilizes

sacrifice.

Avaddnas. Legends of the Buddha's

Avalokites'vara. Bodhisattva of

Buddha;

Brahmin. Hindu priestly

stupa.

years,

Mahayana Buddhism a being who,

although capable of attaining Buddhahood, renounces this goal in favour of acting as a ministering

Bodhisattva. In

Agni. Fire, Vedic

Agnidhriya.

Bhumisparsa mudrd. Earth-touching gesture. Used by

the Buddha to call the earth goddess to witness his
right to take his seat beneath the Tree of Wisdom.

Cetand. In Indian painting the representation of the

acts.

movement of life,

Mercy.

Avatar. 'Descent', term usually applied to one of the

descents or incarnations of Vishnu in animal or

human form in each of the great cycles of time.

Ayaka. Term applied to pillars placed on platforms
attached to stupas and sometimes to these altar projections themselves.

Chaitya.

sentience.

sanctuary or shrine.

Channavira.

A harness of crossing scarves worn above

the waist, as seen in early statues of fertility goddesses.

Chattra, Chatta. Umbrella,

emblem of dominion and

of the heavens of the gods on mast of Buddhist stupa.

Chorten.

Tibetan stupa, generally

in a distinctive

shape, symbolizing the five elements in the divisions

Barais. Artificial lakes or reservoirs constructed by

Khmer

ruler at

Angkor and elsewhere.

Bhadra. In Orissan architecture a structure with

roof in the form of a terraced pyramid.

of the base, dome, and the superstructure.

Chunam. Lime plaster or stucco used for sculpture and
architectural decoration.

Chunar.

fine-grained

buff sandstone from the

Bhakti. Devotion to a deity. Source of theistic develop-

Chunar quarries on

ment and imagery.

Bhumi. Literally, the ground on which all things are
founded. In architecture the successive planes or

the present Maharaja of Benares.

the Ganges, near the palace of

Dagaba. Singhalese stupa.

One

divisions of a Dravidian temple or the horizontal

Deva.

courses of a sikhara.

Devalokas.

of the thirty-three Vedic deities.

The worlds or heavens of the gods,

thirteen

12

'

GLOSSARY

in number, from the paradise of Indra

heaven of Brahma.

Devald.

to the highest

divinity.

Devi. Consort of Siva in her benevolent form.

Dhdrdni.

magical prayer or collection of mystic

Buddhism.
Dharmacakra. The Wheel of the Law, emblem of the
Buddhist Dharma or Law, derived from an ancient
solar symbol and intended to suggest domination of
syllables for casting spells in Vajrayana

all

by the Buddha's Law,

as the

sun dominates

all

space and time.

Dharmacakra mudrd. Gesture of teaching or turning
the Wheel of the Law. The right hand is held before
the chest with the tips of the thumb and index finger
joined to touch one of the fingers of the

left

Dhdtu. Relics.

of the flight of Buddhist doctrine to

A skirt such as is worn by modern Hindus.

Dhydna. Yoga meditation; visualization of a mental
Dhoti.

image.
Directions and the Zenith in

Dhydna mudrd. Gesture

Buddhas of the Four

Mahayana Buddhism.

or pose of meditation.

rest in the lap, the right

above the

The

with

left

all

itself.

Drdvida. Southern or Dravidian style of architecture.

Durgd. Consort of Siva in her terrible form.

Dvdrapdla. Door guardian.

the Buddha.

Supreme

Js'vara.

deity, lord.

Jagamohan. In Orissan architecture an enclosed porch

preceding the sanctuary, used as an assembly hall.
Jfainism. A sect founded by Mahavira in the sixth
century B.C. preaching a rigid asceticism and
all life

as a

means of escaping the

transmigration.

jfina.

Buddha

in either

or animal form.

Rain vase, container of

Hindu

elixir

of

life, finial

of

temples.

An

incalculable cycle of time, sometimes des-

cribed as a day of Brahma. At the close of each day

or kalpa the world

is

destroyed by Siva, and

at

the

dawn of the next it is recreated with the re-birth of

Brahma from the navel of Vishnu.
Kanjur. Local name of a soft limestone used at Taxila.
Karma. The idea of retribution in the life cycle, whereacts

in

previous existences lead to inevitable

good or bad incarnations

in

later lives.

sented as obese dwarfs.

Gandhdrvas. Divinities of the sky and

Fabulous beings, half man, half bird.

Kinnaras.

lion, part elephant.

Ganas. Demigods, attendants of Siva, usually repre-

Celestial musicians.

Kirttimukha. Grotesque mask.

air,

the

mu-

sicians of the gods.

Gahgd. Goddess of the River Ganges.

Garbhagriha. Sanctuary, inner room of a temple.
Garuda. Mythical sunbird; part man, part bird; the
emblem and vehicle of Visnu.
Gavaksa. A blind window or niche in the shape of the
chaitya-arch, used as an antefix on sikhara towers

and on the cornices of Vesara temples.

Ghats. Mountains, or steps on a river bank
Ganges at Benares.

as

on the

Gopis. Milkmaids, the special loves of Visnu.

Gopuras. Towers surmounting gates of South Indian

temple enclosures.

human

See Tirthdmkara.

Kalas'a.

by

Gaja. Elephant.

solici-

cycle of

Jfdtakas. 'Birth stories.' Tales of previous incarnations

results in the shape of

Gajasimha. Monster; part

Buddhism

of stupa.

Kalpa.

fingers extended.

Dohada. Longing of budding plants for the touch of

foot or mouth, used to describe the quickening embrace of a yakshi and her tree and the motif of the

woman-and-tree

in

realms.

Htnaydna. Small vehicle. Early Buddhism with emphasis on the doctrine, rather than on the worship of

of the
the

all

Harmtkd. Pavilion. Railed balcony surmounting dome

tude for

Dhydna Buddha. One of

emblem of Brahma, and

Harhsa. Goose,

hand,

which is turned palm inwards.

Dharmakdya. In the Trikaya doctrine the abstract
body of the Law, conceived as an invisible essence
permeating and animating the Universe.

hands

Guna. Chief property or characteristic of all created

things goodness, passion, and darkness.
Guru. A spiritual preceptor who initiates a Brahmin
youth prior to his investiture.

Kongokai Mandara. See Vajradhdtu Mandala.

Krsna (Krishna). The Black One. Incarnation of
Visnu. Hero of the Mahabharata.

The princely or warrior caste in Hinduism.

The 'field' or paradise of one of the Dhyani

Ksatriya.
Ksetra.

Buddhas of the Four Directions.

Kuvera. Chief of the yakshas and guardian of the
north.

Laksand.

One

tinguishing

of the thirty-two superior marks disthe

anatomy of

attribute.

Laksmi. Goddess of fortune.

Buddha; symbol,

13

Lamba

taturva.

pointing machine consisting of a

frame with suspended cords to indicate depth of

cutting, used by sculptors in Ceylon.

Pdsdda. See Prdsdda.

Lot. Pillar.
Lild.

A semblance or illusion as in a play or dance.

Pdrvati. Consort of Siva.

Lihgam. Phallic emblem of Siva.

Lota.

Panca dyatana. Type of temple with four shrines

grouped around a fifth main sanctuary and attached
to it by cloisters.

Brahmin

Pipal. Sacred fig tree, ficus religwsa.

Prachedi. Siamese stupa, tapering from a round base to

water-bottle.

an attenuated

Mahdpurusa. Great person, epithet applied to the

Buddha. In Brahmanic belief the cosmic man, the
source and substance of the universe, who at the
beginning of the world sacrificed and divided his

body for the creation of all things.

Mahdydna. 'Great Vehicle.' Later theistic form of
Buddhism, with emphasis on divine Buddhas and

the imagined shape of the cosmos.

life,

site.

regarded as an inner

body of breath or air pneumatically or spiritually

expanding and sustaining the fleshly body.
Prang. Siamese form of stupa with a rectangular or
polygonal base.
Prdsdda. Literally, palace; type of temple building in

existences are generated from one original

undifferentiated

universal

substance,

istic

of South Indian or Dravidian architecture.

Prattbimba. Representation. Reflexion or counterpart

of real forms. In Indian art the term describes the

mirroring or reconstruction of the imagined shape of

Mandapa. Porch.
Maya. The creation of any illusion or artifice, the
power of the gods to assume different shapes. The
all

Prdna. Breath or breath of

the shape of a terraced pyramid, generally character-

Bodhisattvas.

Makara. Crocodile, emblem of water.

Mdnasdra. Ancient Indian architectural treatise.
Mandala. Magic diagram of a Buddhist hierarchy or

gods in

finial.

Pradaksind. Circumambulation of a sacred

maya,

the

inexhaustible and eternal font of all being.

the

cosmos or

celestial regions in architectural

form.

Pujd. Ritual of devotional service.

Pur anas. Hindu sacred books of mythology and epic.

There are eighteen Puranas and a number of
secondary Puranas which include the Rdmayana and
the Mahdbhdrata.

Meru. The world mountain of Indian cosmology.

Mithuna. Amorous couple.

Moksa. Release from worldly existence or trans-

by the

migration.

Mudrd. Mystic

ritual gestures

of the hands of deities,

Hindu

conical headdress for both Buddhist and

Naddnta. The dance of Siva

as Nataraja before the

heretical rishis in the forest of Taragam.

Ndga. Mythical serpent god, symbol of water.
Nagara. The northern or Indo-Aryan type of temple,
characterized by the sikhara tower.
Nagara. City or capital.

Ndgini. Female naga or water-spirit usually repre-

sented as a

mermaid with

pentine

in place

Nandi.

The

Term

applied to Pallava shrines.

temple.

Rsi (Rishi). Patriarchal poet or sage, composer or seer

divinities.

tail

artist.

Rath. Temple, car.

Rekha. In Orissan architecture the sikhara type of

signifying various actions or powers.

Mukuta.

Rama. Hero of the Ramayana.

Rasa. Theory of beauty as experience communicated

of

human body and

ser-

legs.

bull of Siva.

of the Vedic hymns; a saint or anchorite in general.

Rupakdya. 'Form-body', the manifest or visible shape
of a divinity or Buddha.

Saddharma Pundarika. The 'Lotus of the Good Law'

one of the first great books of Mahayana literature,
containing the essence of the doctrine of the Great
Vehicle.
Sakti.

The

active

power of

god and thought of

mythologically as his consort or feminine comple-

ment; the creative force

An

in its

feminine aspect.

Indian timber tree with red flowers (Vatua

Nataraja. Siva as Lord of the Dance.

Sdla.

Navagraha. In Indian astronomy the nine stellar

mansions of the planetary divinities.
Nirmdnakdya. In the Trikaya doctrine the noumenal

Samddhi. The deepest form of yoga meditation.

body or the illusion of a mortal body which the

Buddha assumed for the benefit of men.
Nirvana. Death of the Buddha. Extinction of worldly
desires and escape from transmigration.

robust a).

Sambhogakdya. In the Trikaya doctrine, the body of

splendour, that transfigured shape in which the

Buddha reveals himself to the Bodhisattvas.

The monastic robe worn by the Buddha
and the members of the Order.

Sarhghdti.

GLOSSARY

'4

Sathsdra. The unending cycle of life and

Sahghdrdma. Buddhist monastery.

Trimurti.

rebirth.

A Hindu religious mendicant.

Sannyastn.

Santhaghdra. Village assembly

text or

manual devoted

principles of a craft,

form of

to the rules

and

jewels: the

Trident emblem of Siva.

Trisula.

Manual of architecture,

Silpa sdstra.

Urusrnga.

The

small turrets clustered on the suc-

cessive levels of a sikhara

architecture.

Craftsman.
third

and duplicating

its

shape

in

miniature.

etc.

Usnisa. Protuberance on head of the

Buddha em-

blematic of his more than mortal knowledge and

Simhdsana. Lion throne.

The

symbol of the three

Buddha, the Law, and the Order.

Trxratna. Trident

Urnd. Whorl of hair on the brow of the Buddha.

sculpture.

Siva.

Brahma,

architecture, painting, or

i.e.

Sikhara. Spire, tower. Typical form of Indo-Aryan

Silpin.

as

aspect of Siva Mahesa.

hall in the

flat-roofed edifice without walls.

Sdstra.

Having three forms or shapes,

Visnu, and Siva. Sometimes applied to the triune

member

of the

Hindu

Trinity,

em-

consciousness.

blematic both of destruction and procreative power.

Stambha.

Pillar.

mound.

relic

The topmost

Stupika.

portion of a South Indian

the vertical finial above

and

magic diagram of the Spiritual World.

it.

Suet. Needle, cross bar of a vedika.

The

Sutra.

Sacred

Buddha

serf class in
text,

Vajrdsana. Adamantine throne of the Great Enlighten-

Hinduism.

ment.

usually one attributed to the

himself.

Veda.

Term

applied to the four religious books con-

knowledge for the performance of

Brahmanic priestly ritual. The most famous of these
works, composed in the first millennium B.C., is the
Rig Veda.
taining the sacred

Sutradhdra. Architect or carpenter.

Tdndaia. Siva's dance

Diamond, thunderbolt. Destroying but indestructible emblem of Buddhist and Hindu deities.
Vajradhdtu Mandala. In esoteric Buddhism, the
Vajra.

shrine, usually including both the kalasa or pot

Sudra.

The cultivator caste in Hinduism.

Vais'ya.

Stupa. Buddhist

in the cemeteries

and burning-

grounds, emblematic of his cosmic function

of

Vedika. Railing or fence of a sacred enclosure, such as

Tibetan banner or sacred picture.

Tapas. The generation of concentrated energy by the

Type of temple characteristic of Central India

form of a Buddhist chaitya-hall.
Vihdra. A Buddhist monastery.
Vimdna. Term applied to a temple as a whole, comprising the sanctuary and attached porches.

creation and destruction.

Tahka.

the Buddhist stupa.

gods for creation. In yogic practice the exercise of

ascetic will

melts

all

cosmic
Thalam.

power so concentrated

resistance to

lift

the

that

human

it

dissolves or

to the divine or

in the

Visnu

level.

Vesara.

palm, or the distance from brow

to chin,

Vishnu).

Hindu

The Preserver, second member of the

Trinity.

used in systems of proportion for determining the

height of Indian images.

One of the twenty-four

who attained perfection in

Tirthamkdra.
patriarchs

Wdhalkada. Frontispiece or platform attached

Jain sages or
earlier cycles

of time.

Yajna. Sacrifice.

Tor ana. Gate of the enclosure of a Buddhist stupa.

Tribhanga. Pose of the three bends in the dance and in

in

Yaksha and Yakshi. Dravidian nature

ated with

Yd lis.

art.

Trikdya. Doctrine of the three bodies of the

Buddha

Mahayana Buddhism.

Trimala.

to

Singhalese stupa or dagaba.

The

three superimposed rings of masonry at

the base of a Singhalese dagaba.

spirits associ-

fertility.

Fantastic monsters

made up

of parts of lion,

horse, and elephant.

Yasti.

Mast

or pole of Buddhist stupa.

Yoga. Communication with universal spirit by practice of ecstatic meditation.

Yupa. Sacrificial post.

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THE ART AXD ARCHITECTURE OT IXDIA

PART ONE

THE PREHISTORIC AND EPIC PERIODS

IN ART AND RELIGION
CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION

In 1864

was possible

it

for a British professor

of archaeology to write of Indian sculpture:

'There

is

no temptation

sculpture of Hindustan.

to dwell at length
It

affords

in tracing the history of art,

quality deprives
art.

it

no assistance

and

its

works existing

debased

of all interest as a phase of fine

must be admitted, however,

It

on the

that the

offer very curious subjects of

inquiry to the scholar and archaeologist; Generations of archaeologists, as

though spurred on

of art as a form of devotion any longer exists.

Members of traditional societies such as Hinduism and Islam would not need an extensive
description of the nature of traditional art,
since obviously

it

has always been part of their

and not an aesthetic luxury.

lives,

equally

It is

impossible to assume that the meaning of many

forms of Indian

art will

every reader, just as

be immediately clear to

would be absurd

it

pose that the meaning of Christian

to

sup-

art, aesthetic

by the very absurdity of Professor Westmacott's

as well as religious,

remarks, have brought to light the riches of

by modern men. The modern

Hindustan from the prehistoric culture of the

plined by any canonical restrictions, can rep-

Indus

to the palaces

much

real progress has

of Akbar.

pompous and ignorant

wards

a real

We wonder how

been made since these

lines

were written to-

understanding of Indian ideals

resent

by

is

immediately apprehended

God by a pure white canvas and the Devil

stand

immediately the 'profundity' of

negation of painting.

such as we are dealing with

civilization

as

civilization,

whole.

To

Indian qualities of Indian art in

and

stylistic aspects

but to Indian

understand the
its

iconographic

we must examine

the frag-

this

personal symbolism or to enjoy such a complete

much

Western

undisci-

black one, but he cannot expect us to under-

either in art or in action, as related not so

to

artist,

In traditional periods,
in India,

under-

standing and enjoyment were implicit in the

work of art. What we

tion

refer to as aesthetic reac-

was completely involved

in the

worship

mentary survivals of those ancient times, when

paid to the object and the degree to which the

these things were in their beginning, in neither

icon,

a sentimental

nor a patronizing fashion, but

This book

objectively.

This

is

book written primarily

ers in a period

by the beauty and

for

Western-

when no approximation

to the

ancient Indian and Medieval Christian concept

utility

of

its

making,

invited such devotion.

is

not written for those unhappy

few who, unable to adjust themselves to the

materialistic present, seek refuge in the traditional past and,

from

their retreats, be they

22

PREHISTORIC AND EPIC PERIODS

Sufic mysticism or Tibetan

Buddhism, decry

ment evolved by modern art historians.

our civilization while extolling these esoteric

found that Indian

and exotic traditions that seem

of Oriental expression,

to offer a sanc-

They forget that, since this is not

age, we can hardly force artists or

It will

the product of certain

is

tuary in chaos.

religious

a traditional

rather than any vague force like 'space

and material circumstances which,

mould; such a change

would have to come from within - as the late
Dr Coomaraswamy observed - from a change

sition', or 'significant form',

of heart.

vice for the average reader

society into a traditional

The
tional

writer has the greatest respect for tradi-

and

societies

member

being a

traditional

but, not

art,

of such a society, he cannot

pretend to the powers of a demiurge to expound

:

in the veiled esoteric

terms of the popular travel

and place, determine

It is

be

every manifestation

art, like

hoped

its

that this

form

book

compo-

transcending time
in all periods.

will

and

perform a serfor Indian art,

too, in presenting the subject in as straightfor-

ward

manner

This

as possible.

is

not intended

method, unsympathetic

as a prejudiced

interpretation of Indian culture;

remembered

it

to the

must be

that generations of sentimental,

book on exotic Asiatic regions the innermost

chauvinistic writers have probably done

metaphysical truths of Hinduism and Bud-

harm

dhism. Although

written for those who, understanding art as a

religion in India,

perfectly true that art

it is

and

religion art, this

is

is

book

to

universal

more

Indian art than good. This book

means of human expression, wish

is

to

intended to explain the visual aspects of a for-

study one of the most significant and beautiful

eign culture in as clear and logical a fashion as

aspects of that expression in India.

Following the introduction to the fundamen-

possible with reference to the part played by

iconography and material

what we

By

call style.

in the

formation of

style the writer

means

those peculiarities of outward visual appearance

and structure

in a

work of architecture, sculp-

tal

concepts of Indian

the actual historical

art,

consideration of the art of India will begin with

chapters on the Indus Valley Period and the

Vedic Period. The main body of the text

will,

for,

properly speaking, be devoted to an account of

and manner of, its creation that makes it typical

- indeed, inevitable - for a definite moment in

Hindu and Buddhist art from the Maurya Period

history.

the

by the reason

ture, or painting conditioned

For certain

autonomous

sinister
all

art historians style

force

which

in

is

all

kind of
ages and

climes inexorably induces artists to produce

works of

art in a certain

pre-ordained fashion,

usually in an inevitable procession from archaic

to

Renaissance to Baroque, or from linear to

plastic to pictorial expression.

No circumstance

peculiar to either cultural or historical conditions of

artist's

any period has anything to do with the

production he
:

is

created solely to enact

this stimulating intellectual

evolution.

It is

drama of

useless to attempt to

stylistic

measure

(322-185

century.
the

through the so-called Period of

B.C.),

Hindu Dynasties,

to

end

in the eighteenth

Mohammedan art, specifically the art of

Mogul

Period, will not be mentioned in the

present volume: although partaking of

elements of earlier Indian

Mohammedan

art,

many

the art of the

dynasties, not only dedicated to

a foreign religion

but essentially an outgrowth

of techniques imported from Iran, belongs properly to a

volume devoted

survey of Indian

art

it

to Islamic art. In

will

our

be necessary to con-

centrate on the major arts of architecture, paint-

ing and sculpture, with, however, less detailed

references to the minor arts of metal, textiles,

must not be supposed from

Indian art on any such Procrustean bed as

and ceramics.

WolfTlin's theory, or, for that matter, by any

treatment that these forms of expression are not

one of the arbitrary systems of aesthetic judge-

important for Indian

It

art;

this

indeed in modern

INTRODUCTION

23

times the only creative vitality in Indian art has

land by the rocky curtain of the Himalayas from

been in the perpetuation of craft traditions and

Baluchistan to Assam.

in so-called folk art. It has

been

felt,

that within the limited space available

formidable natural fortification are the various

would

passes of the north-west, such as the famous

it

be more valuable to the reader to give a detailed

monumental

analysis of the
art together

The only openings in this

however,

aspects of Indian

with a summary but concise account

Khyber and Bolan

which wind through

Passes,

the mountains separating India from the Iran-

Through

ian plateau.

came

these gaps

all

the

made

of types of decorative art at the end of each

migrating tribes and conquerors that

chapter.

themselves masters of the rich plains of India.

The

In the matter of photographs the writer has

cultural divisions of India proper have

tried to present reproductions of only the best

always been determined and dominated by the

and most characteristic monuments of each

great river systems, the watersheds of the Indus

period. Photographs of purely archaeological

and Ganges, the Deccan plateau, and South

interest,

such as views of excavations, have been

largely left out because such pictures,

all

looking

India. In western India

the Indus and

is

the plain, watered by

tributaries,

its

known

as the

very much alike,

Punjab or 'Land of the Five Rivers'. Along the

either

lower Indus

mean little to the general reader

aesthetically or archaeologically. Any-

is

the province of Sind, a region,

one sufficiently interested can find the most

now mostly

copious publications with reproductions of the

jungle as late as the second millennium B.C.

actual archaeological

work at sites like Mohenjo-

which was

a flourishing

Another great river system of India

is

that of the

Ganges, the sacred stream which flows over

daro and Taxila.

We may

desert,

properly begin our introduction to

thousand miles of north-eastern India through

the study of Indian art by a very brief survey of

an immense

those geographical, climatic, and racial factors

supported

fertile

many

tract of land

which has

of the splendid empires of the

have had their

Indian past. In central India, south of the Vindh-

inexorable influence on the Indian people and

ya mountain range, there rises the high and

that

from very

their art.

The

earliest times

discussion of the great religious

systems of India

is

postponed

to the chapter

devoted to the history of art from about 2500 to

322

B.C.,

when

all

these ways of belief and

history of India

Deccan, shut off from the

Indian Ocean by the steep mountain wall of the

Western Ghats and flanked by

a similar

con-

tinuous range of plateau-like peaks on the Bay

of Bengal. These two chains of mountains unite

thought came into being.

The

arid plateau of the

and

its art

has been so

in

what is the stopper at the bottom of the Indian

bound up with the geographic nature of this vast

continent that something must be said of these

funnel, the Nilgiri Hills, which effectually seal

physical characteristics. India has a kind of im-

that

pregnable geographic isolation

it is

in the

shape

off the southern tip of the Indian peninsula, so

of a great sealed funnel depending from the

heartland of Asia. This peculiar shape of the

peninsula

made

for

an inevitable retention and

absorption of all the racial and cultural elements

that

poured into

it.

The

peninsula

is

bounded

on the west by the Indian Ocean; on the east by

the

Bay of Bengal. Along the northern

India

is

frontier

almost sealed off from the Asiatic main-

from very early times

this region has

tained a culture essentially

Climate, no
its

less

its

main-

own.

than geography, has played

part in the development of the peculiarly

indigenous

traits

of Indian history and

art.

All

grown up in
of the north-west and

the races of martial character have

the dry and hilly districts

centre, whereas the fertile plains of Bengal have

been inhabited by peaceful and un warlike

vators.

For

its rainfall

culti-

a large part of the Indian

PREHISTORIC AND EPIC PERIODS

*4

continent has depended on the

monsoon winds

which sweep across the Indian Ocean from

to October.

June

These winds

chiefly affect the

west coast of India and extend to the southern

slopes of the Himalayas.

more dependent on

Peninsular India

is

these winds than the plains

the

Dasyus or

'black slaves' referred to in the

hymns of the Aryans. Although despised

ritual

by their Nordic conquerors, the

final victory

belonged to the indigenous Indian population.

As

be explained in the chapter devoted

will

many

to religion,

of the dominant features of

of the north, where the great rivers are fed by

later

the periodic melting of the mountain snows.

same way that Indian art in a general sense could

The

seasons in India begin with a dry and

scorching spring from

ed by a

summer

from July

to

March

to June, succeed-

of almost continuous rainfall

Autumn and

October.

winter are

dry and windy, but only in the extreme northwest do temperatures drop to levels normal in

The

temperate zones.

almost entirely tropic

nature of the climate has unquestionably had

effect

on the

racial

and

its

growth of the

intellectual

people that inhabit this region of the earth. In

desert or temperate zones, where
trol

is

con-

in

whereas in tropical regions, where

prevail,

nature

men

man

of his environment, monotheistic religions

is

completely the master of humanity,

are apt to ascribe divinity to

all

the great

and relentless powers that govern their

The overpowering
forced

upon

lives.

nature of India has in a

way

the inhabitants an inability to act, a

situation responsible for the Indian races having

become

lost in religiosity, for their

through the centuries what

as a veritable 'hallucination

Although nothing

is

of the absolute'.

definite can be said

the earliest inhabitants of India,

believed that the

maintaining

often described

first

it is

about

Indian belief are of Dravidian origin, in the

be described as a combination of the abstract

philosophical concepts of

Dravidian

homeland

Caspian Sea.
cause,

such

the

to

of grazing

insufficiency

lands or hunting grounds,

nomadic horde

had

tribes

in the region of the

was probably some natural

It

as

and the

origin

The Aryan

civilization.

their original

Aryan

even naturalistic trends of

representational,

undertake

forced this

that
a

march which

led

eventually through the passes of the Himalayas

to the plains of

The

northern India.

Aryans'

superior armament, their knowledge of metals,

and

in a sense their superior religious outlook

made them masters of

India, probably partly

by the process of conquest and partly by

the process of assimilation of the established

Dravidian population.

Speaking
earliest

in very general terms,

from the

time that we can judge them in the pre-

served writings of the Epic Period (1500-600

B.C.),

the Indians reveal a tendency to religious

thought and philosophical speculation on the

nature of the world. This speculation leads to a

generally

mystic pantheism and the idea of the soul's ab-

who

sorption in the Universal Being. In comparison

indigenous people

men becomes

once occupied the entire peninsula were of a

to this absolute the

dark Negrito stock. Sometime, perhaps as early

delusion, a substanceless phantom. Also, as a

as the third

millennium

B.C., these

primitive

world of

result of this essential attitude, the

gods of India

black aborigines were gradually driven south-

could be described as abstractions of worship or

wards and assimilated by Mongoloid invaders

philosophy. There

from the north. The race that resulted from

plete absence of that

this

is,

in other words, a

emphasis on the

com-

practical,

and on moral duty, which

mixture of Negrito and Mongoloid blood de-

on the

veloped the 'Dravidian' or pre-Aryan culture of

characterized the classical religion of Iran as

India. 2

The Dravidians

in turn

were displaced

by the Aryan invaders near the close of the third

millennium

B.C.

The Dravidians

are probably

real world,

codified

by Zoroaster. In contrast

cosmic nature of pantheism

ful affirmation

to the entirely

in Iran,

with

its

joy-

of life and nature, the pantheism

INTRODUCTION

of India

is

descrying

negative, denying the world and

its

life,

ideal in the cessation of existence

achieved in the changeless, eternal absorption

in the

godhead. This definition of the Indian

as traditional.

The meaning
and

relation to a civilization

25

of tradition in

its

art has

its

probably

never been better explained than in the words of

Marco

Pallis

point of view can apply with equal validity to

all

the great Indian religious systems:

Tradition

Hindu-

Buddhism, and Jainism, and the even

earlier philosophical concepts from which they

ism,

sprang.

At first inspection, works of Indian

and

they illustrate.
first

alien as the Indian

art

appear

myths which

They are strange to us,

of course,

of all because they are so different from the

and legends of Greece and

become

a part of

Rome which have

our culture and which we are

and

able to understand

rationalize.

of Indian myths and Indian art

fact that

it

The mystery

obliteration of

partly in the

perfection of form,

finite

its

expresses clear external fact;

ly

civilization,

all

antitheses, such as 'sacred

to the

and pro-

truly traditional

dreams and

by either

intel-

lectualization or the usual rigmarole of aesthetic

The reason for this is to be found partly

fact that Indian art was not made primar-

analysis.

for us to seek the

and so

it is

meaning hidden

necessary
in this art

stemming from the sources of the inner

people strange to us.

It

life

of a

could truly be said that

Indian symbols of art voiced the same truth as

Indian philosophy and myth.

They

are signals

along the way of the same Pilgrim's Progress

directing

artistic,
all

down

to the

most petty

The

other con-

ethical, social, or

activities

of daily

life,

exercised in their prescribed spheres. Ideas of a metaphysical order are the cement which binds every part

made

from Master
past

The mechanism by which

to circulate

through the body

to pupil,

is

the

Truth

is

the Tradition

which stretches back into the

and reaches forward

The
is

into the future. 3

only unfortunate aspect of this definition

that in

its

context

it is

tradition.

phase of Tantric Buddhism, the necessity for the

most

explicit accuracy in pictures, statues,

and

other paraphernalia in a ritual dominated almost

entirely

by magic was obvious.

for the artist to depart

rely at all

from

It

was impossible

specifications or to

on experience or experiment. Tradi-

tional art does not necessarily

imply the com-

pletely stifled

and repetitious formalization of

Tibetan art.

means, rather, the kind of healthy

tions, calculated to

understand the

by

In the art of Tibet, dedicated to the most esoteric

myth and symbol

to

applied to describing an

art stultified, rather than vitalized,

discipline conditioned

is

whether

derive their authority from this doctrine, to be

human energies to the same goal of

Our task, therefore, as students

transmutation.
of Indian

a principal or sufficient cause.

stituents of the Tradition,

Hindu sculpture

defies explanation

aesthetic reasons;

metaphysical order. This doctrine gives to the

whole

transforms solid rock into the substance of

ily for

embraces the whole of a

even 'creator and creation'.

fane',

together.
lies

suggests rather than states. Greek

sculpture, with

in the

civilization has its roots fixed in a doctrine of the pure-

as strange

art

modes and departments, and tends

in all its

It

by belief and prescrip-

produce cult images worthy

abstract conceptions of India's philosophical

of worship that yet allowed the artist the most

commentary

extraordinary degree of freedom of expression.

doctrines as a kind of intellectual

on what stands

crystallized

and unfolding

in

One

has only to look at the great variety of in-

Hindu

the figures and patterns of symbolism and art

terpretation in a single subject of

and, conversely, to read the symbols as the

such as the Chola metal images of the Dancing

art,

pictorial script of India's ultimately changeless

Siva, or, for that matter, at the representations

wisdom.

of the Apocalyptic Christ in Romanesque

Indian

art

may,

in a general

as theological, hieratic, or,

way, be described

perhaps best of

all,

to

art,

understand that tradition could produce

works of individual creative power. In both

26

PREHISTORIC AND EPIC PERIODS

and philosophy. Art was dedicated

cases the artists were trained in a guild tradition

religion

of imparted knowledge and followed a system

producing the

of canonical proportion and technique, relying

in a life

on inspiration through meditation; and

thought of as present in

inevitably, their productions

and freedom, dream and

yet,

combine system

reality, to

produce

at

utensils, the objects of

ordered by

artist in his activity

The

religious power.

cally state that the

The purpose

art, like all traditional

men

which according

causes,

first

of Indian

primarily to instruct

in the great

to the seers, gov-

ern the material, spiritual, and celestial worlds.

Art

dedicated to communicating these great

is

truths to

mankind and, by the

sculptural,

and

architectural,

pictorial reconstruction of the

powers that maintain the

stars in their courses,

Because the deity was

man and

in nature, the

of making a work of art was

regarded as sharing God's delight in creation.

once works of individual genius and awesome

art, is

belief.

texts of

Buddhism and Hinduism

The

heaven.

making of images

specifi-

leads to

artist

was not an eccentric in-

man

trained to meet a universal

dividual, but a

demand. His vocation and training were entirely

hereditary. The Indian artist was an indispensable, if anonymous, member of society;
and, indeed, Indian art
society

and

ual artists.

its

is

more the

history of a

needs than the history of individ-

There never was

in Indian art before

Western influence anything

magically to ensure and strengthen the endur-

the intrusion of

ance of the conditions thus reproduced in mat-

corresponding to the copying of nature.

form: in this way, every Indian religious

erial

structure

to be regarded as an architectural

is

replica of an

unseen

gram of the cosmos

tions,

its

Indian

artist

The

does not seek to rival nature by

imitation, but in a metaphorical sense creates

celestial region or as a dia-

forms parallel to nature. Only that which accords

itself.

with the self-imposed canons of proportion and

In traditional art the shape and colour of a

religious image,

to

worship

conventions and propor-

have depended not so

much on the artist's

harmony

through the selection

can hope to achieve a perfect work of art.

having an uncontrolled aesthetic inspiration

artist

There

to express

it is

of such symbols as are truer than nature that the

but directly on what the work of art

is

beautiful in the eyes of the discern-

is

ing. In traditional art

is

nothing to be gained by a photographic

These were the medieval

and Oriental points of view which judge the
truth or goodness of a work of art according to

imitation of something that already exists well

how

it

nor for the cult of unintelligibility

the

Church

to the worshipper.

fulfilled this essential

art of the

requirement. Like

Middle Ages, Indian

enough. In an
is

no room

art

based on these premises there

for the cult of the

dominates the modern

merely decorative

field. It

which

was the object of

works of sculpture, painting, and architecture

the Indian artist to express only the essential, to

were devoted

of the gods and to increasing the dignity of the

improve rather than to copy nature exactly. The

Indian artist never draws simply what he sees,

Church. Just such bands of workers as served

but rather,

the medieval cathedral were dedicated to the

child,

to revealing the divine personality

The aim

Indian temple. These workers had for their

like the

untutored but discerning

draws what he means.

of the Indian artist

may

be

guidance whole manuals of aesthetic procedure,

trated by his attitude towards portraiture.

the sdstras, devoted to architecture, sculpture,

is

and painting. Secular

art as

we know

it

did not

exist.

In India
religion.

all art, like all life, is

Indian art

is

life,

given over to

as interpreted

by

illus-

There

nothing to be gained by making a replica of a

man's outward appearance. The aim would

rather be to make something corresponding to
that essential

has in

its

image of the

man

that the

mind

conception of him. Obviously, the

NTRODUCTION

27

success of the artistic production will depend on

problems of stone carving, the elephants, mon-

the intensity of the artist's realization of his

keys, and deer which we find in the reliefs at

Bharhut and Sanchi show the most remarkable

mental image and his

ability to

communicate

observation and recording of the precise articu-

this realization to the beholder.

Indian art of
only to the

on

earth.

life

For

periods

all

is

close to

of the gods but to

all

life,

not

creatures

this reason, naturalism, in the

and movement

lation

characteristic of these

As a result of his complete awareness of

animals.

and

their nature

life,

the artist gives us an

sense of drawing or sculpturing an object on the

unequalled portrayal of these creatures in the

basis of actual observation of nature,

universal sense, based on the observation of par-

a ten-

is

dency that cannot be ignored. Although the

ticulars.

proportions, pose, and gestures of an image were

described as a visualization of what

unquestionably based on a

metaphysical

on the

basis of experience. It

an object

overall

purpose of Indian

canon designed

strict

to ensure its fitness as

of worship, within this framework the figure was

made with an understanding

anatomy, not only in

its

of actual

human

general articulation, but

concern with connoting the

also in the maker's

essential character of the flesh in terms of stone

or bronze. In Indian figure sculpture, as repre-

instruct the devotee.

it

and

was desired

it

show the Buddha's incarnation

animal,

essential

edify

to

art

When

is

only part of the

is

to

as a particular

was both appropriate and necessary,

make these
knew them. In the

for the conviction of the beholder, to

creatures as every Indian

final analysis

this definition

of naturalism

is

it

perhaps better described as a complete under-

evident that in a period before the develop-

standing of the subject. That this amounts to

sented, for example,

is

Naturalism in the Indian sense could be

ment of canonical

by the yakshis

prescriptions for the

form the sculptor, proceeding

artist,

was

at Sanchi,

like

human

any archaic

intuitively striving to create a stone

figure of a desirable female shape, not based, to

be sure, on scientific anatomy, but on his intuitive

knowledge of the human body.

He relied

the artist's sympathetically identifying himself

with his subject and experiencing

its

life

is

perhaps to be taken for granted.

In Indian art-practice the artist

become one with the

is

enjoined to

object to be portrayed in a

self-induced state of trance. It

is

then that the

on certain formulae acquired by experience that

image of the deity appears

made

mind, conditioned, of course, by those forms

work

the technical

essentially frontal pose

details in linear terms.

easier,

such as the

and the definition of

The whole

figure, while

not articulated with anatomical accuracy,

sum

of

many

is

the

individual parts observed and

described in stone and calculated, by the

artist's

exaggeration of certain features, such as the

breasts, the

ample

to appeal to the

hips,

and crescent thighs,

and canons which the

experience.

artist

already

knows from

In fashioning his icon from the

mental image the

cient

as a reflexion in his

of Indian

method of yoga

artist

employs that most an-

philosophical

sciences:

or ecstatic meditation.

the

That

such practices were not entirely unknown to

Western

artists is attested to

by the story related

worshipper as a provocative

about Fra Angelico's kneeling in prayer and

To an even greater degree

meditation before beginning work on a panel. 4

goddess of fecundity.

naturalistic tendencies are to be discerned in the

representation of the lower hierarchy of creatures, especially in the carving of animals.

in the very earliest

Buddhist

reliefs, in

Even

which

The

Indian view of life and religion could be

said to be based

idea that the ordinary

is

the only aspect

of the infinite deity knowable to us. In Indian art

combined

the world

is

with difficulty by artists unacquainted with the

This can

in a

the individual parts of the beasts are

upon the

world which we see around us

regarded as an appearance of God.

measure explain the seemingly

28

PREHISTORIC AND EPIC PERIODS

'realistic'

portrayal of many forms of nature in

present in

all

art.

The divine is thought of as

man and

in nature, present in the

periods of Indian

same way that the number one is present, though

and

invisible, in two, three, four,

five. It is

the

Indian belief that man's preoccupation with

practical

ends and the understanding of prac-

behaviour over-emphasizes the material

tical

world.

It is

the aim of

the Indian religions -

all

Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain - to break from these

barriers in order to

The methods

know

the divinity directly.

of attaining the desired union

with the divinity are

infinite,

one most important for

symbols

The

world.

of the

mysteries

supernatural

effigies or

diagrams

could be used with equal convenience for representing the deity, since the

icon

is,

human mind

can

indeed, a diagram meant to express

a definite religious concept,

and never intended

as the likeness or replica of

anything on earth.

The symbol is perfect in

to

proportion to

communicate the ultimate truth

ability

its

that

it

em-

bodies.

When

image, in other

words, as a reflexion of the godhead,

diagram of the geometrician

Indian art are

and intended

as the

The images

process of contempla-

to help the

worshipper

in

communicating with the object of worship.

The

The

persistence of magical symbolism and

modern India may be

solar

wheel

the Buddha's

Law

solar cults

by

illustrated

in the centre is at

blem of the ancient

flag.

once an em-

and the Wheel of

dominating

all

regions tra-

versed by the rolling wheel of the sun

itself.

The

three stripes of the flag incorporate the three

gunas, the threefold aspect of the one,

Brahmin worship of the sun

at

the

dawn, noon, and

sunset, the three Vedas, etc.

Although the Indian

artist's

performance

is

seemingly rigidly prescribed by the traditions of

religion
ty

and

craft,

he was not without the quali-

which we describe

as imagination or feeling.

This quality is described by the term rasa, which

may be
is

they were shown in anthropomorphic

in

and foremost objects of

first

made by a

utilitarian use,
tion,

is

in relation to the

great diagram in the beyond.

apprehend the deity only through such images.

The

what the image

The

the prototype.

the combination of elements in the Indian

was both symbolic and

Human

never paid to the

is

brass, but to

forms and

technique that grew up as a result

anthropomorphic.

for,

is

narrow

tradition in

of this necessity to express the unknowable

qualities of the divine

stands

in the

method of

represent the manifold invisible

to

and

sense, since the worship

image of stone or

and of these the

art is the

idolatry, the systematic creation of

powers

obtain communication through prayer. There

nothing corresponding to idolatry

translated as taste or joy or emotion. It

the reaction induced in the beholder of a work

of art by the

artist's

manipulation of the feelings

shape, the Indian gods were portrayed as super-

which formed the

men, fashioned according

of his consciousness in his vision of a certain

to

canons of propor-

tion intended to raise the beauty of the idol

above the accidental beauty of any one

being. In the

armed gods

human

same way the images of many-

are purely mental creations that

have no counterpart in nature. Their multiple

arms are necessary

ly

to

for the deities

simultaneous-

display the various attributes of their

powers and

activities.

The supreme purpose

these images, as of all images in Indian art,

present the believer with

accepts and with

all

all

is

whom

aspect of the universe.

produce

his

own

the artist's aim to

ence in art and communicate this experience

to the beholder.

his

work

He

is

so

will

The

artist

produce

much

does not

rasa,

know

that

nor does he care.

in love with his

theme

that he

dedicates himself to the best of his training and

render

from the sheer abundance of

of

ability to

his feeling, and, if the

he must

It is

abstract or universal experi-

to

the truths which he

beings with

original inspirational centre

it

work

is

properly imbued

with the creator's feeling, the beholder will

share the artist's experience of rasa. If he has the

NTRODUCTION

29

original capacity to feel intensely, the artist's

continue to provide a healthy discipline, and

successful realization of his concept can be

the beliefs behind the art an ever-renewed

adumbrated by the practice of yoga. The evocation of rasa depends, of course, on training and
devotion to the rules of the craft and medium.

source of creative inspiration. Such a renewal

not self-conscious expressionism, since

of these two things happens that decadence

It

is

the artist does not project his

self into a

that causes

The

work of
it

art.

He

own personality or
simply the agent

is

to materialize in intelligible form.

attitude

towards the religious image

implies neither blind adherence to rules nor a

straying from the tradition. It

only

is

when one

ensues. In Siamese art of the later centuries

we

have a mechanical reiteration of an evolved

formula and an attempt to improve on
exhausted form by

all

this

kinds of meaningless

described above persists practically unchanged

refinements in proportion, gesture, and pose,

thousand years of

together with the attempt merely to be pleasing

come to be

and decorative through the heavy embellish-

and mysti-

ment of surfaces and richness of material. This

through

at least the first three

Indian art history. Only later does

replaced by a somewhat

lyric

expression that transformed the

cal religious

earlier

more

it

symbols into an imagist, pantheistic

art.

In this later phase, beginning as early as the

Gupta Period,

art strives to please

the heart rather than the mind.

teries

become

Although

forgotten,

a certain

is

The

old

mys-

and man replaces God.

amount of repetition

be expected in any traditional

tion

and enchant

art,

is

to

such repeti-

not necessarily harmful or stultifying, as

long as the canonical forms and prescriptions

analysis could be applied with

describe

Roman

exactly similar

little

change to

Neo-Attic work, which in an

way re-works

the formula of

archaic sculpture in the direction of vapid grace

and

superficial decorative effect while entirely

losing the plastic integrity

and

spiritual

of the originals. 'The formula

there

is

nothing more to be

said,

is

power

exhausted;

because every-

thing has been said, and only the phrase remains.'

<\\3

CHAPTER

2
i'

THE PROTO-HISTORIC PERIOD:

THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

Before 1924 the history of Indian art in surviving

monuments could not be

traced farther

back than the Macedonian invasion in the fourth

century

B.C.

The

entire concept of the early

cultures of India was changed

by the dramatic

discovery of a great urban civilization that existed

contemporaneously with the ancient cul-

ture of
B.C. 1

tion

Mesopotamia

in the third

millennium

Although the chief centres of this

were brought

to light in the

there are indications that

as far north as the

it

civiliza-

Indus Valley,

extended uniformly

may have

or part of Rajputana

included

all

and the Ganges Valley.

to describe this period of

Indian history, derives

chief centres of this culture to

because

is,

it

at the

Mesopotamian

in a sense, a misleading designation

implies that this Indian civilization

was a provincial offshoot of Sumeria, whereas

is

more proper

to think of

it

better

title

to

be seen,

it is

completely descriptive

not so

much

Mesopotamia and Iran

As

the relationships

that are surprising, as

the complete separateness and

first

autonomy of this

great civilization in Indian history in the

major aspects of its development. Typical of the

independence of the Indus Valley

mysteries surrounding
script

links with later

a

it,

is

all

art,

and the

the undeciphered

which appears on the many

or talismans found at

better

developments

would be 'proto-

descriptive term

historic',

which defines

well-forged

in Indian culture,

its

position

period before the beginning of

known

and its forecast of later phases of Indian

in

the

history
civiliza-

tion.

The

principal

culture are

cities

of the Indus Valley

Mohenjo-daro on the Indus River

in the

The

Punjab.

character of

the finds has led investigators to the conclusion

that the peoples of the Indus culture

must have

had some contact with ancient Mesopotamia.

These commercial connexions with the ancient

Near East were maintained by

sea

and overland

by way of Baluchistan. The dating of the Indus

comparison with vestiges of similar architectur-

of the principal centres of this civilization.

will

many

copper age. In view of the

Valley civilization depends almost entirely on

would be the 'Indus Valley Period',

is

permit the definition

it

Mesopotamian empires.

since this designation

entirely

of chalcolithic in the sense of a bronze or

as an entirely

separate culture that attained just as high a level

as that of the great

of the finds

and Harappa

The term Indo-Sumerian, sometimes used

from the resemblance of many objects

Valley Period certainly cannot be

described as prehistoric, nor does the evidence

Punjab and the North-west

Frontier (Pakistan) and

forms. It

The Indus

steatite seals

the centres excavated. 2

al

and sculptural remains

in

Mesopotamia and

on the discovery of objects of Indian origin

level

Iraq.

corresponding to 2400

On

B.C. at

in a

Tel Asmar in

the basis of these finds and other

related objects

found

at

Kish and Susa

in Iran,

the beginnings of the Indus culture have been

fixed in the

middle of the third millennium

The

evidence suggests that the civiliza-

latest

tion of

Mohenjo-daro and Harappa

B.C.

lasted for

about eight hundred years, until the seventeenth century B.C. 3

inferior

It

was succeeded by an

and very obscure culture known

as the

Jhukar, which endured up to the time of the

Aryan invasion

in

about 1500

B.C.

PREHISTORIC AND EPIC PERIODS

32

Allowing about

five

development of

this

hundred years
civilization,

Viewed from an

for the

great

the

aesthetic point of view, the

ruins of the Indus Valley cities are, as Percy

period of the Indus Valley culture occurred in

Brown

the later centuries of the third millennium B.C.,

remains of some present-day working town in

and may be described

Lancashire'. 6 Certainly there

as

an urban concentration

and primitive

or assimilation of isolated

village

centres existing in Baluchistan and Sind as

The

has remarked,

'as

boring to the layman or

barren as would be the

is

nothing more

less revealing

than those

archaeological photographs of endless cellar

trade rela-

holes that might as well be views of Pompeii or

tions that linked these settlements with early

the centre of post-war Berlin. Archaeologists

early as 3500 or even

B.C.

Sumer and the culture of Iran apparentlate as the period of Mohenjo-

dynastic
ly

4000

continued as

The Indus

however,

have,

been able

draw

to

certain

conclusions on the basis of these architectural

Valley culture

remnants of the skeleton of the Indus culture

was one of almost monotonous uniformity both

that enable us partially to clothe that frame in

daro and Harappa.

and time there

in space

tiate finds
tier

nor

flesh.

The architecture,

commercial urban

there any perceptible variation in the

utilitarian character,

is

of objects, such as

style

nothing to differen-

is

from Sind and the North-west Fronfound

seals,

in levels

separated by hundreds of years, although

it is

apparent that such forms of Sumerian art as were

as

one would expect of a

civilization,

was of a

startling

with a uniform sameness

of plan and construction that also typifies the

products of the Indus culture in pottery.

The

buildings consisted of houses, markets, store-

many

introduced early in the history of the culture

rooms, and

were gradually absorbed or replaced by elements

consisted of a brick ground-storey with one or

of a

more

more

truly Indian tradition.

The end of the Indus culture is as mysterious

as its origin.

Whether the end came

in a

sudden

offices;

of these structures

additional floors in wood.

Everything

about the construction of the ancient city of

Mohenjo-daro

reflects a

completely matter-of-

cataclysm, or whether the culture underwent a

fact, business-like

long period of disintegration and decline,

plan as a whole to the almost total lack of archi-

impossible to say. 4
for its
to

The most

disappearance

is

is

likely explanation

that the great cities

tion of the region of Sind.

The

descriptions by

Arrian of the terrible deserts encountered by

Alexander

in his

march across Sind

doubt that the region had been

leave

a desert for

tectural ornamentation.

The

had

be abandoned because of the gradual desicca-

no

some

excavations of Mohenjo-daro have re-

vealed that the site was systematically laid out

on

a regular plan in

streets ran north

type of urban plan

different

even in Alexander's time the legend was current

city

ian

had

rosia.

Semiramis and Cyrus the Achaemen-

lost

whole armies

in the deserts of

Ged-

Later Greek writers described the region

as filled

with 'the remains of over a thousand

towns and

villages

once

full

of men'.

It is

highly

probable that the Aryan invasions from 1500

to

1200

B.C.

Dravidian

coincided with the end of this

civilization. 5

such a way that the principal

and south

in order to take full

advantage of the prevailing winds

time before the Macedonian invasion. Indeed,

that fabled

point of view, from the city

is

[1].

This

in itself a puzzling novelty,

from the rabbit-warren tradition of

planning so universal in both ancient and

modern times in India and Mesopotamia. It

must have been introduced when such plans
were already perfected in ancient Mesopotamia.

The baked
feature

brick construction

is

perhaps the

most suggestive of the building methods

of the ancient
bricks of

cities

of Mesopotamia, but the

Mohenjo-daro and Harappa are

fire-

baked, and not sun-dried, like the fabric of

33

i.

Mohenjo-daro

Sumer and Babylon. This technique obviously

presumably serving

implies the existence of vast amounts of timber

tumulus

to fire the kilns,

and reminds us once again that

the province of Sind in these remote times was

heavily forested, and not the arid desert

know

to-day.

we

Certain architectural features,

as citadels.

Mohenjo-daro

at

On

the highest

are the ruins of a

Buddhist stupa that may well have been raised

on the remains of an
the

more

earlier sanctuary.

interesting structures at

Among

Mohenjo-

daro were the remains of a great public bath,

such as the use of narrow pointed niches as the

and

only forms of interior decoration along the

gether with the smaller baths attached to almost

it

is

possible that this establishment, to-

Indus, are also found as exterior architectural

every private dwelling,

accents at Khorsabad in Mesopotamia, and

for ritual ablutions

are suggestive of a relationship with the ancient

tanks of the

Near

East.

Many

examples of vaulting of a

corbelled type have been discovered, but the

true arch was apparently
ers of

Mohenjo-daro.

unknown

No

to the build-

buildings have been

The

modern Hindu temple.

regularity of the city plan of

houses are
later

far superior to the

Indian

discovered at either Mohenjo-daro or Harappa

and Kushan
Indeed

sites there

were great

artificial

mounds

Mohenjo-

daro and the dimensions of the individual

that can be identified as temples, although at

both

may have been intended

such as are performed in the

it

cities, as, for

cities

arrangements of

example, the Greek

at Taxila

in the Punjab.

could be said that the population of

the Indus cities lived

more comfortably than

34

"

PREHISTORIC AND EPIC PERIODS

did their contemporaries in the crowded and

metropolises of Egypt and

ill-built

Even more remarkable

tamia.

secular architecture in

in

Mesopo-

comparison

Mesopotamia

is

to

the high

development of rubbish-shoots and drains

in

This superiority

to,

private houses

and

streets.

shaman. There has been

priest or

Some

scholars have argued that they represent

deities or portraits of priests.

left

The way

the manufacture of terra-cotta in the Indus

though concentrated on the

the basis of the

and conveniences

many

innovations

in civic architecture, as

than one authority has stated,

we

more

are led to the

vastly

rich

commercial

cities

in

which the

surplus wealth was invested for the public good

in the

way of municipal improvement, and not

shoulder

is

not unlike the Buddhist sarighdti.

which the eyes are represented,

in

of the nose,

tip

as
is

method of yoga

suggestive of a well-known

meditation, and would therefore favour the

man.

identification as a priest or holy

The

conclusion that the centres of civilization along

the Indus in the third millennium B.C. were

In the present

example the disposition of the robe over the

and independence from, the Near East may

On

of

other bearded heads found at Mohenjo-daro.

again be explained by the availability of fuel for

Valley.

a great deal

speculation on the identification of this and

similarities of these statues to

Mesopo-

tamian scultpure in the plastic conception of the

head

and certain other

in hard, mask-like planes

technical details are fairly close, and yet not

enough

close

to

prove a

real relationship.

The

assigned to the erection of huge and expensive

resemblance to Sumerian heads consists mainly

monuments dedicated

in the general rigidity

Among

to the royal cult.

the fragments of sculpture found at

Mohenjo-daro

is

male bust carved of

a whit-

ish limestone originally inlaid with a red paste

[2].'

Most

likely

it

was

a votive portrait of a

and

in

such aspects as the

wearing of the beard and with shaven upper

method of representing

the

and the indication of the hair by

salient relief,
lines incised

lip,

the eyebrows in

on the surface of the

These

stone.

devices of essentially conceptual portraiture,

2.

Limestone bust from Mohenjo-daro.

New

Delhi, National

Museum

however, are too

all

common

technique

among

ancient peoples to permit us to draw any

conclusions. Details such as the trefoil design

as well as the mode of hairmay be matched in Sumerian sculpMore suggestive of a real connexion

on the costume,
dressing,
ture.

between the sculpture of the Indus Valley and

Mesopotamia are a number of statuettes reputed

to

have been excavated

They
statues

quite

are

of

Gudea and

Indus Valley.

in the

comparable

the

to

other

statues of the third millennium B.C.

figurines

has

Mohenjo-daro
are

cartouche

script.

provincial - that

Sumerian

cult statues

One of these

inscribed

is,

between the

the
idols

Indian variants of

- and

their presence in

perhaps religious as well as

some

rela-

stylistic, existed

civilizations of the

and Mesopotamia. 8

in

Presumably these

the Indus Valley reveals that at least

tion,

log-like

Mesopotamian

Indus Valley

THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

The most

notable piece of sculpture that the

Indus Valley excavations have brought

is

male torso

a small

Harappa
reveals

[3].

in limestone

The view chosen

to light

found

magnificent plastic quality to great

its

advantage. Although

impossible to

it is

tell

it

seems almost certain that

it

been intended as a deity of some

must have
In

sort.

its

damaged condition no recognizable

present

attributes remain; nor

for

the

nude

exact iconographic significance of this

image,

at

for illustration

is

there any explanation

curious circular depressions in the

the

clavicle region.

This statuette appears

to us

extraordinarily sophisticated in the degree of

much

realistic representation, so

been compared by some scholars

so that
to the

it

has

work of

the great period in Greece. In the Harappa torso,

however, there

no attempt

is

human body by harping on

to suggest the

the muscular struc-

ture that was the particular concern of the natu-

minded Greek sculptors of the fourth

ralistically

century B.C. and

statuette

is

On

later.

the contrary, this

completely Indian in the sculptor's

realization of the essential image, a symbolic

rather than descriptive representation of ana-

tomy,

in

which the articulation of the body

realized in broad

The one
that

is

quality

which may be discerned here

universally peculiar to

examples of

is

convex planes of modelling.

plastic art

is

many

later

Indian

the suggestion of an

inner tension that seems to threaten to push out

and burst the taut outer layer of skin. Actually,

this

is

a technical device

by which the sculptor

revealed the existence of the breath or prdna

filling

The

and expanding the

fact that the figure

therefore,

and

vessel of the body.

appears pot-bellied

iconographically

truthful. It

is

any sense, since

is,

completely right

not intended as a caricature in

this distension resulting

from

yogic breath-control was regarded as an out-

ward sign of both material and

being.

We

have in

spiritual well-

this statuette, too,

what

is

certainly the earliest exhibition of the Indian

sculptor's skill not only in producing a sense of

3.

Limestone torso from Harappa.

New

Delhi, National

Museum

35

4.

Limestone statuette of a dancer from Harappa.

New

Delhi, National

Museum

<Jj^^

5.

Copper

New

statuette of a dancer

Delhi, National

Museum

from Mohenjo-daro.

.^

THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

plastic

volume but

also in representing the soft

quality of the flesh. This

not

is

literal imitation,

such as one finds in Western sculpture, but

suggestion of fleshiness by such properly sculptural

and abstract devices

as the interlocking of

pa, represent the

Sumerian and Indian aspects

of the Indus Valley civilization.

The indications

are that such borrowings as there were

the

37

Mesopotamian world

from

existed parallel to

completely Indian sculptural tradition.

The most numerous

the smooth and softly modelled convex planes

single type of object

of the torso and the exaggeration of the depth

found

in the cities of the

Indus culture are the

of the navel to connote the enfolding softness

steatite seals, apparently

used for sealing com-

and warmth of

flesh

without any textural ma-

nipulation of the surface. 10

Another damaged

from Har-

statuette, also

appa, complements this torso in

and

cast of iconographic

its

elements of

than two and a half inches square, reveal the

stylistic

[4].

This

dancing male figure, perhaps originally ithy-

four-armed and three-headed. These

attributes,

make
later

it

with the dancing pose,

together

possible that this

is

a prototype for the

Hindu conception of Siva

Dance. The modelling, again,

Lord of the

as
is

of an extra-

ordinarily telling simplicity, that, in

its

assured

establishment of form in the completely abstract

plastic sense, suggests the

work of

modern

Henry Moore. Even in its present

fragmentary state, the figure is imbued with a

sculptor like

vital,

number of picto-

graphic symbols. 12 These objects, never more

image, carved in greyish limestone, represents

phallic,

invariably accompanied by a

striking fore-

the historical periods of Indian art

pacts and as amulets, with representations of

creatures both fabulous and real, and almost

dynamic quality and a suggestion of move-

most consummate and

delicate perfection of

craftsmanship; the work was done by a combination of carving with small chisels and drills

and polishing with abrasives. The finished

was given

slightly fired,

to the stone.
intaglios

coating of alkali,

imparted

which,

seal

when

white lustrous surface

The seals are properly described as

- carved

in

sunken or negative

relief;

the illustrations in this work are from photo-

graphs of impressions taken from the original

objects.
sive

The seals provide the most comprehen-

evidence for our reconstruction of the

Mohenjo-daro

religion

and

its

relationship with

the ancient Near East and the concepts of

of the head, thorax, and hips, exactly the same

modern Hinduism. On a number of the seals

we find a representation of a three-headed bo-

device employed to suggest the violence of

vine monster

ment imparted by

the violent axial dislocation

Siva's dance in the great

Hindu bronzes of the

which has been interpreted

less surprising in its sophistication is a

as

Mesopotamian legend

of the primordial bull, the progenitor of all

Chola Period.

No

[6],

a reference to the ancient

liv-

13
ing things in the animal and vegetable worlds.

copper figurine of a dancing-girl from Mohenjo-

daro, which in such aspects as the extreme wiry

mythological link with Mesopotamia in the

attenuation

is

prophetic

the Chola Period

[5].

tion of the lower lip

physical

trait,

numerous

is

of

representation of a gigantic figure engaged in

strangling two great beasts, presumably lions or

perhaps a Dravidian

and the clothing of the arms

bracelets

bangles of every

explains

the

known precious

the ruins of the Indus

cities.

seals reveal another

exaggera-

of metal-work

The pendulous

few of the Indus Valley

finding

tigers.

This personage

in

Mesopotamian

of

Oriental Herakles

material in

11

The statues which we have examined, the male

busts and idols from Mohenjo-daro and Harap-

hero,

who

is

certainly the great

Gilgamesh,

sort

of

slew the wild beasts and

made the world safe for humanity.

The subjects of other seals are of the

greatest

importance for the relationship between the

Indus Valley religion and

later

iconographic

38

6.

PREHISTORIC AND EPIC PERIODS

Seal with three-headed animal from Mohenjo-daro.

New
7.

New
8.

Delhi, National

Museum

Seal with three-headed god from Mohenjo-daro.

Delhi, National

Museum

'J^^^

Seal with representation of bull

/V^

1^

from Mohenjo-daro.

New

Delhi, National

concepts.
in

On

Museum

one we find a horned deity seated

yoga posture,

who

probably to be recog-

is

nized as a prototype of the

The

Hindu god Siva [7]

central figure has three heads,

dent above his head

dhist symbol

presumably
to

is

and the

tri-

Bud-

suggestive of the

known as the trisula. The horns are

Mesopotamian

survival,

be read as an indication of divinity.

tral

14

personage

is

and are

The

cen-

surrounded by a number of

either the

with

zebu or the urus ox, some of them

resembling altars

objects

them

before

[8].

graphy cannot be positively

likely that this

mangers

or

Here again, while the iconoidentified,

popular bovine

it

seems

emblem is related

and lunar
Mesopotamia and perhaps as

to the cult of the bull as a fertility

symbol
a

in ancient

prototype of Siva's attribute, the bull Nandi.

From

the aesthetic point of view the designs

wild beasts, perhaps as a reference to Siva's

of the animal seals of the Indus culture are

function as Lord of Beasts or to suggest Siva's

the most satisfactory of

dwelling as an ascetic in the wilderness.

is

What

perhaps the most interesting aspect of

seal is that in

it

we have

representation of a divinity in

Indian

art.

On

this

the earliest recognizable

human form

in

other seals the representations

of horned female figures in trees are certainly

to

be interpreted as the earliest portrayals of the

yakshi, the fertility-

and

tree-spirit that figures

perfection of the

human

It will

be noted in the

horns, eyes,

Vedas had

By

far

its

origins in the Indus culture.

the greatest

number

of the Indus

Valley seals are carved with figures of bulls,

statuettes

from Har-

first

place that whereas

ally

represented; in other words, this

is

a con-

ceptual rather than an optical rendering, which

different aspects of the

Yajur and Atharva

are

body are shown in profile, the

and sometimes the hoofs are front-

means

in the

They

the head and

ance furnishes positive proof that the cult of

mentioned

the finds.

appa.

so largely in later Buddhist art. Their appear-

tree-spirits

all

the exact equivalents in animal sculpture of the

that the figure

be significant to the

and

tactile

is

combination of those

body which appeared

artist,

combining

impression of the object. This

method intended

to give the

most

to

a visual

essential

is

and

complete impression possible of the object. 15

THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

The animal
est

among

seals are

examples of an

any individual

are not portraits of

vital

the

imbued

but

bulls,

The

of a species.

universal representations

and

embody

form in artistic shape. These

essentials of a given

carver has

the world's great-

artist's ability to

his subject with

an alive

character by his intuitive ability to

define everything that

is

nature of the animal he

important for the

The

portraying.

is

abstract organization of the folds of the skin and

the muscular and bony structure are completely

9.

expressive of the massiveness and weightiness

of the bull.

realization of the essential

It is this

structure and character of the species that

for the universal character of the

makes

work of

art

which transcends the mere imitation or portrait

of a single real animal, such as a painting of

a bull

by Paul

The

Potter.

pottery of the Indus civilization has pro-

vided a special problem to archaeologists, largely

by reason of

its

separateness from the wares

of contemporary civilizations in Mesopotamia

and

Iran.

The vessels, for the most part intended

as storage jars,

were

with a red-ochre

all

slip

lacquer-like finish.

kiln-fired

and covered

which was polished

The

to a

designs, which were

applied in a black pigment before firing, consist

of intersecting circles with occasional examples

of foliate and beast patterns that bear

little

or no

relationship to the designs of western Asia

[9].

This type of pottery seems to have been made

in all parts of the geographical limits of the

Indus culture and,

it

has been pointed out, wares

of a similar sort are

still

made

in the village

potteries of western India today. 16

Under

the heading of pottery

we may

include

not only actual vessels but the figurines in the

shape of toys or cult images that have been

found

in

enormous numbers

habited by the Indus people.

in all the sites in-

They belong more

definitely to a popular, folk-art tradition than

the sophisticated objects

ined.

By

far the

we have

most numerous

tion are crude female effigies

already

exam-

in this collec-

which have been

Storage

Boston,

jar

from Chanhu-daro.

Museum of Fine Arts

39

40

PREHISTORIC AND EPIC PERIODS

recognized as representations of a mother goddess. 'She

makes

the Great Mother.

is

she

who

nature bring forth. All existing things

all

from

are emanations

her.

She

carrying the holy child. She

men and

It is

is
is

the madonna,
the mother of

animals, too. She continually appears

with an escort of beasts, for she

is

the mistress

various

names enjoyed

in

ism as Kali and as the Sakti

village cults.

Some

Minor and
modern Hinduof modern Indian

a cult in Asia

Mesopotamia and survives

of these statuettes are so

primitive as to be comparable to the Cycladic

idols of the
like

Aegean. Certain others, with fan-

head-dresses, bear a resemblance to the

of wild animals, snakes, birds, and fishes. She

figurines discovered in various

even makes the plants grow by her universal

sites.

fecundity

perpetuating the vegetative force

of which she
likely this

10.

is

is

the

the

same

fountain-head.' 17
great

Most

mother who under

Terracotta mother goddess from Mohenjo-daro.

Karachi, National

Museum of Pakistan

as

These

symbols, rather than

typical

Mesopotamian

statuettes are really to be regarded

example

from Mohenjo-daro,

realistic representations.
is

an elaborate statuette

the

largest

and

most

THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

significant of the

Indus Valley

have

to

sites

survived [10]. This fragment illustrates the

technique universally employed

maritime importance of

The

this coastal city.

finds at Lothal included the usual types of seals

in

or talismans and the painted pottery found at

these images, whereby such features as the

Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. As we already

know from the discovery of seals and other

applique

head-dress, eyes, nose,

ments were attached

while the clay was

lips, breasts,

as separate

still

and orna-

pinched pellets

moist. At this period of

Indian civilization the mould was

unknown

for

which were built up by hand in

same way as were the statuettes of

clay figurines,

exactly the

Meso-

the mother goddess discovered at such

potamian

sites as

levels referable to

Tel Asmar and Khafaje

about 2500

B.C.

at

notable

attribute of the representations of the Indian

fertility

hair

goddess

is

the prominence given to the

and heavy head-dress, the depiction of

jewellery,

and the breasts and

tures, as well as the

navel.

These

fea-

beaded apron worn by some

of the statuettes, were

fertility

mother goddess from Mesopotamia and

Iran.

Excavations conducted since 1956 at Kot

Indus from Mohenjo-daro and

at

Lothal in Gujarat have somewhat changed our

picture of the Indus civilization.
tion of Kot Diji revealed a town,

The

explora-

surrounded by

a defensive wall with buildings of sun-dried

brick, that
levels at

presumably antedates the

earliest

Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. Types of

pottery and clay figurines found at this site

appear to antedate the earliest finds

famous

cities

at the

more

of the Indus Valley. This has led

to the hypothesis that the finds at

Kot

Indus Valley type

which may be dated

c.

at

Tel Asmar,

2500-2300

B.C.,

it

is

MohenjoFinds from the

possible to date the high point of the

daro and Harappa civilization.

upper

levels at

Lothal appear to indicate that a

late

phase of the Harappa culture survived here

and

at

other sites in Kathiawad until 1200 B.C.

or even later.

It

as yet impossible to say

is

whether the Aryans, generally thought

to

have

been responsible for the downfall of the Indus

culture, are to be associated with the type of

debased pottery and other finds

Indo-Sumerian

As

symbols, since

both are also found in representations of the

Diji across the

artefacts of the

strata

in the post-

of these excavations.

a result of these latest explorations

scholars have

come

some

to the conclusion that the

whole Indus culture was an indigenous growth,

by no means dependent on the early cultures of

Iran and

Mesopotamia but developing

its

own,

including the advanced systems of fortification

and town-planning, from the

still

earlier

phase

of Indian civilization represented by the finds

at

Kot

Diji. It

must be admitted

at the

same

time that some of the characteristic designs of

Mohenjo-daro pottery, including the ibex and

seem to indicate borrowings from

the antelope,

ancient Iranian culture that filtered in through

the

hills

of Baluchistan.

Diji rep-

resent a civilization flourishing in the early

third millennium B.C.

the advent of the

The

discovery of a city of the Indus civiliza-

tion at Lothal

was

which was destroyed by

Harappa people c. 2500.

on the coast of the Indian Ocean

a further step in revealing the extent of this

proto-historic

culture.

The

excavations

at

The excavations conducted by a French mission

Mundigak in the now desiccated region north

at

of Kandahar in Afghanistan have brought to

remains of a civilization linking Af-

light the

ghanistan, Iran, and India of the Indo-Sumerian Period in the period extending

Lothal revealed not only the regular city-plan-

fourth to

ning of Mohenjo-daro with

Christ. 18

its

highly developed

the

late

third

The growth

of

from the

late

millennium before

this culture paralleled

Mesopotamia in the gradual

system of tanks and public drains but also the

the development in

development of a great dock area pointing to the

urbanization of thriving village settlements.

42

The

PREHISTORIC AND EPIC PERIODS

earliest

of the layers at

Mundigak

are

contemporary with the Jamdet-Nasr Period of

about 3000
finds of

the

B.C.

earliest

Quetta
third

and yielded pottery related

approximate date

in

ceramic

at

to

Susa and Anau and

remains

unearthed

at

Baluchistan. Perhaps early in the

millennium there was an immigration of

peoples from the region of Susiana, tribes

who

may have had an earlier ethnic relationship with

the population of

Mundigak. Pottery goblets

in the

shape of brandy ballons painted

with

representations

of long-horned

[11] are related to similar

found

at

in black

ibexes

forms and patterns

Susa and dating from about 2800

B.C.

Similar designs occur on the pottery found at

11.

Goblet from Mundigak.

Kabul,

Museum

Kullu

in Baluchistan,

and other goblets with

pipal leaf patterns appear to link this material

to familiar

ceramic designs from Harappa.

further possible connexion with

Mohenjo-daro

may be seen in terracotta figurines of the Mother

Goddess, and even more notably in the small
stone head of a
like simplicity

man

[12] which, in the

mask-

of the face, has obvious con-

nexions with the Sumerian type of sculpture

found

at

Mohenjo-daro

[2].

Mundigak was

apparently deserted - perhaps as the result of

hostile invasion

- about 1500 B.C. and, until its

domain of wanderers

recent excavation, was the

and shepherds who found shelter

of the citadel.

12.

Head of a man from Mundigak.

Museum

Kabul,

in the ruins

^>

CHAPTER

THE EPIC PERIOD:

VEDIC AND PRE-MAURYA CIVILIZATIONS

The

period between the end of the Indus Valley

civilization

pire

of the

rise

first

Indian

em-

under the Mauryas includes the Vedic

Period
the

and the

(c.

1500-800

first historical

B.C.)

and, from the

Saisunaga-Nanda Period (642-322

the period of initial conquest,

were able

to

name of

pre-Maurya dynasties, the

when

B.C.).

After

the Aryans

reduce the native population by the

that the accounts of crafts

and technical proce-

Men-

dures are those of this conquering race.

tion

is

made of

metals, such as tin, lead, and

silver, as well as

copper and iron, which are

specified in the later Vedic books,

also references to

and there are

woven stuffs and ritual vessels.

Considering the background of these agricultural

nomadic invaders,

not surprising

it is

armament, there unfolds

that the architecture of the Vedic Period was

drama repeated many times in Indian hiswhich the conqueror has become the
conquered. Although they imposed their philo-

neither

tory, in

centrated in urban development. With the dis-

appearance of the Indus culture and

sophical and social ideals on India and pene-

the

trated the entire fabric of Indian civilization

distributed in small settlements located in the

superiority of their

monumental nor permanent nor con-

and

plains

were inevitably absorbed into the Indian popu-

were those most readily available

Long

main stream of Indian civilization

before 500 B.C. the culture of India was a

ing shelters

ably only

forests.

largely

Their building materials

with such forms as the caste system, the Aryans

lation and the

its cities,

new Indo-Aryan population was

for construct-

wood, bamboo, thatch, and, prob-

later, brick.

This was the only kind of

The

building one would expect of a people without

surviving archaeological fragments from this

any kind of tradition of monumental architec-

remote period point

ture. Obviously,

mixture of Aryan and Dra vidian elements.

non-Aryan

to the

such as the substitution of

ritual

pujd, the worship of a

form of an image,
sacrifice

with

praise

and

deities.

conjecture.
art is

The

on

in the

Vedic yajna or

prayer

non-

to

Our knowledge of

epoch of Indian history

scattered remains,

its

god represented

in place of the

anthropomorphic
this

predominance of

is

based on a few

literary evidence,

and on

conjectural reconstruction of

based on the

many

references to actual

techniques and works of sculpture and architecture in the Vedic

hymns, which were composed

methods of construction

in

bamboo and thatch must have been practised by

the Dra vidians long before the intrusion of the
northern invaders. What little we know of architecture in these remote times

is

the allusion to

huts of round and square shape, as well as towerlike structures.

The resemblance

of these des-

criptions to the conical huts of the primitive

Toda

tribes in

South India today suggests that

these forms were of Dravidian rather than

Aryan origin.
mentioned

are

Fire-altars
in the

and

sacrificial

halls

Vedas; presumably the

dimensions and measurements of these and

sometime between 1500 and 800 B.C. These

hymns were the compositions of the Aryan

other structures were determined at a very early

invaders from the uplands of northern Asia, so

date, since the dimensions for buildings are

44

PREHISTORIC AND EPIC PERIODS

already specified in the Sulva sutra of approxi-

mately 800

B.C. In the

Indian epics, the

Mahd-

bhdrata and Rdmdyana, are references to shrines

and assembly
stone

halls. It is significant to

note that

only occasionally referred to as a build-

is

ing material. Peaked huts are mentioned in Pali

literature

well

as

as

chaityas

(shrines)

and

pdsddas (palaces), and later Brdhmanas contain

many accounts

of actual

altars,

of brick or

tombs, and

were presumably

shrines. All these structures

wooden construction. The account of

mention the various fantastic monsters, such

the sphinx, chimera,

and gryphon,

as

as well as the

use of addorsed animals in the so-called Persepolitan capital. Obviously, these forms, univer-

employed in the Maurya, Sunga, and

Andhra Periods, were not introduced at that

sally

time (second or

first

century B.C.)

when

the

had created them had long

civilizations that

since disappeared.

As already suggested by the

examination of the Indus Valley material, India

second millennium

in the

B.C.

was not an

iso-

guilds in the jfdtakas, or Buddhist birth-stories,

lated cultural pocket, but continued as a kind of

confirms the antiquity of such fraternities in

eastward extension of the culture of Mesopo-

Indian art history.

may be assumed

It

that, just

Indus Valley Period, some sort of cult

as in the

images continued to be used, although they are

The

not specifically mentioned.

their manufacture, originally in

technique of

some perishable

wood or metal or ivory, was transstone when the methods for working

tamia and Iran.

The
in the

descriptions of early architectural forms

Vedas are complemented by representa-

tions of
reliefs

many

of the

of these types in the Buddhist

first

century B.C.

at

Bharhut and

material like

Sanchi. Indeed, the very longevity of this era

ferred to

of wooden building

this

durable material were introduced in the

Maurya

many

is

everywhere asserted

in

the copies of such structures, not only in reliefs,

of

but in the rock-cut architecture of the Maurya,

the building forms characteristic of later periods

Sunga, and Early Andhra Periods. Undoubted-

of Indian art were already evolved in these cen-

ly the

Period.

certain, too, that

It is

turies; for example, the

Buddhist chaitya-hall

reproduces in stone a pre-existing form in wood

and thatch,

same way

had

gateway or

its

wooden

tor ana of the

Buddhist stupa 2

origin in a portal consisting of

or

bamboo

two

uprights topped by a single

that the marble

horizontal bar that gradually developed into

architecture of Greece so clearly follows the

the elaborate form with three superimposed

in the

technique

joiner's

wooden temple

of early

forms; the fondness of Indian architects for

using massive stone slabs in the early examples
of trabeated architecture

may

derive from the

Dravidian dolmen form.

It is

Near

East, so pro-

is

seen at Sanchi and Bharhut.

Fences of wooden uprights and crossbars were

used as barriers and as enclosures for sacred
trees

and tumuli, before

the vedikd or

reasonable to assume also that the rela-

tionship with the ancient

crossbars, such as

many

rail

their

development into

of the Buddhist mounds. As

authorities have pointed out, the barrel-

vaulted chaitya-halls of the Buddhist period,

monuments of the Indus culture,

the rock-cut cave-temples of western India, are

continued in the centuries after the Aryan in-

imitations of free-standing buildings in which

nounced
vasion.

in the

Such motifs

as battlements,

and the

palmette and rosette designs that appear so

frequently in early Buddhist

monuments, were

the barrel roof was constructed of interlocking

wooden

ribs covered with thatch. In

introduced to India in the period before the

interior

development of any kind of monumental archi-

the duplication of the

tecture or sculpture in stone.

Among these bor-

rowings from western Asiatic

art

one could

many

of

the cave-temples of western India, although the

is

really a cave cut

from the

living rock,

wooden original is carried

to the point of affixing actual wooden ribs to the
socle of the solid stone roof. Such later features

VEDIC AND PRE-MAURYA CIVILIZATIONS

Hindu and Buddhist

45

architecture as the

resettlement of the population in urban concen-

horseshoe-shaped chaitya arch presumably had

trations gradually led to the replacement of

of

Percy

to

wooden forms by stone, perhaps beginning with

to the tie-

the necessity of erecting stone ramparts and

Vedic Period. According

their origin in the

Brown 3 thongs corresponding

rods of Italian Gothic constricted the chord of

fortifications. If

wooden arch to the familiar horseshoe

profile that we find carved in the 'rose windows'

Hsiian-tsang

the

of the later Buddhist cave-temples.

One

we can

at Rajagriha,

King Bimbisara's capital

we may conclude that even as late

velopments of the Vedic Period was the layout

as the sixth

of the Indo-Aryan village that

constructed largely of

preserved for

us in far later manuals of Indian architecture.

materials. 5

This was the plan

walls are

commodity and

by reason both of

that,

the architecture of

The

its

specific metaphysical implica-

tions, has survived in countless

Chinese

Buddhist pilgrim), concerning the conflagrations that destroyed

of the most important architectural de-

is

credit the accounts of

seventh-century

(the

arrangements in

Hinduism and Buddhism.

characteristic plan, according to Havell,

derived from the fortified camps of the Aryan

invaders, and was a rectangle with

its

sides

masonry

century

The

B.C.

whole

cities

wood and

were

still

perishable

only surviving relics of stone

the ramparts of cyclopean rubble

at

ancient Rajagriha, which, accord-

ing to Hsiian-tsang, formed the enclosure of

the inner citadel. 6

These ruins

are generally

assigned to the sixth century B.C.

The

only

monuments

that

may

recognized as pre-Mauryan are a

possibly be

number

of

oriented to the four quarters and intersected by

enormous mounds

two avenues terminating

These tumuli have the domical shape of the

in four gateways. Al-

though space does not permit our entering into

a detailed

account of the symbolism attached to

every part of this layout,

that the plan

can be stated briefly

it

was intended

cosm, with the

as a kind of

five divisions

responding to the

five

micro-

of the village cor-

elements of the universe,

and each of the gateways dedicated

to

one of the

later

at

Lauriya Nandangarh."

Buddhist stupa and, presumably, mark

the sites of royal burials. Consequently, there

is

every reason to recognize in them the prototype

for the

Buddhist

relic

mound. Wooden masts

were found embedded in the centre of the

solid

earthen tumuli. These, as in certain Buddhist

stupas, were inserted for their symbolic func-

four Vedic deities typifying the positions of the

tion of representing the tree or axis of the uni-

course through the heavens. These

verse and also, perhaps even in these early

included a broad path girdling

examples, for the purpose of supporting an

sun in

its

village plans also

the buildings within the outer walls

which the

householders circumambulated with recitations

to

ensure the favour of the gods. This feature,

together

with

the

symbolism

metaphysical

attached to the gateways,

is

perpetuated in the

plan and ritual of the Buddhist stupa.

regularity of these early plans, based

intersecting avenues,

is

on

The

straight

possibly a survival of the

umbrella - the emblem of royalty - above the

summit of the mound. 8

southern India a number of rock-cut

In

tombs of the Vedic Period have been found at

Mennapuram and Calicut in Malabar. 9 They
have been described as hollow stupas, since they
are

domed chambers with

column

at the centre,

a monolithic stone

perhaps as a symbolic

wooden masts penetrating

the

systematic arrangements of the Indus cities

equivalent of the

adapted to the metaphysical and architectural

Lauriya mounds. Intended for the burial of

needs of the

We may

new Aryan

civilization.

presume that

the middle of the

first

it

was only towards

millennium

B.C. that the

Aryan

chieftains, these caves are

translations into stone of Vedic

wood

or thatch. 10

circular

presumably

round huts of

Buddhist rock-cut

46

PREHISTORIC AND EPIC PERIODS

cave at Guntupalla keeps the form of the Vedic

hut, even to the inclusion of

wooden

rafters

the dead were to be entrusted to the tender care

of the earth mother,

who

is

another incarnation

attached to the domical roof. 11 In this connexion

of the great mother goddess of

one should mention also a rock-cut structure,

Oriental civilizations.

sometimes

style the figure is

recognized

as

fire-temple

or

Agnidhriya, at Bangala Motta Paramba, which

was equipped with

a kind of

chimney

in the

place of the harmikd or balcony above the

of the Buddhist stupa.

of the Vedic Period

12

The

lies in

dome

chief importance

the development of

architecture as a science and the invention of

types that survive in later

Hindu and Buddhist

architecture.

the Indus Period. 14

nudity of the figure,

archaic

around burial-places, and inter-

make

figure,

is

intended to describe her

it

conceptual nature of the

a link

between the Indus figur-

and the yakshi statues of Maurya and Sunga

times.

India, erected

emphasis on

frankness of presentation, together with the

may belong

Vedic Period, for example,

explicit

character as a fertility goddess. This complete

ines

to the

The

human

in the terra-cottas of

the attributes of fecundity, as well as the stark

generally classified as neolithic or prehistoric,

the cromlechs found at Amaravati in southern

in constructing

which we have seen

persisting

Various remains of undetermined antiquity,

ancient

an example in gold relief of the

same additive process

figures

all

From the point of view of

Examples of terra-cotta

figures of the

mother

goddess, generally classified as pre-Maurya,

esting as possible prototypes for the Buddhist

are interesting chiefly as evidence of the persis-

railing or vedika. 13

tence of an iconographic tradition originating

In the

mounds

illustration

[ 1

3]

Lauriya were found two

at

gold repousse figures.

One

of these

chosen for

is

because it is an object discovered

in the

Indus Valley Period and the gradual de-

velopment of

monumental sculp-

ture of the historical periods. This

13.

and

specific Indian techniques

attributes that reappear in

would

in-

clude the additive method of figure composition

Gold plaque

from

and the careful perpetuation of such emblems as

Lauriya Nandangarh

the crossed scarves and the beaded belt which

we have already found

to

bols of fertility spirits. 15

be indispensable sym-

Some

of the terra-cotta

figurines of pre-Maurya date are closely related

stylistically

and iconographically to the gold

plaques from Lauriya and

may

for this reason

The example
comes from Mathura on the Jumna
has the same flatness and frontality and

be assigned to this same period.

illustrated

under

reliable circumstances of excavation that

can with certainty be accepted as the work of

the

pre-Maurya Period. The subject of

little

statuette

Prithvi.

is

Her presence

by a burial hymn
mother,

this

presumably the earth goddess

in the

in the

this earth, the

tomb

Rig Veda

is
:

explained

'Go

to thy

widely extending, very

That maiden, soft as wool to

may protect thee from the abode of

gracious Prithvi.
the pious,

destruction.'

The

implication

is

certainly that

[14]

it

same emphatic display of the attributes of

fecundity, the heavy breasts and enormously
the

exaggerated pelvis that are characteristic not

only of the gold Prithvi from Lauriya but of far
earlier representations of the

found

all

mother goddess

over the ancient Near East. 16

The

method of making - additive from both the technical and iconographical point of view - is, from
the purely anthropomorphic aspect, an advance

VEDIC AND PRE-MAURYA CIVILIZATIONS

47

over the Indus Valley statuettes [10], in that

a definite suggestion of a possible

human

form rather than an abstractly symbolic

figura-

there

is

tion of

it.

The only site that has yielded any kind of picture of a consecutive development of the pre-

Maurya

centuries

dating from the

the Bhir

is

mound

at Taxila,

and fourth centuries

fifth

B.C.

Since these antiquities consist mainly of beads

and lathe-turned stones with occasional

terra-

do not add very much

cotta figurines, they

our conception of the major

to

arts before the rise

The buildings are no

more than an ill-planned and rudely constructed
of the Maurya Dynasty.

conglomerate of rubble and earth which can

scarcely be dignified

The

by the term architecture. 17

very poverty of the remains at Rajagriha

and Taxila leads us

to stress in conclusion that,

although in certain respects the art of the Vedic

and pre-Maurya Periods

testifies to

the persis-

tence of traditional forms in Indian art

case,

in this

continued from Indus Valley prototypes kind of interregnum during

this period is a

which certain techniques, such

of

as the art

town-planning and stone-carving, were

lost.

As

will

become apparent

real

importance of the Epic Age lay elsewhere.

in the next chapter, the

More recent investigations of the great mound

at

Lauriya Nandangarh have shown that in

final

form

this gigantic

its

tumulus was actually

stupa, the dimensions of which exceeded even

those of the great

monument

has been dated in the second or

at

Barabudur.

first

It

century B.C.

The structure in its final form apparently represented a number of enlargements of an originally
small relic

mound. At

depth of 35

stone stupa was unearthed.

relate

it

to the

Its

feet a small

form seems

to

shape of the Great Stupa at

Sanchi and some of the stupas in Nepal found-

ed in the time of the Emperor Asoka. These

recent excavations, however, do not explain the
14.

golden image of the Earth Goddess, the presence

Terracotta statuette

of which

from Mathura.
Boston,

Museum of Fine

Arts

may

still

indicate that the site

was

originally a burial mound of pre-Maurya times. ' 8

CHAPTER

THE EPIC PERIOD: THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA

If the period

Indus

between the disappearance of the

civilization

and the

rise

empire under the Mauryas

in Indian

Buddhist

is

almost entirely

who were

also

first

barren of any kind of artistic remains, architectural or plastic, this

years

is

thousand

all

encounter

worshipped

as guardians of the

mineral treasures hid in the earth and associated

with the idea of wealth and abundance.

The

the great religious systems

a sort of Indian dryad and the spirit of the fertility

dominated not only India

of the

tree.

By association the yakshis came to be

regarded as symbols of the sap, the waters, and

Asia.

be possible only to present the barest

will

shall

they were tree-spirits

female counterpart of the yaksha was the yakshi,

In this brief account of Indian religious sys-

tems it

art;

the

that have ever after

all

of inestimable importance for

emergence of
but

span of nearly

whom we

First are the yakshas,

Indian

of the

thereby of the

fertility

of the whole vegetable

and animal worlds. They were

women

specifically in-

Among

outline of their theologies, with specific refer-

voked by

ence to those aspects of belief that have a special

Dravidian genii we should mention also the

bearing on the development of later iconographical

forms in

naga or water

desiring children.

spirit,

described as serpentine in

form, though in later art the naga

art.

The religions of the early peoples of India are

known as the Agamic and Vedic, or Dravidian
and Aryan. The words 'Agamic' and 'Dravidian'
1

as a

human

is

represented

with a cobra hood attached to the

back of the shoulders. All these

ly

the

deities, so

deep-

rooted in the belief and superstition of the

refer to the beliefs of the indigenous population

Indian people, inevitably came to be absorbed

of India before the Aryan invasion

into the pantheons of both

the third millennium B.C.

at the

The terms

end of

'Vedic'

and

'Aryan' are used to describe the religious ele-

dhism and
Just as

Hinduism and Bud-

their art.

Hindu worship

is

based on the Aryan

ments introduced by these foreign conquerors.

These traditions contained the beliefs, the philo-

his tribe,

sophy, and the gods that constitute the religion

from the Vedic morning and evening worship

of

modern Hinduism. This

religion

is,

in other

householder's duty to his god, his family, and

and the Brahmanic daily

of the sun, so, too, are the

Hindu

ritual

deities

stems

descen-

The mighty

words, a combination of elements derived from

dants of the Vedic titans. 2

Aryan and Dravidian sources that began its

development as a separate system of belief early

that the Aryans recognized in the sun, the

beings
fire,

the wind, or the water needed no personifying,

The Dravidians im-

although when we

posed the worship of the lingam and the mother

Buddhist and Hindu

goddess on

was the purely

phically portrayed in accordance with the attri-

Dravidian cult of devotion or bhakti that in-

butes assigned to them in the Vedas. In contrast

millennium

in the first

stalled the

later

B.C.

Hinduism.

It

worship of images rather than abstract

principles.

Among

numerable place

with Dravidian

first

encounter them in

art they are

ritual,

anthropomor-

which stressed the value

the Dravidian gods were in-

of the worship of specific deities represented by

and

images in shrines, the Vedic or Aryan tradition

spirits, tutelary deities,

powers of nature conceived as personal beings.

was

worship of the powers of heaven and earth

50

PREHISTORIC AND EPIC PERIODS

by hymns and

without idols or tem-

essence uniting the myriad atoms of a teeming

Our knowledge of this religion is derived

from the Vedic hymns which were composed at

the representation of the emergence of material

sacrifices

ples.

some time between 1500 and 800 B.C. 3

Among the Aryan deities was Indra, at once a
personification of the Aryan warrior, god of the

He is

usually represented rid-

be regarded as

things from this formless primal substance.

Maya is the only mirage-like concept of ultimate

reality that mortals

can

attain.

'Hinduism' conjures up for the Western read-

atmosphere and thunder, and chief of the thirtythree Vedic gods.

Maya may

universe, and in art,

er

images of fearful, many-armed gods, the

ing on an elephant, the age-old Indian symbol

rible car of Jagannatha or 'Juggernaut',

of the swollen rain-cloud. Surya, the sun-god,

iniquities of the caste system.

like

Apollo of the Hellenic tradition,

driving

four-horse

is

shown

trampling the

chariot

powers of darkness. Other Aryan gods,

like

Hindu

religion

this

is all

Actually, the

and much more, and

tems in the world, that has produced some of the

world's greatest kings, poets, and mystics.

Ahura Mazda, and Mitra, another solar god, are

probably the same divinities that we encounter

entire

into

arunas and Mithra as assimilated

Greek or Roman mythology. 4 From the

very earliest 'commentary' on the Vedas, Yaska's

Nirukta, dating from about 500

B.C.,

Devas were

that the Vedic gods or

is

one of the oldest philosophical and religious sys-

Varuna, a sky deity and a moral god related to

as the Hittite

ter-

and the

Hindu

tradition

is

The

founded on the Vedas

and, indeed, the religion might be called Vedism, so entirely

tion. It is a

is it

based on Indo-Aryan tradi-

development, in other words, from a

system in which there was no one great god, but

learn

many personifications of natural forces in which

classified

the gods were represented as in eternal conflict

we

according to their positions in the sky, the atmos-

with the powers of evil. As will be seen present-

phere, or earth - the threefold division of the

ly,

world-system in ancient Indian cosmology,

descended from Dravidian, rather than Indo-

which

Aryan sources.

also included the

empyrean above the

By

sky and the infra-cosmic waters below the earth.

The vertical direction or axis was of great importance, too;

pillar

it

was sometimes thought of

of fire formed by the fire-god Agni, who,

in his kindling, bears the

wards

as a

He

to the gods.

is

anthropomorphic form

aroma of sacrifice upnever represented in

until the period of the

Hindu Dynasties. In certain aspects of later

Hindu and Buddhist iconography the axis is conceived as a great mountain pillaring apart heaven

and earth, or

as a

Great Person who contains

within his magic cosmic body

all

all

things;

is

at

once existence

and creative power that

it is

modern Hinduism

in the

and

to coerce the

gods through

sacrifice

and for-

mulae the concept of a disciplined, even

;

life;

salvation

through knowledge:

most important of all, the

ascetic,

perhaps

possibility of winning

everlasting peace through devotion or bhakti to

a particular divinity

Mahabharata

(c.

makes

400

its

appearance in the

B.C.). It is also

generally

ern Hinduism assumed the character of a poly-

world system, something should be said about

flux

had already developed the

evolution of sacrifice destined both to please

theistic

Maya. Maya

there

principal aspects of

him

In connexion with the Indian concept of the

animates

the period of the early Upanishads (800B.C.)

acknowledged that this was the time when mod-

(Mahapurusa).

and the cosmic

600

are

elements of the

universe and supports the firmament above

the quality of

some of the gods of modern Hinduism

kind of all-pervading

pantheism which the religion maintains

to-day. This

same period saw the development

of the idea of samsdra or 'wandering'- the soul's

transmigration through endless reincarnations
in

human

or animal

form

as a result of

good or

bad conduct (karma). Of extreme importance

THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA

for later

Hinduism and Buddhism are the means

for avoiding this retribution that

were already

down an impious

he struck

who dared to
One incarnation

king

question his universal divinity.

formulated in this period: the attainment of

of Vishnu

magic powers and escape from reincarnation

who

first

in the

is

51

shape of the hero Krishna,

appears in the great Indian epic, the

through the practice of extreme asceticism and

Mahdbhdrata, and

self-mortification ; the science of yoga or ecstatic

devotional and mystical hymns, the Bhagavad

which he

most remarkable of

in that

meditation, already directed to the practitioner's

Gitd, in

attainment of superhuman spiritual strength in

with the world-soul or Brahma.

overcoming the process of samsara. The goal of

Krishna

life

after death as absorption into a changeless

and timeless

state,

more

by the

familiar to us

Buddhist term Nirvana, was already accepted

by

all

sects of

The term Hinduism may perhaps properly be

applied to this religious system at the moment
earlier

than the beginning of

through union

The

fact that

frequently referred to as dark in

is

colour has led some authorities to think of

as a divinity of

distinction

is

Dra vidian

origin,

and

him

this racial

maintained even in the iconogra-

phy of Indian painting

Hinduism.

when, probably no

offers salvation

seventeenth centuries.

in the sixteenth

The

and

legends of the god's

youthful exploits rival those of Herakles, and

in his

amours with Radha and the milkmaids he

the Christian Era, the Vedic gods were super-

surpasses the amorous prowess of Zeus himself.

seded by the worship of the Trinity or Trimurti

The

of modern Hinduism: Brahma, Vishnu, and

as

Siva. 5

with the divine.

Their personalities are already defined

in

the Mahdbhdrata, the great epic of the post-

Vedic period. Brahma

soul

may be

described as the

and creator of the universe, the

father of the world

cosmic system.

and indwelling

The

first

self-created
spirit

of the

person of the Brah-

manic Trinity has always been such

vague and

nebulous deity that most modern Hindus are

loves of Krishna are generally interpreted

an allegory of the soul's yearning for union

of the

More than any other member

Hindu pantheon, he extends to his

devotees the possibility of salvation through

devotion to him.

The
Siva.
tion
love.

third

He

is

member

a severe

who moves

He

of the

and

Hindu Trinity

is

terrible

god of destruc-

by

fear rather than

his devotees

generally regarded as a divinity

is

divided in their allegiance between devotion to

of Dravidian origin, perhaps stemming from

Siva and Vishnu.

the Rudras,

Vishnu

is

mild and benevolent divinity

who

who were

deities of destruction

personified in the whirlwind, although the evi-

may have

offers salvation through personal devotion rather

dence of archaeology suggests that he

than the practice of ritual. This deity

been a deity worshipped by the Indus people

to

is

believed

have had his origin in one of the Vedic sun-

gods.

He

is

the preserver of the world. Accord-

the third millennium B.C. Siva

ize the

came

to

powers of destruction which are the

He

the symbol of death,

ing to the eschatology of Hinduism, at the end

bases of re-creation.

of each great cycle of time or kalpa the universe

but only of death as the generator of

is

destroyed.

Brahma

is

then reborn of Vishnu,

and recreates the world-system

for

him. In each

Siva as the Lord of the

tions of his

Among the popular subjects of Hindu

Vishnu

in the

form of

the boar that saved the earth-goddess from the

waters of the flood, or, in the form of a lion,

when

life,

and

power ever renewed

by Vishnu and Brahma. The representations of

cosmos, Vishnu has appeared in a different form

or avatar.

is

as a source of that creative

of these great cycles in which he has rescued the

art are representations of

in

symbol-

Dance

are personifica-

enactment of the end of the world,

when the universe falls into ruin and is recreated

by Brahma and Vishnu. Siva in his procreative
aspect
that

is

is

worshipped

the phallic

in the

shape of a lingam

emblem

and, by symbolic

52

PREHISTORIC AND EPIC PERIODS

and

inference, the tree

itself.

An

in all late
di,

axis of the universe

inevitable attribute of Siva, especially

Hindu

cult of

Siva going back to the period of the Indus

zation.

Nan-

the bull

art, is his vehicle,

presumably another survival of the

civili-

In the codes of later Hinduism, the

Pur anas, each god has assigned

him a

to

who complements

female 'energy'

the ideal wife in the

as 'half the man'.
in the so-called

power, as

is

described

Mahabharata

These

sakti or

his

worshipped

saktis are

Tantric or 'Left-Hand' ritual:

a fourth class

who were

society

of

which has survived with

Period, the

Hindu gods came

occupy the

to

position of regents of the points of the compass,

The essential

formerly dominated by the Devas.

was

system
It is

tain respects

it

or

little

no

loss

present day. Although in cer-

vitality to the

was

certain strength

system that exhibited a

by imparting

separate groups, and in

weakness

the cosmic forces worshipped in the Vedic

not admitted within the pale of Aryan

perhaps the one distinguishing feature of Indian

scene rites in her terrible form of Kali or Durga.

with

serfs, the

based on a natural distribution of functions.

Europe,

all ritual

namely, the Sudras or

society. Originally, of course, this

chief among them is Parvati, the consort of Siva,

more usually worshipped with bloody and ob-

Following the association of

descendants of the aboriginal black inhabitants

solidarity to the

occupational division

its

could be said to resemble the guilds of medieval

it
:

has been fundamentally a source of

its

made

very organization has

hopeless division of the Indian people.

to see

It is

how, with the population sealed

for a

easy

off in

water-tight compartments in which every loyalty

is

directed towards the caste, the emergence of

anything resembling a national

spirit

has been

aspects or personalities of Vaishnavism and

almost impossible until the present political

Saivism are already established in the post-

unity.

Vedic period, a system

over East and
birth

West -

in

which Siva presides

the points of the sun's

and death - and Vishnu reigns

as

Lord of

Life and Eternity at North and South. This

is

From a study of the life of the modern Hindu

we can

see that every action in

governed

life is

and dedicated by

religious practice the tending

of the household

altar,

the sacrifices to the great

essentially a symbolical statement of the differ-

gods the construction of temple and house are

ence between the nature of these

determined by immemorial

deities,

with

Siva as both creator and destroyer, and Vishnu

as eternal preserver. It

is

important to note that

these stations of the cosmic cross are later appropriated by

Buddhism, both

lation of the stupa in a

direction

i.e.

to appropriate
his birth to the

Hinduism with which

most Westerners are dimly familiar

is

the idea

caste system probably originated

sometime during the Vedic period.

beginning of

or social groups

It

consisted

a division into three classes

the Brahmins or priests, 6 the

Kshatriyas or warriors, and the Vaisyas or cultivators.

The whole

life-plan of the

Brahmin

To this classification

and, in the end, retirement to the

or sannyasin.

of a hermit

life

The ceremonies accompanying

birth, puberty, marriage,

and death

all

have

their rituals designed to bring about the favour

East, his Nirvana to the North.

in the

the structure and ensure the happiness of its inhabitants.

novitiate with a guru, the years as a householder,

assignment

in the

points of the solar round;

The

and laws of

sunwise or clockwise

life

of caste.

ritual

to stabilize magically

followed an inexorably fixed course: boyhood

of events from Buddha's

feature of

geomancy intended both

circumambu-

in the

from the East, and

The one

the Aryans added

of the great gods. All these occasions necessitated the officiation of a

member of the Brahmin

priesthood.

Indeed, by the sixth century B.C. Hinduism

had developed into an

intellectual cult in

salvation could be attained only

by

which

a compli-

cated and secret ritual administered exclusively

by the Brahmins. Corruptions

in the

encourage-

THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA

ment of superstitions through

efficacy of magical

on the

insistence

powers of invocation, exploi-

tation of the priestly rite to administer sacrifices,

and the emphasis on self-torture

means of

as a

gaining supernatural power, were factors that

invited revolt against the
fallen

from the original

Brahmins who had

Aryan

ideal of

hood. Although probably

priest-

at this early date the

was, like the Buddha, a leader of a revolt against

the orthodox cult of Brahmanism.

tice

to all

Mahavira

cate earthly passions.

come

as the sole interpreter of the

tyrannical

monopoly

to regard itself

Vedas, enjoying

worshipped

this goal of perfection

in earlier cycles of time. In Jain literature

and

embellished with miraculous

events that are allegories or direct borrowings of

age-old Indian metaphysical concepts.

Of

in its ministrations to the

is

together with twenty-four other jinas or tirth-

art their lives are

they came to enjoy in later Hindu-

who, by the prac-

of abstinence and asceticism, could eradi-

nor the Brahmins assumed the position of infallibility that

denied

attainment of perfection

sacrifice, offering the

and release from karma

amkaras who had attained

ism, this priestly caste had

He

the authority of the Vedas and the efficacy of

had not yet grown into the rigidly

compartmented divisions of modern Hinduism,
caste system

53

far vaster

import for the

not only Indian but

later history

Asiatic civilization

all

of

was

community. At this moment of Asiatic history there arose a number of

heretical movements that challenged the authority of the Brahmins and offered the opportunity
of personal salvation to the individual. Such
heretical movements were nothing new in In-

the greatest leader in this humanistic revolution

dian religious history, nor

(the

religious needs of the

that these reform

led

is it

at all surprising

movements should have been

by members of the Kshatnya or warrior

caste,

who

in

some

parts of India, at least, re-

garded themselves not only as the

rivals

but the

the

authority of

many

sects

Hinduism

which disputed the

in the sixth century B.C.

was the religion of Jainism, the foundation of

which
vira

is

traditionally ascribed to the sage

(599-527

B.C.).

The

known

to history as the

Born about 563 B.C. into the princely clan of

Sakyas on the border of Nepal, the mortal Buddha
by

is

his

known by his

Maha-

goal of Jainism was the

can be given of the

ject for the art

eastern Asia.

of

Buddhism

During his youth

safed by the Devas, was

nounce the world

of his fellow

of the histori-

in India

and

all

as the prince of a

the inexorable cycle of

known

Great Renunciation,

sages,

are destined to atone

in the shape of an animal or a slave.

Mahavira

his followers taught that salvation could be

the

reincarnation. After his flight from his father's

whereby, according to the sins committed in

wrongs by being reborn into the world

made aware of

in order to effect the salvation

men from

Sakyamuni studied under

and

life

miseries of humanity, and determined to re-

capital,

men

Sakyamuni

Buddha, the events of which formed the sub-

cape from the retribution of conduct, or karma,

for these

as

Sage of the Sakyas). Only the briefest pos-

sible survey
cal

personal name, Siddhartha,

surname of Gautama, or

attainment of salvation through rebirth, as es-

earthly incarnations,

Buddha. 7

royal house, Sakyamuni, through visions vouch-

superiors of the Brahmins.

Among

the personage

as

the

a number of Brahmin
who advocated extremes of penance and

self-mortification as a
spiritual

means of acquiring the

power or tapas to escape the retribution

of karma or rebirth. After renouncing the way of

asceticism,

Sakyamuni

found

the

goal

of

achieved through the practice of asceticism and

Enlightenment through the practice of yoga.

through the scrupulous avoidance of injuring

This

or killing a living creature. Mahavira,

who

as a

Brahmin knew the various systems for the attainment of salvation offered by the Hindu Church,

final

Enlightenment took place

result of his meditations

or

Tree of Wisdom,

at

as

the

under the Bodhi Tree,

Gaya. The culmination

of this trance was the attainment of Buddhahood

54

"

PREHISTORIC AND EPIC PERIODS

- the achievement of a state of cosmic conscious-

versy

ness as far above the mental plane of ordinary

ably sure that in early

mortals as that level of

raised

consciousness

is

above that of primitive men, young

From

children, or animals.

career

human

that

moment

in his

when the deeper mysteries of the universe

to him, the Buddha devoted him-

were revealed

paramount goal of winning

self to the

for all

humanity salvation or release from the endless

The

cycle of rebirth.

essentially

doctrine preached by the

existence

is

pessimistic

Buddha was

that

all

to

malady

as unedifying.

We may be reason-

Buddhism

the

of invisibility 'where neither gods nor

know

tinction of

karma and Ego. As we

that the

after 'death'

resumed

his place as the

cure for

Buddhist layman was already that of everlasting

reward in Paradise, as opposed to the monk's

through

Nirvana

what

is

usually desig-

The Buddha denied

means of

efficient

salvation

salvation.

by the individual's

right thought, right speech,

possible for

and

and

all

free of the

belief,

and right action;

easily

comprehen-

onerous and expen-

sive ritual of Brahmanic tradition. 8

This code of

based on moral conduct rather than on

belief

and

was

sacrifice,

first

enunciated by the

Buddha at the time of his first sermon at Sarnath,

when metaphorically he first began to turn the
Wheel of the Law. For the remainder of his
career the Buddha and a growing band of converts travelled through Magadha and Bihar,
preaching the way of salvation open to all, regardless of caste or creed. In his eightieth year,

the Master achieved his final Nirvana or death.

There
dhism

is

many

Buddhist canon, although

undoubtedly based upon the career of an actual

Path that included the practice of right

life,

of Gautama, as recounted in

mortal teacher, has assumed the nature of an

work and action - by following the Eightfold

all,

life

different texts of the

the

formulas as

by

The

to be achieved in

extreme asceticism and reliance on

suffering.

He recommended

sible

Lord of a

Paradise, there to await the souls of the faithful

The

belief, survives

way of life

shall see pre-

lay in the suppression of

nated as the Ego, subject to endless reincarna-

ritual

shall

himself in mortal shape for the benefit of man,

part through the practice of yoga.

and

men

Buddhism Nirvana came to mean

immortal Buddha, who had manifested

ideal of the peace of

efficacy of

at

realm

sently, in later

accumulation of past actions which, in the

tion

him', or to have achieved a complete ex-

the self and the extinction of the karma, that

Brahmin

Buddha

demise was believed to have entered

all ages. Even as early as the time of the

Emperor Asoka (272-232 B.C.), the goal of the

self

delights of the world of the senses.

this universal

it

and the ephemeral

sorrow; the cause of which stems

from attachment

his

upon

no term

in the

whole history of Bud-

that has been the subject of more contro-

versy than Nirvana.

explained his

last

The Master

himself never

end, and discouraged contro-

heroic myth, in that almost every event from

the hero's

life is

accompanied by miraculous

happenings, and the Buddha himself invested

Many of the epi-

with miracle-working powers.

sodes from the Buddha's real

life

are interpreted

as allegorical or anagogical references to

cosmic

phenomena, accretions from age-old Indian cosmology: the Buddha's birth

rising of another sun;

the sacrificial

like

on

fire

mounts transfigured

is

his

likened to the

Enlightenment,

of Agni, the Buddha

to the highest

the gods in his turning of the

;

heavens of

Wheel of the Law

he assumes the power of the world-ruler or

Cakravartin to send the wheel of his dominion,
the sun, turning over
his universal

power.

all

the worlds in token of

It is

not surprising that

some scholars have interpreted the whole of the

Buddha story, as it appears in later texts, as a reworking of far
It

is

formed an
soil

earlier solar

myths.

quite apparent that

Buddhism

early

alliance with the popular cults of the

and of nature, accepting perforce those same

THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA

nature-spirits of Dravidian origin that survive

Buddhism

even to-day in the popular cults of modern Hin-

of the future, Maitreya,

also included the belief in a

Heaven

who

Buddha

descend from

will

Law

duism. This must account for the presence of

the Tushita

the yakshis and the nagas, the dryads and water

end of the present kalpa or cycle of time. 9

spirits

who appear in all the monuments of early

Buddhist art. In order

to explain the presence of

these demi-gods and the meticulous recording

of so

many

details of

animal and plant

might be said that early Buddhism,

life, it

in its accep-

tance of the doctrine of reincarnation, stressed

the unity of

all life,

the identification of

man

with nature through the very forms of

man had
the human

life

to preach the

Something should be

said, too,

of the Vedic gods in early

at

the

of the position

Buddhism and

its art.

The Buddha never denied the existence of these

deities. They are regarded as angels somewhat
above the mortal plane, who were just as subject
to the external

of salvation.

Buddha's

life

order as men, and equally in need

Time and
Indra and

through which the Buddha and

passed

ordinates waiting

before their final birth into

world.

is

again in the legend of

Brahma appear

as

sub-

upon the Enlightened One

it

for nature is

Brahma who implores the Buddha to make

his doctrine known to the world. It is not un-

something evoked by the idea of former births

usual to find the Vedic gods as personifications

This seemingly intense feeling

in

animal form, and

theistic conception.

the Buddhist

is

not in any sense a pan-

Although occasionally

in

hymns we encounter what seem to

be passionately

like similar references to

The mythology

of

is

same way

as in early Christianity

As has already been said, the doctrine preached

only metaphorical,

by Sakyamuni offered salvation through moral

nature in the Psalms.

Buddhism

also

came

to

discipline rather than

ship or sacrifice.

made between

be

ring to the doctrine as

Gautama when, in either animal or human form,

he was acquiring the merit that enabled him to
attain Buddhahood in his final earthly life. These

lifetime,

Jataka stories, which are extremely popular as

distinction

subjects of illustration in early Buddhist art, are

of them ancient folk-tales, with or

by the

easier

way of wor-

distinction should perhaps

relate the events in the earlier incarnations of

all

'Primitive Buddhism', referit

existed in Sakyamuni's

and 'Monastic Buddhism', which de-

veloped following the master's death. Buddhism

in the

time of Gautama was open to

between clergy and

possibility of salvation

all,

by following the Eight-

fold Path accessible to every follower.

When the

religion

appropriated by Buddhism. Their absorption

the Buddha's death, clergy and laity

Buddhism

suggests an influence of the

Yaishnavite concept of the god's avatars. Another similarity to the mythology of Vishnu

may

be recognized even in early Buddhism in the idea

who in earlier cycles

of world history came to earth to lead men to sal-

of the Buddhas of the Past,

assumed

who could
the order.

of

all

permanent character

and salvation was reserved

separate,

ity

literally

There is no suggestion of the

creatures attaining

anti-social solution,

after

became

for those

abandon the world

to enter

possibil-

Buddhahood, nor

that they are possessed of the

Such an

with no

and the

laity,

without moral significance, that came to be

into

the

deities

served as allegories of Christ. 10

include a collection of moral tales purporting to

almost

pagan

on nature, the

lyrical writings

mention of natural objects

much

of various of the Buddha's powers, in

Buddha

nature.

however imprac-

the

man

of the world, was probably not

of Sakyamuni are symbolized by the trees under

regarded as

at all

unusual

which they attained enlightenment or by the

of monastic retreat was offered by

vation. In early

relic

mounds

Buddhist

art these

predecessors

raised over their ashes. Primitive

tical for

at a

time when the idea

many

differ-

ent sects. In the early faith, nothing beyond the

56

PREHISTORIC AND EPIC PERIODS

open

salvation

to those

who could undertake the

Buddhism

the

Buddha

is

who

hard road to the entirely personal reward of

teacher but a god, an absolute, like Brahma,

arhatship could be offered to the vast majority of

has existed before all worlds and whose existence

those

who

could not take up the monastic

life.

This was only one of the reasons that led to a

change

in the character

of Buddhism. Such a

change was brought about through the gradual

intrusion of the idea of reward by worship, and
also

by competition with other

sects that offered

an easier way of salvation through devotion to

the person of an

immanent

deity. It

should be

is

eternal. 11

His appearance on earth and Nir-

vana are explained as a device for the comfort

and conversion of men. Whereas

in primitive

Buddhism we have the ideal of the Arhat seeking

his

own

selfish

beyond his own

Nirvana, with no obligations

salvation,

Mahayana Buddhism

presents the concept of the Bodhisattva, a being

who, although having attained Enlightenment,

Buddha was

has renounced the goal of Nirvana in order to

regarded by his earliest followers as an ordinary

minister eternally to allaying the sufferings of all

man who, by

creatures.

pointed out, too, that, whereas the

his intuitive perception of the

cause of evil and

its

eradication, attained Nir-

vana or the extinction of rebirth, in

tions the inevitable

later

genera-

growth of devotion

to the

person of the founder led to his being regarded

The

pantheon are

Mahayana
who pass from the
Buddha resides to the

Bodhisattvas of the

like

archangels

remote heaven where the

world of men. These Bodhisattvas are entirely

mythical beings who,

if

they are not a re-

kind of being, not an ordinary man,

appearance of the old Vedic gods, may be

but a god. Even as early as the time of Asoka

regarded as personifications of the Buddha's

as a particular

(272-232
the

B.C.),

the worship of bodily relics of

Buddha was an established practice complete

with ritual stemming from earlier Brahmanical

practice.

We should add to the accumulation of

virtues

and powers. The most popular

in the

host of the Bodhisattvas, and most frequently

represented

in

Mahayana Buddhist art, is

Lord of Compassion. This

Avalokitesvara, the

recognizable by the image in his

circumstances that led to the transformation of

divinity

Buddhism

headdress representing the Buddha Amitabha,

into a universal religion rather than

moral code, the influence of the religions of

Iran and Greece, with the idea of the worship

is

regent of the Western Paradise.

It is

the idea of

the Bodhisattva and the possibility of universal

of personal gods conceived of in anthropo-

salvation for all beings that most clearly differen-

morphic shape. This revised form of Buddhism,

tiate

which

doctrine.

is

of inestimable importance for both

the religion and art of

all

later

periods of

Indian and Asiatic history, was designated by

its

adherents as the Mahayana or Great Vehicle

(of salvation), as distinguished

from the Hina-

Mahayana Buddhism from the primitive

Mahayana Buddhism is entirely my-

thical

and

theology
or

un-historical.

is

How much its mystical

influenced by Mazdaean, Christian,

Hindu ideas can never be exactly determined

Buddha

the fact remains that the elevation of the

rank of a god

development out

yana or Small Vehicle, the term applied, not

to the

without contempt, to primitive Buddhism.

of a theistic current that had always been present

It can be stated with some assurance that

Mahayana Buddhism came into being under the
patronage of the Kushans in the early centuries

in early

is

to

in part a

Buddhism. Even the representation of

Buddha by such symbols as the footprints

and the empty throne

in

Hinayana

art not

only

A complete statement of the

implies a devotion to the person of the Teacher,

be seen already in the Saddharma

but strongly suggests that he was already regard-

of the Christian era.

doctrine

the

is

Pundarika or Lotus Sutra, a text which has been

dated in the second century a.d. In

Mahayana

Mahayana
Buddha Sakyamuni

ed as a supernatural personage. In

Buddhism

the

mortal

THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA

appears only as a temporal manifestation of a

esoteric phase of

universal and eternal Buddha.

as Vajrayana,

One

of the concepts of Mahayana

that finds

its

Buddhism

inevitable reflexion in the icono-

graphy of that art is the trikdya, or Three Bodies

Buddha

of Buddha. This triune division of the

nature

is,

we

have the dharmakdya or 'law body', that

the

is,

Mahayana Buddhism known

the mythical Buddha Vairo-

cana, the Great Illuminator,

a

who

is

sun in the centre, and around him,

fixed like

like planets

in the sky, are set the four mythical

Buddhas

associated with the four directions.

The

in a philosophical sense, analogous to

the Christian trinity. In this triune nature

it is

57

is

central concept of Vajrayana

Buddhism

the worship of Adi-Buddha, a self-created,

primordial being who,

when all was perfect void,

Law or Word of Buddha (the logos or silent, in-

produced the three worlds by

dwelling force or spirit of the cosmos, invisible

From Adi-Buddha's meditation were produced

and descriptive of the Buddha

the Five

in his transcen-

dent or universal aspect) the sarnbhogakdya or

;

'body of bliss', which

is

the aspect of the trinity

manifested only to the Bodhisattvas as a kind

of transfiguration

and the third body, the

nir-

mdnakdya or 'noumenal body', that mortal

shape in which the Buddha periodically manifested himself in the world of

men. 12

his meditation.

Dhyani Buddhas. According

doctrine, the individual soul

is

to this

an emanation of

the mystic substance of Adi-Buddha, and will

return to
is

done.

and the
at the

him when

The

the cycle of transmigration

attainment of the

Buddha nature
Adi-Buddha

possibility of reunion with

end of life are now promised the worship-

per through recourse to a great many expedients,

A further step in the development of this theis-

such as reliance on the priestly recitation of

the creation of the entirely mythi-

magical spells invoking the names of the Bud-

tic religion is

cal

Buddhas of

Four Directions and the

the

Centre of the World. Probably the

earliest

of

dhist

deities,

or the accumulation of merit

through the consecration of stupas and icons, or

these divinities was Amitabha, the Buddha of the

meditation on mandalas or magic diagrams of

West, whose Paradise

the cosmic system.

least as early as the

other

is

described in sutras at

second century

Buddhas presiding over 'Buddha

ksetras

were added

until, in the final

Buddhism

Yet

a.d.

fields' or

in the following centuries

development of Mahayana

in the eighth century,

we have

the

complete mandala or magic diagram of the cos-

mos, with

a universal

Buddha of the zenith hav-

As

will

be seen, the promise

of spiritual reward merely through the dedication of stupas

tive effect

and images had

at least a quantita-

on the development of Buddhist

art.

In explanation of these later developments

it

must be said that, throughout the centuries of its

development, Buddhism had always been influenced by Hinduism, and, as

we have

seen,

ing his seat at the very centre of the cosmic

many

machine, surrounded by four mythical Buddhas

the doctrine were taken over from the Vedic

located at the four cardinal points of the

pass.

com-

This concept of five Buddhas may go back

to earlier beliefs

and numerologies, such as the

Five Elements, the Five Senses, or as names to

express the classic correlation of the

microcosm

to the universe.

mythical Dhyani Buddhas

human

This concept of the

is

only an adaptation

of the Vedic and Brahmanic concepts of Brahma

at the centre

of the original assumptions and tenets of

Hindu

tradition.

This

is

not the place to des-

cribe the various aspects of later Buddhist philo-

sophy that have

ideas. Suffice

it

their origin in

Hinduism, which had continued

religion parallel to
a stronger

Brahmanical

to say that in later centuries

to exist as a

Buddhism, came

to exert

and stronger influence on the whole

structure of the

Mahayana Church and

its

icon-

of a constellation of regent divinities

ography. In the end, Buddhism in India, in-

and

stead of being a synthesis of the highest concepts

governing the four directions. In the

final

PREHISTORIC AND EPIC PERIODS

58

of

all

Hindu thought, becomes

the schools of

only another

Hindu

sect.

religion offered salvation

The

last

phase of the

through the

priests'

devotion, as a kind of physical enactment of

union with the divine. This

dhism flourished

in

last

phase of Bud-

Bengal from the eighth

recitation of unintelligible spells or dhdrdnis

century until the extirpation of the religion by

and magical formulas which could be neither

the

understood nor recited by the devotees. Not

transplanted to Nepal and Tibet, where the

Mohammedan

this infallibility of the priests or

gurus a

iconography and

parallel to the function of the

Brahmin

priests,

Indian

but other, even more

elements came to

only

is

undermine the

sinister,

fabric of the

Buddhist Church.

day for the Mahayana

Buddhism

invasions.

style

are

From

of this

still

there

last

was

it

phase of

preserved. 13

However, the same centuries which marked

the decline and final eclipse of

Buddhism

also

when

saw the beginning of a true renaissance of Hin-

man Asahga brought the

men not only towards

and devotional system of worship that has claim-

salvation but in the attainment of worldly de-

ed the faith of Indian millions for more than a

The Hindu gods infiltrated into Buddhism

thousand years. Nothing could more eloquently

It

was an

evil

the Buddhist holy

Hindu gods
sires.

faith

to earth to aid

in the disguise of personifications of various

powers of Buddha.

It

duism, and this developed into the philosophical

demonstrate the vigour and power of that

reli-

was not long before the

gion than the magnificent works of

Hindu

many

dedicated in this same millennium.

The

Bodhisattvas themselves, endowed with

art

final

arms and heads, could scarcely be distinguished

phase of the Hindu Church represents the

from the great gods of the Hindu pantheon.

complete unity of worship and worshippers.

The most

Although the division of worship between the

vicious phase of Asaiiga's doctrine

may

was the introduction of the worship of the

devotees of Vishnu, Siva, and Krishna

Tantra, which meant essentially devotion paid

appear clearly defined, then and now, and in the

to the

female energy or

sakti, a

concept borrow-

ed from the more corrupt phase of Hinduism,

that in

its

grosser aspects encouraged sexual

practices of every description as a

means of

eternity of Indian time,

all

these gods are but

manifestations of one god, the Great Lord in his

final

and

ineffable form.

PART TWO

THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIODS

CHAPTER

^q

10

THE FIRST INDIAN EMPIRE: THE MAURYA PERIOD

The Maurya Period takes its name from a line of

emperors who ruled over an India united from

a severance of relations with the Hellenistic

Khyber to the Deccan, from 322 to 185 B.C.

The prologue to the foundation of the Maurya

more intimate

Dynasty was the invasion of India by Alexander

the accounts of the

the

the Great.

It will

be remembered that, following

powers of the West, but rather initiated an era of

Megasthenes,

connexions between
attested

by

Greek ambassadors, such

as

at the

The empire

Achaemenid Empire of

the destruction of the

cultural

India and the Seleucid Empire, as

Maurya

is

court.

Chandragupta founded

that

moment

Iran with the burning of Persepolis in 330 B.C.,

reached

Alexander, seeking to emulate the legendary

gious,

triumph of Dionysius

years of the third century B.C. At this period in

in the Orient, led his

phalanxes eastward to Bactria and,

its

and

greatest
artistic

of political,

development

in the

reli-

middle

finally, in

Indian history there rose above the waters of the

327 to the plains of northern India. There the

Ganges the towers of Pataliputra, the capital of

the Maurya Emperors of India. Enthroned
there in pillared halls, which in the words of
Megasthenes echoed the 'splendour of Susa and

defection of one after another of the local Rajahs

and the Macedonians'

final victory

over the king

of Taxila enabled the conqueror to advance to

The one

Ecbatana',

was

Alexander's raid was the opening of India to the

Asoka, the

earliest,

influence of the Hellenic and Iranian civiliza-

patron of

the

Indus.

constructive

result

of

The

tions of the West. Alexander's military conquest

was in

itself shortlived.

When

Alexander was

forced to retire from India to die in Babylon in

the eastern reaches of his world empire

323

B.C.,

fell

to his general,

322

B.C.,

Seleucus Nicator.

It

was

in

only a year after Alexander's death,

that a certain

Chandragupta Maurya by a

series

of coups d'etat gained complete sovereignty over

ancient

Magadha

in Bengal,

and soon waxed so

show of force to
compel the withdrawal of the Greek forces of
Seleucus beyond the Hindu Kush mountain
range. This brief passage of arms did not mean

strong that he was able by

is

Chandragupta's

Buddhism

grandson,

most renowned imperial

in Asia

(272-232

history of his conversion to the

B.C.).

Dharma

probably part truth, part legend: how,

another Napoleon III

at

was so overcome with horror

windrows of the
fields

like

another Solferino, he
at the countless

slain that littered the battle-

of his Orissan campaign, that he then and

there determined to renounce

all

further blood-

shed to dedicate himself and his reign to the

propagation of the

Law and

the

Peace of

Buddha. Fabulous legends of Asoka and

piety spread to the farthest corners of Asia

his

how

he threatened to wither and die with the fading

of the bodhi tree at Gaya; how, by the aid of the

60

THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIODS

yaksha genii, he raised eighty-four thousand

stupas to the

Buddha

rather than myth,

in a single night. History,

the record of Asoka's

is

peacocks are kept, and pheasants which have

been domesticated and cultivated plants

;

shady groves and pastures planted with

and

trees,

such as the sending of

and tree-branches which the art of the woodman

Buddhist envoys to the kings of the Hellenistic

has deftly interwoven. There are also tanks of

world and to the green darkness of the Sin-

great beauty in which they keep fish of enor-

ghalese jungles.

mous

missionary

activities,

Maurya

Part of the

ideal of

reignty.
to

world conquest and universal sove-

Asoka

embody

and

also

but quite tame.' 2

a description

a Persian royal

might accurately portray

garden or paradise in the days of

Xerxes and Darius. Beyond the evidence of the

we can

get an

in his regnal policy

was seeking

actual excavations at Pataliputra

in himself the ancient

Babylonian

idea of the appearance of the city in the eleva-

Vedic concept of the Lord of the Four

Quarters, designated in early Indian texts as

Cakravartin,

whom

the celestial wheel (the

sun) guides to dominion over

though

Such

from ancient

heritage

Mesopotamia and Achaemenid Iran was the

size

in a practical sense the

regions. Al-

all

dominions of the

tions of

towns that form the backgrounds

Buddhist subjects

Andhra Period

for

in the reliefs of the Early

at Safichi.

The

panel on the

gateway representing the Buddha's

eastern

return to Kapilavastu [15] and a similar panel of

Maurya Cakravartin extended from Afghani-

King

stan to Mysore, an actual world conquest was to

a city

be achieved, not by force, but peacefully by the

battlements and picturesque balconies enclosed

spread of the Dharma. 1 This background to

by

Maurya power,

structures

together with Asoka's substitu-

tion of a kind of religious imperialism for his

grandfather Chandragupta's rule by force,

important in considering the

An
city

is

art of his period.

examination of the ruins of the fabulous

of Pataliputra, near modern Patna,

is

extremely important for an understanding of

the

whole character of Maurya

civilization

which Asoka inherited and perpetuated. Following not only Indian but ancient

Near Eastern

Prasenajit

on the northern portal show us

surrounded by massive

railings

walls,

topped by

and surmounted by barrel-vaulted

terminating in

chaitya

windows.

Details in other reliefs enable us to visualize the

presence of a moat surrounded by a palisade or

railing

of the type developed in the Vedic

Period.

It is to

be assumed that

all

these super-

structures were built of wood. In the relief

representing

the

Buddha's

departure

from

Kapilavastu we see that the actual portal in the

city walls is

preceded by

a frontispiece in the

shape of a simple torana of the very same type

The

precedent, the palace walls, the splendid towers

that

and pavilions, were

excavations of Pataliputra revealed that at one

all

constructed of brick or

constructed in stone at Sanchi.

is

baked clay that has long since crumbled to dust

time

away by periodic inundations of

the swollen waters of the Ganges. Megasthenes
tells of five hundred and sixty towers and sixty-

palisade of teak

or been swept

it

was completely surrounded by a massive

the railings of the Vedic Period to the uses of

four gateways in the circuit of the city walls.

urban

Describing the wonders of Pataliputra, Aelian,

pilgrim,

who borrows from Megasthenes'

after a.d. 400,

us: 'In the Indian royal palace

account,
.

tells

there are

wonders with which neither Memnonian Susa

in all its glory

ficence can

nor Ecbatana with

hope

to vie.

all its

magni-

In the parks tame

beams held together by iron

dowels. This was, of course, an adaptation of

fortification.

Fa Hsien,

The Chinese Buddhist

visiting Pataliputra shortly

mentions

different parts of

'the royal palace, the

which he [Asoka] commis-

sioned the genii to construct by piling up the

stones.

The walls, doorways, and the sculptured

human work.' 3

designs are no

15-

Sanchi, east gate,

The Return
to Kapilavastu

6.

Pataliputra,

17. Pataliputra,

Maurya

Palace

excavations of palisade

'

IO

20

30 40 50 FEET
IO

15

METRES

63

In addition to a ground plan of the palace area

[16],

single

of the

illustration

ruins

of

reproduced [17] to show the

extraordinary craftsmanship and permanence
Pataliputra

is

of the city's girdle of fortifications.

a

We see here

portion of what, according to the excavators,

was an almost indefinitely extended construction, consisting of upright

timbers fifteen feet

high and fourteen and a half feet apart, with a

wooden
is

floor and, originally, a

wooden

uncertain whether this tunnel was a passage

within the ramparts, or whether

to

roof. It

be

filled

it

was intended

with earth for added strength.

London

It is as

strength of construction, of the great city of the

Maurya Empire.
Even more interesting were

remains

the

uncovered in the actual palace area:

a great

audience hall was preceded by a number of

huge platforms

built of solid

They formed

fashion [16].

eminence or acropolis,

wood
a

in log-cabin

kind of

like the palace

artificial

platforms

of ancient Mesopotamia and Iran; undoubtedly,

these

wooden

were intended as

structures

foundations or rafts for the support of some

kind of pavilions or stairways in front of the
palace

The remains

itself.

of this building - an

Hudson, came

its Iranian name,

apadana - consisted of row upon row of colossal

to the attention of future excavators to give a

sandstone columns, eighty in number, that once

though

a small section of the

the Holland tunnel beneath the

slight clue to the complication

clothe this

towers

and magnifi-

supported

or, to give

it

timber roof. Although most of the

ponderous monolithic shafts had sunk deep

fragment of Pataliputra with

into the earth in the course of centuries of

cities.

and gateways

Although

audience hall

difficult

cence of vanished
to

tube, or

rivalling

the

ancient

does give us some slight

capitals of Iran,

it

suggestion, by

vast extent

its

it is

and the enormous

floods,

enough fragments remained

to

show

that the plan of this hall corresponded very

closely to the

arrangement of the great pillared

THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIODS

*4

rooms of state

that are

among

the most striking

remains of the Achaemenid palace ruins

Persepolis in Iran. This
cation

is

only the

first

at

indi-

of the tremendous influence exerted

upon Maurya India by the

menid Empire

art

of the Achae-

that Alexander destroyed.

The

through contact with the Hellenistic dynasties

that replaced the line of Xerxes

When

India and Afghanistan, Chandragupta pushed

his frontiers to the eastern

Mauryas was only

part of the paraphernalia

That Asoka's tolerance and generosity

religious sects

were not limited

of Buddhism

influence presumably began as soon as the

of

Maurya Empire was

heretical Ajivika sect in the

it

Gaya

and even refugee artisans from Iran through the

ages

tion of the

8.

Barabar,

Achaemenid

Lomas

The

style

Rishi cave

Indian perpetua-

undoubtedly came

to

patronage

cells for the habitation

was furthered by the presence of actual envoys

reign of the great Asoka.

to his

may be illustrated by his donation

of holy men of the

of imperialism imported from the West. This

firmly established, and

boundary of Iran

itself.

conscious adoption of the Iranian palace plan by

the

and Darius.

he ousted Seleucus from north-west

[18].

is

the

Barabar Hills near

The most pretentious of the hermitLomas Rishi cave. The architectural

carving of the

facade

completely Indian.

It is

of this sanctuary

an imitation

is

in relief

THE MAURYA PERIOD

sculpture in stone of the entrance of a free-

standing structure in

wood and

thatch, with the

sloping jambs of the doorway supporting a

much more

65

and tradition

truly Indian in style

and, in the final analysis, of far greater import for

the future development of Indian art.

tympanum of repeated crescent shapes under an

It

has often been pointed out that one of the

ogee arch that presumably represents the profile

tangible results of Alexander's invasion of India

of the thatched roof. This

and the continuation of Indian contacts with

is

the

in

first

representa-

must have existed

tion of a type of building that

wooden forms of the Vedic

Period.

The

the Hellenic and Iranian

principal decoration of the so-called 'chaitya

stone-carving and the

window' of the overdoor

permanent material

procession of

is

elephants approaching a stupa.

The

naturalistic

West

in the

Maurya

Period was the introduction of the technique of

first

employment of

in place

this

of the wood, ivory,

and metal that were used during the Vedic

many

rendering of the articulation and gait of these

Period.

elephants seems almost like a perpetuation of

motifs, both decorative and symbolic, were the

the style of the Indus Valley seals.

The complete

elevation of this miniature facade

is

repeated

It

common

is

significant that, although

property of pre-Maurya India and

western Asia, not until the appearance of actual

same regions

over and over again in the chaitya-halls of the

foreign stone-cutters from these

Sunga and

does the technique of monumental sculpture

later

significant in its

periods, and

is

particularly

showing that the forms of later

begin in India.

Buddhist architecture were already completely

evolved in the

The

Maurya

Period. 4

Little or

nothing survives of Asoka's Bud-

dhist foundations

Iranian or, properly speaking, Achae-

beyond the ruins of a stupa

at

Piprawa in Nepal and the core of the Great

but monuments of another

menid character of Asokan India has often been

mentioned it is revealed very strikingly in the
language of the edicts that Asoka caused to be

Stupa

engraved on rocks and

Asoka's imperialist programme of spreading

gate to

all his

pillars in

order to propa-

people the benefits of the Buddha's

Law. The very idea of proclaiming decrees by

engraving them in immortal stone is a borrowing
from Iran,

as witness the

Darius on the

cliff at

famous inscription of

Bisutun in northern Iran.

at Safichi,

type survive to testify to his zeal for the Dharma.

These stone memorials, erected

Buddhism throughout

Law

his

government, con-

sisted of great pillars or lats,

height,

and

of

part

empire and using the

as a unifying force of

fifty feet in

as

some more than

originally

crowned by

capitals of sculptured animals of both

Buddhist

Nowhere do we find a clearer picture of the

true character of Maurya civilization than in its
sculpture; the surviving monuments reveal the

These columns were

same imperialist and autocratic character

points along the highways linking Asoka's India

Asoka's rule in

its

much

of

style,

quite apart from the

Maurya

as

essential structure; like so

culture, they are foreign in

tradition of Indian art,

main stream and

and display the same

intimacy of relationship and imitation of the

cultures of the Hellenistic

Western powers and

and ancient Indian metaphysical

set

with the Himalayan valleys of Nepal. 5

bases of

many

employment of such permanent

imperial

art,

there

as a folk art,

inscriptions

is

of western Asiatic origin, so the idea of such

memorial columns

is,

of course, not Indian, but

ancient Mesopotamia. 6

official

the

Asoka's edicts on the Dharma. Just as the

and the Maurya court's philhellenic leanings.

what could be described

On

of these pillars were inscribed

is

Side by side with this

at sites associated

with the Buddha's earthly mission and at various

of Iran as the language of Asoka's inscriptions

existed

up

significance.

yet another derivation

from the civilizations of

One of the few Maurya

pillars that

a perfect state of preservation

is

the

remains in

column

set

%';**$;?

'

tie

4.

im

V ?*]**

67

19.

Lauriya Nandangarh, lion column

up

at

B.C.

Lauriya Nandangarh near Nepal in 243

of the original appearance of all

It is typical

of them [19].

The

enormous sandstone
Wheel of the Law, the instru-

originally supported an

disk typifying the

monolithic piece of Chunar sandstone, a material

ment of Asoka's world conquest.

This essentially more baroque

quarried near Benares and universally employed

pillar

completely smooth shaft

monuments of the Maurya

for all

top of the pillar

shape of which

is

is

is

Period. At the

only one of
art

many

decorative

of the ancient Near

specifically reminiscent of the bell-

shaped bases of the Achaemenid

member

a lotiform bell capital, the

forms borrowed from the

East. It

is

pillars.

This

in turn supports the seated figure of a

probably intended as a symbol of Buddha

lion,

as the

Lion of the Sakya

clan.

In addition to his Buddhist significance, the

lion

is,

Iran,

of course, an ancient solar symbol in

Mesopotamia, and Egypt centuries before

may

famous memorial that once stood

Park

variety

of

be illustrated by the remains of a

at Sarnath,

Deer

in the

the scene of the Buddha's

The Chinese pilgrim

[20].
who visited this site in the seventh
century a.d., described the monument as

first

preaching

Hsiian-tsang,

follows: 'A stone pillar about seventy feet high.

The

stone

is

altogether as bright as jade.

glistening

and sparkles

who pray

fervently before

like light;
it

see

and

all

It is

those

from time

to

time, according to their petitions, figures with

good or bad

signs. It

having arrived

at

was here that Tathagata,

enlightenment, began to turn

The fragments

the formulation of Buddhist iconography. It

the wheel of the law.' 9

may

memorial, consisting of the capital and

bits of a

crowned the

top, are

well be, as

Asoka's

first

and

is

suggested by the words of

last edicts

enjoining the carv-

ing of such inscriptions on rocks or on pillars

already standing, that

Asokan columns,

many

of the so-called

originally set

up by an

earlier

Maurya emperor, were taken over and

their

symbolism, Brahmanical or zodiacal, syncretically

reinterpreted for Buddhist usages

This type of column with

a single

the simplest form of

the top

is

others

much more

stylistically

graphically complicated

and

to

at

Museum

Sarnath. 10 Examining the sculpture

the stylistic point of view,

we

first

see that

it

at

from

em-

bodies the same conglomerate of foreign ideas

that

we

find in the entire fabric of

The composite

Maurya

capital consists of a

lotiform bell on which rests a plinth with carv-

pillar;

ings of four animals and four wheels or disks

icono-

above

were crowned by

number of animals placed back

preserved in the Archaeological

civilization.

animal

Maurya

gigantic stone wheel that

of this

back that

this are four

addorsed lions which form

the throne or support for the terminal wheel.

This combination of

bell

capital

and joined

20.

Lion capital from Sarnath.

Sdrndth, Archaeological

Museum

*>>

THE MAL'RYA PERIOD

heraldic animals

different forms

tecture of

is

not notably different from

column

the type of

is

or order

found

which

in

the ruins of

is

designated as

Persepolis and, for this reason,

the stone

is

many

in the palace archi-

Achaemenid Iran

The extremely

Persepolitan.

in

lustrous finish of

again a borrowing from the tech-

nique of the carvers of the palaces of Darius and

Xerxes.
as a

The

use of animals placed back to back

supporting

member

has

obvious prece-

its

dent in the Persepolitan form and

rntial
stiff

selves

of

lotus.

lions

has

The

them-

a continuation of the ancient Oriental

is

tradition

ings

shape of the stylized

and heraldic character of the

so, too,

which we can see

Achaemenid

in the

Iran.

animal carv-

The

mask-like

character of the lion-heads, together with the

21.

Lion

Sarndth.

capital

Arc

from Sarnath,

*>"

detail.

lusaam

7f

manner of representing
parallel lines

eyes, are

6l)

the muzzle by incised

and the triangular figuration of the

among

the

more obvious resemblances

to Iranian lion-forms.
It is at

once apparent that the style of the four

smaller animals on the plinth

is

quite different

These beasts

are portrayed in a distinctly lively,

even

manner. In them we can recognize

at

realistic

once

a style related to

Greek

tradition.

The

closest geographical parallel to the horse [21]

the

steeds on silver bowls

made

is

Bactria

in

The style of
monument is, in other words, a combination

during the Hellenistic occupation.

the

of Iranian and Hellenistic features;

it

is

not

workmanship was by actual

sculptors imported from Iran and the

unlikely that the

foreign

Hellenistic colonies on India's northern

and

THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIODS

western frontiers. There

every reason to

is

believe that this style, together with the tech-

nique of stone-carving,
earlier

an importation no

is

Maurya

than the consolidation of the

Empire.

Sarnath

of the four animals at

simply an earlier example of the

is

same principle

Sarnath

If the capital at

its stylistic

completely un-

is

execution, the ideas these

shapes are intended to express are

great rivers that flow

a

magic lake situated

Buddhist

as

considering

In

character.

in

monument,

this

indeed every religious memorial

from the four openings of

at the

world's navel in the

One

of the legends concerned with the magic

called

lake,

Udaya

variously

Indian art history, we must keep in mind that

rises a great shaft that uplifts a

its

primary function was magical and auspicious,

the sun at

neither 'decorative' nor 'architectural'.

An example
symbolism even
detail of the

modern times

in

magical ceremonies attending the

investiture of the nineteenth-century

of Siam,

curious

is a

King Chulalongkorn.

artificial

On the four sides

mountain erected

for the occasion there

monarch

in the capital

were installed about a font

the effigies of four beasts - the lion, the elephant,

the bull,

and the horse -

same group

that parade

the Sarnath capital.

words, the

in other

around the plinth of

During the ceremony the

Prince received a baptism from these four gar-

This was no more nor

less

than

a piece

this pool there

throne to uphold

noon and then sinks again with the

setting of the orb.

of the persistence of Indian

or Anavatapta,

from the waters of

relates that

in

goyles.

early

Himalayas. 12

completely Indian and by derivation peculiarly

of an

Various

operation.

in

legends identify these creatures with the four

Indian in
foreign

the universe reproduced there in a microcosm.

The merry-go-round

The

application of this rather

elaborate symbolism to the Sarnath

not difficult to explain or understand

of the column

column
:

an emblem of the world

is

is

the shaft
axis,

between heaven and earth, surrounded by

rising

the attributes of the four directions;

summit

is

at

its

Hon throne which, again following

the legend, upholds the great wheel or solar

The

disk.

lesser disks

on the plinth enter into

the iconography, too: originally these wheels

had

in the

precious stone, different for each, inlaid

hub. This

directional

is

another part of the magic

symbolism of western Asiatic

since in ancient

Mesopotamia

origin,

different colours

of magic for the investiture of a sovereign going

and jewels were associated with the quarters,

back to the beginnings of Indian metaphysics

and

and cosmology.

an illustration of the

the lesser disks that are replicas of the great

principle of pratibimba, the reconstruction in

wheel represented the four great planets that

architecture

or

It

is

sculpture

of the

imagined

so, too,

were

were different planets; presumably

in their ascendant, in

conjunction with the

structure of supernatural things or regions, in

sun, at the four equinoxes of the year, suggest-

men may have access to them or

power over them through an imminent symbol.

seasons of the year. In other words,

The

that the Sarnath pillar

order that

artificial

hill

in

Bangkok was the world

mountain Meru, according

mology, towering

to

like a pillar

ancient

cos-

between earth

ing thereby the position of the sun at the four

symbol,

typifying

the

was

it

appears

time-and-space

sun's

yearly

round

through the heavens, and with the concept of

and heaven; the four beasts stood for the four

the axis and the four directions, including the

quarters and the four rivers of the world, so that

whole structure of the universe. This cosmology

the whole structure was a kind of replica of the

world

system. 11

In

Bangkok,

the

Prince's

is,

of course, pre-Buddhist, and,

like so

many

other early myths and metaphysical ideas that

circumambulation of this fanciful stage-set was

accrued to Buddhism, has been assimilated

designed magically to ensure his dominion over

as

an appropriate

emblem of

the

universal

7i

dominion of the Buddha's Law. This emblem

could be taken as a partial proof of the pre-

Asokan

origin of the

turning of the
a

whole

pillar.

Wheel of the Law

The Buddha's
is

anagogically

turning of the solar wheel, controlling the sun

in its diurnal

ing of the

The

path through the skies.

turn-

Wheel is one of the powers inherent in

the early Indian concept of the universal ruler

Buddha; the

or Cakravartin assumed by the

Sarnath column

may

be interpreted, therefore,

not only as a glorification of the Buddha's

preaching, symbolized by the crowning wheel,

but also, through the cosmological implications

of the whole

pillar, as a

symbol of the universal

extension of the power of the Buddha's Law, as

by the sun that dominates

typified

all

space and

emblem of the
universal extension of Maurya imperialism
through the Dharma. The whole structure is,

all

time, and simultaneously an

then, a translation of age-old Indian and Asiatic

cosmology into

terms of essentially

artistic

foreign origin, and dedicated, like

monuments,

to the glory of

all

Asoka's

Buddhism and

the

royal house.

As has already been suggested, it is not

all the Maurya columns were
actually erected under Asoka, or whether some
of them set up by his predecessors were
certain whether

appropriated by this sovereign for Buddhist

usage. This

is

especially likely in the case of

those pillars which are surmounted

shapes of single animals.

The form

by the

suggests the

royal standards or dhvaja stambhas used by pre-

Asokan
a

One
is

rajahs; the idea of the animal

column

is

symbol on

of ancient Mesopotamian origin.

of the finest examples of this simpler type

the bull capital

from Rampurva

[22].

This

the capital of one of a pair of columns.

companion
lion,

pillar

was surmounted by

not unlike the

finial

of the

Idt at

a single

Lauriya

Xandangarh. Iconographically, the exact

ficance of the bull as a

symbol

rather difficult to discern;

either a

it

is

The

signi-

Buddhism is
may have been
in

Brahmanic emblem or the heraldic

22. Bull capital

New

from Rampurva. cL^^"^

Delhi, Presidential Palace

72

THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIODS

device of an earlier Cakravartin. 13

point of view

stylistic

the

body of the

bull

we

notice

is still

From

first

partially

of

all

engaged

from which

the core of the block of stone

the
that

it

in

was

carved. Aesthetically this serves to connote the

virtual

emergence of the form from the matrix

of the rock in which the sculptor saw

As

prisoned.

a technical safeguard

the legs of the image

it

it

im-

prevents

from breaking under the

weight of the body.

western

older

characterizes the

another

Asokan columns

recovered during the

putra [23].

forms

Asiatic
is

that

revealed in

of Maurya times, a colossal capital

relic

first

excavations at Patali-

has the stepped impost block,

It

side-volutes,

and

one original form such as the Aeolic

central

palmettes

of the

from

Sumerian

polarity. 14

In

resemblance of

the

the

be a debased form of Ionic

architectural

found

brackets

capital are both

the

descended from forms of great

antiquity, forms of folk art that survive almost

strata of culture. 15

unchanged through many

The form of

the Pataliputra capital with

distinctive projecting volutes

is

its

preserved rela-

may

tively intact for at least a century, as

be

by an example of the Sunga Period

illustrated

museum

16

development of the Indian order

of

in

modern Kurdistan, suggests that

simple wooden post-tops and the Maurya

dwellings of

and

lateral face are all

striking

what appears,

in the

on the

as

symbolizing

way,

this capital to

at first glance, to

in

pictograph

same

the

Persepolitan order; the bead and reel, labial,

spiral motifs

from

or,

has been suggested by at least one scholar,

these

Very much the same conglomerate rearrange-

ment of

at Pataliputra are all parallel derivations

at Sarnath.

Thereafter in the
replaced

it is

western Asiatic origin; and the rosette orna-

by the more truly Persepolitan form with

ment of

addorsed animals.

great

the abacus recalls the frames of the

friezes

at

Persepolis.

Although these

this

capital

is

It

should be stressed that

more properly described as

or Iranian, and must not be

elements are combined in a manner different

western Asiatic

from that of the Iranian

regarded as an imitation of Greek Ionic: the

capitals, they suggest

not only this prototype but, largely through the

classic orders

found

their

way

to India only

during the Parthian and Kushan occupation of

23. Capital

found

the regions south of the

at Pataliputra

The

official

Khyber

Pass.

foreign art sponsored by Asoka

endured no longer than the rule of the Dharma

which he sought

to

impose on

his

Indian

empire:

it

was presumably unpopular, perhaps

because

it

was symbolic of the Dharmaraja's

suppression in his edicts of festivals and other

aspects of popular religion.
final

importance for Indian

Of much
art

greater

was the stone

sculpture of completely Indian type. Specimens

of this survive in the shape of colossal statues of

yakshas or nature spirits of Dravidian origin,

one

of which,

Museum
profile of the projecting volutes, also the

Ionic.

The

probably

Greek

explanation of this strange kinship

lies in

the fact that the

Greek

Ionic,

the Persepolitan capital, and the present variant

at

now

Muttra,

in
is

the

Archaeological

more than

eight feet

high [24]. 17 This statue has been the subject of

considerable controversy since the time of

discovery at the village of Parkham.

It

its

was once

identified as a portrait statue of a king of the

THE MAURYA PERIOD

Saisunaga Dynasty (642-322

one authority has tried

Sunga Period. The

B.C.),

and

to attribute

73

at least

it

to the

statue bears an inscription

script of the Maurya Period, reading

Gomitaka,
'Made by Bhadapugarin

Brahmi

in

in part:

the pupil of Kunika'. 18 Except for the indication

of torques and jewelled bands, the figure

The lower

to the waist.

is

nude

body

part of the

is

clothed in a skirt or dhoti, a garment worn by

Hindus to-day, which

consists of a long single

wound about

piece of cloth

waist and

the

allowed to drop in front in two loops sheathing

The

the legs almost to the ankles.

much

ceived as frontal, so

completely flattened.

had executed
front

It is as

be seen from

and back, and then disengaged

The

statue

real sense of physical

meaning.

con-

is

though the sculptor

a figure in relief to

enclosing panel.

no

figure

so that the sides are

is

it

from the

characterized by

beauty or spiritual

very direct and crude repre-

It is a

sentation of a being or force which, as

superhuman

its

and power indicate, was to be

propitiated by offerings - in other words, a very
size

appropriate characterization of a nature

This image belongs to an

archaic and Indian.

It is

art that

is

spirit.

once

at

archaic in the

com-

pletely conceptual representation of the effigy as

a

whole and

which

in

such details as the drapery folds,

are not realistic, but only indicated

bolically

by zig-zag

in the stone.

The

statue

sym-

and shallow incisions

lines
is

specifically Indian in

the sculptor's realization of tremendous volume

and massiveness,

qualities which, together with

the scale, give the idol such

siveness.

The

form through
This

is

awesome impres-

quality of surface tautness gives

a

kind of pneumatic expansion.

no more nor

less

than a

realistic repre-

sentation of the inner breath or prana; in this

respect the yaksha of the

Maurya Period

simply a perpetuation of the

stylistic

of the torso from Harappa, dated 2500 B.C.

The

yaksha type, essentially a princely figure,

24.

Yaksha from Parkham.

Aluttra, Archaeological

Museum

*\>

is

character

is

important, too, as a prototype for the later

representations of the Bodhisattva in Buddhist

25.

Yaksha from Patna.

Calcutta, Indian

Museum

THE MAURYA PERIOD

Kushan and Gupta

art of the

crudity and stiffness of the figure,

as

two

centuries on a small scale in

first

represents a trans-

it

of methods

stone

into

conception

placed back to back, are to be

reliefs

explained by the fact that

lation

The

Periods.
its

75

practised

for

wood and ivory;

the

generations of Indian craftsmen to work in

stone

still

had much

to learn

monumental sculpture
medium.
of

Even

more

difficult

group of Maurya sculpture

the

in

about the problems

in this

popular or Indian, there are certain

classified as

unmistakable indications of connexions with

the art of Iran.

from Patna

The

[25],

gigantic figure of a yaksha

which may be dated

And even

c.

200

Achaemenid

has serpentine armlets of an

B.C.,

type.

the carving of the drapery, with

its

suggestion of texture through the contrast of

incised

and

lines

quilted

parallel

reminiscent of the Persepolitan

beyond these features the

Indian in

conception.

its

ridges,

style.

figure
It

is

Over and

is

entirely

almost overpowering weightiness and glyptic

bulk.

The

very stockiness of the proportions

only serves to emphasize the massiveness of the

trunk and limbs of the earth

We

see in the art of the

spectacle repeated

many

Ear pendant from Taxila.

Taxila, Archaeological

Museum

has to an even

from Parkham an

greater degree than the statue

26.

spirit.

19

adornments suitable

this first great period of

times in the history of

Our

Indian history

is

in-

creased by a single earring found in the Bhir

mound

Maurya Period

for royal personages.

scant knowledge of the material splendour of

at

Taxila and datable to the second

century B.C. [26].

jewel

is

The

principal element in this

pendant composed of an amphora-

India; namely, the temporary intrusion and

shaped turquoise encased

adoption of completely foreign forms and tech-

surrounded by pearls supported by strands of

what

more important,

in

This type of amphora pendant

the

gold

filigree.

development and transcendence over these

well

known

borrowings of a wholly Indian manner of

jewellery,

representing the world of the gods in stone.

imitation by Taxila craftsmen.

niques

Except

and,

for

the

is

ornaments

represented

in

Achaemenid armlets worn

by the yaksha from Patna [25], we have little
idea of the jewellery of the Maurya Period. The
sculpture, like the

Arthasastra, a

work on

statecraft, believed to

have been composed by Kautilya in the third

centurv

B.C.,

does contain references to the

gold wire and

in

is

Greco-Roman and Etruscan

and may be either an import or

a local

CHAPTER

i ^

THE SUNGA PERIOD

The popular

(185-72

b.c.)

dissatisfaction with the religious

The

sculpture of the

Sunga Period

consists in

autocracy of Asoka, even during that Emperor's

large part of the decoration of the stone railings

attempted

and gateways that now surround the Buddhist

reign,

led

against

revolts

to

the

maintenance of centralized authority by

The

successors.

Empire

of the

later history

his

Maurya

one of disintegration culminating in

is

stupa or relic mound. Examples of these

monu-

ments from the early periods have been

covered

at Safichi in

dis-

Bhopal, Bharhut in Nagod

and AmaravatI on the Kistna River.

the overthrow of the dynasty by one Pushya-

State,

who in 185 B.C. murdered the last

Maurya emperor and became the founder of the
Sunga Dynasty. The centre of the Sunga
Empire was still in Magadha -- modern Bengal and extended to Malwa in central India.

Before proceeding to an account of their carved

mitra,

Sunga

Although the

first

Buddhism, the

religion of

enjoyed one of

art

under the

its

later rulers

ruler

persecuted

Sakyamuni and

its

great creative periods

character and symbolism of these

as a

whole

The

and

[41

monuments

27].

stupa or tope was in origin a simple

burial-mound,

like

the

pre-Mauryan tumuli

discovered at Lauriya. 1 At the demise of the

Buddha,

his ashes,

following a custom long

reserved for the remains of nobles and holy men,

of this house.

Shortly after the death of Asoka another

dynasty came into power in central and southern

India.

decor, something should be said about the

This was the dynasty of the Andhras,

were enshrined under such

earth and brick.

hills

artificial

These were the

of

original Eight

Great Stupas mentioned in Buddhist

texts, all

No

people of probable Dravidian origin, whose

traces of which have long since disappeared.

domains extended from the mouth of the Kistna

pre-Asokan stupas have been discovered, and

River above modern Madras to Nasik in the

there

north-western Deccan, so that

mounds
Maurya

their

at the height

of

power the Andhras governed the waist of

India from sea to sea.

The term
artistic

is

applied to

all

the

production of these two Indian dynasties

it

marks

a gradual

emergence from an archaic phase of expression

towards
that

final

maturity, in

no mention of veneration paid

Buddhist

in

Period.

literature

to relic-

before

The Emperor Asoka

is

the

prob-

ably responsible for the institution of stupa-

'Early Classic'

because, as will be seen,

is

much

the

same way

Greek sculpture of the Transitional Period

worship as a part of his policy for using

Buddhism

as

his state. It

is

an instrument of imperial unity in

recorded that the pious Emperor

distributed the surviving bodily relics of the

Buddha

into stupas erected in

all

the principal

towns of the realm. Apart from the miraculous

bridges the gap between the

properties assigned to the Buddha's relics, the

Archaic and the Great Periods. Indian 'Early

worship of his natural remains enabled the

(480-450

B.C.)

Classic' art retains the vigour

archaic, as

it

and directness of

prophesies the sophistication and

ripeness of the final development of Indian

art.

worshipper to think of the Buddha

as

an

imminent

reality,

allegiance

and love on these fragments of the

by conferring

his personal

27. Sanchi,

^$k

&>

Great Stupa

InMIjouvv
IfiN

NNNM BJ

t's

HHBiBiHHHHHHHHl
10

20

30

40

50 FEET

10

15

METRES

THE SUNGA PERIOD

Buddha who had vanished

mortal body of the

into the void of Nirvana. It followed that the

stupa itself

came

to be regarded as

an outward

and visual manifestation of the Buddha. By conferring

on the

Buddha

of

relics

monument reserved

the sepulchral

for royal burials,

Asoka can

and

in certain stupas its symbolical function

was made even more

specific

by an actual

wooden mast penetrating the solid masonry

dome. Above the dome proper this mast served
as a

support for

of circular umbrellas or

tiers

chattras symbolizing the devalokas or heavens of

be said to have promulgated the concept of the

the gods culminating in the heaven of

Buddha

The

as Cakravartin or

known

world

ruler.

79

Brahma.

stupa was in a sense also a sort of archi-

mantic ceremonies determined the orientation

body replacing the mortal frame which

Sakyamuni left behind at his Nirvana. The

of the stupa, and the most precise system of

concept of the architecture of the stupa as a

proportions fixed the measurement of the whole

cosmic diagram and

It

and

is

its

definitely

every member.

that elaborate geo-

It is for this

reason that

same mathe-

the stupas have something of the

matical perfection of sheer architectural form

and mass that we find

in the

pyramids.

architectural effectiveness of the stupa

The

depends

tectural

its

animation by the en-

shrining of relics probably had

altar

its

origin in the

of Vedic times, which was animated at

dedication by the insertion of a

whose soul was regarded

spirit

of the Cosmic

its

human sacrifice,

as a replica of the

Man, Mahapurusa. 2

on the alternation and balance of round and

Just as these concepts of Mesopotamian and

The completely undynamic

Vedic origin determined the form and function

thoroughly

of the stupa-mound, so the architecture of the

square

shapes.

character of stupa architecture

expressive of

its

guarding the

relic

is

function of enclosing and

and

its

symbolism of the

surrounding railing and the actual

veneration

its

cults.

its

gateways

accessories

had come

elaborate symbolism,

to be invested with an

stemming

in part at least

of

of the railing, with the

four points of the compass

at the

describing the revolving claws of a swastika,

no accident, but

is

a purposeful incorporation of

from the cosmography of western Asia. Like the

one of the most ancient sun symbols.

Mesopotamian

cence of solar cults

ziggurat, the basic concept of

ritual

be traced to pre-Buddhist solar

The ground-plan

cosmic structure. Over and above

purely funerary function, the stupa and

fixed

may

may

A reminis-

certainly be discerned

the stupa was an architectural diagram of the

in the prescribed ritual of circumambulation, in

cosmos. Above the square or circular base of the

which the worshipper, entering the precinct by

stupa rose the solid and hemispherical

dome

or

anda, which was intended as an architectural

replica of the

dome

of heaven, enclosing the

world-mountain rising from earth

to heaven. In

the architecture of the stupa the presence of this

world-mountain was suggested only by the

member

summit
of the mound that typified the Heaven of the
Thirty-three Gods located at the summit of the
harmikd, a balcony-like

at the

cosmic peak enclosed within the

sky.

dome

The symbolism was completed by

or yastt

This

of the

the mast

which rose from the crown of the dome.

member

typified the world axis extending

from the infra-cosmic waters

to the

empyrean,

the eastern gateway, walked round the

mound

in a clockwise direction, describing thereby the

course of the sun through the heavens. This

would seem

to bear out the theory

maintained

by many scholars that the Buddha's mortal

career was adapted later as an allegory of solar

myths.

The

practical function of the railing or

vedika was to separate the sacred precinct from

the secular world.

The

decoration of the stupas

of the early period was limited almost entirely

to the sculpture of the railing

One

and the gateways.

of the principal stupas surviving from

Sunga times

is

the relic-mound at Bharhut in

north central India. Remnants of its railing and

So

28. Railing

and gateway from Bharhut.

Calcutta, Indian

Museum

gateway are preserved in the Indian

number

Calcutta and in a

American

collections [28].

Museum at

of European and

At Bharhut and

else-

where the gateways or toranas are imitations

stone of the

towns, and in

in

wooden portals of early Indian

the same way the construction of

the railing itself is an imitation in stone of a postand-rail fence with lens-shaped rails fitted to

openings in the

uprights

Bharhut there are three

[41

rails

and

27].

At

surmounted by

earlier

Dravidian religion subdued and brought

into the fold

o/Buddhism in much

the

took

place

pagan

that

deities

turbaned rajahs, Jataka

the

life

One

tales,

and scenes from

of the most frequent motifs of the

Bharhut

railing

This
in

is

symbolism that goes back

Indian

history

when

western Asiatic origin, including palmettes and

regarded as objects of worship, and

Persepolitan capitals in the shape of addorsed

with old

Most prominent

in the

decoration of

fertility festivals,

and

Although the exact

yakshis on the uprights. These divinities

who

motif

They

or

is

is

to a

were

associated

when youths and

original

sal tree.

meaning of the

not known, there are

legends relating the power of

many

Indian

women and

are the

yakshis to bring trees into immediate flowering

and bloodthirsty nature-spirits of the

by embracing the trunk or touching it with their

only a degree above humanity.

wild

trees

maidens gathered the flowers of the

the railing are the carvings of yakshas

populate the ambulatory at Bharhut are really

woman

the dohada, a

is

yakshi embracing a tree, usually the flowering

period

sphinxes.

we

of Buddha.

sal [29].

conglomerate of forms of

the

in

find medallions filled with floral motifs, busts of

surviving gateway

same way

hierarchy of Christian saints. In addition

heavy stone coping. The decoration of the one

is

their

*
29.

Yakshi (Chulakoka Devata) from Bharhut.

Calcutta, Indian

Museum

30.

Kuvera, King of the Yakshas, from Bharhut.

Calcutta, Indian

Museum

82

THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIODS

feet.

The embrace

that

yearns

memory

of the yakshi and the tree

touch

her quickening

for

of some ancient

fertility rite,

is

and may-

which these jewelled ornaments are carved

connote by contrast the softness of the

be interpreted as symbolical of the soul's union

convex planes. As

with the divinity, often typified in India by the

the

metaphor of sexual union. In Indian mythology

yakshi

the

symbol. She

is

and foremost

first

is

fertility

not only the bride of the tree, but

she stands for the sap of the tree, the life-fluid,

in

all

by the great waters,

in

creation, as typified

which

all life

The male

was believed

counterparts

to

have

of the

its

origin.

yakshis,

or

yakshas, are also represented on the Bharhut

and Kuvera, chief of the yakshas and

railing,

guardian of the North,

carving of these
as

spirits,

well

these deities

by an inscription

precisely identified

The

among

is

as

figures

[30].

of tutelary

workmanship of the

the

in the free-standing statues of

Period, the conception of the body

terms of a collection of interlocking rounded

surfaces

the sculptor's device to suggest the

is

expanding inner breath or prana,

as well as the

quality of flesh in stone.

The

and she may therefore by association be interpreted as emblematic of the life-fluid of

Maurya

flesh

unbroken

parts that are rendered in smooth,

figure sculpture at

Bharhut must be

described as completely archaic in character.

The

individual figure

meration of

its

is

composed of an enu-

multiple details, as though, by

this cataloguing, the sculptor

was striving

to

give a cumulative account of the subject and to

disguise his inability to present

it

as

an organic

A typical example of this method

whole.

is

to

be

seen in the treatment of the drapery of the

standing yakshi figure [29]. Although the gar-

ment

itself

is

completely

there

flat,

is

an

medallions and gateways, varies considerably in

emphatic definition of the borders and seams of

and technique. These differences are

the skirt, so that the whole can be described as

quality

probably to be explained by the fact that the

sculpture was a work extended over

many

years

and executed by many different craftsmen from

all

parts of India, as attested

marks which are incised

by the masons'

These

in the stones.

an ideographic and entirely legible presentation

of the idea of drapery, without in any
gesting

way sug-

volume or separateness from the

its

body enclosed. The conventionalization of the

drapery folds in long parallel

pleats,

with

figures carved in relief are essentially a continu-

borders in the shape of chevrons or the letter

and technical point of view

'omega', reminds us of the treatment of drapery

ation of a stylistic

already

discerned

Maurya

human

The

Period.

figure

than

realistic.

there

is

is

in

in

of the

in

representation

of the

maidens. This resemblance

every case conceptual rather

In the portrayal of the yakshis

an emphasis on the attributes of fertility

in the swelling breasts

and ample

pelvis. Certain

attributes of fertility already recognized in the

prehistoric

figurines are

still

present in the

shape of the beaded apron and the crossed

scarves or channavira.

such archaic Greek figures as the Acropolis

sculpture

the

The

veritable harness of

either as an influence

may

be explained

coming through the

logically, as

an illustration of an entirely parallel

development, whereby sculptors

phase arrive
in

their

at similar

struggle

to

in the archaic

formulas or conventions
represent

reality.

the very precise definition of every detail of

the multiple necklaces and anklets

which the figures are bedecked, serves

figure.

tion

beyond the possible iconographical

signifi-

cance and the reflexion of contemporary

in that the very

taste,

sharpness and precision with

The

descriptive character of the style extends to

necklaces and strings of amulet boxes, with

a func-

relief

sculpture of Achaemenid Iran or, perhaps more

These

worn by

the

details, for all the nicety of their

carving, by the very insistence of their attraction

to the eye, actually serve to destroy the
its

entirety.

form

in

The body as a whole is, of course, no

THE SUNGA PERIOD

more than the sum of its

nistically joined. There is

83

mecha-

parts almost

attempt on

a certain

the part of the sculptor to impart rhythmic

movement
of the

left

by the repeated shapes

to the figure

arm and

Neither

leg.

this

PI.

nor any of

the figures at Bharhut suggests the idea of a

volume that could

They

are

all

exist three-dimensionally.

conceived fundamentally as

reliefs,

and appear to be quite consciously flattened

much

as possible against the

uprights

which they are attached.

to

iiiiifl

as

background of the
It

temi

is

possible that this flattening of the relief was a

conscious attempt to
part

of the

make the figure an integral

vertical

of the

accents

railing

uprights.

At this stage of Indian sculpture it is probably

such rhythmic

reasonable to conclude

that

posturing of the body as

achieved by the alter-

is

nation of thrusts of arms and legs

and not the

is

MHiv%?

intuitive,

result of the sculptor's following

any

31.

Medallion with Ruru Jataka from Bharhut.

Calcutta, Indian

Museum

3l'^*-^*

prescribed recipe for effective and appropriate

posture.

The

exquisite precision of carving, the

delight in surface decoration, and the essentially

shallow character of the relief

make

appear

it

of the Ganges Valley.

in the forest

likely that the sculpture as well as the architec-

drowning

ture of Bharhut

that a reward

a translation into stone of the

is

wood-carver's or ivory-carver's technique.

figures are all characterized

combined with a rather

by

The

for

information regarding the location of a

That the

dream, the nobleman reported his discovery to

wistful naivete.

vealed by the

way

forms are cut

at right angles to the

is

re-

which the contours of the

background

of the panel, so as to ensure a deep surrounding

of shadow to set the figure off against

its

The composition and technique

of the railing

medallions are in every way similar to the

When the King set out to hunt the

1 ].

on the uprights.
railing at

Bharhut

single

medal-

will serve to

at

once persuaded to drop

the eloquence of the creature's

speech. In the panel at Bharhut the story

is

related in three consecutive episodes contained

within the frame of the circular panel

is

in the

the stag rescuing the drowning

man from the river

at

the upper right the Rajah

of Benares draws his bow, and in the centre of

the panel clasps his hands in reverence before
the golden stag.

The

panel

is

illustrative of the

extremely elementary method of continuous

Entirely typical are the illustrations

narration employed by sculptors at this stage of

method and

of Birth stories, such as the Ruru or

Jdtaka,

bow by

the capacity of these

illustrate the

carvers [3

his

lowest zone

background.

from the

heard

miraculous golden deer seen by his Queen in a

golden stag, he was

figures carved

this ingrate

a certain rigidity

the monarch.

lion

a certain

was offered by the King of Benares

of monumental architectural sculpture

line

When

in the river.

craftsmen were aware of some of the problems

in

On

occasion he rescued a wastrel nobleman from

when

the

Buddha

Mrga

lived as a golden stag

the development of a narrative style.

symbolized

The figures

in the consecutive episodes of the

84

THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIODS

story are in a

way

quite effectively isolated from

one another, so that the observer

to regard

them

is

persuaded

The

as separate happenings.

details of setting consist of only three

conceptu-

represented trees in the upper part of the

ally

medallion and

five

does

at the left that represent

the herd of the golden stag.

There

is

only the

need for

scientific accuracy. Since, in the

of the gods, space and time are one,

it

world

would be

impossible to think of anything corresponding

to the

Western Classic world's

fugitive

interest in the

moment. The problem of

the sculptor

of the decorations of the stupa railing was to

present the worshipper with the most direct

most rudimentary suggestion of space within

and

the relief created by very timid overlappings

legends, a problem in which the extreme simpli-

easily readable

and the placing of figures one above the other.

fication of the

The

least,

result of this treatment

is

the creation of a

strangely timeless and spaceless ambient that

not without

its

is

appropriateness for the narration

of heroic myth.

The

symbols of the Buddhist

theme was conditioned

The

medallions.

imposed the

necessity for simplification

isolation of the individual elements

many

of the composition like so

representation of the Jataka stories and

scenes from the

life

of the

Buddha could

again

in part, at

by the shape and dimensions of the

parts of a

pattern against the plain background. For

all its

effectiveness, technical as well as iconographical,

method of

be described as conceptual, since the figures of

one cannot overlook the

men and

animals are invariably represented

carving must have been the result of the work-

from that point of view which the memory

recognizes as most typical of a thing or a species.

man's unfamiliarity with the stone medium.

Another set of carvings - perhaps the very

As we have

seen, the

earliest

narration

universally employed; that

is

number of

method of continuous

successive episodes from the

is,

same

story are represented within the confines of the

same panel. In

this archaic

method,

to suggest

the fluctuations of happening, the chronological

associations

which are stored

time in one picture in the

all

together at one

artist's

mind

are

fact that this

monuments of Sunga

tradition of stone-carving

the ornamentation

is

2', at

Sarichi in

Bhopal

State.

This

the

Sunga

rulers of

Malwa

in the last quarter

When

in the nineteenth century, the

regarded partly as naive and due to the inability

as

problems, and partly

the result of the traditional craftsman's

realization that events

from the world of myth,

mound,

of the Early Andhra Period, was a foundation of

mind of the craftsman. The method of continuous narration, the employment of vertical

to resolve representational

relic

located to the west and below the Great Stupa

of the second century B.C.

and conceptual form, should be

that clearly

of the second stupa, generally designated 'Stupa

represented simultaneously as they exist in the

projection

art

demonstrates the painful emergence of a native

it

was opened

dome was found

to contain relics of two disciples of the

Buddha,

together with remains of ten Buddhist saints

who

participated in the Buddhist council con-

vened by the Emperor Asoka in 250

stupa proper

is

B.C.

The

of the simplest type, consisting

of a circular base supporting the actual hemi-

apart from time and space, cannot properly be

spherical cupola; around this was constructed a

represented in any other way. In the archaic art

sandstone railing with

of India, as in the traditional art of

civilizations, the artist represents

knows

to be true, rather than

reports. In the
a

all

what
what

ancient

his

mind

his eye

magic world of the heroic legend,

world of no time and no place, where anything

can happen as

it

does in dreams, there

is

no

like the

its

gateways disposed

claws of a swastika attached to the

circular plan of the enclosure.

The

sculptural

decoration consists of medallions carved on the

uprights of the interior and

more complicated

rectangular panels emphasizing the posts of the

actual entrances.

The subjects of the medallions

THE SUNGA PERIOD

32. Sanchi,

33

{right).

Stupa 2, medallion with Yakshi Assamukhi

Sanchi, Stupa

2, railing pillar

[32] are generally restricted to a single figure or

a

motif set off by

realistic or decorative foliate

Wheel and

forms, such as the

typify

moments from

the

life

the Tree, to

of the Buddha, or

animals and birds intended to evoke the stories

of his former incarnations.

motifs

is

not large, and

is

The

repertory of

probably copied in

stone from ready-made prototypes in

wood

or

ivory. Typical of this earliest phase of relief

sculpture are the panels decorating the outer

jamb of the eastern gateway

panel are represented a

may perhaps be

[33].

In the upper

man and woman who

identified as

donors or as an

early instance of the tnithuna, the auspicious

pair

emblematic of

panel

is a

fruitful union. In the

lower

turbaned personage with shield and

85

Sh

THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIODS

dagger confronted by

rampant

lion.

This

latter

regular

convention of Indian painting and

motif, reminiscent of a favourite subject of the

sculpture of later centuries.

Achaemenid

art

detail in the

great king in

combat with

of Persepolis, showing the

a leonine

almost certainly represents

monster,

borrowing from

the repertory of western Asiatic art forms. In

both these

accessories that

fill

element

in

floral

every available space are

The

carved in only two planes.

every

and the

the figures

reliefs

the

contours of

composition

directly at right angles to the

flat

cut

are

background, as

though the sculptor were too unfamiliar

venture any subtleties of transition. This

method of carving
itself for

that in a

is

to
a

way recommends

the glare of Indian sunlight, since

it

provides a deeply shadowed reinforcement to

the silhouettes of individual forms that

comes

to be very subtly exploited in later periods of

Indian

art.

tive figures

The
is

treatment of these

entirely conceptual,

flat,

decora-

and

in the

ground of the lower panel we see the

instance

of the

stylization

block-like,

almost

first

cubistic

of rock-forms that survives as

34. Cakravartin from Jaggayyapeta Stupa.

Madras, Government Museum

4*

35 {opposite). The Paradise of Indra from Bharhut

Calcutta, Indian Museum

upper panel

is

very curious

to be seen in the

which the figures are

plinths or pedestals on

standing. This might be taken as a convention

to indicate that they are placed

mound

or

on some solid

Another explanation,

eminence.

which cannot be proved,

is

that these are repre-

sentations not of personages real or mythical,

but of cult images or statues, since even

in the

Maurya Period the yaksha figures were fashioned

with attached bases or plinths.

These same supports

figures in a relief

are placed under

all

the

from eastern India that must

be dated in exactly the same period of develop-

ment. This

is

carving from the stupa at

Jaggayyapeta near Amaravati on the Kistna

River

[34].

It

represents the Cakravartin or

surrounded by the Seven

ruler of the world,

Jewels of his

office.

This

relief,

carved in the

greenish-white limestone characteristic of this

region of eastern India,
stylistic

is

in every

way the

equivalent of the sandstone panels of

88

THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIODS

Sanchi.

an illustration of how

It is

little

differences exist between works of art

widely separate parts of India.

regional

of development, probably no earlier than 100

made

B.C.

in

We find here the

same mechanistically constructed

figures, flat-

The Bharhut sculpture represents a distinct

improvement over these primitive

though

efforts.

Al-

too descriptive in the enumeration

still

tened out and attached to the background in

of surface details, the sculptors of the figures of

The modelling

yakshas and yakshis are certainly more success-

same

the

exactly

consists of

fashion.

more than

little

rounding

a slight

ful in

evoking a feeling of plastic existence

The

of the contours, and the detailed definition of

forms.

every feature of costume and ornament

lions are

is

executed almost entirely by linear incisions in

The

the stone.

only real differences between

these two carvings fi;om the opposite coasts of

India

lie

in the greater precision of carving in

the Jaggayyapeta slab,

made

possible by the

nature of the stone, and the more elegant

attenuation of the figures in this same relief that

seems to herald the towering, graceful forms in

the sculpture of the Later

Andhra Period

at

have already encountered

same

this

tendency to isolation and enumeration of detail

medallion

in the

many
style

now

but

relief,

to stock decorative

few figures painfully combined

in

venture into a more complicated

relation of narratives

from the Buddha story

involving the manipulation of

many

separate

and the

illusion of their existence in

A monument

certainly to be associated with

figures

space.

the very early

Sunga Period

is

the old vihdra at

Bhaja, a sanctuary located in the green

hills

of

the Western Ghats to the south of Bombay [59].

Amaravati. 5

We

no longer restricted

themes and

in the

sculptors of the panels and medal-

reliefs

from Bharhut. Although

more developed

in

than the carving of the oldest stupa

at

of these are scarcely

The

vihara, a monastic retreat for the

Buddhist

brethren during the rainy season, consists of a

rectangular

chamber or porch hollowed out of

the rock, with individual cells for the accom-

modation of the brothers. The carved decora-

Sanchi, some of the sculptors at Bharhut were

tion of the Bhaja

adventurous enough to assay relatively compli-

with representations of yakshas and, on either

cated arrangements of figures and setting. Such,

for

example,

is

the

representation

of the

veneration of the Buddha's head-dress in the

Paradise of Indra [35].

We

relief presently, since

it

shall return to this

side of a

monastery consists of panels

doorway

at the east

end, reliefs of a

deity in a four-horse chariot, and, confronting

him,

personage on an elephant striding

through

an

archaic

We

landscape.

would

furnishes us with a

certainly be right in identifying the subjects of

representation of a free-standing chaitya-hall

these reliefs as representations of the Vedic

which

will

be compared with the rock-cut

sanctuaries to be discussed below.

The

of dancing celestial maidens and

figures

the

gods

Surya and Indra [36 and

Greek Apollo, drives the

Surya, like

deities

37].

the

solar quadriga

across

the

sky,

trampling

amorphous

the

watching the nautch are carved with some con-

powers of darkness that appear

cern for their relative scale to the building, and

shapes beneath the solar car. Gigantic Indra

the carver has even attempted to create an

illusion of space

The

by overlapping

decoration of the stupa

at

rides his elephant Airavata, the

symbol of the

storm-cloud, across the world. 6

figures.

Bharhut was

first

seem

monstrous

as

It

difficult to explain the

might

at

presence of

but a

these Vedic titans in a Buddhist sanctuary.

comparison with the carvings ornamenting

Actually, they are here, not in propria persona,

Stupa 2

but as symbols of the Buddha

at

one time dated as early as 150

at

B.C.,

Sanchi clearly reveals that the

Bharhut fragments must belong to a

later

period

lated

their

powers.

Surya

who
and

has assimi-

Indra

are

THE SUNGA PERIOD

36. Bhaja, vihara, relief

37

(right).

of Surya

Bhaja, vihara, relief of Indra

allegories of

Christianity

Sakyamuni,

as

Orpheus

in early

an allegory of Christ. Surya

is

there to designate the

Buddha

is

sun and

as the

spiritual ruler of the universe, or

Buddha

as the

sun that illuminates the darkness of the world.

Indra, the chief of the Vedic gods,

is

designate the temporal power that the

hangs a

sinister

this is a dancing-girl

the cannibalistic, horse-headed yakshi, Assa-

is

of a variety of interesting details. At

proclaiming

its

sanctity,

and from

its

mukhi, who was converted from her man-eating

by the storm of the god's passage,

surrounded by

is

here to

power of the Buddha. This

relief

a perfect translation into stone

of the

at

a tree

Below

performing before a seated

favourite subject of early Buddhist sculpture

habits by the

is

human

Buddha

landscape through which Indra drives, un-

the centre left

the bodies of

Rajah. Far to the right, in the lowest zone,

The

made up

fruit,

victims sacrificed to the spirit of the tree.

wields to maintain the stability of the universe.

affected

89

a railing

branches

Bhaja

is

Indian concept of the universe as a mass replete

with formless, fine matter, of which

all

living

forms are concretions and transformations. Just

as the Indian

conception of the universe peoples

THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIODS

go

every atom of space with a million million

sentient

beings and devas, so the relief at

Bhaja

crowded with an

is

of

infinite variety

forms. Here again, as at Bharhut,

is

the simul-

taneous action and simultaneous space of the

dream-image.
is

employed

The

device of vertical projection

once to indicate recession

at

in

space and to communicate the simultaneous

happening of

these events.

all

that not only the

We

notice also

form of Indra, but

all

the

separate forms in the relief, are carved as though

'MlL^lLj^

emerging from the matter of the rock that

imprisons them, to indicate that eternal process
of becoming, that emergence of all living things

from the
as

mdyd. Here,

limitless space-matter or

throughout the whole fabric of Early Classic

art in India,

we have

combination of

a syncretic

philosophical and metaphysical tenets of Vedic

and Upanishadic origin, and

piquant and

powerful naturalism that marks the coalescence

of

the

Aryan

Buddhism and

and

Dravidian

heritage

in

its art.

Another monument which should be mentioned to complete our survey of Buddhist art

Sunga Period
Mahabodhi temple
in the

is

at

the railing at the

Bodh Gaya.

walked

after his Illumination, the

The

Buddha

ground-plan

rectangular rather than round.

carving consists in the decoration of up-

rights
is

is

>
.'

erected to enclose the area where the

of the railing

famous

Originally

and

railing medallions and,

presumably,

Sunga dedication of the middle decades of

the

first

century

B.C.

The

medallions are

filled

with a repertory of fantastic beasts of western

vi'.i

Asiatic origin, which, in the heraldic simplicity

of their presentation, are prophetic of later

Sasanian motifs. 7

typical relief

from one of the uprights

is

representation of the sun-god Surya [38]. Here,

as at Bhaja, the

allegorical

Buddha's
in

his

Vedic deity

capacity,

with

solar character. 8

chariot,

is

present in an

reference

Surya

is

to

the

represented

drawn by four horses and

accompanied by the goddesses of dawn, who

38.

Bodh Gaya,

railing pillar with

Surya

THE SUNGA PERIOD

discharge their arrows

ness.

quadriga

demons of dark-

sometimes interpreted

is

ence of Hellenistic
there

the

at

This representation of the sun-god

is

art,

as

although

in a

an influ-

stylistically

nothing beyond the iconography to

remind us of the characteristic representations

of Helios in Classical
chariot

is

art, in

which the

solar

invariably represented in a fore-

The concept

shortened side view.

of a sun-god

traversing space in a horse-drawn chariot

is

of

Babylonian and Iranian origin, and spread from

these regions to both India

and Greece; so that

simply an interpretation of

the representation

is

the iconography,

and not the borrowing of

pre-existing stylistic motif. In the

relief the chariot

seen in front view, but the

is

horses are deployed to right and

tree so as to

Bodh Gaya

be shown in

left

profile.

of the axle-

This

is

simply

;-V

another instance of the conceptual point of

view.

It is

an arrangement that also conforms to

the archaic fondness for symmetrical balance.

Although constructed on
framework, the

this essentially archaic

relief displays considerable skill

in the carving of the

group

in the deep, box-like

panel with a definite suggestion of the forms

emerging from space, achieved by the overlapping of the forms of the horses and the
discomfited demons.

Another Vedic god

whom we

Bodh Gaya

the railing at

is

encounter on

Indra

He

[39].

is

represented carrying a handful of grass, in

allusion to the occasion

when, disguised

as a

gardener, the chief of the gods brought the

straw on which the Bodhisattva took his seat

beneath the bodhi

tree.

so deeply carved as to

out from the

Although
the figure

flat

The

figure of Indra

seem almost as

is

if stepping

background of the

pillar.

essentially frontal in its conception,

is

cast in an almost violent pose of

dehanchement.

It is as

though the sculptor were

trying to suggest the figure actually walking

forward to present the bundle of grass.

body

is

The

carved with the same interest in reveal-

ing the fleshly fullness of form that Indian

39.

Bodh Gaya,

railing pillar with Indra

91

THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIODS

92

sculptors of even earlier periods had possessed,

but for the

body

as

sum of

first

time with a suggestion of the

an articulated whole, rather than as the

its

individual parts. This figure need

only be compared with the representations of

nature-spirits at

Bharhut

[30] to see the

change

that has taken place in the craft of sculpture in

less

than one hundred years.

iconographical note that

is

for the later representation of the

human form,

is

feature of

of special importance

Buddha

in

the topknot, perhaps a 'realistic'

portrayal of the

Brahmin

clearly a prototype for the

hairdressing,

Buddha's ushnisha or

At the top of the

cranial protuberance.

but

pillar

Probably

[40].

this

was part of

a long frieze

representing a Jataka story. As in some of the

later reliefs

from Bharhut

the relief

[35],

is

densely crowded with figures in several overlapping planes. In spite of the friable character

of the trap rock, the carving

is

remarkably sharp

and precise, with an enumeration of textural

details,

such as the fur cover of the royal couch,

that surpasses anything

found

at

Bharhut. This

technical trait extends to the portrayal of the

elaborate jewels that decked the queen and her

attendants. This relief

is

one of the

earliest

examples of the portrayal of elegant, sensuous

relaxation that has so often engaged

Indian

As though enacting

above the figure of Indra is a low relief medallion

sculptors and painters.

representing Lakshmi, the goddess of dawn,

rapturous dream, the faces of the royal lovers

receiving a lustral bath from two elephants. 10

are

The

recent excavation and conservation of

imbued

with

drowsy

sweetness

of

expression complemented by their soft, lolling

the cave temples at Pitalkhora has added another

poses.

chapter to our knowledge of Early Classic art in

and the additive method of composing human

India. 11

This

site,

the Petrigala of Pliny,

is

Although the rather short proportions

forms favoured

at

Bharhut are

still

more

in evidence,

located in a remote and picturesque defile of the

the figures, especially the

Deccan within

the king and queen, are, properly speaking,

a radius of fifty miles of Ajanta

svelte

forms of

and Ellura on the ancient trade route that linked

more

these sites with Karli, Nasik, and Bhaja in

sensuous bodies anticipate the climax of Early

progress from the coast.

These

caves,

its

first

superficially explored in the nineteenth century,

comprise some thirteen chaityas and viharas.

The

earliest are

second century
in the fifth

Hinayana sanctuaries of the

B.C.,

and

a later

group was added

and sixth centuries

a.d.

most impressive of these grottoes

One
is

of the

Cave IV,

the great vihara. It was originally decorated

with a massive sculptured facade which has

largely disintegrated with the breaking off of

huge blocks through the Assuring of the stone.

The fragments

recovered

reveal the importance

treatment, which

is

from

this

debris

and richness of the

far

relief

more elaborate than any

rock carving at other early

sites.

inscriptions in this monastery

A number

may

of

be dated in

the second-first centuries B.C. This chronology

is

supported by the style of a fragment of relief

representing a royal couple with attendants

organically articulated, and their lithe,

Classic art at Saiichi, as does the

depth of the

relief.

new

pictorial

40. Relief with a royal couple

New

Delhi, National

Museum

from Pitalkhora.

CHAPTER

&

<\\\*\

THE EARLY ANDHRA PERIOD

The

and perfect balance of the tendencies

final

described in the preceding chapter

monument

great

the

(72-25

of the

is

attained in

Early Andhra

Period: the sculptural decoration of the four

gateways of Stupa No.

mound
ally

at

Sanchi

[41].

The

of the great stupa at Sanchi was origin-

an Asokan foundation which was enorm-

ously enlarged by the patronage of the

was probably

Dynasty.

It

the

century a.d. that the

first

ceived

its

in the early

Andhra

decades of

monument

principal embellishment in the

re-

form

is

B.C.

usually regarded as the earliest of the four,

and

is

remarkable chefly for

lion capitals,

its

which were almost certainly copied from the

Asokan column

from the

that stood not far

This work was followed,

in order,

site.

by the carving

of the north, east, and west portals.

The most notable of the four toranas from the

iconographic and

artistic

eastern gateway [42].

that,

since there

scheme

is

It

point of view

is

the

should be pointed out

no unified iconographic

either for the sculptural decoration of

monument

whole or

ornamen-

of the railing and the toranas at the four points

the

of the compass. Unlike the enclosure at Bharhut,

tation of the individual portals,

the Sanchi railing

the disparate subjects haphazardly combined

is

completely devoid of orna-

ment, and the sculptural decoration

trated

is

concen-

upon the gateways. The southern

41. Sanchi,

ht

Great Stupa, from the north-east

portal

as a

for the
it

may

be that

may have been dedicated by individual donors

who specified what they wished the craftsmen to

42. Sanchi,

&**-

r
(lV

Great Stupa, east gate

i*'

THE EARLY ANDHRA PERIOD

97

represent in the allotted space. Students of Far

seen in illustration 42 shows the decoration

Eastern art will recall that in the Chinese cave-

of the outer jambs of the torana

temples of

Yun Kang and Lung Men we

find

innumerable individual dedications of Buddhist figures

to

and

reliefs

carved without regard

at the left,

lightenment, the Conversion of the Kasyapas,

and the Departure of King Bimbisara from

any unified iconographical scheme.

Rajagriha; at the right, representations of the

Our photograph of the

Heaven of Brahma and the Paradises of the gods.

Originally there were two figures of yakshis

gateway

illustrates the

ment usual

outer face of the east

architectural arrange-

and the distribu-

to these toranas

tion of their iconography.

is

reading from top to bottom, the Great En-

The

superstructure

supported by massive blocks, sculptured with

shown as though processing

capital. Between the cross-bars

round, supported by a mango bough en-

in the

closed as a spandrel between the uprights and

One of these figures to the

the lowest architrave.

figures of elephants

north

round the actual

dramatically effective adaption of the

is still

in position [43]. It is a drastic

we have

and

woman-

or architraves are square blocks with symbolical

and-tree motif that

representations of events from the

tered at Bharhut. Although the thrust of the

of the

life

already encoun-

Buddha. There are two panels of Lakshmi typi-

body and limbs

fying the Nativity; the Enlightenment

intuitive sense of the architectural appropriate-

cated by the tree and

indi-

is

empty throne; and the

Preaching at Sarnath, by the wheel. Further

references to these

same themes with the throne

and what appears

column occur on the

cross-bars.

of an Asokan

like a relief

vertical

props between the

These architraves are built as though

man-

actually passing through the uprights in a

ner suggestive of earlier

is

wooden

architecture. It

possible that these long horizontal panels ter-

minating in tightly

wound

spiral volutes are a

is

conceived with a wonderful

ness of this particular figure for the space

it

was

the form, perhaps by the sculptor's intent,

to

fill,

is

not conceived in the

full

round, but

is

sculp-

tured as two high reliefs placed back to back,

with

little

or

no modelling bestowed upon the

lateral sections. Actually, the figure

to

was meant

be seen only from directly in front, or in the

rear view afforded the visitor

from the upper

drum

processional path on the

of the stupa.

Although functionally the image plays no part

support of the gate,

would be hard

transference to stone of popular picture scrolls

in the

partly unrolled for exhibition. 1 In our view of

imagine anything more simple, yet more drama-

the gateway

we can recognize in the upper crossBuddhas of the Past,

bar representations of the

typified

by stupas;

in the centre, the

Great

Departure; and, in the bottom panel, Asoka's

visit to

the Bodhi Tree.

main subject

To

right

in this lowest bar

and

left

of the

may be

seen

richly carved peacocks, perhaps intended only

as decoration,

but very possibly referring to the

tically effective

it

to

both from the iconographical

and aesthetic points of view, than

tion of the tree-spirit.

Her

this presenta-

legs thrust with the

force of a buttress against the trunk of the tree,

and from

this

magic touch

its

encircling

boughs

flower and receive the caressing grasp of the

yakshi, so that she seems like a living vine, part

of the tree that she quickens.

The

figures of

emblem of the Maurya Dynasty. The

yakshis at Sanchi, like the reliefs at Bharhut, are

top of the gateway at Sanchi was originally

here as survivals of earlier nature cults which

crowned with

symbols, one of

had been accepted by Buddhism and which

which remains in place at the right, and probably

nothing would eradicate from the popular mind.

heraldic

by

trisula or trident

a central palmette motif,

such as

may

still

be seen on the one surviving gateway from

Bharhut

[28].

The complete gateway

to

be

'These figures of fertility

spirits are present

because the people are here.

tomed

Women,

here

accus-

to invoke the blessings of a tree spirit,

\^v

Esfg^^r

HP 4^.

lV If'

Z^m

Tbt*k

Vat*

J
'v-'

.^

THE EARLY ANDHRA PERIOD

would approach

similar expectations.' 2

(these)

Although

images with

their presence

confirms acceptance by the Buddhist Church,

their provocative

charms seem almost symbolic

of that world of illusion that the worshipper

leaves behind

when he

enters the sacred pre-

cinct.

The

figure

from the south gate of Sanchi

effectiveness of this yakshi

[44] does not, in

yakshi,

and the

99

even more notable connotation of the quality of

flesh in stone achieved

by the

essential shapes

and interlockings of smooth convex surfaces

that suggest, rather than describe, the softness

and warmth of a
flesh

fleshly body.

The

suggestion of

and the swelling roundness of form

is

de-

noted further by the constricting tightness of

Boston

the belt and by the contrast of the straight and

comparison with the Bharhut

angular tubular limbs with swelling convexities

depend on any

in

closer imitation of a

natural model, but on the sculptor's

more suc-

of bust and pelvis.

sense of vitality

is

com-

municated by the tense twisting of the torso on

cessful realization of form within essentially the

its axis.

same conceptual framework. The advance is not

the SanchI yakshis are a perfect illustration of

In the frankness of their erotic statement

within the direction of naturalism, but in the

the union of spiritual

more plastic articulation of the body itself and

the dynamic vitalization of the form. We have an

runs

2>

43. {left) Sanchi, east gate, yakshi

44.

Yakshi from south gate, Sanchi.

Boston,

Museum of Fine Arts

rU^

a.

like a

India.

and sensual metaphor that

thread through

all

religious art in

100

THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIODS

As has been already mentioned

in the

preced-

ing chapter, the gigantic statue of a yakshi found

at

Patna

[45],

Period, finds

formerly assigned to the

its

same period with the

the

on the Great Stupa

figure

the

and

its

Maurya

proper chronological place in

figures of tree-spirits

at Sanchi.

In the Patna

counterparts at Sanchi

we

see for

time the sculptural realization of a

first

full

and voluptuous form with a definite sense of its

organic articulation.

Many of the

devices of the

Sanchi sculptors are here, such as the pendant

necklaces falling in the hollow between the
breasts

and

setting off their globular fullness,

and the tightness of the beaded apron compressing the flesh of the hips and

abdomen

to

emphasize the fullness and softness of the swelling flesh.

The whole figure is conceived

with an

almost abstract sense of mathematical volumes,

so that the dominantly spheroidal shape of the

head

is

in the

echoed

in the

bosom, and again

in relief

rounded contours of the abdomen.

seems almost unnecessary

It

to point out that this

sculpture reveals a degree of accomplishment

that

would have been beyond the powers of the

artisans of the reliefs of Bharhut. Like the yakshi

of the Sanchi gateway, the figure

is

flattened at

the back with only a perfunctory indication of

modelling. Just like the terracotta figurine of

the Indus Period, this colossal portrayal of a

yakshi
it

is

composed in an additive way. Although

has the same frontality and something of the

rigidity of the figure

from Parkham, there

explained above, a

much

is,

as

greater ease in the

suggestion of sculptural volume and a greater

crispness and precision in the carving of details.

Indeed, here, as so often in Indian sculpture,

the very precision and hardness with which
jewels

and metal ornaments are rendered

in

stone serve, by contrast with the smooth planes

and surfaces of the

essential soft

flesh parts, to suggest the

and warm quality of the

flesh

con-

noted in stone.

Turning
gateway,
45.

Yakshi from Didarganj (Patna).

Patna, Archaeological

Museum

to the relief sculpture of the

we

Sanchi

notice in such a panel as the repre-

THE EARLY ANDHRA PERIOD

46. Sanchi, east gate,

The Great Departure

sentation of the Great Departure [46] that, in

contrast to the Bharhut reliefs, in

which

in-

dividual forms were attached to a shallow back-

ground, here the figures and details of setting

are so deeply cut that they
a

seem

dark background of shadow.

swim

is

From

a technical point

different

and

means.

of view this method of

as a pattern in black

have his

and white

completely and instantaneously legible in the

glare of the Indian sun.

made

greater and

more

mode

of

by the

possible

suitable dimensions of the

Departure and its enactment within the confines

result of the Indian sculptor's desire to

tell

elaborate form of the

The resemblance
Roman fourth-

deep background carving may be regarded as the

compositions

more

continuous narration

long, rectangular panel. In the composition in

certainly coincidental,

must be explained by quite

the story, in comparison to the Bharhut medallions, is a

against

to

of this type of colouristic relief to

century sculpture

IOI

From the iconographical

question we have both the cause of the Great

of the same panel. In the centre of the composition the

empty

typifies the

seat beneath the rose apple-tree

Buddha's

first

meditation on the

miseries of living creatures that resolved

relinquish the

pomps

him

to

of the world and seek the

Although

salvation of humanity.

this

event in

the legend and the actual flight from Kapilavastu

are separated in time

by

number of years,

the

point of view the technique provides the

Indian sculptor finds the topographical and

illusion as the

historical unity

ing

from

same
Bhaja panels of the forms emerg-

a kind of universal

the enfolding shadow.

matter connoted by

The method of presenting

of the happenings of greater

consequence than any unity of time. 3 This

another illustration of

how

in Indian art

is

time

THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIODS

[02

and space become one

in depicting the heroic

De-

legends. In the relief under discussion the

parture
fashion,

is

presented in the usual symbolical

with his footprints establishing the

Buddha's presence and the form of the horse

Kanthaka repeated several times

relating the

drawing

form of incised

in the

There

lines.

is

no

beyond the plane

intent to establish any space

of the main figures and accessories and the back-

ground plane behind them. Although there

slight

is

modelling of individual forms so that they

have some substance beyond

mere

silhouette,

progress of the flight from his father's palace.

the conception of the relief seems almost to be

The

in

precision of the carving of this and other

terms of drawing rather than sculpture, with

depth that we

panels tends to confirm the inscription on the

no suggestion of the

western gateway that the sculpture was the

find in later periods of Indian art. If the Sanchi

work of ivory-carvers from the nearby town of

reliefs in certain details reveal a

Bhilsa.

naturalism

We may

select as typical of the reliefs of the

torana pillars the panels of the outer face of the

Most

eastern portal.

interesting of these

is

the

animal forms,

which the Buddha confounded these heretics by

in large part

performing the miracle of walking upon the

nature-spirits

waters [47]. His actual presence

tales that

indicated

only by a kind of plinth or plank floating on the

river.

The Kasyapas

are

shown

twice, once in a

which the humanity of the

tions of a religion in

still

real

stressed.

and the barely disguised

were the Jatakas, the

life

the mystic and the sensuous,

certain aspects reminds us of Egyptian or wes-

tern Asiatic prototypes,

it is

simply because, as

has been pointed out before, Indian art per-

petuated the ideals of all those ancient tradition-

which the

al societies in

communication of

artist's

theme

in its

aim was the

most readily

folk-

validity of the

world could not be suppressed. Here

reflexion of 'an attitude to

dualism between

cessful conclusion of the miracle. If this relief in

real faith rested

on the worship of the Dravidian

on the shore reverencing the Buddha

suc-

nature were

all

For people whose

boat ready to rescue Sakyamuni, and once again

at the

and

of plant

because they are the produc-

founder and his kinship with

scene of the Conversion of the Kasyapa Clan, in

is

it is

kind of intuitive

recording

the

in

illusionistic

spirit

is

which any

in

and matter, or between

is

inconceivable'. 4

Everywhere the early Indian sculptor displays

a loving

awareness of the material world that

surrounds him.
birds,

The

varieties

of

trees, flowers,

and beasts are not recorded from the

point of view of a naturalist

bound

to catch the

precise texture and structure of these forms

based on

scientific observation

and dissection,

apprehensible form. In accordance with this

but rather - and this could be a definition of the

conceptual method of presentation, every ele-

conceptual point of view in art - are these acces-

ment of

the composition

is

portrayed from

its

most characteristic point of view, without regard

to its position in space

the river

is

and time, so

shown from above and

that,
its

whereas

waves are

indicated by parallel rippling lines, the trees on

the banks are

shown

in profile and, to indicate

their species, the leaves are

enormously enlarged

within these ideographic contours.

noted that in
the emphasis

this, as in
is

entirely

It will

be

other reliefs at Sanchi,

on the delineation of the

sories of the natural

set

down

as the artist

the selective intensity of the

memory image

the

most characteristic aspect of the growth and

articulation of specific plants or animals.

scape as such does not exist.

The

Land-

curtain before

which the dramas, religious and popular, are

played - the green prison of the jungle, the
towering peaks tials

is

reduced

to the barest essen-

abbreviated as a stage design

various elements of the composition in terms of

set off,

shadows reinforcing the outlines and

actors.

interior

world

knew them or remembered them, revealing with

is,

in order to

and not distract from, the activities of the

By

the

same method we have already

47- Sanchi, east

XL

gate^The Conversion of the Kasyapas

<x

<r

THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIODS

o4

seen employed for living creatures, mountains

are reduced to pyramidal, block-forms;

and

ponds

rivers are spread like carpets, with an en-

graving of parallel lines to indicate by this sym-

Far Eastern scroll-painting.

in a

emphasized,

in

developments
picture

is

view of the

in

later

should be

It

compositional

Indian wall-painting, that the

entirely confined within the borders

bolism the nature and movement of water. All

of its frame, and does not cover the entire wall.

these conventions are present not only in the

Only about one-third of the painting is given

over to the actual martyrdom and the denouement of the tragedy. The greater part of the

sculpture but also in the remains of wall-paintings in the Early Classic Period.

Although there are copious references

to

painted decorations in the Jatakas and other

early

Buddhist

texts, the

ples of wall-painting

only surviving exam-

from the early period are to

space
istic

is

devoted to a most wonderfully natural-

recording of the elephants in their

the deep forest.

We

see

them bathing,

home

in

resting,

feeding, and apprehensively awaiting the hunt-

The composition

crowded, and yet one

be found in a rock-cut chaitya-hall at Ajanta in

ers.

the Deccan. 5 Various inscriptions in the cave

has the impression of the beasts moving with

freedom

is

confirm its dedication in the second century B.C.,

perfect

and the fragments of wall-painting

assigns them. Every available area that

ior are
first

probably to be dated no

century

Cave

is

B.C.

The

in the inter-

later

than the

principal wall-painting in

devoted to the Saddanta jfdtaka,

which recounts the story of the Buddha's

fice

sacri-

of his tusks during his incarnation as an ele-

phant

[48]. Its

arrangement

recalls the

scheme

of the Sanchi architraves, since the composition

is

presented in the form of a long frieze in which

the action progresses from episode to episode, as

48. Ajanta,

Cave X, Saddanta Jataka

in the space that the artist

is

not

occupied by the forms of the pachyderms

filled

with the portrayals of

floral

and

is

foliate

forms, and serves to give a dramatic illusion to

the density of the jungle. Although the elephants
are types, just as

much

as the

human

figures in

the composition, the artist has given us a marvel-

immense

dignity and

weight, and their ponderous frolics.

The nearest

lous impression of their

comparison

in sculpture

is

in the representation

THE EARLY ANDHRA PERIOD

)A'

it;

49. Safichi, west gate,

W~

^gll^

T 111 35* '^'f^l'ir Lb.ralS Pta

saggs^gMgaw^qggBga||^U3

Saddanta Jataka

J*

P*

of the same story on the cross-bars of the southern and western gateways of Safichi [49].

The

same method of continuous narration is employed, so that the figure of the six-tusked elephant

Buddha)

05

evolved convention whereby rocks are symbolized

by

a series of block-like cubes,

tains are represented

these same forms.

and moun-

simply by duplication of

These shapes, by their square-

repeated no fewer than

ness and hardness, serve to connote the idea of

four times. In the relief only the intrusion of the

rock or mountain without the necessity of any

(the future

is

figure of the hunter at the

that this

is

extreme right suggests

more than a jungle idyll. The method

for suggesting space in these

exactly the

same

animal subjects

human
and painting. The

as that in dealing

figures in both sculpture

is

with

really structural or textural description of the

form. This

is

the equivalent of the archaic meth-

od of representing

whereby leaves of the

trees,

different species are attached to a mere ideograph

of the trunk-and-branch structure. Neither the

forms in the foreground slightly overlap those

backgrounds of the Safichi

behind, which are placed above them in one or

the early Ajanta wall-paintings are to be taken

more

as early landscapes in the

all

tiers to

the top of the composition.

periods of Indian

artist's

art,

we

As

in

are struck with the

complete assurance and mastery in ren-

reliefs

nor those of

development of a

landscape tradition, for the simple reason that

landscape never developed beyond this point in

dering the animals in

literally

every one of which

completely characteristic

velopment which remains unaltered approxi-

elephants at Ajanta and

mates that of European landscape

of the species.

is

The

dozens of poses,

Safichi are rendered with such

knowledge of their
that

it is

think of a

later

period of Indian

most meagre

details generally presented in the

reason

setting, especially in those portions of

wall-painting dealing with the activity of human

background. There

is

and

work of

of any necessary setting was indicated by the

gait

tion of his design.

in the

and

memory-image

same conceptual

figures, is entirely formalized,

This stage of de-

Giotto and his followers, in which the presence

intervening between the artist and the realiza-

The

art.

consummate

specific articulation

difficult to

any

exists only as

already a completely

why

fashion. Actually, there was

a tradition

should develop in India

no

of landscape painting
at all.

In no phase of

Indian philosophy or religion was there any

suggestion of the

immanence of the

deity in the

world of nature, nor any romantic attachment

!06

THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIODS

to the beauties of the wilderness for its

sake.

Nature

combination

for the Indian

was

of constantly

menacing,

own

that could

produce an Indian Claude or even

essentially a

Salvator Rosa. Just as the anthropomorphic

even

personification of every natural force in Greece

dangerous, forces. There was nothing lovable

militated against the development of an Hellenic

about the jungle, nor the succession of scorch-

school of landscape painting, so in India the

ing heat and torrential rains and inundations,

Dravidian tradition of personifying every ele-

50.

Copper

lota

London, British

from Kundlah

Museum

io 7

ment
of

shape

in nature, hostile or friendly, in the

spirit

anthropomorphically

described

obviated the necessity for the development of

landscape.

As the dryad

Greece personified

in

the grove, so in India the

human

shapes of

yakshi and naga represented tree and lake.

Only

such details of natural settings as were necessary

to the interests of his didactic narrative con-

cerned the Indian

artist.

As

in Giotto a single

oak could represent the whole forest of St

Francis's wandering, a single banyan suffices

home

to suggest the

depths of the great

It

of the elephants in the

forest.

should be mentioned before leaving the

subject of art in the Early

the late

Andhra Period

of first century a.d. for the gates at Sanchi

a date

an inscription of King Sri Satakarni

a.d.)

that

Dr Heinrich Zimmer recently proposed

(c.

15-30

appears on the southern torana, and the

others presumably were completed within a

relatively short period after the

work was begun.

This chronology does not, of course,

Andhra sculpture

affect

at

Sanchi

in its relation to the earlier art of the

Sunga

and the development

Later

the position of the

Period

in

the

Andhra Period.

51 and 52. Silver plaques from the

London, British

Turning

to the

minor

arts in the Early Classic

we may begin our account by examincopper lota or water jar, found at Kundlah

Periods,

ing a

in the Kulii Hills,

Sunga Period

and probably

[50].

work of the

The engraved

figures with their tubular limbs

attenuated

immediately

suggest the reliefs of Bhaja and the primitive

carvings of Stupa 2 at Sanchi [32, 36, and 37].

A number
of the

of silver medallions, originally part

Oxus Treasure, with

representations of

elephant-riders [5 1 and 52] are the smaller metal

counterparts of similar designs found at Sanchi

and in the roundels of the Bharhut stupa. 6 These

are the

Indian counterparts of the classical

design of the Bactrian plate in illustration 87.

Museum

Oxus Treasure.

I08

THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIODS

53. Relic

bowl from Sonari.

London, Victoria and Albert

54. Ivory

Museum

mirror handle from Pompeii (front).

Naples, Museo Nazionale

55. Ivory

The technique

repousse, with engraving of

is

mirror handle from Pompeii (back).

Naples,

Museo Nazionale

sists in

the jewellery of the

Kushan

Period.

The

A steatite relic

goddess's adornments include heavy anklets of

sociated with the Early

a work that may be asAndhra domination of

above these 'stockings' of thin bangles matched

The

design consists of en-

the details of the interior drawing.

bowl from Sonari

[53]

the Sanchi region.

is

graved lotuses embracing the foot of the vessel

and a band of rectangular panels running around

the

body of the

filled

vase.

These compartments

are

with various animal forms represented by

and the shallow cutting away of the

incision

background.

The

raised surfaces have been

polished and contrast with the greyish core of

the stone.

These formalized beast forms suggest

the similarly abstract animals of the railing of

Stupa 2

at

Sanchi. 7

type that persists until

Kushan

by similar massed bangles on her

have survived from the unga Period, we

times,

and

wrists.

Belonging properly to the realm of the minor

arts is
jects

one of the most beautiful surviving ob-

of Early Andhra carving. This

is

a mirror

handle in the shape of a courtesan and two

attendants carved in high

relief,

almost in the

round [54 and 55]. This remarkable object was

found in the Via dell'Abbondanza at Pompeii,
which establishes

its

date as prior to a.d. 79, the

year of the fateful eruption of Vesuvius which

buried this ancient Campanian

Although no examples of jewellery and the

like

city.

The

style

of this figurine, with the provocative emphasis

on the sexual aspects of the anatomy,

is a

mini-

can gain some idea of the character of personal

ature version of the famous yakshis of the

ornaments from the detailed

toranas of Sanchi [43 and 44].

tation of these accessories

The

realistic

represen-

from the sculpture

at

composed on the additive

The figure

is still

principle noted in

shows

many

other examples of Early Classic art in

the deity wearing an elaborate series of neck-

India.

Like the Sanchi goddesses, the lady of

Bharhut.

laces.

devata from this

These strands appear

site [29]

to be

made up of

metal beads, rather than precious stones. At the

centre of each

is

a little

box or casket

to contain

amulets or spells to ward off evil forces. As will

be seen

later, this

type of amulet container per-

the Pompeii ivory

is

carved in such a way that

the figure appears as

two high

back to back rather than as

round.

The

work and

its

reliefs

form

placed

in the full

strong resemblances between this

stone counterparts only reinforces

**

3^*^i*M H

56. Ivory plaque

from Begram.
Kabul,

Museum

THE EARLY ANDHRA PERIOD

what has been suggested elsewhere, namely,

that

monumental sculpture

in early India

was

The

III

between ivory carving

close affinities

and monumental sculpture in the early centuries

may be supplemented by

simply a transference of the style and technique

of Indian art

of work in perishable media, like ivory and

comparisons between terracotta sculpture and

further

The elaborate jewellery worn by

the reliefs of the Early Classic Period. So, for

the central figure, notably the 'stockings' of

example, a small circular plaque from Patna

metal rings, give us some idea of the nature of

with a representation of Surya in his chariot

wood,

to stone.

this type

of personal adornment in Early Andhra

Related to this work are some of the superb

ivory plaques found at

They

Begram

in Afghanistan.

originally decorated a massive throne.

ment of this

relief

on

Even the

a tiny scale

approximates

from the background. The medallion shape of

this object of course suggests a favourite

women

position of the early Buddhist railings.

suggestive of the Safichi style in the

full,

rather

squat canon of proportion and the luxurious elaboration of surface detail.

depth and crispness

work wrought

is

in stone

The

carving in

its

the prototype for the

by the ivory-workers of

Bhilsa who, according to one inscription at

Safichi, dedicated a

gateway and presumably

their services as well.

57.

Terracotta plaque from Patna.

Patna,

Museum

treat-

the suggestion of the emergence of the forms

Certain examples, like the oft-repeated motif of

standing under a torana [56], are again

same

[57] provides a very exact parallel for this

subject as carved at Bhaja [36].

times.

com-

Another terracotta relief from Kausambi

though of a somewhat

royal couple embracing

ground

is

[58],

later period, represents a

on

a throne.

The

back-

strewn with rosette-like flowers. Both

the types of the figures and the delicate animation of the surface

cannot

fail

by shallow linear engraving

to suggest the beautiful relief

Pitalkhora [40] of a similar subject.

58. Terracotta

New

plaque from Kausambi.

Delhi, National

Museum

from

CHAPTER

111

THE ROCK-CUT SANCTUARIES OF EARLY BUDDHISM

The

earliest

temples of Buddhism, properly

wood and

speaking, were buildings of

erected

thatch

when the demand arose for actual shrines

some cult object, such as a memorial

doubt of the influence of such prototypes

Rustam,

in

which the carved facade represented

to enclose

the elevation of a palace at Persepolis in

stupa, to concentrate the worship of the Buddha's

the

followers

on some material reminder or symbol

of his earthly mission. Prior to

had been conducted

in the

this, the services

open

air, in

groves or

such as the Buddha was wont

forest clearings,

These

to select for gatherings of his disciples.

earliest structural buildings

of course, disappeared, but

clear impression of their

of Buddhism have,

we can

get a very

appearance from the

as the

tombs of the Achaemenid emperors at Naqsh-i-

same way, we

much

shall see, as the facades of the

Indian chaitya-halls reproduced those of actual

buildings. In both cases

we

are dealing with

works of sculpture rather than architecture, and

in

both cases there was an appeal in the very

permanence

that

was promised

in the carving

out of tombs or temples from the very bones of

the earth. In the Indian examples there was

probably already the idea of preserving the

Law through the bad times at the end

sculptural replicas of such edifices as began to

Buddha's

be carved from the living rock in various parts

of the kalpa. Such grotto sanctuaries appealed

Maurya

of India as early as the

These

Period.

are the so-called cave temples of western India.

The word
since

it

'cave'

actually rather misleading,

is

implies a natural grotto that

is

the

home

to the early

Buddhists through their association

with caves that even in Vedic times had formed

the abodes of hermits and

ment of the

religion

rishis.

from the

The

develop-

isolated practice

of wild beasts or savages, whereas these entirely

of asceticism to the formation of a monastic

man-made

the most sophis-

organization required the enlargement of the

Indian

single rock-cut cell provided for the retreat of

ticated

recesses are

among

examples of religious

history. 'Rock-cut sanctuaries'

tion for these

enormous

from the rock

art in all

men by Asoka to the monumental rock-cut

is

a better defini-

holy

halls of

worship hewn

assembly

halls that

we

find in western India

Hin-

imitation of free-standing

to-day. All these principal sanctuaries of

architectural types.

The definition, chaitya-hall,

ayana Buddhism are located within a radius of

sometimes applied

to these

rived from the

holy place.

in

is

de-

two hundred miles of Bombay They are hollow-

refers to

any

ed out of the almost perpendicular bluffs of the

rock-cut temples are only the

Western Ghats. They are exact imitations of pre-

word

The

chaitya,

monuments,
which

and

most ambitious examples of the development of

existing structural forms,

monumental stone-carving

one the reminiscence of these prototypes

that followed

on

the invasion of Alexander the Great and the re-

carried to the point of having

establishment of relations with western Asia.

model fashioned

Although there

is

rock-cut replica.

many examples

of such sculptural architecture

in

no direct resemblance

to the

Egypt, Asia Minor, or Iran, there can be

little

at

in

almost every

many

is

parts of the

in wood and attached to the

The relief of Indra's Paradise

Bharhut accurately reproduces the appear-

ance of an actual wooden chaitya-hall [35].

114

'

THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIODS

We may
earliest

take as a typical example of the

type of chaitya-hall the rock-cut cathe-

dral at Bhaja, datable in the early part of the

first

century B.C.

Its

plan [59] consists of a nave

separated by rows of columns from smaller

aisles

terminating in

semi-circular apse, in

which was located the principal symbol of worship, a rock-cut stupa.

Although

ment does suggest the plan of a

this

arrange-

typical Classic

or Early Christian basilica, the resemblance

is

smoothed

off,

the outline of the intended facade

and entrance was indicated upon

the

workmen began by

at the level

the interior. In this

way

it

ing

downward, removing the debris of rock

Bhaja

an example

church.
at

The method of carving the chaitya-hall

many more elaborate examples

Bhaja and the

that followed

it

was of course

sculptural,

rather than an architectural, problem. After the

perpendicular rock wall had been cleared and

59. Bhaja, chaitya-hall

and vihara

to

and roof

through the open facade and disengaging the

The

space for services within the main body of the

cliff

were completed, the workmen continued quarry-

edifice.

to provide

Ajanta,

was unnecessary

erect any scaffolding. After the ceiling

columns and the carved stupa

circumambulation around the

at

of the intended height of the vault of

no more than accidental, since the plan of the

for the rite of

As may be

tunnelling into the

chaitya-hall was specifically evolved to provide

symbol of the Buddha's Nirvana and

it.

seen from certain unfinished caves

is

earliest

at the rear

chaitya-halls,

[60],

of the

of which

could be described as

half-timbered, since not only were

wooden

transverse ribs imitating the structure of free-

standing buildings affixed to the vault, but the

entire facade

was once constructed of wood.

The most striking feature of this wooden frontispiece was a kind of rose window constructed of
a number of wooden members following the

EARLY BUDDHIST ROCK-CUT SANCTUARIES

window
The lower

curvature of the vault that divided the

into a

number

of lunulate openings.

part of the facade consisted of a

wooden screen

with openings into the nave and

aisles,

and pro-

the greater the slant of the pillars in a rock-cut

sanctuary, the closer it

types, and,
will

basilicas,

motifs that are carved in stone above the en-

about 100-125

The

blind chaitya

to actual

be noted that in the

bably decorated with the balcony and merlon

trance to the chaitya proper.

is

by the same token,

latest of the

such as the chaitya

a.d., this

wooden proto-

earlier in date. It

Buddhist
dated

at Karli,

reminiscence of wood-

en originals has entirely disappeared.

It

would

niches and balconies joined by carved railings

be impossible to give, either in words or photo-

are reminiscences of the picturesque architec-

graphs, any adequate idea of the enormous

ture of contemporary palace forms exactly simi-

impressiveness of these Buddhist cathedrals.

may be seen reproduced in

the reliefs at Sarichi. The columns of the interior

This impressiveness comes, not from the builders'

of Bhaja are completely plain octagonal shafts

cathedral, for here space is completely controlled

They

and

lar

building forms

are staggered inward, so that the top of

the shaft

is

something

like five

inches out of

alignment with the base. Presumably

strict

tural

wooden

was necessary
It

this

is

imitation of the arrangement in a strucbuilding, in which this expedient

to

support the weight of the roof.

providing a sense of space, as in a Gothic

restricted,

provided by the twilight which in these interiors

seems

M>

make everything melt and almost

magic world of
It is

dis-

unreality.

not unlikely that the early Buddhist tem-

both free-standing and rock-cut, embodied

ples,

jr

to

appear, so that the visitor feels himself in a

could probably be said as a general rule that

60. Bhaja, chaitya-hall, facade

but from the beauty and auster-

of the architectural members and the mystery

ity

something of the same metaphysical symbolism

that

was attached

to the stupa form. Just as the

medieval cathedral in Europe, with

its

cruci-

form ground-plan and the encyclopaedic characof its decoration, was a symbolical likeness of

ter

the

body of God and

a reconstruction of the

universe in a microcosm, so, too, the chaitya

might be thought of as

a realization in material

form of that cosmic house which

is

the universe,

entrance the door of the world, the frame in

its

which Indra fixed the

air.

Often the universe

is

referred to as a house built of timber, and the

timber of that structure

is

Brahma. The

solar

symbolism of the great lotiform window seems

as implicit here as in the

By

far the largest

Gothic

rose.

and most magnificent of the

cave temples of the Hinayana period

is

the sanc-

tuary at Karli, only a short distance from Bhaja

[61

and

62]. In front of the facade

see one of

one can

or stambhas that originally had

enormous metal

wheels supported on the lions above the

form

still

two massive free-standing columns

capitals.

The actual order of these

loti-

pillars is

Il6

THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIODS

a continuation

the

of the arrangement of the

Maurya Period;

rested in a

of

form suggesting the Brahmin water-

bottle or lota.

The

erection of such shafts at the

entrance of the temple has

ancient

lats

the fluted shafts probably

many

precedents in

Mesopotamia and Egypt, and must be

accepted as yet another survival of early Indian

contacts with western Asia.

The

Karli chaitya

differs

from others of the type

screen

is

of carved stone, with the exception of

the lotus

window, which consists of the usual

in that the facade

teakwood framework. The sculpturing of

Walter Spink of the University of Michigan

reconsidering the historical, epigraphical, and

numismatic evidence

for the date of the

Dynasty suggests that a date

off. 32 B.C.

Andhra
marked

the beginning of this era. Accordingly, the dates

of the earliest and latest chaitya-halls at Bhaja

and Karli should be revised

a.d. 120. ) x

The interior

rock-cut temples

is

to

c.

50

B.C.

and

[63] of this largest of the

one hundred and twenty-

four feet in length by forty-six and a half feet in

is

extraordinarily rich and colour-

width, and the vault rises forty-five feet above

The whole

structure appears to rest on the

the floor; so that the scale of the shrine

entrance wall
ful.

this

a period when the sanctuary was converted to

Mahayana worship. (Recent research by Dr

backs of elephants that were originally

with metal ornaments and ivory tusks.

reliefs in this

fitted

few

narthex are centuries later than the

dedication of the cave in a.d. 120 and belong to

61. Karli, chaitya-hall, facade

2Us

<J-^

of a Gothic church.

The

is

that

basilican plan persists

with the usual rock-cut stupa located in the cir-

cumference of the ambulatory. Only

in the

am-

bulatory of the apse do the plain octagonal shafts

62. Karli, chaitya-hall

H>^H

63. Karli, chaitya-hall, interior

EARLY BUDDHIST ROCK-CUT SANCTUARIES

of the earliest chain.' as appear in the colonnade.

The columns
elaborate

ot the nave have

m treatment.

rorm

The

rich

and

Each individual column

rests in a water-jar. like the

exterior.

become

stambhas of the

sixteen-sided shafts support loti-

bell capitals,

and above these

rise inverted

nlyodieraicliitectiiralforii]

yana Buddhist period that ha

purely monastic structure

One

of the very oldest

with the
studied

d is

known

the rock-cut verandah

is

of Indra and Surya

reliefs

at the s::e

::

Bhaja

iborate

type contained a single large

carved groups of elephants with male and female

tangular, from which the individual re

on their backs. There

is

no suggestion of

the staggering practised at Bhaja.

tural

The

sculp-

groups of the capitals of the nave columns

are so deeply carved

and

monks

the

that they give the effect of a triforium

The

::

hall,

square or rec-

ope

rock-

cut building was not limited to Buddhism.

Many

viharas dedicated to the

jam takh and

:rom the second and hrst centuries B.c

set so closely together

continuous sculptural ornament.

the

as the vihara

pyramids, which in turn support elaborately

riders

IIQ

ire at

:::~ Bhu'.

richness

a;

-rablishments follow no regu-

Some of them are even carved on two

Most of them arc

of this decoration provides a luxuriant contrast

lar plan.

with the relative austerity- of the other members.

levels.

The

elaborate carving ot the projecting verandahs

chaitya at Karli. with the facade screen

intact, gives us

some

idea of the original effect

irhedrals produce, with the Light stream-

supported by

ing through the timbered rose- window to illu-

mine the

types

interior with a ghostly half-light, so

that the very walls of the rock

seem

to

melt into

an envelope of darkness and the sensation of

any kind of space

itself

64. Udayasriri. Orissa.

becomes

Rani

Gumpha

unreal.

pillars

with every

member -

col-

umns, doorways, and overhanging thatched

:

.'early imitated

from structural proto.:.umns

Featn

and the

'roll

cornice' of the overhanging roof

appear over and

c "

later architecture

of

nxed motifs

in the

Buddhism and Hinduism.

PART THREE

ROMANO-INDIAN ART
IN NORTH-WEST INDIA AND CENTRAL ASIA
CHAPTER

hP I*

^ ^

ART UNDER THE KUSHANS

I.

GANDHARA: GRECO-ROMAN FORM AND INDIAN ICONOGRAPHY

The

Kushan

designation

applied to

all

and painting

sculpture,

art

may

properly be

the productions of architecture,

in Afghanistan, north-

(c.

516

B.C.), in

which the region of Gandhara,

separate from India,

is

numbered among

the

Achaemenian Empire.

nations subject to the

western India, and the Punjab, and present-day

Presumably

Pakistan from about the

to the seventh cen-

Persian empire continued until Gandhara was

these territories were under

invaded by Alexander the Great in the cold

turies a.d.,

when

first

Kushan or Indo-Scythian
Dynasty of rulers. Art under the Kushans, how-

the domination of the

ever, divides itself into

categories.
their

Whereas

two completely

distinct

in the northern portions of

domains, comprising the ancient province

of Gandhara, the

Kushan patrons of Buddhism

this subjection to the first great

The

season of 327 B.C.

influence of Alexander's

raid in northern India has

ated,

and

this

is

Gandhara and

been greatly exagger-

particularly true of the region of

its art.

The

actual rule

the death of Alexander in 323 B.C.

The successor

Indian dominions,

availed themselves of the services of journey-

to

men

Nicator, was forced to relinquish

craftsmen from the

Roman

East

who

pro-

form of Late Antique art dedicated to

Buddhism/at the southern capital of Mathura
duced

(Muttra), on the
tion

Jumna

Alexander's

the consolidated power of the

emperors

and embellishment of the Buddhist and

dragupta.

techniques of the native Indian schools.

peculiarly

The

hybrid character of the art that

of the

Under

first

Seleucus
claim to

all

Indian territory south of the Hindu

River, the construc-

Jain establishments were a continuation of the

by Mace-

donian Greek captains in India lasted only until

Kush by

of the Indian

Maurya Dynasty, Chan-

the great Buddhist sovereign,

Asoka, the region was converted to Buddhism,

and the rock edict of Asoka

some

at

ten miles to the east of

proof of the

Shahbazgarhi,

Mardan,

proclamation

gives

of the

flourished in these regions can be explained only

positive

by devoting considerable space

its

Buddha's Law in Gandhara. The gradual breakup of the Maurya Empire following the death of
Asoka in 232 B.C. again opened the Peshawar

its

Valley to foreign aggression.

to the history

north-western India both before and after

of

conquest by the Kushans.

The
people

earliest reference to
is

in the

Gandhara and

Bisutun inscription of Darius

Although the might of Chandragupta Maurya

122

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

had forced Alexander's successor, Seleucus Nicator,

withdraw

to

Hindu Kush,

this

beyond the

garrisons

his

withdrawal only made for an

even stronger consolidation of Hellenistic power

in the ancient

province of Bactria, the territory

centred around the

modern Afghan

city

Balkh. In about 250 B.C. the over-extended

pire of the Seleucids

was claimed by

known

began

to disintegrate. Iran

and the pro-

to history as the Parthians,

Greek

its

independence under

prince, Diodotus.

Now

by the Parthians

some

a military aristocracy,

origin, the

Yueh-chih, whose homeland was

originally in the province of

history by the

its

it is

is

Indian
tribe,

power

until in the first fifty years of our era they

made

themselves masters not only of the Kabul Valley

and the overthrow of the

last

series of coins

one of almost continous

of the Greek sove-

Hermaeus. 2 The date of a.d. 64 is usually

accepted as marking the sack of the city of Taxila
reigns,

and the

final

Kujula Kadphises,

for his

Kushan dominaThe founder of the

establishment of

line,

do with the per-

minting of a magnificent

in

the Kushans, gradually increased their

Greek colony had much

petuation of Hellenic artistic ideals in Asia and

[65, a-c]. Its history

in north-

name of the most powerful

tion in north-west India.

also the

Kansu

western China. These people, known

extremely likely that this isolated Eurasian

to

were

but also of the region of Gandhara. This con-

of Bactria continued to maintain

were perforce

in turn

quest involved the displacement of the Sakas

semblance of Hellenistic culture. Although

rulers

was not long before the Sakas

West

independent king-

in Iran, the

It

forced out of Bactria by another race of Scythic

completely

separated from the Hellenistic world of the

dom

em-

dynasty of obscure origin

vince of Bactria declared

a

of

Greek

constricting the rule of the last of the

sovereigns to the Kabul Valley. 1

is

remembered not only

conquest of Gandhara and the Punjab,

but also for the establishment of an intimate

commercial and

political relationship

with the

Kabul Valley were reconquered by the grandson

Roman Empire of Augustus.

Of far greater import for the

of Diodotus, Demetrius, in about 190 B.C.; the

dhara was Kujula's follower, Kanishka, the

imme-

most powerful and renowned of the Kushan

sovereigns, who made Peshawar his winter capi-

warfare and displacement: Gandhara and the

successors of Demetrius were almost

diately dispossessed of Bactria

by Eucratides, the ruler of

and Gandhara

a rival

Greek

clan.

tal

and extended

history of

his conquests

Gan-

from central

Although, following the establishment of a

Asia to Bengal. Kanishka

dynasty by Eucratides, princes with Greek

to as a

names continued

the Buddhist religion. His foundations included

after the

to hold these territories until

middle of the second century

B.C.,

is

second Asoka for his

frequently referred
efforts

the great tower at Shah-ji-ki-Dheri,

the years of this

unhappy band of Hellenic exiles

were numbered. As early as 135 B.C. they were

from the accounts of the Chinese

driven out of Bactria by an invading horde

of the wonders of the Asiatic world.

known

ruins of this

as the Sakas.

These people of Scythian

became intimately associated with

the rulers of Parthia, and indeed, as early as the
first century B.C., seem to have displaced the
Parthians in eastern Iran and in the region of
origin later

western Afghanistan
ruler

known

as Sistan.

Saka

by the name of Maues or Moga conquered

north-western India in about 90

B.C.,

thereby

on behalf of

fifth

which,

visitors of the

and seventh centuries, must have been one

monument

It

was in the

that the reliquary of

King Kanishka was recovered in 1908. 3 Although the Buddha himself never visited Gandhara, the texts composed by Buddhist sages
under the Kushans made of the region a veritable
holy land of Buddhism by the association of
various sites with events in the previous incarnations of Sakyamuni.

65. Bactrian, Saka,

and Kushan

coins.

second century a.d. AE. (G) Kujula Kadphises.

coin with head of Augustus,

(A) Euthydemus,

second century

King of Bactria,

B.C.

late third to early

AR. Tetradrachm.

King of Bactria, c. 190-167 B.C. AR.

Tetradrachm. (C) Eucratides, King of Bactria,
167-159 B.C. AY. 20-stater piece. (D) Maues, Saka
King, first century B.C. AE. (E) Kanishka,
(B) Demetrius,

coin with

moon goddess

Nanaia, second century ad.

AE. (F) Kanishka, coin with wind god Yado,

first

century

a. D.

AE. (H) Kanishka, coin with Buddha, second

century a.d.

AV.

(I)

Kanishka, coin with Mithra,

second century a.d. AY.

(J)

Kanishka, coin with

AY. (K) Huvishka, coin

with goddess Roma, second century a.d. AV.
Siva, second century a.d.

(L) Huvishka, coin with Ardoksho, second century

AV. British Museum, London, except (G),

American Numismatic Society, Xew York

a.d.

>

V_^-"*

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

124

Although coins arc generally regarded

minor

art, for

as

Kushan

periods like that of the

Scythians they furnish evidence invaluable for

the interpretation of the major arts.

They

pro-

vide us with the complete evidence of the strangely

syncretic character of Kushan art and religion

Just as postage stamps to-day furnish the phi-

with symbolical commentaries on the

latelist

economic and cultural environment of the countries

Kushan

of issue, the

coins provide an

through the Peshawar Valley shortly after

When

run by Mihiragula and the White Huns.

Judging from the array of

found on the coins of Kanishka and

his succes-

pantheon of the Kushans included not

sors, the

Buddha

only the
Siva [65

j],

[65 h], but, in addition to

representatives of the divinities of

Iran and Greece [65

by inscriptions

Under
joyed

be

deities to

the

E, f, i,

in corrupt

and

l], all identified

Greek

to this era that the finest

to be assigned.

The

it is

Gandhara sculpture

that this ferocious barbarian virtually extir-

Buddhism in Gandhara by his destruction

pated

of the monasteries and butchery of the popula-

When

the last of the Chinese pilgrims,

came

north-west India a cen-

to

tury later, he found the country in a ruinous,

depopulated

with most of the Buddhist

state,

establishments in a state of complete decay.

Although

came

Buddhist

all

to an

art in

Gandhara proper

end with the invasion of the Huns,

the style survived in

Kashmir and

Buddhist establishments

in

in isolated

Afghanistan

is

dates of Kanishka's reign

after the early Indian schools of the

Sunga, and Andhra Dynasties, the

dhara

is

way

not in any

indigenous tradition.

Its

geographical position

the

4
144 have been suggested for the beginning of

quite apart from the

no

as the year of his accession.

from

Such

dition,

and

Western

for the

Gan-

a continuation of this

among scholars. Although the years a.d. 1 28 and

West made

Maurya,

art of

and the contacts between the Kushan

78 to

as late

as the seventh or eighth century a.d.

have been the subject of considerable dispute

his reign, recent evidence favours a date

was
visit

Although the period of its florescence follows

letters.

Kushan emperors Gandhara en-

period of greatest prosperity, and

its

It

indeed only a few years after Sung Yiin's

Hsiian-tsang,

[65 k].

for.

Yiin, visited the

region in 520, the country had already been over-

tion.

Rome

Sung

his successor,

advertisement of the religious and cultural rela-

Augustus [65 g]; deified

has her place on the money of Huvishka

and well cared

his successors as flourishing

tionships of this dynasty. Kujula Kadphises

imitates the coins of

a.d.

400, describes the foundations of Kanishka and

rulers

development of

and

a style

main stream of Indian

tra-

in certain aspects almost entirely

in form.

The

The

subject-matter

is,

how-

date conforms very well with the development

ever, Indian.

of the Buddhist art of Gandhara, for which he

known

may

The

nique of archaic Indian sculpture are to a limited

dynasty of Kanishka lasted about a hundred and

extent carried on in this outlying province of

well have been largely responsible.

fifty years,

Shapur

since in a.d. 241 an invasion

by

of Iran brought to an end the rule of

the last sovereign of Kanishka's line, Vasudeva. 5

In

c.

390 a lesser Kushan dynasty established

north-western India until the fifth cen-

itself in

tury a.d. For the later history of

Gandhara we

dependent almost entirely on the accounts of

Chinese pilgrims who, as early as the fifth cen-

are

tury,

undertook the long journey to the holy

land of Buddhism. Fa Hsien,

who

travelled

repertory of motifs already

to the early Indian schools

and the tech-

Indian culture. There never was any real fusion

of Indian and Western ideals in Gandhara.
arts

The

of India and Gandhara advanced along

separate paths in different directions. Inevitably, the inappropriateness of the humanistic

Classic forms of

Western

art for the expression

of the mystical and symbolic beliefs of Indian

Buddhism
imported

led

to

the disappearance of this

style with the

truly Indian ideals of the

development of the

Gupta

Period.

ART UNDER THE KUSHANS: GANDHARA

The patronage
shans

actually

is

artists

by the Ku-

difficult to

understand

of foreign

no more

than their espousal of Buddhism. Being foreigners in India, they could not

Hindu

faith,

be accepted into the

and presumably both

their

adop-

This influence came

in part

125

from objects of

unquestioned foreign origin that have been

at various points in the Gandhara region.
These would include Alexandrian metal statu-

found

Harpocrates and Dionysius, found

ettes of

at

tion of Buddhism and support of a foreign culture

Sirkap in Taxila, a bronze Herakles from Nigrai,

were parts of a policy designed to maintain their

in the British

autonomy

The

art

conquered land. 6

in the

and

properly speaking,

These

latter

Kushan Emperor Kanishka

The term 'Gandhara art' is

origin,

and have been found

of Gandhara

the official art of the

his successors.

Musuem, and numerous

is,

Taxila.

An

objects are also of Alexandrian

imported objects of

and painting, which flourished

and

India from the

first to

north-western

the fifth centuries a.d.

Roman

unearthed

in large

numbers

at

even more considerable treasure of

applied to this school of architecture, sculpture,

in

steatite

plaques or cosmetic dishes with erotic scenes.

art,

including Syrian glass

metal and plaster sculpture, was

at

Begram

The im-

in Afghanistan.

This designation comes from the ancient name

portance of all these finds was a confirmation of

of the region, and

the intimacy of the relations, commercial and

to

is

be preferred to 'Greco-

Buddhist', a term sometimes applied to the same

art,

but distinctly misleading, since

derivation from

Greek

art.

This

Lahore Museum, wrote of

implies a

visit to

the

'Greco-Buddhist

as

cultural,

done savants know how long

since,

between Gandhara and the

Although the presence of

way provides

men from
Empire

sculptures have

little

to

do with Greek

in its Hellenic or Hellenistic phase,

much more

Roman

closely related to

Gandhara school

is,

art either

and are
art.

The

indeed, perhaps best des-

cribed as the easternmost appearance of the art

of the

Roman Empire,

especially in

provincial manifestations. 7

The

its late

and

subject-matter

this material in a

properly speaking, Hellenistic

background for Gandhara art, it was unquestion-

by forgotten workmen whose hands were feeling,

mitted Grecian touch'. Actually, the Gandhara

a,

ably the introduction of bands of foreign work-

and not unskilfully,

for the mysteriously trans-

Roman

West.

the carving

is

which Kipling, describing Kim's

sculptures,

it

the eastern centres of the

Roman

first

Bud-

dhist sculptures in the Peshawar Valley.

It is

that led to the creation of the

not difficult to find in

all

collections of

hara sculpture fragments resembling

workmanship of

all

Gand-

Roman

from the time of

periods,

the Flavians, Kanishka's contemporaries, to

the very last style of

Roman

sculpture of the

fourth century, usually designated as Late

tique. It

may

certainly be

assumed from

Anthis

of the

Gandhara carvings is almost entirely Bud-

evidence that, from the days of Kanishka until

dhist.

Although Kanishka, through

the end of

his patron-

age of Buddhism, has rightly been regarded as

the great patron of the
is

Gandhara

school, there

ample evidence that Hellenistic

art in the

Buddhism and

its art

in

north-west

India and the Punjab, the practice of importing

foreign artisans continued.
ily

It

must be necessar-

supposed, however, that the vast majority of

form of achitecture and sculpture was intro-

the sculptures are by native craftsmen following

duced into north-western India during the reign

these successive waves of foreign influence.

of the Saka-Parthian Dynasties, as

illustrated

by

number

may be

of temples and sculp-

Although the subject-matter of Gandhara

is

art

predominantly Buddhist, many of the motifs

tured fragments from the city of Sirkap at

discernible in the sculptures are of either west-

Taxila. 8

ern Asiatic or Hellenistic origin. Such

period.

Gandhara sculpture

also

began

in this

Mesopo-

tamian motifs as the Persepolitan capital and

126

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

merlon crenellation, and

monsters

fantastic

like

ka,

which bears

a date

from the

the sphinx and gryphon, had already been as-

ruler's reign [73].

similated by the ancient Indian schools. Other

its

forms, such as the atlantids, garland-bearing

the early Indian school

erotes,

and semi-human creatures

taur, triton,

and hippocamp, were

like the
all

cen-

part of the

style is a

Like

all

first

year of the

Gandhara

primitives,

mixture of the archaic formulae of

combined with icono-

graphical borrowings from the West, such as

the garland-bearing erotes circling the

The

drum of

repertory of Hellenistic art introduced by the

the casket.

Romanized Eurasian artists in the service of the

Kushan court.
What we refer to as Gandhara art - that is,

the

the sculpture of the Peshawar Valley dedicated

belong to the second and third centuries a.d. 11

to

Buddhism - probably had

the later decades of the

the patronage of the

first

The

Buddhas datable by

inscriptions

reveal a style of drapery clearly derived

from

Roman workmanship of the Imperial

The very latest examples from such

The

to

Period.

theory that a

Afghan

Gandhara school can no

for the

earliest

They

its

Hellenistic school of art existed in Bactria as a

longer be discounted.

The

beginnings in

rule in north-western India.

background

base of Kanishka's pagoda, Shah-ji-ki-

Dheri, belonged to the same style and period.

century a.d. under

Kushan emperors

first

stucco sculptures ornamenting

present excavation

of a Bactrian Greek city at

Ay Khanum

is

destined to change our whole conception of the

intrusion of Hellenic art into Asia.

The

finding

sites as

Begram, the ancient Kapisa,

have the drapery reduced to a net of string-like

folds, very

much in the manner of the sculpture

of Palmyra on the trade route to the Mediter-

The

ranean. 12

ratio of five
in late

proportions of the body have a

heads to the

Roman and

total height, exactly as

Early Christian sculpture.

not only of Corinthian capitals but also of frag-

The

mentary statues of gods and heroes and the

the early

laureated portrait of a prince or magistrate

mask-like, frozen character of Late Antique

demonstrates for the

time the existence of a

first

school of Greek sculpture in Bactria. Even

though

this art

acted

were wiped out by the Saka invasion,

it

least the

and the

memory

civilization

which enat

of this Hellenistic foundation

soft,

effeminate Apollonian facial type of

Buddha

statues gradually assumes the

sculpture that prevails over the

from the third

Roman

world

to the fifth centuries a.d.

The Gandhara school is usually credited with

the

first

representation of the

Buddha in anthro-

pomorphic form. The portrayal of Sakyamuni

may

lie

will

be demonstrated, the character of this

linked with the emergence of devotional sects of

Indo-Classical style can only be explained by

Buddhism at the time of Kanishka's Great

Council. The quality of bhakti or devotion in the
later Buddhist sects demanded a representation

behind the school of Gandhara. But, as

contacts with the

Roman

world. 9

The chronology of the sculpture of the Pesha-

monuments.

A number

do bear inscriptions with

an unspecified area. 10

amples

is

is

iconographical and technical formulae adapted

of the master in an accessible

of

by the foreign sculptors from the repertory of

however, possible to

the Late Antique world. Images of this type

reckoning

in years

monuments

appear on Kanishka's coins [65 h], one

may

datable

imagine, as part of this sovereign's propagan-

Roman art which

Among the earliest ex-

dizing of the Buddhist religion. These represen-

especially with the help of

to the

symbol, probably

of pieces of sculpture

arrive at a tentative chronology for this material

by reference

as a

human form. 13
The earliest Buddha images were a compound of

It is,

works of

they closely resemble.

man, rather than

any definitely datable

war Valley still remains a vexing problem, owing

largely to the absence of

as a

the famous reliquary of King Kanish-

tations, like those

are in a

way

on Kanishka's reliquary

[73],

abstract or simplified by reason of

ART UNDER THE KUSHANS: GANDHARA

their small size, so that

it is

impossible for us to

say that they are conventionalized derivations

:::~ s:~

**

>_?-:>i^.; ?:i-z\:r.:'Z -it-tLisz::

Greco-Roman type

or

Gandhara the transla-

In

3 jddbist iconography intotfeady-mad e

::re:~ patterns

:~e sirr.t rrxt-j*

r^rr.::i..;

Li

::::::^:.,.::-:;::"::-:::::

3_:/ Chr:>-

::

:-.

head oi a Greek Apoiio and arrayed

7

mum

or toga, carved

Roman

r-r zesting the

deep ridged

statues of the

in

foicf

_
:

ir.t

"V \.D.

ear

lair,

w .

to the

(ooj. Z'r.z

Apouo Beivecr
.

is

r>

...z

Peshawar

" -

"

n~

- ;

sr.i

>

been disguised by an adaptation of the

->t

or

f. n.:

r_

imuoQ oi

Greek humedc

o: the

'-.

angajted eariobes

-'

The

ar.

the urna or 'third eye" between the

-::
:

Hmmrhnmrmt of the bodv benei:-.

inding

::!!"

:s

::

:r.

rr.ir.r.e:

Buddha from Hoo-

t\-

of Imperial draped statues of

:

:r.

amrfmg voluminous

R:~e

Tr.t entire 3 -_.-

frc

nfex

Maxim us

nmtion of the fol

The

statue from

substance separate
:

immediately reminiscent of such familiar Ro-

Museo Nazionale. Rome.

Mar dan belongs to the most

in the

Classic phase of Gandhara sculpture, and might

128

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

be dated in the

late first

century a.d.

It illustrates

the process repeated in countless other Buddhist

images and narrative

which the

reliefs, in

for-

eign craftsmen responsible for the initiation of

Roman

adapted the

this school

iconographical

and technical methods to meet the requirements

Kushan Buddhist employers.

The florescence of the Gandhara school, as far

of their

as stone sculpture

short-lived,

was concerned, was extremely

and there

is

reason to believe that as

early as the third century

all

and perhaps work in stucco,

too,

few

late

stone sculpture

came to an end.

examples of Gandhara Buddhas in

stone have been found, however, in centres

where the school survived the Sasanian invasion

of a.d. 241

15

A typical illustration is the Buddha

of the Great Miracle, from Paitava in Afghanistan, a piece that reveals the transformation of

the Classical style of the statue from Hoti-

Mardan

into an approximation of the standards

and techniques of Late Antique

light of the

Roman West

[68].

art in the twi-

Probably

an entirely parallel development.

The

this is

Oriental

tendencies that are usually credited with the

67.

Head of Buddha.

London, Spink

& Son

breakdown of the humanistic

style of the

West

(formerly)

are here represented

by Indian iconographical

and technical concepts. The now completely unClassical appearance of the Paitava

Buddha is to

be explained by the replacement of foreign by

native Indian talent.
hieratically

and so

and

in a sense

less
is

The whole

figure

is

more

humanistically conceived,

more

in

conformity with the

truly Indian ideals of the religious image.

The

Apollonian face of early Gandhara Buddhas

has taken on the mask-like character of the

heads of Indian images of earlier schools.

face

is

spheroid, and to

it

The

the individual features

are attached, with only a schematic suggestion

of their organic relationship.

The formerly volu-

minous drapery has been reduced

to a

system

of strings or ridges. This reduction of the Classical

garment

in later

to a linear

formula

is

perpetuated

Indian schools of sculpture and spreads

even to the Buddhist sculpture of China and

68. Buddha of the Great Miracle from Paitava.

Dar-ul-Aman. Kabul, Museum

130

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

Japan. 16 Iconographically, this relief is interesting because

it

development of a new

reveals the

tendency whereby the enormously enlarged

figure of the

Buddha with

and attributes stands

and replaces the

appropriate gestures

for the event illustrated

earlier narrative

treatment of

such scenes.

Buddha was

Sakyamuni seated with

the representation of

his legs locked in the

characteristic yoga posture.

sical

[69].

There was no Clas-

precedent for such a representation, so that,

perforce, the conception had to be based

on the

The word

this

Probably

in the round.

left

entirely

in the niches of Bud-

Gandhara images

flat

and unfinished

present seated figure

is

counterpart of the image at Mardan. Here

same Apollonian

first

Takht-i-Bahi,

is

the relief from the monastery of

now

in the

Dahlem Museum,

the

is

Roman work-

pleated drapery reminiscent of

manship of the

The

and the deeply

facial type,

century a.d. Although in

the presence of an actual

A typical example of the seated Buddha of the

are generally

at the back.

stylistically the exact

the present instance there

Classical type

frontally, neither

for the reason that they

were meant for installation

the Eurasian sculptor's repertory of late Classi-

and techniques. 17

ad-

is

nor any other Gandhara Buddha is executed

observation of actual models, combined with

cal types

'relief here

when viewed

the full round

dhist chapels,

Much more of a real invention than the standing image of

West Berlin

visedly used, because, even though they suggest

some suggestion of
body beneath the
mantle, the seated Buddha type in Gandhara
is

quickly degenerates into a completely inorganic

formula in which the head and trunk of the

fig-

ure are placed on top of a bolster-like shape

intended to represent the folded

legs.

Since even the best of the seated Gandhara

69. Seated

Buddha from Takht-i-Bahi.

Berlin-Dahlem, Staatliche Museen

Buddhas are no more than a representation of a

draped Greco-Roman adolescent in an unusual
easy to see that the humanistic Clas-

pose,

it is

sical

formula was entirely inadequate to the

imbued with the

The Gan-

task of portraying a personage

ecstatic inner serenity of yogic trance.

dhara sculptor has only established the type and

form of the anthropomorphic Buddha.

mained

It

re-

for later generations of Indian sculptors

to suggest

by appropriately abstract and

means the pent-up, dynamic

force

and

ideal
self-

contained power of the Enlightened One.

In addition to the origin of the
the

Gandhara school

is

Buddha image,

probably to be credited

with the invention of the Bodhisattva type

[70].

The portrait-like character of these figures suggests that they may have been representations of
noble donors divinized as the Bodhisattvas

Siddhartha or Maitreya in the same way that

the

Khmer

rulers of

the guise of

Hindu

Cambodia were shown

or Buddhist deities.

type of royal figure arrayed in

all

contemporary Indian Rakah

is

in

The

the finery of a
essentially the

70.

Standing Bodhisattva.
Museum of Fine Arts

Boston,

132

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

same

as

had been used

in the

Maurya and Sunga

The

Periods for representations of yakshas.

Gandhara Bodhisattvas

are

all

that

is

certainly a literal adaption of the actual

dress of

Kushan and Indian

lery of these royal statues

nobles.

may be

The

jewel-

duplicated in

the finds of Hellenistic and Sarmatian gold

unearthed

at

The

Taxila and elsewhere.

of these Bodhisattva images

is

style

mixture of

techniques of Western origin, so that, for example, the stiff swallow-tail folds

of the dhoti are

obviously an adaptation of the neo-Attic style

Rome under

that flourished in

Hadrian, and

in the ancient

Indian schools.

The Gandhara

shown wearing

turbans, jewellery, and muslin skirts -a costume

was inevitably employed

that

show no less stylistic

Buddhas and Bo-

reliefs

variety than the statues of

dhisattvas.

on

They reveal once again a dependence

Indian art of many different

Roman and

periods

certain reliefs in

which

figures of defi-

nitely Classical type are isolated against a plain

background are reminiscent of the Flavian

val of the
in

revi-

Greek style of the Great Period; others,

which complicated masses of forms are

re-

shadowed back-

lieved against a deeply cut,

ground, display the method of the early Andhra

reliefs at

Sanchi which in a way approximates

the carving of the faces varies from imitation of

the 'illusionism' of Roman relief of the Constan-

Roman models

tinian Period.

and hard precision

to a rigid

suggestive of the grave figures of Palmyra.

Another
in the

definite

borrowing from

Buddha legend

series of separate episodes, in

art

much

in a

same

the

that the pictorial iconography of the Chris-

tian legend

was based on the approved

method of portraying
by

Roman

Peshawar Valley was the method of rep-

resenting the story of the

way

its

number of

separate panels.

Roman

the careers of the Caesars

distinct climactic events in

It will

be noted that this

is

break from the device of continuous narration

71.

is

Gandhara

relief sculpture

owes

rather puzzling character to the fact that

it

technically an impossible mixture of archaic

and developed

styles of carving: the narrative

method and conceptual point of view of the old

Indian schools combined with the illusionistic
spatial

experiments

of

Roman

of

art

the

Imperial Period.

The first type of relief may

be illustrated by a

steatite panel

of a stair-riser from a

Buner region

[71].

site in

the

Although sometimes identi-

fied as the Presentation

of the Bride to Prince

Dionysian scene from the Buner region.

Cambridge, Mass., B. Rowland

TW-

^^5^ %

m%
n

>$L

-;.-

..-

>;

>-

m
mLk

W/t

"^wB

)?I

jii

H WmA

gpjH. -\s

mSA

it-.

Ik

'

^*

H <3HH-I
j

;'s

>i
..

rjii f

w
;'

mr'

WL

It

II l l
r

'i

If

1"

m\

-Jy

ART UNDER THE KESHAN'S: GANDHARA

72.

The Nirvana

Calcutta, Indian

of Buddha from Loriyan

Museum

Siddhartha, the subject

scene.

The

carving

is

is

more

like a

Tarisai.

dionysian

characterized by the iso-

lation of the figures against a plain

background,

although the forms themselves are related by

their postures

and gestures. These

features, to-

It

and that only somewhat

Gandhara

later

was

this

type replaced by imitations of the more typically

Roman

illusionistic

manner.

1 "

and other examples ultimately

panel, nearly two feet high, representing the

based on the Greek relief style of the

tury B.C. 15

school,

A typical Gandhara relief that illustrates the

more complicated aspects of the style is a large

individual forms, remind us of Flavian or

reliefs

pagan subject-matter - should be considered

the very earliest examples of the

Had-

gether with the fully rounded carving of the

rianic

133

may

fifth

well be that this relief

manv others in the same stvle - some

cen-

and

with actual

Nirvana of Buddha

[72].

time of

At

first

glance

it

might

Roman carving of the

Septimus Severus. The many tiers of

almost be mistaken for

134

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

'

figures

emerging from the depths of the shad-

owed background are obviously carved in such

a way as to provide a very rich and dramatic
contrast in light and shade.

The relief is a perfect

illustration of the strangely

unhappy

stylistic

century a.d., and by the

ture as early as the

first

third century a.d.

had largely replaced stone

as

the material for the decoration of stupas and

viharas.

made

The

malleable nature of this

medium

freedom of expression that eluded

for a

mixture resulting from the combination of the

the carvers of the intractable slate. Both stone

methods of

and stucco images were originally embellished

Roman craftsmanship and the essentially archaic

with polychromy and gold leaf. The use of stucco

and conceptual point of view of the native In-

for architectural decoration

technically advanced

dian tradition.

and

The whole

realistic

is

a strange

combina-

and dramatized

tion of the illusionistic depth

chiaroscuro of Roman relief combined with the

old intuitive
spective

method of

indicating spatial per-

by placing the consecutive rows of fig-

we have

ures one above the other that

already

and

Iran,

may

it

had

its

origin in

well be that the Sasanian

invasion of a.d. 241 was responsible for the

late,

almost universal employment of stucco in

Gandhara. Although the famous Afghan

of

Hadda

has

centre of late

become world-renowned

Gandhara

sculpture,

it

all

site

as a

should not

seen at Sanchi and elsewhere. Another distinctly

be overlooked that there are many fine specimens

non-Indian feature

in stucco

is

the violent expression of

emotion, not only the gestures, but the

contortions of

many

facial

of the figures emphasizing

their grief at the Lord's demise.

This concern

from such north-west Indian

sites as

Taxila, Sahri-Bahlol, and Takht-i-Bahi near

Peshawar. In the
school

last

centuries of the

difficult to

it is

make any

Gandhara

distinction in

between the sculptures

with the expression of pathos and inner feeling,

either style or technique

suggestive of the so-called barbarian sarcophagi

of the Kabul Valley, the Peshawar region, and

of third-century

Roman

art,

comes

to be ex-

ploited to an even greater extent in the final or

'Gothic' phase of sculpture in Gandhara.

A final

The

sculpture of Gandhara seems to confirm

the testimony of the Chinese pilgrims on the pre-

humanism and the iconographical demands

Buddhism may be discerned in the figure of

.dominance of the Hinayana sect of Buddhism. 21

sical

the dying

Buddha

himself. According to the

ancient principle of hieratic scaling, the figure

is

Punjab.

mixture of Clas-

illustration of the irreconcilable

of

the religious establishments of Taxila in the

enormously larger than the forms of the

mourning

disciples.

This dualism becomes the

more apparent when we

realize that the

form

not really conceived of as a reclining body at

but, like

Western medieval tomb

effigies,

simply a standing Buddha type placed on

side.

This panel

is

We

is

its

probably to be dated in the

heyday of foreign workmanship

in the late

is

all,

in

Gandhara,

second or early third century a.d. 20

are probably safe in concluding that,

whereas in the early centuries of Gandhara

sculpture the favourite

medium

for carving

was

The

subject-matter of the single statues

is

for

the most part restricted to representations of

the mortal

Sakyamuni and the Buddha of the

Future, Maitreya.

The

reliefs,

tion of Bacchanalian scenes

with the excep-

and other subjects

of Hellenistic origin, are devoted entirely to

of the

illustrations

life

of

Buddha and the

A number of

legends of his earlier incarnations.

statues identifiable as the Bodhisattva Avalo-

kitesvara

images

and

may

reliefs

with multiple Buddha

be taken as the earliest examples of

Mahayana Buddhist

sculpture.

Undoubtedly there was at one time a great

corpus of Gandhara sculpture in metal, of which
only a few small statuettes survive. There are,

the blue schist and green phyllite of the region,

however, even more interesting survivals in

stucco or lime-plaster was employed for sculp-

this

medium from the early decades of the nine:

ART UNDER THE KUSHANS: GANDHARA

ring to the

first

who

The
may have been Kanishka

year of Kanishka's reign.

sovereign referred to
II or III,

135

ruled in the late second and early

The ornamentation of the

drum consists of representa-

third centuries a.d.

lower band of the

tions in relief of garland-bearing erotes

Kushan

and

sovereign, presumably Kanishka, be-

tween the

divinities of the

the side of the lid

is

sun and moon; on

zone ofhamsa, emblems of

Buddhism. To the top of the

the spread of

cover are fastened free-standing statuettes of

the

Buddha, flanked by Indra and Brahma. The

style of these

images in the round and of the

repousse reliefs

is

extremely crude, and m^re

closely related to imitations of

ture at

Mathura; so

Gandhara sculp-

that, actually, the reliquary

might have been imported

to Peshawar. 22

most Classic feature of the object

name of the maker,

sian in the

An

the

The

Greek

Agesilas, probably a Eura-

employ of the Kushan

court.

even more interesting fragment of Gan-

dhara metal-work

is

quary in the British

box of pure gold

This also was

Reliquary of King Kanishka

from Shah-ji-ki-Dheri.

is

the so-called Bimaran reli-

Museum

[74]. It is a

round

repousse, inlaid with rubies.

a container for fragments of Bud-

73.

Museum

Peshawar, Archaeological

teenth century,

dhist relics. It in turn was enclosed in a stone

box,

when discovered by

that pioneer in Indian

when treasure-hunters and ama-

teur archaeologists

first

began to open the stupas

or topes of north-west India and Afghanistan,

there have

come

to light a

number of reliquaries

containing corporeal fragments of Buddhist

saints,

some of which

of considerable

are

importance for the history of

art in this

man's-land between East and West.

no-

The official

excavation of the ruins of the principal stupa

of

King Kanishka

at

Shah-ji-ki-Dheri, near

Peshawar, resulted in the discovery of what

believed by

many

box deposited by
reigns.

of an

The

to

be the actual metal

this greatest

object itself

is

of

is

relic

Kushan sove-

round pyxis, made

amalgam of precious metals

[73]. It

bears

an inscription that has been interpreted as refer74.

Reliquary from Bimaran.

London, British

Museum

U*

136

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

archaeology, Charles Masson, in the ruins of a

very

stupa at Bimaran near Jelalabad in Afghani-

about

stan.

23

From

the fact that a

number

of coins of

the Saka ruler, Azes, were found with the reli-

quary,

used to be assumed that the casket

it

must be dated

in the first

century

Deposits

B.C.

difficult.

In so far as one can be didactic

problem,

this

school reached

its

it

and aesthetic effectiveness

ond centuries

a.d., the

the last centuries of

poses of dating, since they could have been and

comes

often were inserted long after the burial of the

tion of the Eastern

Stylistically, this little piece

of metal-

work provides very valuable evidence

for the

Gandhara

origins.

dating of the

The

and

style

its

decoration of the reliquary consists of a

band of cusped niches enclosing

figures of Bud-

dha, flanked by Indra and Brahma, just as on

the Early Christian sarcophagi

we

find a trinity

its

and sec-

in the first

period coinciding with

the closest contacts with the

of coins, however, are rather unreliable for pur-

relics.

can be stated that the

highest point of production

Roman

world. 24 In

existence the style be-

closer to the orientalized style of produc-

Roman Empire, in which the

old Oriental tendencies towards frontality, abstraction,

and

hieratic scaling

were beginning

to

assert themselves over the humanistic Classical

forms of earlier times.

Presumably the disastrous invasion of the

White Huns in the fifth century put an end

to all

Gandhara be-

further productive activity in

on such monu-

of Christ revered by Saints Peter and Paul. This

yond the execution of

combination of figures and architectural setting,

ments as survived this raid. The Chinese pilgrim

described by Focillon as 'homme-arcade',

Hsiian-tsang's account of the ruined monaster-

found

in

Roman

art before the

is

Sidamara

not
sar-

cophagi of the second century a.d. This charac-

motif of Late Classical decoration

teristic

repeated endlessly on the

is

drums and bases of

stupas in north-western India and Afghanistan.

All these

examples obviously can be no

minous
to the

Bimaran

The

style

most

It

first

closely related to

Roman

and second centuries

a.d.

should be noted, however, that the arches of

the arcade are not at

familiar ogee

all

Classical, but

have the

form of the chaitya window.

Probably owing to

The

dhist centre.

final

once flourishing Bud-

chapters of Gandhara

have their setting, not

in

Gandhara, but

Kashmir and such remote centres

its

political isolation

the

architecture of

in

Fondukis-

same compound of Classical and Indian de-

by the sculpture.

It

must be remembered

like the sculpture, the history

Gandhara

is

in reality a separate, foreign inter-

lude in the development of Indian

parallel

suggests

art

enjoyed a greater

monotony of ex-

pression unlike that of any other Indian school.

the very repetition of type and techniques

European

twenthe

in

styles

on

his

country his

villas

standing

deserted and ruinous amid the flower-beds at

Darul-Aman near Kabul are a modern repetition of the Kushan policy of importing foreign
styles. Anyone who has seen these melancholy
of imitations of Sans Souci and Swiss

over a period of nearly five centuries that makes

relics

any kind of chronology on a

chalets can appreciate

stylistic basis so

art.

itself

attempt of the deposed Afghan King Amanul-

gutted palaces at Jelalabad, the

West, Gandhara

that,

of architecture in

lah to foist

longevity and also maintained a

reveals the

coration and technique as has been exemplified

tieth-century

from

Gandhara

India proper and the maintenance of continuous

It is

as

The

contacts with centres of artistic activity in the

Roman

Peshawar

tan in Afghanistan, where artistic activity con-

most Western type of Gandhara sculp-

- the

terrible desolation of this

art

in the

tinued at least as late as the seventh century a.d.

Classical mantles, likewise corresponds

prototypes of the

him everywhere

probably an accurate description of the

style of the fig-

ture of the late second and early third centuries

a.d.

greeted

is

reliquary, with their volu-

than the third century a.d.

ures on the

earlier

ies that

Valley

repairs

how strange and unaccep-

ART UNDER THE KUSHANS: GANDHARA

137

Romanized architecGandhara must have appeared.

table to Indian ideals the

ture of

The

earliest

examples of architecture

in this

region are the buildings in and around the ancient city of Taxila, notably the site of Sirkap,

which was the

capital of the

Parthian sovereigns

who

Greek and Saka-

ruled in the Punjab

before the advent of the Kushans. Only the

ground plan of the royal palace

vives. It reveals

at

Sirkap sur-

an arrangement not unlike that

of the ancient palaces of Mesopotamia, with a

division into the king's apartments, audience

chambers, and harem

[75].

The

foundation of

an interesting structure on the main street of

Sirkap

is

characteristic of the partly Greek, part-

century

Indian culture of the

is

the so-called Shrine of the Double-headed

Eagle [76].

It

first

B.C.

consists of a square base that at

75. Sirkap, Taxila, palace

Women's

1.

Halls of audience

3.

Private court and men's quarters

2.

This

ly

quarters
76. Sirkap, Shrine of the

Double-headed Eagle

138

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

one time supported the hemispherical dome of

a

The

stupa.

principal facade

blocks of the local kanjur stone

ous sandstone).

It is

faced with

is

(a variety

ornamented with

of por-

pilasters

of a composite type, and between these pilasters

temple. 25 Actually, the plan corresponds

more

much

closely to the plans of the fire temples of

Iran in the Achaemenid and Parthian Periods.

That the sanctuary may have been dedicated to

Mazdaean worship

is

suggested by the absence

monuments, includ-

of any kind of imagery and by the presence at

ing a representation of a Classical pedimented

the back of the shrine of a platform, perhaps

are reliefs of architectural

and

aedicule, a torana or Indian gateway,

chaitya arch.

On

the

summit of

the last

is

name. The use of the engaged order

Roman

The

originally supporting a

Ionic columns of the portico are built with

double-headed eagle, from which the shrine derives its

wooden

is,

drums
[78].

in accordance with the

The

capitals

fire-tower.

Greek method

and bases approximate

late

precedent. But

Greek provincial examples of the order and con-

the capitals themselves are completely non-

firm the dating of the temple in the time of Par-

of course, suggestive of

Classical,

The

and even debased

thian supremacy at Taxila

in proportion.

only building at Taxila with a plan re-

motely approximating
so-called Fire

a Classical shrine

Temple

at Jandial.

The

is

the

plan

is

that of a peripteral temple in antis [77]. Originally,

there were four Ionic pillars between the

antae; behind this, a

cella,

and

room corresponding

to the

second apartment corresponding to

the inner shrine of the Parthenon.

The

outer

circumference of the temple consisted of rubble

masonry

piers spaced at regular intervals in a

manner suggesting

77. Jandial, Taxila,

the colonnade of a

Greek

temple

78. Jandial, Taxila, temple, Ionic capital

and base

The

(c

50

B.C. to a.d. 65).

principal contribution of

Gandhara

to

architecture was in the development of buildings

dedicated to the Buddhist religion.

We may

take as an example the vihara at Takht-i-Bahi,

an isolated

site

not far from Peshawar, near the

supposed location of the

Gondophares
series of

[80].

The

capital of the Parthian

basis of the plan

is

connected courts open to the sky, sur-

rounded either by cells for the accommodation of

the

monks

or by niches to house the devotional

objects of the monastery [79]. Larger

~-^r*.

cham-

79 and 80. Takht-i-Bahi f

monastery

8i.

AH

Masjid stupa, Khyber Pass

ART UNDER THE KLSHANS: GANDHARA

bers served as assembly halls or refectories.

Some

of the outdoor enclosures are crowded

with stupas of varying sizes, the

ual donors, clustered

around

contained the principal

ment.

The

gifts

of individstupa that

a larger

relic

of the establish-

buildings at Takht-i-Bahi, like their

counterparts

Taxila and elsewhere in

at

Gan-

of the basement are caryatids in the shape of

crouching yakshas and

scheme of decoration

framed

debased Corinthian

in

reliquary, and

Roman

ornament

it

housed, was covered with a heavy

polychromed and

The

stupa in Gandhara marks the gradual

known at San-

and Bharhut. Tins elaboration takes the

of the deified

This

notable

the greater emphasis on the

is

Not infrequently

superstructure.

the

Gandhara

stupas have an attenuated, tower-like appear-

whereby the height of the

of the base and

dome and
;

from such models the

that

finial
it is

dwarfs the

highly likely

earliest

pagodas of

China were developed. As an example of

architectural type in

this

Gandhara, the Ali Masjid

any unified iconographic

Buddha of

mound

relic

is

of

in the elaborateness

now

to the stupa,

railing.
is

suggested by the repetition of the storeys of

the base

and drum.

The most famous

table

stupa in Gandhara, a veri-

Buddhist wonder of the world, was the

great tower raised by

King Kanishka

illustration

shows the monument immediately

have revealed

figural decora-

was demolished by iconoclastic Pathan

tion

tribesmen. This

monument, orginally more than

fort} feet high,

is

Gandhara stupas

characteristic of even larger

in its elevation, consisting of

two square bases, a drum, probably originally

two

storeys,

and surmounted

at

the usual superstructure of harmika

tiered umbrellas.

facade

is

one time by

and

The ornamentation

finial

of

of the

the combination of Indian and Classi-

elements so universal in every aspect of

Gandhara

art.

Supporting the second storey

surrounding

to its

The architect's interest in greater height

war. Excavations at the

its

Mahayana faith.
Gandhara

decoration, applied

its

and not

Khyber Pass may be taken [81]. The

and before

the

characteristic of

stupa in the

after excavation

comBuddha

scheme, but representing only different aspects

form of the all-over sculptural ornamentation

ance,

sculpture in-

and Bodhisattva images - not arranged, apparently, according to

of base, drum, and hemispherical dome. Especially

The

boulders and small stones.

stalled in the niches of the Ali .Masjid stupa

prised a heterogeneous assortment of

elaboration of the primitive types

cal

architecture. This

carried out entirely in

lime plaster attached to the core of the stupa,

gilded [84].

in

is

which was constructed of the usual mixture of

layer of lime plaster, richly

size

ultimately derived from the

We must imagine that originally the en-

the statuary

chi

is

engaged orders of
architectural

The

pilasters.

ornamentation of the Bimaran

surface of this stone fabric, together with

thatch.
tire

principal

chaitya arches supported on stubby balusters

arranged in diaper fashion. Certain elements,

niches, are obviously imitations of prototypes in

The

ment of arcades attached to the facade. These

drums alike consist of

effect recalls the

the heavy, overhanging cornices of the

lions.

consists of a stucco revet-

arcades on bases and

dhara, are constructed of stones of varying sizes

like

141

site

in

Pesha-

of Shah-ji-ki-Dheri

massive square platform richly

decorated with stucco images of the Buddha,

staircases leading to an

and with

According
pilgrim.

upper

to the description of the

Sung

Yiin,

who

level.

Chinese

visited the site in the

sixth century a.d., the superstructure

of 'every kind of wood' and the

was

thirteen storeys rose to a height of seven

dred feet;

it

built

monument

in

hun-

was dominated by an iron mast

supporting thirteen gilded copper umbrellas, an

element which, through

its

attraction of light-

ning, led to the destruction of the tower.- 6

may

gain

some

idea of

its

One

original appearance

142

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

from the miniature stupas of tower-like proporfound at Taxila and elsewhere [82]. 27

tions

Although, as we have already seen, the Ionic

order was used in buildings during the Parthian
period at Taxila, Corinthian

employed

sally

is

almost univer-

in the structures erected during

Kushan era. The Corinthian capitals of

Gandhara have their nearest prototypes in Ro-

the

man provincial examples in Syria and Palestine.

There is nothing organic about the arrangement
of leaves and helices even the calyx cups from
;

which the

emerge

spiralling fronds

in Classic

Corinthian have disappeared. In certain examples [83] such an application of acanthus leaves
to a

form

recalling the ancient Indian bracket

type of capital results in a complete loss of the

many

basket-like shape of the Corinthian. In

examples of Gandhara Corinthian capitals

ures of

Buddhas and Bodhisattvas

fig-

are intro-

duced into the foliage, a combination of elements

suggestive of the Composite form of
order. Indeed, the

thian

order,

Roman

predominance of the Corin-

together

with

an almost

total

absence of the Doric and Ionic in Gandhara

architecture of the Buddhist period,
the

arguments

strongest

entirely

Roman

is

favour

in

one of
of the

origin of the whole school.

John Marshall has attempted to establish

chronology for Gandhara architecture on the
Sir

basis of the types of masonry

found

in buildings

The

buildings of

of consecutive strata at Taxila.

the Parthian Period, like the temple at Jandial

prior to the

Kushan occupation

in the first cen-

tury A.D., have their walls constructed of rubble,

a

heterogeneous mixture of large and small

stones [78]. This type was replaced in the earliest

Buddhist structures by a variety of diaperpatterned rubble with the interstices

filled

with

small stones or snecks [84]. In the latest types of

Gandhara buildings
third century
82.

Model stupa from

Taxila, Archaeological

and

at Taxila,

later, this

dating from the

method was im-

Jaulian.

proved by introducing courses of precisely cut

Museum

ashlar

masonry alternating with layers of rubble.

83. Corinthian capital

London, British

from Jamalgarhi.

Museum

84. Takht-i-Bahi, stupa court

144

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

'

None

of these different types of construction

They

the portrait of Kanishka at

Mathura

[96]

and

served only as a

second image, perhaps of a Kushan prince, rep-

base or a core for an outer decoration of poly-

resented wearing a fur-lined mantle or pustin

was meant

chromed

to be seen.

stucco.

Excavations

at

The

[86].

Surkh Kotal

in

Afghanistan have brought to light a

northern

fire

temple

rigid frontality of these statues

ture,

and the indication of the drapery

in a

conthe

vention

ary and earlier examples in Iran [85]. Another

technique of late Gandhara sculpture

Many

temple was apparently dedicated to the cult of

Kushan

found
great

king. 28

An

of the

ridges

Kushan

[68].

royal portraits have

inscription in

Greek

haunting resemblances to Parthian prototypes

at this site records the dedication

by the

at

King Kanishka

genius of victory.

Surkh Kotal

is

to

Oanindo, the Kushan

Among

the statues found at

a fragmentary effigy resembling

C^>N

::-:^^iS&W*aKSf

10

METRES

85.

Surkh Kotal,

86.

Kushan prince from Surkh

Museum

Kabul,

of raised

approximates

with a plan recalling that of the Jandial sanctu-

the

is

strongly suggestive of Parthian portrait sculp-

fire

temple
Kotal.

Hatra and elsewhere. Fragments of

many

a great

royal effigies have been found in the vast

palaces

of ancient

U.S.S.R.), and

it

is

Chorasmia

(Khwarezm,

possible that the

Kushan

ART UNDER THE KUSHANS: GANDHARA

145

cussed here. This material represents the same

mixture of Classical, Iranian, and Indian forms

and techniques that characterizes the

art

of

Gandhara. Most of these objects found at Sirkap

were presumably buried

Kushan invaders

at the

in a.d. 64.

of metalwork are a

approach of the

Among the

objects

number of silver goblets with

carinated and fluted bodies [88].

tiny foot

supports the vessel; the shape has no relation to

any

classical type

and

is

possibly derived from

similar types in prehistoric pottery.

Exactly

similar drinking vessels appear in early

dhara bacchanalian

reliefs [71].

31

Gan-

The examples

of jewellery found at Taxila often duplicate the

cult

images

at

Mat and Surkh Kotal may be

derived from this former part of eastern Iran in

the early centuries of the Christian era.

Although the

first

examples of actual Greek

sculpture have only recently been discovered

in Bactria, a

number of magnificent silver

and bowls, most of them

Hermitage

at

Leningrad, have often been iden-

tified as actual

Many

examples of Bactrian metalwork.

of these were undoubtedly exports from

the Seleucid West, but

ple

plates

in the collection of the

some

at least, for

exam-

two phalerae with representations of war

elephants [87], have haunting technical and

stylistic features that

would appear related

to

this isolated Hellenistic province. 29

personage riding in the fortified

a

The princely
howdah bears

marked resemblance to the coin portraits of the

Bactrian king Eucratides [65c].

cloth

The

saddle-

decorated with a representation of a

is

hippocamp, of a type that later makes its appearance in the sculpture of Gandhara and in the
toilet trays

An

discovered

at

Taxila and elsewhere. 30

entire chapter could be devoted to the

hoards of precious objects in gold and silver

found

at

Kushan

Taxila of the

Saka-Parthian and

Periods, so that only a small

representative pieces

may

number of

be conveniently dis-

87 (above

left).

Plate with

war elephant from

Leningrad, Hermitage
88. Silver goblet

from Taxila.

Taxila, Archaeological

Museum

Bactria.

146

89.

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

Gold amulet boxes from

Taxtla, Archaeological

Taxila.

Museum

ornaments worn by the Gandhara Bodhisattvas

[89]; for
is

example,

a string

of amulet boxes that

an inevitable feature of these princely figures

[70].

These

evil forces

little

containers of charms against

represent the persistence of an age-

old Indian magic.

gold repousse plaque rep-

resenting Cupid and Psyche

is

possibly an actual

example of the type of turban pins often decor-

90.

Gold plaque with Cupid and Psyche

from Taxila.
Taxila, Archaeological

Museum

ating
figures

the

head-dresses

[90].

The

of the

Classical

Bodhisattva

theme has been

translated into the rather heavy semi-Indian

forms of Gandhara sculpture.

Belonging to the end of the Saka-Parthian
Period at Taxila are a

number

of gold earrings

of the 'leech-and-pendant' type, a pattern also

known

in

Greco-Roman

jewellery.

The

clasp in

147

gi.

Ear pendant from Taxila.

Taxila, Archaeological
92. Silver anklets

from Taxila.

Taxila, Archaeological

the example illustrated [91]

a tiny

is

circlet

hangs

a trefoil

pendant

The massive

lated gold filigree.

Museum

ornamented with

female bust set in a lotus rosette.

beaded

Museum

in

From

granu-

silver anklets

among

[92] are of a type often represented

the

ornaments of the Kushan yakshis of Mathura

[100].

Among
where

in

the minor finds at Taxila and else-

north-western Pakistan are numerous

steatite dishes, usually

The

described as

subjects carved on these

almost

all

Classical.

The

toilet trays.

little

earliest

bowls are

specimens are

usually associated with the Saka-Parthian Peri-

od

(first

century

B.C.)

and are related

to similar

objects found in Egypt. 32 In the example illustrated [93],

it

will

be noted that the Diana and

Actaeon are carved nearly in the

in the reliefs of the

One

full

Sarnath capital

round, as

[21].

of the prime examples in the art of

Gandhara of the rather uneasy merging of

Indian religious themes and the motifs and

93. Steatite dish with

Diana and Actaeon

from Gandhara.
London, British Museum

148

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

94. Pancika

and

Hariti.

Oxford, Ashmolean Museum, Department of Eastern Art (Hailey Gift)

styles of

Western

classical art

is

the stone reliefs

showing Pancika and Hariti seated side by side

in a

manner probably suggested by

couples of
ally a

Roman

art [94].

the tutelary

Pancika was origin-

yaksa general whose name was eventually

taken over by Kubera, god of wealth and regent

of the north; his consort, Hariti,

is

an Indian

demoness associated with children and smallpox

and worshipped,

in

one guise or another, in

Indian villages to this day. She

is

depicted,

however, wearing a gown reminiscent of classical

the

Greek dress and she holds a cornucopia like

Greek goddess Demeter; he is shown wear-

ing 'Scythian' garb and holding a long lance, but

the style of both figures

from

Roman

art.

is

essentially derived

CHAPTER 10

,0

*<

ART UNDER THE KUSHANS

MATHURA: THE INDIAN PHASE

II.

The completely

Indian art created at Mathura

(modern Muttra) on the Jumna River

in the

of portrait statues separated in style both from

the

Gandhara school and the

native techniques

early centuries of the Christian era, unlike that

of Mathura. This group of statues consists of

of Gandhara, did not appear as a sudden out-

portraits of Kanishka, his predecessor,

burst of creative activity inspired by

patronage.

It

outgrowth
inscriptions

history of

back to

may be

of the

from the early

Jain

properly regarded as an

ancient

Indian

as a centre of religious art

make an

starting

are the stylistic equivalent of

at

Bharhut.

144-241), and

is

Kushan

rule

his successors

thus exactly con-

temporary with the school of Gandhara. The

continued as an important religious and
centre

in

Gupta Period.

the

The

point

for

structure

all

that,

cult.

It

was

although representations of

donors, typical rather than realistic in character,

do occur on Gandhara

reliefs,

these are the sole

examples of portrait sculpture known

India. 2

This factor alone suggests

the Kushans' knowledge of the

all

carved from

Probably

the Parthian

Kushan

reigns.

stone, frequently

This

is

an exceedingly ugly

marred by veins of yellow and

this influence is to

latter

the stylistic point of view, the

possibility

Wima

seems more probable. The

Kadphises, dated in the sixth

statue of

colours disfigure the surface. For this reason,

year of Kanishka's reign (a.d.

little

doubt that the whole carved

surface was originally covered with a concealing

layer of

polychromy or

gilt.

Before examining the specimens of purely

practice

commemorations of mortal sove-

From

white, so that streaks and spots of these lighter

there can be

be traced to

Roman

of erecting likenesses of the deified Caesars or

the red sandstone quarried at Sikri, near the

capital.

in ancient

a foreign in-

fluence behind their manufacture and installation.

through the Gupta Period, was

exclusively

should be emphasized

ments

Mathura, from pre-Kushan times

of the

in the ruins of a

presumably

that

devoted to a royal
of

consideration

were found together

portraits

first

the

sculptured decoration of the religious establishat

stylistic

interesting

contribution of the school of Mathura. All the

great period of Mathura's florescence coin-

artistic

northern India and their autonomous

character, these effigies

century a.d., mostly from

cides with the great century of

city

ruled in Sind. Given their intimate con-

nexion with the royal patrons of Buddhism in

number of dated fragments

monuments,

a.d.

who

under the reigns of Kanishka and

(c.

Wima

Kadphises, and a Kushan satrap, Chashtana,

first

some of the more advanced works

The

schools:

and fragments of sculpture take the

Mathura

200 B.C.

c.

Kushan

134 or 150),

represents the ruler seated on a lion-throne,

wearing the short tunic and heavy

familiar

Kushan

felt

boots so

on the coin portraits of these same

kings

[95].

Only

the

breadth

of

shoulders and fuilness of the form suggest a

IsO

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

continuation of the Indian figure style.

image has

suggestive

ately

fragmentary

of

Iranian

portrait-statues of the Parthian Period

by Herzfeld. 3

lished

It

The

and crudity immedi-

a massiveness

pub-

might be mentioned,
ornamental

too, that the precise carving of the

border of the cloth draped over the throne

reveals an almost exact

woven

copy of the designs of

from Palmyra - one more indication

silks

of the close commercial and cultural links

between the Kushan Empire and the West.

The companion

statue of

Kanishka [96]

is

by an inscription cut across the

identified

bottom of the mantle: 'The great King, the

King of Kings, His Majesty Kanishka'. The

shows the monarch standing rigidly
frontal, his hands resting on sword and mace.

statue

The

statue

is

headless, but the resemblance of

the whole to the likeness of Kanishka on his

coins

is

so close that one could reconstruct the

image by adding the massive bearded head with

peaked cap that we invariably see
portraits [65

statue

is

G and

clad in a

Wima

Kadphises from Mathura

Muttra, Archaeological

Museum

.i*
It-

96 {opposite). Kanishka from Mathura. (yjjA

Muttra, Archaeological Museum

Kanishka

stiff mantle

boots of a type

95.

h].

still

in the coin-

in this official

and heavy, padded

found

Gilgit.

in

This

costume, so entirely unsuited to the heat of

Mathura, was perhaps assumed

purposes, since

it is

a dress

for

homeland of the Kushan invaders.

an Assyrian king or

ceremonial

imported from the

Roman

No effigy

of

Caesar gives a

stronger impression of authority and power

than this image of the conqueror from the

steppes, an effect conveyed

and the
form.

hieratic,

by the arrogant pose

almost idol-like rigidity of the

The image

is

rather like a relief dis-

engaged from its background with no suggestion

of three-dimensional existence.

It consists

of

hardly more than a stone slab carved into the

of a

silhouette

emphasis

is

cloaked

figure.

The whole

on the eccentric silhouette provided

by the sharp and angular

lines of the military

mantle, exactly as in the coin-portraits of the

same

ruler.

The

indication of drapery consists

only of crudely incised serpentine lines across

97- Bodhisattva dedicated

by Friar Bala

Sarnath, Archaeological

*>

from Mathura.

Museum

ART UNDER THE KUSHANS: MATHURA

and the

the front of the skirt,

sole suggestion of

Indian workmanship might be discerned in the

makara head of the

careful rendering of the

One

sovereign's mace.

is

with the feeling

left

153

existence of the stuff as a volume separate from

the form

clothes.

it

The

subtle rounding and

interlocking of the planes of the torso contrive

warmth and firmness

to give a suggestion of the

that the primitive

and crude quality of these

of flesh and, as in the Harappa torso, a powerful

portrait statues

perhaps partly due

feeling for the presence of the inner breath or

is

to the

Indian workman's complete unfamiliarity and

lack of sympathy with this

prana.

When

form of art: without

it

came

to the carving of the

Buddha

the systems of proportion and tradition that

image, Indian sculptors were no longer able to

Buddha

depend on the kind of loving reporting of

determined

his operations in carving

images, he could produce only the crudest

surrounding nature that gives the early Indian

ideograph of a portrait.

sculptures such an extraordinary vitality; the

The
deserve

Mathura

of

sculptors

undoubtedly

credit for creating the earliest, entirely

nature of the subject - the

Buddha

already con-

who

ceived of as a transcendant personage, one

Indian representations of the Buddha. Whether

had passed beyond Nirvana - almost forced

these statues are earlier, or later, or exactly

reliance

on preconceived

and

dependence on certain superhuman

contemporary with the

is

but

is

of

first

Gandhara Buddhas

been discussed

a question that has

a great deal

real interest, except for those

little

determined to establish a chauvinistic priority

Mathura.

for the entirely Indian type evolved at

What was presumably one

of the very

images of Buddha to be carved

at

Mathura

first
is

ideals of divine beauty

proportions and attributes which would properly

assure the image's assuming an appropriately

iconic aspect of divine perfection.

It

this

is

enforced method of visualization that bestows

such an awe-inspiring and hieratic character on

the representations of the Great Teacher.

dedication by a certain Friar Bala and a date in

The making of an image of the Buddha

much more than the mere carving of a
human effigy and designation of it as Sakya-

the third year of Kanishka, corresponding to

muni. While Western

either a.d. 131 or 147. 4

aesthetically

more than
Sarnath

found

at

an inscription noting

its

life-sized standing figure

[97]. It bears

Sakyamuni standing
reassurance, the

left

shown

his

feet

raised in the gesture of

been suggested that he

as a Bodhisattva, rather than

since the figure

is

firmly

on the hip supporting the

folds of his robe. It has

is

statue represents

erect,

hand

planted, the right

The

nude

to the waist

the characteristic Indian dhoti.

Buddha,

and wears

The massive

involved

human

figures

perfection

and

sought to make an

art

beautiful

form

vigour,

athletic

achievement of the

final

and

link

it

to the colossal

Maurya

Period.

drapery

is

simplified

The

much more
and

still

yaksha statues of the

carving of both flesh and

subtle

although greatly

represented by the archaic

technique of incised

lines, the

carving of the

drapery suggests not only texture

but

the

yoga state of serenity

and complete mental equilibrium, and

thirty-two major signs of

of weight

art

which

proper likeness of the Buddha had to show his

same type,

connotation

Indian

had to be translated into physical shape.

tion

its

portraying

started with abstract spiritual concepts

proportions of this and related figures of the

expansive volume, as well as the dress, clearly

by

which were models of physical

it

had

in addi-

to incorporate all the laksana or

superhuman per-

body of a Buddha
from those of ordinary mortals. As ruler of the
universe, Buddha assumes the physical emfection distinguishing the

blems or signs, perhaps originally of astrological

origin,

which

characterize

the

body

of

Mahapurusa or Great Being and a Cakravartin

or World Ruler. These signs of physical and

154

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

'

spiritual perfection include the protuberance,

or ushnisha,

on the

skull

and the urna or

between the eyebrows;

hair

body of Buddha

is like

tuft

of

those of a gazelle, and on the soles of his

appear two shining wheels with a thousand

imposed

and

meta-

literally

inevitable

certain

abstractions on the conception of the form.

The Indian maker

came

The Indian
found

type of seated

numerous

in

Mathura, such

of images had also to

reproduce the mudras or hand gestures that

very early

carving of images on the basis of

such descriptions was almost

phorical,

Katra.

in addition, the

feet

The

Buddha from

M ultra, Archaeological Museum

that of a lion, the legs are

like

spokes.

98. Seated

to be associated with various

as a

at

from

examples

specimen from Katra

Museum

Archaeological
carving

Buddha may be

early

Muttra

in the

The

[98].

of the same rather vigorous, often

is

crude type that distinguishes the group of Friar

The

actions and events in the career of Sakyamuni.

Bala statues.

The earth-touching mudra came to be identified

broadly conceived planes, with the suggestion

specifically with the

Enlightenment; and the

so-called wheel-turning gesture stood for the

First Preaching at Sarnath.

of

all

is

the abhaya

reassurance.

The most common

mudra, the gesture of

This might be described

as

gesture of blessing. Although in early Buddhist

art the

number

of these mudras

is

very limited,

Buddhism

the iconography of later esoteric

enlarged the repertory to include an enormous

number of these hand

positions to designate the

mystic powers of the countless

members of the

Mahayana pantheon.
fixed

canons of proportion made their appear-

ance

at a relatively early period.

The

measurement, which has no reference

is

unit of
to

any

an entirely arbitrary

one designed to produce an ideal rather than

human

of the pneumatic distension through prana,

once apparent.

warm,

The

face

is

proportion. This modulus

is

the thalam,

is at

characterized by

its

'friendly' expression. Again, as in the

standing images,

it is

evident that the sculptor

has translated into stone the various metaphors

or laksanas
distinctive

he

is

very careful to represent the

magic-marks on the hands and

feet.

Another interesting feature of this relief is that it

appears to be an early example of the trinity in
Indian art; the attendants presumably
identified as Indra

and Brahma, who

replaced by Bodhisattvas.

In the rendering of sacred figures certain

actual physical anatomy,

treatment of the body in

It

seems

origin the trinity motif stems

may be

later are

likely that in

from

a literal

representation of the Descent from the Tushita

Heaven, with the Buddha accompanied by the

great

gods of the Brahmanic pantheon;

needed only
figures to

it

a hieratic isolation of the three

produce the

trinity. 5 It will

first

conception of the

be noted that, just as in the stand-

roughly a palm or the distance between the top

ing figures of the second century, so in the

of the forehead and the chin, which

seated examples, the

is

divided

nine times into the total height of the figure.

clad only in a dhoti;

These canons of measurement were

reliefs,

specifically

Buddha
it is

is

represented

only in the

Kushan

apparently under Gandharan influence,

Sakyamuni

depicted with the monastic

designed to ensure an appropriately heroic

that

stature for the representation of the divinity.

robe covering the body; in these the drapery,

Both the system and the

conceived as a series of string-like ridges or in

comparable
physical

result of

anatomy

for figures

its

use are

superhuman
of gods in Egypt

to the invention of a

and Greece of the Archaic Period.

is

overlapping shingle-like pleats,

imitation

of

Gandhara

school.

the

classical

is

an evident

drapery

of

the

%
\

\
A

156

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

Nothing could be more

striking than the

Gandhara and Mathura

contrast of the typical

heads reproduced in illustrations 67 and 99. Nor

could anything more emphatically reveal the
contribution of the school of Mathura to Indian

Buddhist

art. If

the ushnisha of the

Gandhara

example was disguised by the krobylos borrowed

from

classical art, this cranial extension is fully

revealed in the

Mathura head as a kind of tiered

The Gandhara head is a

snail-shell structure.

curious mixture of abstraction and realism

the

brows and eyes are modelled with the hard dryness of carving characteristic of Late Antique
art,

whereas the lower part of the face

with

sculptured

apparent

realistic definition

concern

for

is

the

of the structure of the mouth

and chin, so that the

result

is at

once mask-like

and inconsistent. The head of the Buddha from

Mathura

is,

on the contrary, completely con-

sistent in the sculptor's self-imposed abstraction.

The

individual features are integrated into

the essentially spheroidal

Head of Buddha from Mathura.

J
Muttra, Archaeological Museum
/*kj^

99.

*ft

mass of the head, and

no lingering over exactitude of anatomical

detail interferes

with the primary concern for

the presentation of the solid volume of the

whole.

No

Buddhas

is

less

than in the bodies of Kushan

there a suggestion of expansive

inner force achieved by the composition of the

head as a collection of subtly interlocking

and swelling planes, from the curve of cheek

and jowl

to the related curvatures of eyelids

and

brows.
In contrast to the cold and often rather vapid

expressions of the Gandhara Buddhas, the faces

of the statue dedicated by Friar Bala and other

examples from the Kushan school

are

characterized

at

Mathura

by an open, radiant ex-

pression: the eyes are fully open, the cheeks

round and

drawn

full,

the

mouth ample, with

into a slight smile.

This smile

is

lips

probably

the earliest appearance of the only possible

device by which the

Indian sculptor could

indicate the inner contentment and repose of

the Buddha's nature; in later schools, like the

ART UNDER THE KISHANS: MATHIRA

gjffl
l^^^*

V^

^
&

fc

^Up^

Ki||
h^1*^1
roo. Railing pillars with yakshis

Muttra. Archaeological

:'*

-w

from Bhutesar.

Museum

101. Railing pillar with yakshl

Muttra

lM

from Jaisinghpura.

cseum

Cambodian sculpture of the Classic Period, it

comes to be a kind of mannerism or cliche. The
Indian sculptors employed at Mathura were
much more orthodox than their Gandharan

development of the Indian

contemporaries in their representation of the

thoroughly demolished by the Islamic invaders

beauty that reaches

its

in the

work of the Gupta Period.

The

architecture

various laksana: in the Sarnath statue, although

of Northern India that

the individual curls are not shown, the hair

any one building

is

ideal of physical

mature expression

Mathura

of

was

so

impossible to select

it is

as typical

of

Kushan

times.

presum-

indicated as cut short and forming a sort of cap

Characteristic types like the stupa were

on the

ably only an elaboration of earlier forms

skull; the lion-shaped torso, the tapering

arms and

legs,

all

of

descriptions

correspond

the

Buddha's

to

the textual

superhuman

anatomy. In most Mathura images,

like

the

seated figure from Katra, the carvers scrupulously represent the

etc..

on

the

impression

marks of the wheel,

palms and

given

by

soles.

the

The

Sarnath

the relic

with the usual

were

railing, the

generally

at

mounds were surrounded

carved

in

uprights of which

high

relief

with

representations of yakshis of a flamboyance and

trisula.

sensuality of expression surpassing anything

general

known

statue

grandiose, weighty, and yet characterized by a

certain athletic litheness

Mathura

- marks the gradual

in the

an

of earlier periods [ioo and

101]. In their provocative

and frank display of

the beauties and delights of the courtesan's art.

these reliefs

mark

the culmination of a tendencv

58

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

already noted in the carvings at Sanchi and

with the body broken as

Bharhut. Not only

its axis.

is

there a thoroughly con-

many

as three times

on

This sinuous and moving type of pose,

and

vincing suggestion of solidity of form, but the

as well as the eloquent

body and limbs is achieved with

complete mastery and no suggestion of the

gestures of the hands, suggest very strongly the

active imitation

mechanistic joining of individual parts that

gestures of the Indian dance.

characterized the work of the archaic schools.

well be asked:

articulation of

The

figures of the fertility spirits are usually

represented in attitudes of violent contrapposto,

really flower-like

by the carvers of the poses and

what

is

The

question

frankly sensuous figures on a Buddhist

ment?

The answer

is

that

monu-

possibly

102. The yaksha Kuvera and his court

from Pal Khera.
j^
Muttra, Archaeological Museum
<J"
.

-%

>

may

the purpose of such

TOKK/<4flMHI

they

ART UNDER THE KUSHANS: MATHURA

represent a pointed reference on the exterior

of the sacred enclosure to the transitory

life

of

more marked than

at

in

59

such figures as the Indra

Bodh Gaya. The body

is

conceived

in

pleasure, outside the peace of the world of

thoroughly sculptural terms, with the subtle

Buddha again, it may be that, like the mithunas

of later Hindu art, they represent an allegory of

curvature of the planes of the muscular anatomy

the desirability of the soul's union with the

fleshly

divine in the forms of these beautiful dryads

suggest the

actively

so

that

desirability

of

warmth and

Mathura

is

in

103. 'Herakles

clearly suggest a crude imitation of the

Romanized drapery of Gandhara,

there

is little

indication of any strong Western influence in

Kushan

the art of the southern portions of the

realm. In the early decades of archaeological

investigations there were found in

number of

Mathura

senting a

nude

fat

Indian

Silenus;

man

complete

These were

seems

all

repre-

being plied with drink

representations

it

and around

similar reliefs

by maidens or supported in
intoxication [102].
as

state

of

at first identified

of the

much more

story

of

reasonable to

suppose, however, that they are intended to

portray the Paradise of the Yaksha Kuvera, in

which eternal inebriation was believed

one of the delights of

this

and

Since

entourage.

his

to

be

Buddhist Guardian
it

become

had

Kuvera's function to guard the establishments

of Buddhism,

Dionysian

the

appropriateness of these

representations

kingdom

of his

becomes apparent.
At

least

one Kushan

pillar relief

shows

positive imitation of a type of Classical divinity,

probably for decorative rather than religious

reasons [103]. This

with the

Nemean

Calcutta.

lean

is

the so-called Herakles

Lion, in the Indian

Museum,

Although the theme and the Praxite-

dehanchement

borrowed from some

of

the

body might

be

classical source, the style

of the relief is entirely Indian, distinguished by

the

same general

in earlier

many

at

respects an outgrowth of

number of Buddha

certain

images datable in the second and third centuries

a.d.

fullness.

Sculpture in relief under the Kushans

the styles of the archaic period, although at the

sexual union.

Although

contributing to the wholly Indian feeling of

traits

of modelling employed

examples of figure sculpture. Here the

organic realization of the form as a whole

is

even

and the Nemean

Calcutta, Indian

Museum

lion'

from Mathura.

l6o

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

same time

is

it

undoubtedly influenced by

innovations from Gandhara, most notably in

the inclusion of

Buddha

in

anthropomorphic

form. Both in the relation of Jataka stories and

events from the

life

of

Buddha

the sculptors of

Mathura evolved what could be described as a

shorthand manner of presentation, in which the
various episodes are stripped of

all

details of

action and setting, so that the event

typified only

often

is

by the figure of the Buddha

characteristic pose

in

and mudra. In the example

illustrated [104], the

Enlightenment

is

repre-

Bodhisattva,

are not conceived with that illusion-

istic

of a
plain
It

Gandharan

carving

is

shows us the

Nativity of the Buddha, symbolized by the sun-

god in

his chariot. In the

four of the seven

lower register we see

Buddhas of the

Past; and, as a

104. Relief with scenes from the life of Buddha

from Mathura. Lucknow, Provincial Museum

and

setting, again suggestive

little

or

likely that this

a continuation

reliefs in the

that

no overlapping.
method of relief

of the archaic style of

Augustan

style. It will

diminutive figures of the

the

him

figures of

interesting iconographical detail

at

Bharhut, rather than an influence of Gandhara

in

An

carved

device, are isolated against a

background with

seems more

daughters of Mara, typifying the Temptation.

a symbolical wheel.

panels

the

depth of cutting distinguishing the Sahchi

reliefs; the figures

touching gesture and surrounded by the three

hand on

the

Mathura

portray

seated with his

Buddha of

the

Generally,

sented by the figure of the master in earth-

The Buddha's First Preaching shows the master

Maitreya,

Future.

in the sarighati or

be noted

Buddha

Buddhist mantle

an evident imitation of the draped Buddha

Gandhara.

hitherto

Kushan

art

entirely

unsuspected phase of

was revealed

excavations of the

Kushan

in the course of the

Classical writers

Begram in
known to both

capital at

Afghanistan, the ancient Kapisa,

and Chinese pilgrims. There,

in the ruins of the palace of

Kanishka and

his

^
P*

jig^a'^d.^d^^^d^-d^^dd'a
1

^as:
iiu4 7iiLL\^-ia vTli^l'ii-*
>

*=r*ic=> j^i wwHcro**aiHe:*ss

~
ART UNDER THE KUSHAiNS: MATHURA

successors, was uncovered a great treasure of

kind of

in a

rilievo schiacciato,

with the most

metal and plaster sculp-

subtle nuances of modelling, conveying a feel-

Chinese lacquer, and, of special interest to

ing of roundness to the flattened figures. This

Syrian glass,
ture,

Roman

[61

us at this point, a magnificent collection of

exquisiteness of definition

fragments of Indian ivory carvings. All this

with the elegant and aristocratic conception of

material

Kushan

was presumably buried when the

city

in a.d. 241.

brittle

was destroyed by Shapur

The

ivories

of Iran

from Begram consist of

carved plaques that were once attached

wooden frames of boxes that have long

crumbled to dust. The variety of subjects

to the

since

and treatment

is

immense, and includes types of

Near Eastern,

ancient

Indian origin.

Some

and

Classic,

purely

of the largest of the ivory

plaques, which originally formed the lids of

among the loveliest relics of

The technique is one of extreme
and sophistication. The individual

the figures. In

entirely in keeping

is

some of the

[105], traces of colour

remain on the eye-

still

this

panel

interesting, too.

is

The border of
The inner frame

consists of a

Greek

fret;

and, outside

wider frame encloses a vine meander,

we may
horse.

The

details are carved with

deeply incised contours providing an enveloping line of shadow for the forms.

The

carving

is

of the central panel

is

The sub-

counterpart of the scene of a court lady at her

toilet

by the Chinese painter

Ku

K'ai-chih, in

Museum. How completely these

ivory carvings belong to the tradition of Kushan
the British

r l

,\'ri. -L',T.

,i;*

^,T'iit;

kind of Indian

105 and 106. Ivory plaque with harem beauties

from Begram. Paris, Musee Guimet

which

human head and

ject

and decorative

this,

outer border consists of a clearly

recognizable bead-and-reel pattern.

figures

in

discern representations of a bird and a

grotesque combination of a

Indian

delicacy

handmaid

brows, eyes, nose, and mouth.

cosmetic boxes, are

art.

as in the

reliefs,

beautiful group of a lady and her

itihSI^^^^Sii

*W>
vf^Zr^m ^n3idiaigia^itiJTrgiLa-3gcgzr
i i

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

62

Mathura may be

sculpture at

comparison of

illustrated

by

female attendant from one of

Begram

the larger plaques from

[106] with a

yakshi from a railing pillar at Mathura [101].

The pose and

and only the

accessories are nearly identical,

fuller

roundness of the

relief in the

sandstone maiden makes her appear heavier

than the light and elegant figure of the ivory
plaque. Both are representative of an art that

had reached the apogee of perfection both

and

technically

of a gently

in the evocation

mood and

erotic

matched anywhere

provocative sensuality unin the art of the world. All

these figures are almost literal translations into

107. Ivory

sculptural form of the descriptions of auspicious

London, Victoria and Albert

characterizing

signs

women

Pradesh.

forms of beautiful

the

the Brihatsamhitd, by the sixth-

in

comb from Mathura or Uttar

Museum

[107] affords an interesting counterpart for the

century writer, Varahamihira. 'Broad, plump

representation of court scenes in the relief from

and heavy hips to support the

Pitalkhora [40] and the terracotta plaque from

and navel

girdle,

The technique is a combination

deep, large and turned to the right, a middle

Kausambi

with three folds and not hairy; breasts round,

of the carving in depth with some foreshorten-

and neck

close to each other, equal

and hard

marked with three

bring wealth and

The

lines,

trtbhanga pose of the two figures

found repeated over and over again

is

joy.'

one

in countless

ing and surface engraving to be seen in

the

ception of the figures has something of the

exquisite artificiality of the ballet.

The

gesture

Begram

ivories [56],

and the

the cornice of the pavilion

reliefs [104].

examples of Indian sculpture and painting. In

both the ivory panels illustrated the whole con-

[58].

It is

is

railing

many

of

motif of

popular in Mathura

only in the accounts of Chinese visitors

Fa Hsien and Hsiian-tsang

any idea of the sumptuous
like

Buddhist architecture

in the

we can

get

splendour

of

that

days of Kanishka

of the hand of the standing figure epitomizes the

and

studied interpretative beauty of the gestures of

the temples and monasteries of

the Indian dance. All these panels have a flavour

reduced to such

of intimate erotic charm without the

Islamic invaders that not a single structure

garity,

least vul-

which prophesies the romantic genre

scenes of the Rajput miniatures.

They

illustrate

form through
executed

effective

almost

moving contour by relief

entirely

in

terms

of line

fragment of an ivory

and Albert

Museum

Pradesh and datable

comb

in the Victoria

from Mathura or Uttar

in the early

Kushan period

jumble of destruction by the

provide a reconstruction beyond

We have already
of

Kanishka

chapter.

at

ground

to

plan.

discussed the famous tower

Peshawar

in

the

previous

Another Buddhist skyscraper,

the

Kushan
Mahabodhi temple at Bodh

foundations of which are linked to the

Dynasty,

drawing.

As has been already noted,

Mathura were

remains standing or even sufficiently intact

how, when occasion demanded, the Indian

sculptor, in his great versatility, could suggest

his successors.

Gaya

is

the

that replaced a simple hypaethral shrine

erected by Asoka to enclose the bodhi tree.

was

built to

house an image of the Buddha

It

at his

ART UNDER THE KUSHANS: MATHURA

Enlightenment.

The Mahabodhi temple

is

63

architectural revetment of the facade, as well as

rectangular structure supporting a tower in the

the statuary that filled the niches, belongs to the

shape of a truncated pyramid

Pala-Sena Period

of this central mass echo

its

smaller replicas

shape at the four

corners of the building [108].

When

first

con-

Mahabodhi temple consisted of a

podium twenty feet high and fifty feet

(a.d.

750-1200) of Buddhist

history. In spite of all these changes,

it

seems

reasonably certain that one of the most striking

structed, the

features of

base or

arches and vaults in the main sanctuary, must

wide that served

rising

as a

support for a single tower

one hundred and eighty

ground; the subsidiary

most

Some

authorities,

idea of

its

turrets,

one

may

above

according to

represent a later addition.

original appearance

gained from a plaque discovered

this

feet

at

may be

Patna; 7 in

clearly discern the arched niche

its

construction, a series of brick

have belonged to the original fabric [109].

These arches were constructed of bricks joined

with

mortar.

The

bricks

constituting

voussoirs were laid flatwise and

sufficiently

to

those

made

to

the

adhere

behind to enable

the

builders to complete each arch or ring without

any kind of support or centering. This

is

a tech-

housing the miracle-working statue of Buddha.

nique that closely resembles the construction of

The

the great arch at Ctesiphon, dating from the

inscription in Kharoshthi script of the

second century a.d.

suggesting
it

its

is

another

bit

of evidence

foundation in Kushan times. 8 As

stands to-day, the temple has been altered by

restorations

by Burmese Buddhists - the

last in

the eighties of the nineteenth century.

108.

Bodh Gaya, Mahabodhi temple

The

period of Khusrau I; it is just possible that this

method of vaulting, so completely un-Indian,
was introduced through the Kushan contacts

with Sasanian Iran.

It

might be noted further

that the original appearance of the

109.

Bodh Gaya, Mahabodhi

vaults before restoration

temple,

Mahabodhi

164

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

temple, with a great arched niche rising to the

full

height of the

distinctly

facade,

must have been

reminiscent of the iwans of such

structures

as

Ctesiphon and

the

grotto

of

can be stated in

all

fairness

that

the

kushans or Indo-Scythians themselves were

not an artistic people they had been nomadic
:

in origin,

Gandhara, by foreign artisans and Indians

under Near Eastern supervision;

Mathura, by Indian workshops

and when they came

to India they

The

history was the patronage

the flourishing of

schools of Indian art: 11 the

consisted

be assumed

if

to

they

have

of the metal horse-trappings and

its

form dedicated
these

in the regions of India

conquered by the Kushans was made

for

them

legend, and the

the

first

really

Indian development of a mature language of

necessary form of expression in such races. 10

produced

school,

development of the iconography of the

hunting gear that are generally the only and

All the art

chief contri-

Gandhara

Buddha image and the Buddha

Mathura school, that marked

may

which made possible

ous migration across the roof of Asia;

it

at

two of the most important

with

art at all,

were

bution of the Kushans to Indian and Asiatic art

were exhausted by centuries of almost continu-

had any

that

continuation of the ancient native tradition of

sculpture and architecture.

Taq-i-Bustan.
It

in

trained

stylistic,

Gupta

to religious art.

two contributions,

As we

shall see,

iconographic

and

fuse in the magnificent Renaissance of

art.

jf

joltf

(,

CHAPTER

AFGHANISTAN: THE ROAD TO CENTRAL ASIA

may

Afghanistan

and culturally

as a

be described geographically

has

made

no-man's-land lying between

for

the

and Central Asia. This land of

India, Iran,

towering ranges of mountains and arid wastelands, populated by peoples of fierce pride

and

barbarous standards, has for generations loomed

beckoning and mysterious El Dorado for

as a

romantic and dangerous adventure and exploraAfghanistan

tion.

came

to

through

notice

it

kind of melting-pot and a centre

of

diffusion

Classical forms

Indian,

to note at the outset that

and

Iranian,

and techniques.

It is

important

southern Afghanistan,

mainly the valley of the Kabul River, belongs

geographically to India; once across the continental divide of the Shibar Pass in the

Kush, however, we

Hindu

find ourselves in the water-

shed of the Oxus;

northern region of

this

Byron's contemporaries and spiritual confreres,

Afghanistan, in other words, belongs culturally

the unsung adventurers and soldiers of fortune

as well as geographically to Central Asia.

whose romantic wanderlust took them

In the fourth century B.C., Afghanistan, then

to the

Amir before the days of the First

Afghan War. The savagery of Afghan tribes-

part of the

men

garrisoned by Greek troops at strategic points

court of the

been

has

by

immortalized

exaggerations in story and verse.

Kipling's

Some

overrun

Achaemenid Empire of Darius, was

by

the

We

and

of Alexander

armies

of the

on the road

to India.

early visitors, like Lieutenant Burnes, in addi-

to the coins

of Alexander's successors in Bactria

tion

to

geographical

their

exploration,

dis-

have already referred

[65] as evidence for the penetration of Hellen-

covered the archaeological wealth of the Kabul

ism. Excavations

Valley in the great hoards of Bactrian coins and

on the Oxus are uncovering the remains of the

Gandhara sculptures

occasional fragments of

owing

but,

to the

unfavourable political condi-

and intense anti-foreign sentiment, no

tions

excavation

scientific

possible until a

was able

based

all

as

J.

Hackin and

J.

our knowledge of art on this

treatment.

Gandhara

art in

The

The

art in Asia.

in

Russian

types of Buddhist architecture

Afghanistan are no different from what

may

be seen in Gandhara proper. In the mountains

art,

it

same shape and of the same mixture of

and small stones used

Originally,
to

what

the development of

Afghanistan requires separate

region,

the

boulders

is

true, has always

like

Hadda and
brilliantly

the

excavated

is

Taxila.
at

that has

been

Kushan capital of
present hamlet of Begram on the
the ancient

Kapisa, the

position in relation to Iran and Central Asia

at

excavated

decorated with polychromed stucco.

The earliest site of consequence

banks of the Panjir

with north-western India, but

buildings

the Ali Masjid stupa [81], they were

been intimately connected, both geographically

its

the Greek
in

Turkestan are actual examples of Hellenistic

and

politically,

Nisa

near Kabul and along the Kabul River by

Although the early remains belong

we know

at

Jelalabad rise the ruined cores of stupas built in

threshold of Central Asia.

Buddhist

Ay Khanum, and

discovered

of the work of such

Alfred Foucher and the late

is

of

city

sculptures

devoted archaeologists as

the results

distinguished and

Carl

became

to secure the rights for excavation in

On

1922.

exploration

or

French archaeological mission

Greek

begun in 1965 near Khodjagan

River.

Kapisa,

which

over a period of centuries was the northern and

l66

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

summer
site

Kushan

capital of the

famous

annals of

in the

by Hsuan-tsang

described

rulers,

was

also a

In the course of excavations of the ruined

is

at Teppe Marandjan in Kabul, a

number of specimens of lime-plaster sculpture

Buddhism;
as

it

flourishing

Mahayana Buddhism, with splendid

centre of

and imposing stupas and sangharamas. Noth1

monastery

was found preserved

The

flesh parts

in a pristine condition.

were tinted

pinkish terra-cotta

more appropriate to the nature of

at Begram than Hsiian-tsang's remark,

shade, with lines of deeper red to indicate the

'Here also are found objects of merchandise

defined the eyes, which were outlined in blue

ing could be
the finds

from

all parts'.

Roman

The

finds in the early

Kushan

of Greco-

irises

and brown. The robes of these Buddhist figures

were painted

deep cinnabar; various colours,

including a rich lapis-lazuli blue, were used to

emblema of Hellenistic metal-

pick out the jewelled ornaments and head-dress.

and

of

quantities

Syrian

together with lacquer boxes from

international character of

Han

China.

Kushan

taste.

All

these finds antedate the Sasanian sack of a.d.

The Buddhist

and the nearby

sites

sculpture found at

Begram

of Paitava and Shotorak

of the usual Gandhara

style.

Hsiian-tsang in his description of Hadda says

glassware,

Here was a complete record of the luxurious and

241.

Brown

(probably Alexandrian) type, plaster

replicas of the

work,

included metal statuettes

palace

folds of the neck, lips, nostrils, etc.

is

Most of it probably

are few; the stupas are desolate

seems

Chapter 9

[68],

like

the one illustrated in

have the folds of the robe

likely that

priests

and ruined'. 5

It

most of the remains date from

the third to the fifth centuries of our era,

although additions and repairs were, probably,

made

up

right

invasion of the

The

dates from the third or fourth century: the

Buddha images,

sangharamas are many but the

that 'the

to the

Huns

time of the disastrous

in the sixth century.

repertory of sculpture at

Hadda

includes

an enormous variety of ethnic types - Indian,

and European -

Iranian,

number of stylistic

as well as

an equally

from

conventionalized in a system of raised ridges

great

giving the body the appearance of being caught

seemingly Hellenistic to purely Indian tech-

in a

network of strings, not unlike the drapery of

Palmyran sculpture of the second and third

Near the modern town of Jelalabad

are the

ruins of Hadda, the ancient Nagarahara. Frag-

ments of sculpture from

appearance
it

was not

until the

made

their

French excavations of

full significance

could be appreciated. 3

The

of the remains

sculpture of

Hadda

from the Gandhara products already

examined

in being

or stucco,
tectural

this site

as early as the nineteenth century,

1922 that the

differs

Among

fragment of

the

a figure

more

Classical pieces

is

holding a lapful of flowers

[no]. As was pointed out when the relief was

centuries.

but

niques.

variants ranging

made

entirely of lime plaster

single figures,

decorations

in

reliefs,

this

and archibeing

material

affixed as decoration to the exterior of the in-

numerable stupas and monasteries of the

There can be

little

doubt but that

site.

all

the

is no more nor less than a

Hadda of the Roman portrait in
the Lateran of the Emperor Hadrian's favourite
Antinoiis as Vertumnus. Not only the type and

first

discovered, this

transference to

the floral attribute, but also the conception of

the form and modelling appear entirely
to

an

even

greater

degree

than

Roman
stone

the

sculpture of Gandhara - perhaps for the reason

that

the

malleable

medium

of lime plaster

afforded the greater freedom in the desired

The sculpture
made famous chiefly by

Hadda
com-

realistic expression.

of

has been

the

parisons published by French scholars between

certain pieces

from

this site

stucco sculpture both in Afghanistan and north-

the Gothic period.

western India was originally brilliantly coloured.

ascetics bear

and typical heads of

Some heads

of Brahmin

comparison with the 'Beau Dieu'

io.

Wntinous' from Hadda.

Musee Guimet

Paris,

(u

4*

l68

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

on individual expression,

much

in

the

same way

that the mystical Christianity of the thirteenth

century brought into being

new and human-

ized style of artistic expression.

The

stucco head of a devatd in the

Fine Arts, Boston [112],

example of

Museum of

a particularly fine

is

this type of sculpture. It

does not

come from Hadda, but from one of the countless

ruin sites around Peshawar that have

robbed by
tions.

should be noted

It

been

local treasure-hunters for genera-

to explain the great

at this point, in

order

preponderance of stucco

heads from both Afghan and north-west Indian

sites, that

the bodies to which these heads were

attached were
slip

only an outer

Examining the Boston head

to dust.

we

made of mud with

of lime-plaster that has long since crumbled

apparently been

in detail,

upper part of the face has

find that the

made with

mould,

as

is

suggested by the sharpness and dryness of the

But the

planes.

in. Head of Brahmin

ascetic

from Hadda.

ordinary

[i

1].

In

many cases there is certainly

marked resemblance

ality in

found

in thirteenth-century

Gothic

hair

and the mouth

art.

This

in this

freshness.

slight

and other examples adds

to

the aliveness and piquancy of expression. 7

The

in the quality of spiritu-

the features, the same modified realism

supposed anticipation of Gothic

wavy

and

vivacity

asymmetry
of Amiens

soft,

and chin were modelled free-hand with extra-

Pans. Musee Guimet

collection of sculpture

the later sites at Taxila

sistence

rather

than

is,

from Hadda and

in a sense, a per-

reappearance of the

art in Asia a

eclectic repertory of the Hellenistic-Augustan

thousand years before the carving of Chartres

period. In the same way the scores of typical

Gandharan masks of Buddha are the perpetuation of a more purely Indian hieratic mould.

and Rheims

is

not so remarkable

consider that,
ultimately

just

Roman

as

the

art

we pause
of Hadda

if

to
is

or Hellenistic in origin, with

a strong suggestion

of the Hellenistic emphasis

on passionate and pathetic expression,

Gothic sculpture, especially the

finest

so, too,

examples

of the school in the carvings of Rheims and

In other words, while preserving the drily

spiritualized formula of early

Buddha image,
Hadda in the fifth
the

Gandhara

art for

the sculptors of Taxila and

century, in lay figures and

grotesques, present a living array of types which

without doubt the end of

had

Amiens, are unquestionably based on Classic

is

prototypes.

beginnings in the early, most Classical phase of

There
similarity

is
:

also a spiritual explanation for the

the emotional,

Buddhism, with

its

more personal type of

emphasis on salvation, that

developed in the early centuries of this era came

to

demand an artistic emphasis on the individual

Gandhara

art.

The

vitality

of north-western India
the

is

a style that

of the late sculpture

strongly suggestive of

dynamic character of Roman provincial

the so-called

sculpture

is

Gothic' character of the

far

from

its

art

Hadda

difficult to reconcile

with

12.

Head of Devata from near Peshawar.

Museum of Fine Arts

Boston,

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

170

Roman
is

like

Memorial,

Roman

The

instance,

for

its

Roman

Neumagen

istic

tradition in Byzantine neo-Hellenistic art

humanist

led eventually to the

Gothic

art of the

period, so the surviving Hellenistic art of the

first

century a.d. in north-western India culmi-

nated in the so-called Gothic art of Hadda.

from early

Certain dramatic archaeological discoveries

and heightened

within recent years are bound to affect our

differs

intensity

the

of Germanic

'realism'

heads in the

the

portraits in

by

the fringes of the

all

empire.

carvings,

made

monuments

in

'barbarians' on

world

same quality

provincial art/ since this

present

impressionistic treatment just like the similar

judgement of the sculpture of Hadda and

heads from Hadda. 9

place in the evolution of classical art in Asia.

dynamic realism

The

that

quality of pathos and

we note

and north-west

Byzantine,

Hadda

Taxila and

is

Roman,

in late

work

Indian

really the modification of a

tendency already dominant

in Hellenistic art,

and not the sudden and simultaneous

some vague

result of

aesthetic force asserting itself on

the boundaries of the

One

at

Roman

all

world.

could say in explanation of the expres-

sheness of

late

Gandhara

neo-Platonism introduced
natural,

life

art

that,

spiritual,

just

as

even super-

into the art of the Late

Antique

Period in the Mediterranean world, Buddhism

- especially the various Mahayana cults emphasizing salvation

-may in part have been respon-

The Late

Hellenistic or Greco-Bactrian clay

sculpture

found

Khalchayan
from the

first

century

realistic tradition in sculpture

essentially

with an emphasis

on the pathetic-dramatic type of Hellenistic

side

by side with the

hieratic cult image,

too difficult to explain in a region

is

dha's encounter with the

hundreds of statues

was

a.d.

to

have

distinct

Russian Central Asia,

famous

not

Pyandhzikent. 13

as,

It

was no

realistic tradition

of Hellenistic art to survive with the

official

frozen Buddhist cult image than

it

and

was for

generations of artists in the Byzantine world to

perpetuate,

membered
same time

largely

in

realistic style

profane

art,

the

of Late Greek art

that the forms of Christ

remained frozen and abstract

and

at

looking a

its

the

gods

art,

at

but

intimate relationship to the art

at

is

the great monastic

Bamiyan, dramatically over-

fertile valley

between the Hindu Kush

Afghanistan. This beautiful and romantic

site

of former Buddhist power has been described

by the Chinese pilgrim Hsiian-tsang,

visited

the

that

his saints

to

range and the Koh-i-Baba in north central

re-

in the appropriate

instance,

important not only for Indian

site

even more for

establishment

dynamic

for

frieze dedicated to local river

of Iran and Central Asia,

for the

relationship

examples of belated Hellenistic sculpture in

Eurasian in character, having the same humanist

more strange

The

at this

The arrangement of the complex itself, as

many individual statues,

the very end of the school in part Western or

heritage as the artists of Byzantium.

uncovered

of very high quality and can probably be

site are

art,

until

Apalala. 12

Naga

in relief

dated as early as the second or third century

whose popu-

lation, especially the artist population,

appears as a direct

B.C.,

ordinary plastic stucco ensemble of the Bud-

appears

of an

at

many Hellenistic elements in

the Hadda stuccoes. 10 The most recent finds at
Tapa-i-Shotur at Hadda 11 have revealed a
wealth of new material, including the extra-

manifestation of the Late Antique in Asia.

persistence

palace

antecedent of the

well as the style of

the

Kushan

the

in

Uzbekistan (U.S.S.R.), dating

in

sible for the spiritual qualities, the 'soul', in this

Again,

its

it

in the

Genghis Khan put the

Bamiyan
century

it

to

was

who

seventh century. Legend has

the

sword.

visited

In

the

nineteenth

by many early adventurers

golden world of mosaic. In the same way that

in

the survival of a realistic, dramatic, and colour-

captives were housed during the First

Afghanistan, and

it

entire population of

it

was here that the British

Afghan

AFGHANISTAN

War. The monasteries and temples

are carved entirely

at

north-western India in the second and third

centuries a.d. [113].

The image

at

Bamiyan

is

is

not completely carved. Only the armature, a

a great series of sanctuaries

rough approximation of the body and head, was

Parenthetically enclosing this vast complex

the features and the folds of the drapery were

stone

cliff,

which

honeycombed with
and assembly

for

more than

mile

from the sandstone

actually cut

halls.

are cut

two niches, each housing

Buddha

statue.

Bamiyan

from the face of the sand-

IT'

At the eastern end

hundred and twenty

feet

is

colossal

the image

high [113], which

modelled
with a

mud mixed

in

final

cliff.

Over

this

with chopped straw,

coating of lime-plaster to serve as a

base for polychroming and gilding. Traces of

Hsiian-tsang designated as Sakyamuni, and at

pigment may

the west a colossus rising to a hundred and

chin. Hsiian-tsang mistakenly described this

seventy-five

feet

[114],

which the

pilgrim

statue as

still

be discerned on the robe and

made of metal, probably because at

described simply as a 'Buddha image'. 14 These

time of his

two statues

gold-leaf and metal ornaments. 15

in themselves are extraordinarily

interesting to illustrate the cosmopolitan nature

of Buddhist art at Bamiyan.

is

simply an

typical

The

smaller statue

enormous magnification of

Gandhara image with

its

voluminous

drapery reminiscent of the style prevalent in

113.

Bamiyan, 120-foot Buddha

About

visit

it

a mile to the

two Buddhas

[114]. It

west

is

is

^^^^^^^

the larger of the

set in a vast trefoil niche

directly overlooking the miserable

ings of the

colossus

114.

is

the

was entirely covered with

modern bazaar

at

mud

build-

Bamiyan. This

in quite a different style,

although the

Bamiyan, 175-foot Buddha

mm

172

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

method of construction

is

essentially the same.

In this case the individual folds of the Buddha's

were modelled on ropes attached

robe

wooden dowels driven

to

This

into the stone core.

technical expedient was doubtless intended to

reproduce on an enormous scale a

which the Buddha's robe

statue in

two

is

Gandhara

reduced to

of strings clinging to the surface of the

a series

body.

late

seems

It

colossi

century

likely that if the smaller

second or third

to be dated in the

is

of the

a.d., the larger is at least

two hundred

These two statues present us with the

Buddhist
both

of

than

There

art.

stylistic

We

colossal

are a

cult

image

number of

and iconographic,

life-size

Teacher.

the

representations

first

in

reasons,

for these

of the

by

later

Roman

The purpose of a colossal image is twoand command respect

gigantic dimensions and,

token, to suggest the

by the same

superhuman nature of the

personage portrayed. If the giant statues of

Constantine were intended to represent that

Emperor's

115.

role as Kosmokrator, the

Bamiyan, Cave

Sakyamuni

The

that

to indicate the

Mahdpurusa, or

as

East

both

influence of these

is

were

as Lokattara or

Buddhism on

as

first

Bamiyan

leaves

of

conceptions

Lord of the World.

colossi of Mahayana

the Buddhist art of the entire Far

inestimable: one has only to think of the

rock-cut colossi at

Yun Kang and Lung Men

dedicated at Nara in Japan of the

Period (720-810)

in

Bamiyan

is

Tempyo

an ultimate descendant of

the giants at Bamiyan.

The

to attract attention

its

doubt

no

Bamiyan

fashion of erecting colossal images of the deified

Caesars.

were meant

Buddha

the niches of the two colossi at

Great

Greek world, and,

more nearly contemporary, the

fold

less,

Brahma comprising all worlds within himself.

The iconography of the paintings decorating

more

have, of course, the precedent of

the famous colossi of the

no

China; and even the great bronze Vairocana

years later in execution.

appearance

statues,

status of the

rock-cut

remains

architectural

at

are interesting chiefly for the repro-

duction of various domical

forms that are

iconographically and stylistically derived from

Greco-Roman and
supposed that

all

Iranian sources.

It

may be
now

these types existed in

vanished free-standing buildings in Gandhara.

It

is

likely

that

these

cupolas

sanctuaries and assembly halls at

roofing

the

Bamiyan were,

symembodiments of the sky. 16 In some of

the grottoes of Bamiyan there is a representation of arched squinches making the transition
in addition to their structural function,

bolical

0123

7
2

FEET

METRES

AFGHANISTAN

*$

116.

173

Bamivan, lantern roof

from the square of the chamber

to the circle

the cupola [115]. This type has

true structural

its

prototype in the four-columned

the Sasanian Period in Iran.
are in a

way

fire

of

temples of

These sanctuaries

the distant cousins of such Euro-

pean churches as St Germain-des-Pres. Another

type of roof that

Bamivan

is

primitive type of

ancestor of
structions.

found

in a

all

dome

that

is

perhaps the

more complicated domical con-

The

lantern roof, which

is

known

in

modern wooden constructions literally from

Armenia to Central Asia, was probably invented
somewhere on the Iranian plateau and introduced

to

both western Asia and Turkestan.

It is

method of roofing whereby beams

are laid

diagonally across the corners of a square and

the process

is

repeated in successive

tiers,

so

that finally only a small opening remains at the

summit of

this

arrangement

in

diminishing

squares.

number of caves at

the lantern roof, a very simple and

is

literal

rock-cut copy of such a structure

may be seen in one of the caves to the west of the

larger Buddha at Bamivan [1 16]. The whole was
probably painted

at

one time with representa-

tions of Buddhist deities.

as

The triangles left over,

each successive smaller square was inscribed

in the larger,

provided room for sculptural

decoration, so that the whole arrangement was

not only a roof, but a kind of mandala or

174

'

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

schematized

representation

regions and the mystical

over them.

of the

celestial

Buddhas presiding

Numerous examples of

the lantern

roof may be seen in the rock-cut architecture of

Central Asia.

The form was reproduced

stone temple architecture of

many

Kashmir

in the

that in

respects was a prolongation of the archi-

tecture of Gandhara. It

completely

flat

is

finally

reduced to a

design and typifying a mandala

Thousand Buddha
China. Cave XI at

painted on the ceilings of the

Caves

at

Tun-huang

in

Bamiyan, immediately to the

east of the one-

hundred-and-seventy-five-foot Buddha, has a

dome composed
triangles,

of an elaborate coffering of

diamonds, and hexagons around

central octagon in a six-pointed star [117]. This

central space, as well as the hexagonal compart-

ments and the niches

were

originally

at the

filled

base of the cupola,

with

Buddha

seated

images, so that this dome, too, was a kind of

mandala with the Buddhas of all the directions

of space circling about the

The

[118].

comes

stylistic

direct

The

at

zenith

this ceiling

from the Roman West, where

similar coffering

Bacchus

Buddha of the

arrangement of

may be

Baalbek and

Temple of

seen in the
in

Roman

mosaics. 17

surviving fragments of wall-paintings at

Bamiyan present no less interesting and even

more complicated problems than the remains of
sculpture. Three categories or styles of painting

may be found

at this site:

one pure Sasanian,

one Indian, and a third that can only be

described as Central Asian in character.
actual technique of

The

all is

The

essentially the same.

rock walls and vaults of the caves and

niches were covered with a layer of mud mixed

with chopped straw.

1

17.

Bamiyan, Cave XI, dome

plaster provided the

of lime

final thin layer

ground for the actual paint-

ing in colours largely manufactured out of local

118.

Bamiyan, Cave XI, reconstruction of dome

earths and minerals.

The paintings still decorat-

ing the top of the niche and the

soffit

of the vault

above the one-hundred-and-twenty-foot Bud-

dha are entirely Sasanian

in style.

The

massive

figures of donors that alternate with figures of

Buddhas on

a level with the

head of the great

statue are the pictorial equivalents of images in

the

Sasanian

rock-cut

reliefs

at

Naqsh-i-

Rustam and Shapur. The same massive bulk

and frozen
reliefs

lifeless

dignity that characterize the

of the Iranian kings are here translated

into painting. Typically Sasanian, too,

essentially

that

is

flat,

is

the

heraldic patterning of the forms

particularly noticeable in the

enormous

decoration of the ceiling of the niche representing a solar divinity in a quadriga [119].
pictorial version of the relief of

Surya

at

It is a

Bodh

1 19. Bamiyan, painting of sun god

on vault of niche of 120-foot Buddha

176

120.

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

Bamiyan, painting of

Gaya

[38].

flying divinities

Buddha

niche of 175-foot

in

Probably we are

recognize a

to

representation of Mithra as a symbol of the

Buddha's
is

solar character. 18

The

central figure

dressed in a mantle like that worn by Kanishka

Mathura

in his portrait statue at

about

are

costumed

of the

figures

like Pallas

[96];

round

dawn goddesses

Athena, and, in the upper

spandrels of the composition, divinities of the

wind.

The whole

is

over the head of the

all

emblem of the sky dome

colossus. The colours for

an

portions of this ensemble are applied in

areas demarcated

flat

by hard outlines with no

indication of shading.

is

a part,

it is

in Central Asia, of

which Bamiyan

possible to think of a belt of eastern

Iranian or provincial Sasanian art on the arc of a

circle

with

its

Iran and running

centre in

extension

of Sasanian

textiles.

bears a resemblance to the surviving examples

of wall-painting in India proper of the

sixth centuries a.d.

the

fragments of the decoration that once

hundred-and-seventy-five-foot colossus. In so

at

it is

possible to

one time

The

tell,

the whole concept was

a unified iconographical

side walls of the niche

from top

is

in

many

respects an

to

scheme.

bottom

were painted with row upon row of figures of

seated

Buddhas,

characteristic

each

in

mudra. Above

may

different
this,

cusp of the arch,

painting of all these sites

and

belong

clothed the entire niche and vault of the one-

flying divinities scattering jewels

The

fifth

To this classification

zikent in Russian Turkestan, and Dukhtar-iin Afghanistan.

is

The second of the two styles of painting at

Bamiyan may be designated as Indian, since it

through Varaksha, Balalik Tepe, and Pyandh-

Noshirwan and Bamiyan

as

art,

of forms and decoration to Sasanian sculpture,

metalwork, and

far as

In attempting to systematize the develop-

ment of art

eastward

abundantly demonstrated by the resemblance

and

finally,

and

under the

be seen medallions with

and flowers,

on the vault of the niche,

whole

pantheon of Bodhisattvas. The significance of

AFGHANISTAN

the entire

scheme was probably not unlike

of the mandalas of

that

Mahayana Buddhism

Tibet and Japan; that

is,

a figuring

of

all

mystic Buddhas and Bodhisattvas that,

in

are the medallions at the springing of the vault,

in

which are represented

striped muslin skirts bear a close resemblance

costumes

to details of

Ajanta [184].

problematical. As

we have already seen, it is certainly a representation of the Buddha in his transcendental aspect,
as he appears transfigured in such Mahayana
texts as the Saddharma Pundarika and the
Avatamsaka sutras.

The

paintings in this complex have suffered

not only from exposure, but from having served

as targets for generations of iconoclastic

marksmen.

Afghan

Among the better preserved sections

121. Bamiyan, painting of Bodhisattva

on vault of niche of 175-foot Buddha

or

like

the

is

deities

apsaras [120]. Their jewelled head-dresses and

move around the magic axis of

cosmic Buddha Yairocana. Whether or not
actual sculptured Buddha in the niche can

be identified as Yairocana

flying

the

constellations,

the

177

The

in the cave-paintings at

supple bodies depicted in

positions of easy, even flowing

no relation
style at

tions

movement have

to the frozen effigies of the Sasanian

Bamiyan. The actual canon of propor-

and the metaphorical composition of the

forms again suggest parallels with the paintings

of

Gupta

India.

Examining

single

of one of the

figure

Bodhisattvas painted on the vault, we

discern even
[121].

further

Not only do we

fullness of bodily

points

may

of resemblance

find the

same sensuous

form and the same languorous.

178

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

almost somnolent relaxation that characterize

certain figures at Ajanta, but also

the

we may

employment of the same kind of

shading that
ing of

Gupta

example

this

is

note

abstract

so notable a feature of the paint-

India. In the case of the

Bamiyan

chiaroscuro consists in a thicken-

roundness to the form. Both from the point of

view of drawing and the handling of the
arbitrary chiaroscuro the
strike us as

Bamiyan paintings

much more harsh and conventional-

ized than anything found in India proper. This

quality

is,

of course, the result of that simplifi-

which

ing of the outlines of the features and the parts

cation

of the body with a deep orange pigment, which,

transplanting of a highly sophisticated and

although obviously not recording any possible

completely developed style of art to a provincial

effect of lighting, gives a feeling of plasticity

122. Bamiyan, painting of female figure

on vault of niche of 175-foot Buddha

and

setting.

The

always

takes

place

with

difference between Ajanta

and

AFGHANISTAN

Bamiyan is like the style of Simone Martini

Italy compared to the work of his followers

huang. 19 This style in Bamiyan cannot be

in

described as purely
details,

completely Indian female figure [122]

standing beside one of the Bodhisattvas of the

vault

the

is

probably a sakti or female counterpart of

influence of
art.

The

earrings

[23.

divinity

certain

figure

is

in late

is

and the

of the same arbitrary type described

we shall find presently, this provincial

Indian style at Bamiyan spread to the Buddhist

centres of Central Asia, and examples of it

may

be found even in the earliest wall-paintings at

Chinese

Buddhist

monastery

and the

Gandhara

flying ribbons of the head-dress

are definitely Sasanian.

Buddha,

all

character,

the styles at

it

is

Bamiyan

are hybrid in

possible to find yet a third

-, y)

above. As

the

origin,

Although, as we have just seen in the analysis

entirely nude, except for

ivories,

of the Bo-

dhisattva's throne, are ultimately of

of the paintings in the niche of the Great

and bangles. The elegance of gesture

reminds us of the Begram

Indian because certain

foliate motifs

Buddhist

Bamiyan, Group E, painting on vault

shading

such as the

of the

indication

Hindu concepts

79

in

the Palais des Papes at Avignon.

The

at

Tun-

manner, which from

its

resemblance to paint-

ings at Kizil and other sites in Turkestan

described as pure Central Asian.

as

may be

We may

take

an example the Bodhisattva painted over

now ruined Buddha statue in the

Group E [123]. The figure of
the Bodhisattva, like the Pantokrator of Roman-

the head of a

principal cave of

l8o

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

esque

On

represented seated on a rainbow.

art, is

they are by no means the only examples of

either side rise slender colonnettes with

painting in Afghanistan from the second to the

extremely conventionalized Corinthian capitals.

seventh centuries a.d. In an isolated monastery

The

at

space

heraldically

behind the figure

drawn

buds

lotus

with

filled

is

from the

falling

Bamiyan there

sky. In this particular style at

many

mixture of elements drawn from

is

sources,

both Western and Indian, that results in the

formation of a really original manner, in
the

same way

much

that a coalescence of Classical

and

Oriental forms produced the style of Byzantium

in the First

Golden Age.

one by one, we note

this Central

first

of

Asian

that the

all

drapery of the figure, especially the drawing of

the flying scarves, bears a
the

to

Ghorband Valley were

in the

Sasanian

These,

style.

belong to the very

fragments of

like the

sculpture found at the same

site,

period of

last

probably

Buddhism

in

Afghanistan, approximately the seventh century

A.D.

At

this

time large portions of the northern

and central sections of Afghanistan were ruled

by Hunnish or Hephthalite vassals of the

Analysing the elements of

style

Fondukistan

found decorations of an almost completely

marked resemblance

Gandhara

neo-Attic drapery of the

Sasanian Dynasty in Iran. 20

The

painted clay

from Fondukistan [124]

what a remarkable degree a

figure of a Bodhisattva

show

serves to

to

completely Indian style has at the

last

replaced

the earlier reliance on Classical and Iranian

Bodhisattvas. There are slight suggestions of

prototypes. This image

the arbitrary shading of the Indian tradition.

counterpart of the Indian forms in the paintings

The completely frontal, static, and rather frozen

quality of the conception

is

immediately remi-

at

is

in a

way

a sculptural

Bamiyan. The perfect realization of

this

and warmly voluptuous body,

entirely relaxed

niscent of the completely Sasanian paintings in

sunk

as exquisite as

any-

the niche of the one-hundred-and-twenty-foot

thing to be found in the art of Gupta India.

The

Buddha. The colour scheme

modelling, in

is

dominated by

in

sensuous reverie,

its

is

definition of softness of flesh

the lapis-lazuli blue of the robe and the back-

and precision of ornament,

ground. This beautiful ultramarine presum-

entirely typical

ably

came from the famous mines

Badakshan

at

flat,

brilliant colour that gives the

composition such

most

a heraldic

closely relates

it

appearance and

to the painting of Central

Asia, notably the paintings of Kizil.

combination of

line

and

extraordinarily

ghostly

figure of the Bodhisattva,

for

much

The same

brilliant tone

interest in the definition of plastic

an

character

and

is

with no

form imparts
to

the

the prototype

of T'ang Buddhist painting and the

famous cycle of paintings

at

Horyuji

Although the surviving paintings

are perhaps the

going back to the beginnings of Indian

art.

The

appear as a Mannerist development out of the

the combination of line drawing

and areas of

and

the definition of both

is

contour and form by hard, wiry lines of even

is

final

a tradition

extraordinarily affected elegance and grace of

feature of the painting

thickness. It

only the

Roman market with this

The most notable stylistic

that also supplied the

precious mineral.

is

accomplishment of

in
at

Nara.

Bamiyan

most famous and best preserved,

this figure

Gupta

and

style, a

its

exquisite

mode

frail

refinement

that seems to anticipate

the Tantric art of Nepal

and

[cf.

202].

fragmentary Buddha from

21

this

same

site is

of interest both stylistically and iconographically

[125].

As

become clear when we turn to the

Gupta sculpture in a later chapter,

will

analysis of
this figure
this great

is

in several respects a reflexion

Indian

style.

The head

is

of

a plastic

compromise between the dry, mask-like treatment of Gandhara and the fullness of Kushan
Buddhas, and,

as in

innumerable fifth-century

Indian Buddhas, the hair

snail-shell curls.

is

represented by

The robe, indicated by grooves

incised before the clay

was baked,

is still in

the

124- Bodhisattva

Kabul,

Museum

from Fondukistan.

l82

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

Gandhara

but the bodily form

style,

ceived with a suggestion of mass that

Indian.

What

interest

is

chasuble

the

that

is

is

con-

entirely

of Bengal from the eighth to the

jewel-studded

Buddha wears over

the

The

art

of Fondukistan

flamboyant

To

phenomenon

one who had renounced worldly riches - are

but

symbolical device to indicate that this

Buddha

is

in his transcendent, glorified form, the

painting.

it

is

host of Bodhisattvas.

Buddhist

It is

quite possible that

many

respects a

classic

elements

in

is

the

apply the
is

Gupta sculpture and

word Mannerist to this

perhaps a dangerous

parallel,

evident that this art contains

indicate the appearance of a

the

Hinayana statues of the monastic

of

many

strangely anti-classical elements that certainly

apotheosis in which he reveals himself to the

originally

phase

inherent in Gandhara and

monastic garment. This attribute, as well as the

heavy earrings - seemingly inappropriate for

late twelfth

century.

of peculiar iconographical

three-pointed,
the

is

at

examples of
art, as

we

Fondukistan,

at

this

see

it

at

new

aesthetic. In

phase of classic

late

Teppe Marandjan,

Bamiyan, every

effort

was

Buddha were transformed into Mahayana icons

of the transfigured Sakyamuni by being 'dressed

directed towards the graceful, the elegant, the

up' in actual jewels and garments which in time

realism that achieved a

came

distortion of the forms, an erotic, world-weary

to be represented in statues like the

one

provocative,

and towards

kind of refined

new poetry

from Fondukistan. The so-called 'bejewelled

expressiveness suggestive of the

many statues of the last phase

of Mahayana Buddhism in India and in the art

tor

in the very

German

sculp-

of regions like Tibet, Nepal, and Indonesia

become apparent, too,

that this transplanted Gupta art was never
entirely understood when it was copied in the

which were directly influenced by the Buddhism

Buddhist oases on the road to China.

Buddha'

is

seen in

125.

Lehmbruck.

It will

Buddha from Fondukistan.

Paris,

Musee Guimet

CHAPTER

12

BUDDHIST ART

TURKESTAN

IN

For our purpose of indicating the spread of

Indian

beyond the actual geographical

art

5^

number of semi-independent kingdoms, tribusome measure to either India or China.

tary in

boundary of the Indian peninsula, the history

We

of art in Central Asia can be said to begin with

importance of Central Asia for Buddhism and

the introduction of

Buddhism

to this region in

the early centuries of the Christian era.

we mean

Central Asia
to the

the territory extending to

north and east of the Hindu

Pamir mountain ranges eastward

Desert.

It is a

By

plain without outlet,

the north by the T'ien

Kush and

Gobi
bounded on

to the

Shan range, by

the

Pamirs on the west, and by the Altai and Kuen-

its

can get a remarkably clear idea of the

art

from the accounts of the pilgrims Fa

Hsien and Hsiian-tsang, who travelled over

Turkestan
a.d.

and seventh centuries

in the fifth

Their descriptions of the courts of Kucha

and Khotan are hardly

less enthusiastic

than

their admiration for the great sites of Buddhism

in India proper.

The

extraordinary riches of Buddhist art in

lun mountains of Tibet to the south. Eastward

Central Asia were revealed by

many

was sustained

logical expeditions in the first

decades of the

China. In such a region

lies

on

life

a chain of oases girdling the desert basin or

A number

century.

twentieth

of

archaeo-

German

headed by Albert von Le Coq

along the courses of rivers like the Tarim.

expeditions

Throughout the period in which we are

interested - roughly the first millennium of our

brought to light the wall-paintings

era -a northern

exploration of sites along those northern and

and southern trade route skirted

the edges of the

Taklamakan Desert. The two

Turfan.

at Kizil

The most arduous and

and

scholarly

southern trade routes was conducted by Sir

routes join at Kashgar, and at this point east of

Aurel Stein over

the Pamirs was the 'Stone

Tower' (Lithinos

decades. Other expeditions sponsored by the

Pyrgos) mentioned by Ptolemy as the meeting-

Japanese under Count Otani and the Imperial

place for silent barter between traders from the

Russian Government under Baron Oldenburg

two ends of the world. 1

arteries that the

India and China sprang

and

was along these

Buddhist kingdoms separating

on the fringe of the

a barrier

It

a link

up

desert.

at the isolated oases

They provided both

between the two poles of the

Buddhist world.

As

early

territories

as

the armies of
to

the

first

century a.d.

Han

China. Kanishka

have extended his conquests as

Khotan. For the next four or

the

oases

these

were disputed by the Kushans and

along

the

five

is

believed

far east as

hundred years

highway

linking

the

western world with China were dominated by a

added further

to

period

of nearly three

our knowledge of this once

flourishing centre of Buddhist civilization.

The art of Central Asia divides itself into two

main parts: one, centred around Kashgar
and Kizil, at the western end of the trade route,
the other farther east, located in the Turfan
The

oasis.

former

sites

paintings

of Hinayana

Buddhist establishments,

should be dated no
a.d.

The work

from

and sculptures of the

were for the most part decorations

at

later

and

than the sixth century

Turfan, some of which dates

as late as the ninth century a.d.,

is

provincial form of Chinese art of the

really a

T'ang

l86

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

Period, with only a remote connexion with

wall-paintings that are the easternmost exten-

Indian prototypes.

sion of the

It will

be possible to give

only a sampling of this enormous amount of

The

Gandhara

style.

paintings at Miran, which at one time

completely covered the interior walls of the

material.

In Central Asia, as at Bamiyan, which

is

in

circular

sanctuary,

consisted

of

frieze

of

the westernmost reaches of Turkestan,

Jataka scenes and a dado painted with busts

we

are confronted with a great variety of styles

of winged divinities and erotes supporting a

in

sculpture

itself in

and painting, many of them

existing contemporaneously,

fying

to

the

and likewise

testi-

cosmopolitan or international

character of Central Asian civilization.

What

are probably the earliest remains of Buddhist

art in

Central Asia were discovered by Sir Aurel

garland.

These paintings bear the signature of

who was presumably a

a certain Tita or Titus,

journeyman painter from the eastern provinces

of the

Roman

Empire. The Jataka scenes are

translation into pictorial terms of the

subjects as treated in

Gandhara

same

relief sculpture.

Stein at the oasis of Miran on the southern trade

The

route about three hundred miles to the west of

busts and planetary divinities framed in the

Tun-huang. In the ruins of

swags of

a circular edifice

enclosing a stupa there was brought to light a

considerable collection of stucco sculpture and

126.

Miran, sanctuary,

detail

of painting on dado

decoration of the dado with the winged

a garland [126] has its equivalent in

Gandhara sculpture, most notably on the

famous reliquary of King Kanishka. The origins

BUDDHIST ART IN TURKESTAN

of this motif are, of course, to be sought in the

Late-Roman

carving of the sarcophagi of the

and Early-Christian worlds. As

in the case of

Gandhara sculpture, so in the case of this cycle

of Gandhara painting, the stylistic origins may

Roman

be found in the painting of the Eastern

Empire, where the Classical

style

underwent

considerable conventionalization in the hands

The

of Oriental craftsmen.
at

heads of the angels

Miran, with their enormous ghostly eyes and

a suggestion

of plasticity through the thickening

string-like

folds,

corresponds

to

[87

the

late

Gandhara sculpture of the third and fourth

centuries a.d. as we have seen it in stone
sculpture and in the colossi at Bamiyan. A

number of fragments showing

ing in a halo

filled

Buddha

stand-

with miniature Buddhas

reveal the beginnings of the

Mahayana concept

of Vairocana and his countless emanations.

Also in the Khotan oasis are the ruins of

Dandan

Uiliq,

where wall-paintings of quite

another character were discovered.

The charm-

of the contours, are immediately reminiscent of

ing detail of a water sprite or river goddess

the grave-portraits of Roman Egypt.

reveals an eastward extension of the provincial

There

no comparable cycles of wall-paintings

are

in India

proper or Afghanistan, but the third-century

Roman

mosaics

at

Shapur

in Iran

may

serve as

style

of Indian painting observed in the niche

of the Great

Buddha of Bamiyan

Although perhaps

[122 and 128].

originally reinforced with

the nearest stylistic prototype from both the

shading, the drawing of the figure

geographical and chronological points of view.

the linear outline alone suggests the form and

Both may be dated

The

in the late third century a.d.

sculpture and paintings discovered by

Sir Aurel Stein in the ruins of the oases of

Khotan and

Shorchuq (Kara-Shahr) near

at

Turfan, reveal the same mixture of Classical

we have

and Indian

styles

countered

at

Bamiyan. The description of

kingdom

by

as

already en-

seventh-century

the

this

pilgrim

Hsiian-tsang leaves us with the impression of a

very cosmopolitan culture dividing

It

its

religious

between Buddhism and Mazdaeism.

affiliations

was from

Indo-Iranian principality that

this

the culture of silkworms was introduced to

Byzantium

in a.d. 552.

remains found
reliefs

at

The

decorating the

Rawak vihara excavated by

Sir Aurel Stein in 1904. 3

consisted in

principal sculptural

Khotan were the lime-plaster

This decoration, which

Buddha and Bodhisattva

figures

applied in high relief to the base of the walls,

recalls the decoration
at

Hadda and

Taxila.

of the monastic buildings

The same

style

is

shown

our illustration from Kara-Shahr [127]. The

technique of figures moulded in mud and then

in

covered with a layer of lime plaster

identical.

The

style

is

essentially

of the figures, with the

drapery represented either by incised lines or

127.

Kara-Shahr, stucco

reliefs

is

so sure that

188

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

pose that are unmistakably Indian, related to

Begram

the

and

ivories

paintings at Ajanta.

It

Gupta

the

odd provincial mixtures of

those

and Indian

Iranian,

Bamiyan and

wall-

has nothing to do with

styles that

Classical,

we have seen

shall find again in

at

Turkestan.

The terracotta reliefs from Tumshuq in the

Musee Guimet are closely related to the late
Afghan sculptural

style of Fondukistan,

and are

marked by the same fusion of Indian and Late

Antique elements [129]. The deeply recessed
box in which the large figure group is set

reminds us of the more

,-

Gandhara

illusionistic style

The drapery is a

relief.

of

simplification

of the Gandhara Classical type with a continuation of the characteristic neo-Attic 'swallowtail'

scarves

already

seen in the

Gandhara

Bodhisattvas and the painting of Cave

at

Bamiyan. The individual figures have the same

the

softness,

relaxed

typify the Bodhisattva

The resemblance

ease

and grace, that

from Fondukistan

[124].

to this figure extends to

such

minutiae as the head-dress and type of jewellery.

The

faces of the

Tumshuq

images have

a dry,

mask-like vapidity, with an endlessly repeated

smiling

mouth

that unmistakably reveals the

use of moulds for these portions of the figures. 4

The

from Tumshuq were

reliefs

framed

in

originally en-

wide border enclosing a vine

meander pattern of an ultimately Late Antique

type.
to

This

is

another instance of a transference

Central Asia from Gandhara of a motif

universally

employed

in

Roman

architectural

decoration. This last phase of the

128.

Dandan

style

Uiliq, wall-painting of female figure

continues eastward to such

and ultimately finds

centres

body and a perfectly articulated

suggestion of movement. One is tempted to
think of this as the work of an Indian craftsman,
fullness of the

since, unlike the

examples of

Central Asian style which

this

painting

reveals

more

typical

of

Chinese

way

to the earliest

Buddhist

sculpture

at

Tun-huang and Yiin Kang.

Of all
by

the Buddhist kingdoms of Turkestan,

far the richest

and most famous was Kucha,

on the northern trade route. This

we

shall find at Kizil,

which maintained

sophistication

of

overrun by China

draughtsmanship and an elegant aliveness of

its

Gandhara

sites as Kizil,

famed

at

its

principality,

independence

in the

until

it

was

seventh century, was

once for the beauty of

its

courtesans

i8 9

129.

Buddhist

relief

from Tumshuq.

Pans, Musee Guimet

and the learning of its monastic establishments.

ed out of the loess

Some

of

of the

idea of the material and spiritual wealth

Kucha

visited

by Hsiian-tsang can be

gained from the magnificent wall-paintings

the site of Kizil discovered by von

Like Bamiyan, the

series

site

at

Le Coq.

of Kizil comprised a vast

of sanctuaries and assemblv halls hollow-

Ming

Oi,

to the vast

cliffs.

The

later

meaning 'thousand

designation

caves', testifies

number of cave temples honeycomb-

ing the mountain-side. Outside scattered pieces

of stucco sculpture, the most interesting re-

mains

at Kizil consisted of the acres of wall-

paintings covering the interior of

its

countless

130. Kizil, Cave of the Painter, wall-painting.

Berlin-Dahlem, Staatliche Museen

BUDDHIST ART IN TURKESTAN

sanctuaries.

As at Bamiyan, a number of distinct

styles are represented,

and there

no positive

is

indication that they should be divided into a

chronological sequence.

strict

It is just as likely

executed more or

less

contem-

poraneously by craftsmen of varying

stylistic

that they were

all

backgrounds.

The earliest of the

styles

in the decorations, datable

may

best be studied

by an inscription of

the early sixth century, in the

Painter. This

is

Cave of the

essentially a provincial Indian

manner of painting. The

svelte

and languorous

forms in the panel from the Cave of the Painter

emanate the same sensuous warmth and

[130]

grace that

we

find in the

more

truly Indian

wall-paintings, such as the medallions in the

of the one-hundred-and-seventy-five-

niche
foot

Buddha

at

Bamiyan. The heavy,

plastic

shading, characteristic of Indian painting,

largely absent in this technique,

is

and the colour

scheme, limited to dark reds and browns and

malachite green, lacks the richness and tonal

range of the famous Indian murals at Ajanta,

but closely approximates to the colours of the

Bamiyan

paintings.

second Indian manner - or

a variant of the

which we have already seen exemplified

first

Bodhisattvas painted on the vault above

in the

the

one-hundred-and-seventy-five-foot Bud-

dha

at

Bamiyan,

is

to be seen in

examples of paintings from

Kizil,

specimen from the Treasure Cave

131.

The dancing

numerous

such

as the

in illustration

figure in our detail presents

the closest possible comparison with the sakti at

Bamiyan

[122]. It

is

characterized by the use of

an arbitrary scheme of chiaroscuro, whereby the

contours of the figures and the interior drawing

of the flesh parts are heavily reinforced by

broad lines of orange pigment. In some figures

at Kizil

the result looks like a schematic re-

duction to abstract terms of the heavily muscled

anatomy of classical paintings of Herakles [132].

This second Central Asian style has been
defined

bv the German scholars

as

Indo131. Kizil,

Treasure Cave,

wall-painting of female figure

92

132.

Arhat from

f'^awnfr^a

Kizil.

Berlin-Dahlem, Staatluhe Museen

193

133-

Two

divinities

from

Kizil.

Berlin-Dahlem, Staatliche Museen

194

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

"

Iranian. 6

This phase of Turkestan painting

by

distinguished

colouring: malachite green, orange, and lapislazuli

blue are the dominating hues in this

completely non-realistic palette [133]. Strangely

inarticulated figures have their faces

and bodies

outlined with thick bands of orange shadow that

confer a certain
like

plasticity"

on these mannikin-

forms without in any sense recording actual

of illumination; in the dark figure in our

effects

illustration this

shading

Whereas

highlights.

is

reinforced by white

technique

this

is

presum-

ably Indian in origin, the round, placid faces,

the

of

types

and

head-dresses

jewels

are

reflexions of the art of Iran in the Sasanian

Period.

An

abstract flatness characterizes the

worthy of note that paintings

It is

is

of

brilliance

strident

its

in

both the

provincial Indian and Indo-Iranian techniques

may
In

among the sixth-century wallTun-huang in westernmost China.

be found

paintings at

some of the Jataka scenes painted

wall

divided into

is

many

at Kizil the

interlocking chevron

shapes; each one of these conventionalized

mountain silhouettes frames an

or episode. This abstraction of

landscape background

ally a

isolated figure

what

may

is

essenti-

be seen in

some of
Tun-huang. The

further state of development in

the

earliest wall-paintings at

site

of Kizil also yielded a collection of highly poly-

chromatic sculpture, obviously derived from

the art of Gandhara.

The

Romanized Indian manner

perpetuation of this
until

such

a late date

treatment of the costumes, in which the pattern

is

of the stuff is represented without consideration

The

for either the foreshortening of the folds or the

very simple, and cannot in any way be compared

form of the body beneath

in scale to the

in

[132]. Frequently, as

the example illustrated [133], the figures

appear as though standing on tiptoe or levitated

in the air.

This

is

the result of the ground having

probably to be explained by the use of moulds.

architecture of the cave-temples at Kizil

grandeur of the grotto-temples of

India, although certainly the idea of

such rock-cut sanctuaries

most

is

likely in imitation

is

making

of Indian origin,

of the caves at Bamiyan.

become completely merged with the background, the same abandonment of spatial

The most common

organization in favour of a completely spaceless

with a small stupa in the centre of the chamber.

type of temple at Kizil

is

either square or rectangular in plan, usually

more

elaborate type a porch or

and decorative conventionalization of figures

In a slightly

and setting that may be compared with the

vestibule precedes the sanctuary, an arrange-

Byzantine
Saloniki.

mosaics

The

of

Saint

Demetrius

in

strange combination of plastic

and patternized elements

in the figures

them-

reminds us of the hieratic forms of

selves

Byzantine mosaics of the First Golden Age,

which the heads,

retain

of

set

on substanceless bodies,

something of the solidly

Roman
The

in

realistic qualities

described

is

represented

Group

E.

at

Bamiyan by

the

chamber with

The

also

way
Tun-huang.
found

its

a single, long,

narrow

cut out of the rock.

lantern roof, already seen at

found

to the

at Kizil,

and from there

Thousand Buddha Caves

at

paintings from the eighth to the tenth

century, recovered from Bezeklik in the Turfan

oasis in north-eastern Turkestan, are almost

completely Chinese in style [134]. During these

which the outlines of the

and iron-hard

is

Bamiyan. Occasionally the

a barrel vault

so-called

Bamiyan,

at

form of

centuries this territory was under the rule of the

figure at the left are replaced

thickness

in the

may be

seen in a variant of the Indo-Iranian style in this

Kizil, in

is

An even closer stylistic

approximation to the Bamiyan example

example from

found

also

The

art.

Central Asian style that has just been

Bodhisattva in

ment

shrine

by

lines of an

quality. 7

even

Uighurs,
tion

strong Turkish tribe, whose civiliza-

was largely Western

in character.

It

is

evident from both the types and costumes

represented in the paintings of Turfan that this

134

Buddha from Bezeklik.

Museum fur Vbiker kunde

Berlin,

(formerly)

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

196

Turkish culture with

many elements of Western

and Iranian origin was greatly influenced by

contact with the Chinese.

The

its

great series of

wall-paintings from the monastery of Bezeklik,

Museum for Central Asian

divided between the

New

Antiquities in

Museum in

Delhi and the Ethnological

Berlin, bear inscriptions in Chinese

From
religion,

Roads

Silk

Even

earlier incarnations, greeting the

these past eras. c

exactly

The

Buddhas

are

and the

floral

drawn in linear version of the

architectural

The heads

head in
to

life in

the centres

menace of the barbarian nomads who moved

waves across the wastes of Siberia

Although the

in

to the north.

kingdoms of Khotan and

little

Kucha enjoyed autonomy under

the eyes of the

great powers of India and China, they were for

many

more than protectorates

centuries hardly

of these states. Life depended on trade and on

com-

the constant vigilant supervision of the irri-

of the Buddhas, in

their suggestion of the spheroidal

ninth centuries a.d.

details

patterns of the frames are

pletely Chinese.

fifth to the

remote periods

of precarious tension before the ever-present

and Indian types are represented the draperies

Gandhara formula; the

from the

in these

Buddhas of
show

figures themselves

of the T'ang Period in China. Both Chinese

of the

when

by traders

Geography and by the

of culture along the trade routes was always one

Chinese elements as distinguishes the mature

art

visited

his

various

in

same synthesis of Indian and

the

were

Chinese pilgrims who recorded their travels in

enormous, almost identical compositions repre-

Buddha Sakyamuni

and culture that spanned the world

Ptolemy wrote

diaries

the

days of Marco

between East and West. The stations along the

and Brahmi. The principal panels consist of

senting

classical times to the

Polo Central Asia was the bridge of trade,

mass of the

completely linear technique, conform

Chinese Buddhist painting of the eighth and

gation systems that alone

fertility

made

possible the

of the oases. Once these systems were

destroyed, as they were by the Arabic and

Mongol

the

invaders,

and

quickly

desert

inexorably buried the silent palaces and temples.

ninth centuries a.d.

Among the archaeological finds in the Turfan

This

total desolation

along the length of the old

dedicated to the Manichaean faith, a syncretistic

Roads makes the landscape of Central Asia

appear like vistas on the moon. The setting of

had found favour

the civilization which the early expeditions of

region were

numerous illuminated manuscripts

religion of Iranian origin that

with the Uighur chiefs.

brilliantly

The

style

of these

coloured book-illustrations has

reminiscences

Late-Antique

of

Eastern art forms.

It

and

many
Near-

probably represents

perpetuation of a Sasanian style of painting kept

alive

by the Manichaean

tradition.

end with the eastward advance of Mohammed-

As

early as

Le Coq

Stein and von

the eighth century, the

monasteries of Kizil were devastated by the

resurrected from

shroud of sand gives the impression of the

its

total

death of a culture even more than ancient Egypt

and Mesopotamia, so deserted and

totally

removed do these poor ruins appear from any

ensuing culture.

The Buddhist art of Central Asia comes to an

anism.

Silk

extinction

Central

that

Asia

objectivity

It is

makes

and

its

perhaps
it

art

this

possible

with

complete
to

regard

completee

and detachment. The ravages of th

Mongols, and the mortifying hand of Islam that

many

cultures to wither for ever

Islamic ruler of Kashgar, and by the tenth

has caused so

century only the easternmost reaches of Turke-

aided by the process of nature, completely

stan had escaped the rising tide of Mohammedan

conquest.

was

The Uighur

finally

civilization in this region

overwhelmed by the Mongol

vasion of Genghis

Khan

in-

in the twelfth century.

stopped the

life

of what must for a period of

centuries have been one of the regions of the

earth most gifted in art and religion.

BUDDHIST ART

The

ruin sites of Central Asia from

Khotan

IN

TURKESTAN

197

to

Turfan have yielded innumerable examples of

the

minor

arts,

carving, textiles,

including metalwork, wood-

and

reveal perhaps even

These objects

jewellery.

more

tellingly

than the

remains of religious painting and sculpture the

cosmopolitan nature of
the

illustrate

this civilization.

same assimilation of

They

Classical,

and Indian forms already demon-

Iranian,

strated in the

Among

the

major

many

arts.

silk textiles

found

in the

graveyard of Astana in the Turfan district

design of
a

is

pearl-bordered medallion enclosing

heraldic boar's head [135].

Such fragments,

cut from a large textile, were used to cover the

face of the dead.

This

is

either an import or a

local imitation of Iranian silk-weaving in the

Sasanian Dynasty.

This motif, perhaps

symbol of the Iranian god of

victory, Vera-

thragna, occurs in Sasanian stucco sculpture

and

is

Group

represented

at

pottery

among

the

paintings

of

Bamiyan. 11

amphora from Khotan represents

136. Pottery amphora from Khotan.
Berlm-Dahlem, Staathche Museen

the classical tradition in Central Asian art [136].

Not only

is

the shape a familiar form in Greek

ceramics and metalwork but the designs em-

bossed

in

medallions

around the shoulder

include such classic motifs as palmettes, lion

heads, and a Silen.

The many fragments

of carved

wooden

furniture from the Xiya site to the east of

Khotan and datable

to

the second or third

century a.d. present a strange mixture of Indian

and Iranian forms, including the

stylized
like

winged dragons, and

Kushan and Sasanian

at

Kucha

relic casket [138].

135. Silk textile

Delhi,

from Astana.

Museum for

Central Asian Antiquities

art [137].--

fascinating object, reputed to have been

found

Sew

of plenty",

provincial derivations of the ornamental

repertory of

jar

rosettes that look

or Kizil,
1

On

the

is

painted

drum

wooden

are representa-

q8

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

tions

of musicians and

masked ceremonial

dancers, and on the pointed lid of this pyxis-like

object are painted winged genii with musical

instruments. Each

is

enclosed in

The

of Sasanian textile designs.

erotes,

and even

roundel with

enframing motif

pearls, recalling the favourite

figures of the

their tonsures, recall the semi-

classic figures of

Miran

[126].

The whole

combination of the same Iranian and

elements so often found

in

is

classical

Central Asian wall-

paintings.

On the basis of its resemblance to the

Miran and

Kizil styles, as well as for

characteristics,

this

object

its

Sasanian

may perhaps be

dated as early as the fourth or

fifth

century a.d.
137.

Wooden

chair from Niya.

London, British

138. Relic casket

Japan, private

from Kucha or

collection

Kizil.

Museum

CHAPTER

13

sW?

THE ART OF KASHMIR

The development of art

in

Kashmir presents us

with the evolution of a really autonomous

found

in the monasteries of

arrangement

at

Gandhara,

The

Takht-i-Bahi.

like the

actual con-

national idiom, in spite of the close historical

struction of the masonry, varying from a mix-

and geographical connexions of this region with

ture of mud

the great empires of the classical Indian

and

and pebbles, combined with

Central Asian past. Seemingly isolated at a

employed

height of six thousand feet above sea level in the

variant of the type of diaper

of the Punjab Himalayas, the Vale of

foothills

Kashmir was intimately connected with the

empires of Asoka and Kanishka. Its geographical isolation

for the

development of

indigenous culture. This geographical

a truly

separation

became an almost complete

isolation with the

in

made

North

advent of the

India. Presumably,

political

Mohammedans

Kashmir was an

independent kingdom by the time of Harsha in

the seventh century a.d.,

when

its

territories

included not only the Punjab Himalayas but

ashlar,

to rubble walls faced with terracotta tiles also

employed
where

seems

as paving,

like a provincial

masonry universally

in the buildings at Taxila

and

else-

Gandhara.

in

Certain distinctive characteristics of archi-

Kashmir

tecture in
earliest

are present even in the very

examples. These characteristics are to

be discerned in the tympana, consisting of

triangular pediment enclosing a trefoil arch, the

pyramidal roofs of the shrines, and the universal

employment of

fluted pillars, faintly reminis-

cent of the Classical Doric and Ionic orders.

Among

the dedications of Lalitaditya was an

ancient Taxila and parts of the province of Sind.

impressive

The

number of Chinese

hasapura, consisting of a stupa enclosed in a

pilgrims, including Hsiian-tsang, and diplo-

square courtyard one hundred and twenty-

matic relations were maintained with the court

eight feet

region was visited by a

of T'ang China.

may be

The

history of art in

Kashmir

divided between an early period from

Buddhist

on

a side.

structures at

The

foundation

This plan

Martand

is

Pari-

at

repeated in later

2
[140] and Avantipur.

plan of the stupa at Parihasapura

is

of

200 to the seventh century and the great

particular interest. It could be described as a

period from the seventh century to a.d. 1339,

the accession of a Mohammedan dynasty

square with projecting stairways at the quarters,

c.

a.d.

when

terminates the great era of Buddhist and

Hindu

first

great era of artistic expression in

Kashmir came under the reign of Lalitaditya

(724-60).
at

To

this period

belong the dedications

Harwan and Ushkur.

conducted

at

both these

sites

foundations of stupas located

large

had two

platforms

providing

circumambulation on two

building.

The

making a cruciform design. The stupa

surrounding

The

excavations

have revealed the

at the centre

courtyard.

This

of a

plan

is

simply the enlargement of the stupa court

and the elevation seem

levels.

originally

passages

for

Both the plan

to bear a relationship to

the enormously complicated stupa at Barabudur

in Java.

An

actual influence

is

not beyond the

bounds of possibility, since in the fifth century

Gunavarman, a monk from Kashmir, introduced Mahayana Buddhism
Java. It

is

to

Sumatra and

conjectured that the whole

ment at Parihasapura with

its finial

monu-

of umbrellas

200

ROMANO-INDIAN ART

must have

risen to a height of

one hundred

above the ground. The remains of

feet

Buddhist

chaitya have also been discovered there. This

model
140].

for all later

The

Brahmanical shrines

[ 1

39 and

great beauty of the setting on a high

plateau framed by distant mountains contri-

temple, erected on a square double platform,

butes enormously to the impressiveness of the

consisted apparently of a cella of massive pro-

temple.

portions which, originally, was probably only a

middle of a rectangular court with a surround-

Kashmir temples of a

ing cellular peristyle two hundred and twenty

larger version of the small

later period.
is

The

construction at Parihasapura

characterized by the literally gigantic size of

the blocks of ashlar

masonry employed. These

by

great stones were apparently joined together

gypsum mortar and

stone of

twelve

all

feet,

iron dowels.

The

largest

was the great block, fourteen by

that

formed the

floor

of the

Another phase of the

buildings

is

classical architecture

of

represented by the Brahmanical

dating

from

thirteenth century a.d.

most impressive

is

by one hundred and forty-two

sions. It

was

built

middle of the eighth century

differs

feet in

the

eighth

Of these

to

the

structures the

certainly the sun-temple at

Martand, which appears

to

have served as a

dimen-

by King Lalitaditya

from other examples

a.d.

in

in the

The temple

Kashmir

in the

addition of a portico to the central building for

the

accommodation of special

rites in

tion with the worship of the sun.

conjunc-

Between the

portico and the garbha griha or cella

Buddhist t emple.

Kashmir

The central shrine is again placed in the

is

another

small chamber corresponding to the pronaos of

a

Greek temple. The shrine was

originally

covered by a pyramidal roof, and attained a

height of close to seventy-five

decoration of

its

feet.

The massive

exterior contains elements

specially typical of the architecture of Kashmir.

iiisiiiiiiiiil

mm

iitiiiiiiiiU

ni

ZE

ftHYttHttfttttttttttttttjf
s\
O

10

20

30

40

50 FEET

139 and 140. Martand, Kashmir, sun temple

12

15

METRES

141-

Pandrenthan, Kashmir, Siva temple

THE ART OF KASHMIR

203

supported on fluted pseudo-Doric pilasters

unchanged in the wooden architecture of

modern Afghanistan. The temple at Pan-

enclosing a trefoil arch that originally held the

drenthan

On

each of the four facades

statue of a deity.

undoubtedly

pediment

is

This triangular pediment

from

borrowing

another

is

the

Roman Orient transmitted by way of Gandhara

The

trefoil is

derived from a shape already seen

in the cella of the stupa courts of

niche at Bamiyan

in the trilobed
its

ultimate origin

is

to

Gandhara and

[1 14]

probably

be sought in the profile of

the chaitya-hall with a section of the nave

and

side aisles representing the three lobes of the

The

ornament.

depends on

effectiveness of these temples

their truly impressive scale

and on

the rich pattern of chiaroscuro achieved by the

varying depths of the

The

original

members of the

appearance

of

facades.

the

ruined

distinguished

is

the regular

of

tive

the exterior the pyramidal roof

grove

at

Pan-

drenthan nea<^rinagar "[141} Presumably

was dedicated

open on

mandapa
is

to Siva in a.d. 1135. Since

four sides,

all

it

it

it is

undoubtedly

is

an imitation in stone of towered roofs consisting

of overlapping

wooden

be seen in the

Kashmir and

planks, such as

Mohammedan

in the relatively

modern

shrines

The sculpture of Kashmir presents a development

paralleling that of her architecture in the

derivation of styles from Western and Indian

sources.

The

earliest

reliefs

examples consist of frag-

terra-cotta, originally parts

decorating the ruined stupa at

Ushkur. The technique of ornamentation

stuccoed relief

is

in

entirely reminiscent of the

decoration of the monasteries at Taxila and

has been described as a

or 'porch' type of shrine.

The temple

with projecting gable pediments on each

facade.

The

construction

is

142.

Pandrenthan, Kashmir, Siva temple, lantern roof

again of ashlar

blocks on a scale commensurate with the size of

the temple.

The

bold projection of the pilasters

supporting the pediment makes for a more

effective

and

lively chiaroscuro

observed in earlier buildings.

than has been

The

covered by a pyramidal roof in two

cella

is

tiers that

an obvious, and not entirely successful,

imitation of wooden forms in stone.

support of this superstructure

a

still

square in plan, seventeen and a half feet on a

side,

is

may

architecture of

of western Tibet. 4

of large

willo

On

building a distinctly European appearance.

structed from the small shrine of the twelfth

in

deriva-

Doric, contrives to give the

ments of stucco and

locate d

massive

the

employment of an ultimate

Roman

temples of the early period can partly be recon-

century,

by

severity of its composition which, together with

lantern

dome

is

The interior

in the shape of

[142]: there are three over-

lapping squares, and the triangles formed by

their intersection are filled with reliefs of flying

apsaras reminiscent of

Gupta prototypes. This

architectural form, probably of Iranian origin,

has already been seen in the cave-temples at

Bamiyan

[116]

and

in the

Buddhist grottoes of
S

Kizil in Central Asia;

it

survives practically
IETRE

FEET

143-

Head of a

girl

Lahore, Central

from Ushkur.

Museum

THE ART OF KASHMIR

Hadda. The heads of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas,

and

personages from this and other eighth-

lay

century

sites are in a style

equivalent to the

last

phase of Gandhara sculpture, in which the

Classical

and warmth by the infiltra-

Gupta

tion of the Indian

style.

Actually, the

nearest equivalent for this phase of

is

to

Kashmir

be found in the semi-Classical,

Gandhara developments

serenity

and gentleness that characterize

The

sculpture

Hindu
the

deities

which present

same admixture of

centuries. 6

Afghanistan [124]. 5

Lahore

Museum

typical of this early phase of sculpture in

Kashmir

[143]. It represents the

same rather

successful fusion of Late Antique and Indian

ideals that has

been noted above. The

free

and

is

represented by
statuettes

of

in varying degrees

Classical

in the architecture

Within recent years,

in the

Brahmanical

later

numerous examples of bronze

seventh-century monastery of Fondukistan in

is

of the

period of art in Kashmir

elements notable

head from Ushkur

this

whole phase of Kashmir sculpture.

semi-Indian figurines in terra-cotta from the

perhaps the

is

suggestion of a 'wistful' expression and a perfect

have been endowed with a

types

certain sensuousness

sculpture

to late

a large

and Indian
of the same

number of bronze

and brass Buddhist images, mostly unpublished,

presumably of Kashmiri
on the Western

art

origin,

market.

have appeared

Some show

marked resemblance to the Mannerist style of

Fondukistan, and presumably are to be dated in
of

The stray finds

Hindu marble carving from Kashmir seem

Gandhara stuccoes from Taxila and Hadda,

to

be related to similar types found in the region

while the arching brows and lotiform eyes are

of Kabul - most likely from the period of

impressionistic treatment of the hair and the

softly

expressive

certainly Indian

mouth remind

us

and correspond closely

of the

to the

Kushan and Gupta styles. Another resemblance

the seventh or eighth century.

Lalitaditva in the eishth centurv.

PART FOUR

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

ilH

A m

CHAPTER 14

jj^

THE LATER ANDHRA PERIOD

The

foundation of the Andhra Empire of South

maintained with Indonesia, Burma, and China.

India goes back to the period of confusion

As we

following the death of Asoka in 232 B.C. Al-

of art appears to have been stronger and less

though

affected

for art-historical

purposes the

artistic

achievements of the Dynasty are generally

than

noted

that

moments of

different

artistic

must be

represent

categories

these

it

two

development

in

by foreign influences here

was

it

in the territories of the

from Jaggayyapeta considered

Sunga carving

at

in the

south

Kushans.

in relation to the

Sanchi, that there was a

flourishing tradition of Buddhist art in the

the history of the

eastern domains of the

height of their

first

same ruling house. At the

power the Andhras, a race of

Indian tradition

We have already seen in the example of a slab

divided into Early Andhra (72-25 B.C.) and

Later Andhra (25 B.C. to a.d. 320),

shall discover, a purely

century

B.C.

Andhras

as early as the

Other dedications of this early

number of Buddhist

Dravidian origin, were in possession of the

phase would include

Deccan from sea to sea, and,

as may be gathered from certain inscriptions,
this vast tract was united by a magnificent

chaitya-halls at

system of roads in addition to the maritime

Indian Buddhist art was attained in the so-

communication possible between the ports of

called Later

entire region of the

the western and eastern coasts.

first

As

early as the

century a.d. these same ports were opened

to the trade

of the

Roman Empire;

mentioned by such
Ptolemy,

there

established

classical

were

on both

Roman

coasts.

This

trading
fact,

with the finding of hoards of

Roman

pottery fragments, has led

some

Roman

actual
India.

indeed, as

geographers as
posts

coupled

coins and

to look for

at

Nasik on the

west coast.

The high

point of development in South

Andhra Period in a collection of

monuments dedicated by the Andhra sovereigns at Amaravati at the mouth of the Kistna
River. Although this region had been converted
to

Buddhism

and some of

as early as the third century B.C.

its

remains actually date from the

Early Andhra Period, the dedications of the

and second centuries of our era surpass

earlier

monuments. There

all

first

these

are indications that

influence in the art of South

the Buddhist establishments were supported by

The} Later Andhra Buddhist com-

the queens of the ruling house, while the kings

munities were also in close contact with their

contemporaries in Ceylon; inscriptions

to their

Kanheri and

testify

missionary activity in Gandhara, Bengal,

and China.

A close commercial relationship was

were followers of Hinduism.

As exploration of the

desolate region around

the Kistna River has shown, there

been

at

one time

literally scores

must have

of stupas and

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

208

The

chaityas gleaming white in the sun.

3
i-*
K>,)$S
i^\-f~ A

ruins of

great stupas with surrounding monasteries have

been found
at

Ghantasala, at Nagarjunakonda,

at

Goli Village, and Gummadidirru, to mention

only

more important

the

sites.

The most

famous of all the Later Andhra shrines was the

Great Stupa
200

at

Amaravati. Begun as early as

B.C. the original structure

was enlarged and

embellished with great richness in the second

century

As proved by inscriptions

a.d.

at

Amaravati, the railing and casing slabs of the

Great Stupa were added during the time of

the Buddhist sage Nagarjuna's residence in the

Andhra

region. 2 Prior to this

it

was, like Asoka's

stupa at Sanchi, presumably a simple

mound

of

bricks and earth, although already a venerable

site.

When

first

by European

investigated

archaeologists in the nineteenth century, the

stupa was so largely demolished that only

conjectural idea of
arrived

at.

its

of the

dome

of the

hundred and

and

its

over-all height

surrounded by

feet;

a railing thirteen feet

sisting of three rails

and

it

was

high con-

heavy coping. Free-

standing columns surmounted by lions replaced

the toranas of earlier structures at the four

entrances to the pradaksind enclosure. Like

Sanchi, the Amaravati stupa had an upper

processional path on the
this

drum

of the structure

path also had an enclosing railing consisting

of uprights joined by solid rectangular panels.

Originally, not only the parts of the

two

from

Museum

Wheel and Stupa. 4 In the decoration of the base

number of images of the Buddha can be seen,

sixty feet

slab

sentations of Buddhist symbols such as the

stupa at ground level was approximately one

about ninety to one hundred

View of the Great Stupa on casing

the Amaravati stupa. Madras, Government

original size could be

The diameter

144.

railings,

indication

clear

although

that,

originally dedicated to

probably

Hinayana Buddhism, the

shrine was, under the influence of Nagarjuna,

transformed into

Mahayana

sanctuary.

In the centre of the frieze at the top

is

a seated

Buddha which is clearly related to the type of

Sakyamuni in yoga pose already developed at
Mathura.

On

either side of this representation

of the Temptation of Mara with the

Buddha

in

anthropomorphic form are symbolical portrayals of the

tree. It is as

empty throne beneath the bodhi

though the Later Andhra Buddhists,

but also the drum, were covered with elaborate

even though followers of the Great Vehicle,

carvings in the greenish-white limestone of the

were loath to give up the old Hinayana em-

region. Because of the difficulty in fitting a stone

blems, or perhaps attached a certain authority

revetment

and appropriate sanctity

to a

curved surface, plaster

supplemented the stone casing

reliefs

for the decora-

tion of the cupola. 3 It will be noted in the slab

illustrated [144] that another
this

unusual feature of

stupa consisted of offsets or platforms

the art of their religion.

main section of the

lion capitals

and

left

relief are vertical

of the

framing

upholding the Wheel of the Law. 5 ,

located at the four points of the compass and

At the foot of each

empty

carved with repre-

right

panels with representations of stambhas with

surmounted by

five pillars

forms of

to the early

To

pillar there again

chair signifying the

appears the

presence of the

THE LATER ANDHRA PERIOD

Buddha,

as the etimasia

Byzantine

art

of Early Christian and

symbolizes Christ. These details

are again a repetition of the type of aniconic

Andhra sculpture

Greco-Roman

art.

unlike the folds of

The

209

lines of the drapery,

Gandhara

statues,

no longer

have the rather dry, inert character due to the

at

mechanical copying of Late Antique formulae,

Sanchi. In connexion with the analysis of the

but are organized in an ordered rhythm of lines

Amaravati

undulating

symbol found

in Early

relief style in this chapter, attention

should be called to the dense crowding of the

composition

and

nervous

the

activity

and

Although great numbers of these beautiful

limestone carvings at Amaravati had been burnt

by the owner of the

site in

the nine-

teenth century, large collections of the surviv-

and are preserved in

Government Museum at Madras and in
British Museum. They are datable from the

ing fragments remain

the
the

the

body and

movement

as well as

across

reinforcing the swelling expansiveness of the

form beneath. Peculiarly characteristic of the

attenuation of the forms.

for lime

obliquely

imparting a feeling of

Buddha images of

the Amaravati region

is

the

heavily billowing fold at the bottom of the outer

mantle where

may be

it

falls

above the ankles. This

derived from the heavy roll-like mantle

edge of Kushan Bodhisattva statues

Owing

to

its

[97].

commercial and religious

ations, the influence of the art of the

affili-

Andhra

time of the renovation in the second century

The

a.d.

subjects comprise purely decorative

fragments, like the lotus medallions of the crossbars, Jataka stories, scenes

from the

Buddha, and, on the coping,

life

of

a procession

of

yakshas bearing a garland-like purse. In addi-

number of free-standing
Buddha images were found in the stupa
tion to the reliefs a

precinct; probably, like similar statues at the

Singhalese

site

of Anuradhapura, they were

round the base of the monu-

originally placed

ment

[291].

single

one of these statues

will serve as a

useful point of departure for an analysis of the

Amaravati
at

style [145].

Nagarjunakonda,

directly frontal,

The Buddha,
is

excavated

represented standing

wearing the Buddhist robe or

sanghdti with the right shoulder bare.

The

heavy, massive conception of the figure, together

with the definition of the drapery by a combination of incised lines

and overlapping ridges

and seams, is

indicating the course of the folds

distinctly reminiscent of the

the

Kushan

ception

is

related to

sentation of the
robe, but

any direct

Buddha images

of

school. Iconographically, the con-

Gandhara

Buddha wearing

beyond
stylistic

this there

is

in the repre-

the monastic

no indication of

influence from this centre of

145.

Standing Buddha from Nagarjunakonda.

New Delhi,

National

Museum

/i&L

,fic^

210

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

J>y
Empire was enormously widespread; not only,
as

will

be explained

later,

was the

style

of

Amaravati extended to Ceylon, but Buddhist

images

in the

Andhra

style of the

Submission of the Elephant Nalagiri,

from the Amaravati stupa,, ///
Madras, Government Museum
147.

railing medallion

second and

away
Dong-duong in Champa (modern IndoChina) 7 and at Sempaga in the Celebes. 8
A typical head of a Buddha from Amaravati
third centuries a.d. have been found as far

as

[146] reveals a certain relationship to the heads

Kushan images in the general fullness and

warmth of conception, but, in contrast to the
roundness of the facial contour of the Mathura

of

Buddhas, the heads from Amaravati are of

more narrow oval shape. All the heads of

Buddha from this site invariably have the hair
represented by snail-shell curls, following the
scriptural account of the

In

many

146.

Head

Paris,

Buddha's appearance.

respects these Later

of

Andhra heads

are

Buddha from Amaravati.

Musee Guimet

more

and

softly

reliance

Many

on

plastically modelled, with less

linear definition of the features.

individual figures from the reliefs of

Later Andhra also show a relationship to the

school of

Mathura

illustration 147

the figures at the back on

with their attenuated, indolent

grace are in every case a refinement of the rather

coarse and sensual concept of beauty developed

by the Kushan sculptors.

this

It will

be recalled that

fondness for elongated figures has already

been noted in the Early Andhra

compositions

much more
the

relief

from Jaggayyapeta. 9 The

Cakravartin

at

of a
relief

Amaravati are iconographically

complicated in their illustration of

Buddha legend than anything found in

Gandhara or Mathura in many of them

either

the old device of continuous narration widely

used in the Early Andhra

in evidence. The

reliefs, at

Sanchi

is still

conception of these relief panels

from anything we have hitherto seen

way they are organized as all-over patterns
of dynamic movement, sometimes rising to a

also differs
in the

kind of maenadic frenzy, and also in the highly

THE LATER ANDHRA PERIOD

dramatic character of some of the scenes

like the

Submission of the elephant Nalagiri, with

Stylistically the

211

Amaravati sculptors have

its

fondness for a very complicated and perhaps

surging crowd of terrified spectators, contrasted

un-Indian arrangement of figures and settings

with the

static

calm of the group of the Buddha

and

his followers [147].

the

way

These two new factors -

which the whole composition

is

unified through the rhythmic lines provided

by

the

in

movements and

- seem

number

of planes. This deep cutting that

boxes might be regarded

ment of

as a natural

develop-

the technique of the Sanchi carvers

and

the frequent use of overlapping figures and an

to lead direct to the

equally confident handling of foreshortened

directions of the figures

the dramatic content

in a

transforms panels and medallions into stage

reliefs

of the Pallava and Chalukya Periods.

These

later

carvings give the impression of

forms

is

perhaps

influence.

The

a basis for suspecting

Roman

panel of a battle scene from

being inspired by spectacular stage productions

Nagarjunakonda [148]

and are likewise integrated by dynamic move-

Trajanic relief into

ment. Presumably

respects as the deep pictorial space and the

this likeness is not entirely

accidental, since the later

the

Hindu

dynasties of

148. Battle scene

composition in multiple planes, the conception

appears markedly Roman. At the same time,
the wiry, ferocious figures whirling in a wild

and mithuna from Nagarjunakonda

Delhi, National

of a

In such

same regions during the

centuries of Buddhist domination.

New

like a translation

that

Deccan continued the artistic traditions

flourished in these

is

Indian terms.

Museum

crescendo of action introduce us to a new phase

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

212

of

Indian

sculpture

which,

in

its

Baroque

turbulence and depth, directly anticipates the

excavation of

junakonda has brought

The

Begram

to light

what may be des-

Andhra times

pillars of this structure

Indo-Scythian dress and

nude

to the waist

This hauntingly

crisp detail that suggests the technique of the

were deco-

rated with panels representing personages in

figure,

Later Andhra carvings, has

South India.

cribed as secular carving in Later

[149].

many of the

delicacy and precision of execution in every

palace area at Xagar-

style oflater centuries in

The

like so

a singularly

classical

youth

make

sculpture'.

a rhyton.

in a Praxitelean

Andhra

Later

the

voluptuous

and

delicate

reliefs

'the

flower

of

most
Indian

11

Buddhism apparently went into a decline at

same time that the Andhra Dynasty

Dionysian

and holding

This technical refinement and

ivories.

the languorous attenuated beaut}- of the figures

the

collapsed in the early fourth century

already in

may have been copied from a Roman gem.

This is the most Greco-Roman of all Andhra

the region, he describes the Buddhist establish-

sculpture and provides further evidence for the

ments

pose

penetration of

Roman

influence. 1

This

detail.

the seventh century,

from the palace

area.

Xagarjunakonda.

and ruined'.

as 'mostly deserted

disappearance of Buddhism and

India

149. Figure holding a rhyton

when Hsuan-tsang

is

visited

This

South

its art in

probably to be explained in part by the

gradual rise of Hinduism,

always strongly en-

trenched in the Deccan. and

in part certainly

by

the decline of patronage due to the inevitably

diminished prosperity after the ending of the

sea-borne trade with the

Roman

West.

The Great Stupa at Amaravati is only the

most important monument of a great style;
other sculptural fragments no less distinguished
in

have

execution

junakonda and

The

Kistna region.
as

late

a.d.

300.

found

been

Xagar-

at

Goli Village, both

at

:i

latter reliefs

in

the

were carved

The dimensions of

as

the

Buddhist stupas of the Kistna region were so

great that they could not be constructed

usual

method of simply

brick and rubble.

piling

Some

up

by the

mound

of

interior support or

binding for these great mountains of earth had

to be supplied.

Usually this was accomplished,

as in the

stupa of Xagarjunakonda, by having an

interior

system of brick

[150] of the stupa

is

walls.

represented by a solid brick

cells

The ground

that of a wheel with the

pillar,

plan

hub

and with the

formed by the intersecting concentric rings

and spokes of brick walls

filled

The
name

with earth.

stupa at Xagarjunakonda, which takes

its

from the famous Buddhist 'Church Father',

presumably dates from the same period

Great Stupa

at

Amaravati, and

its

as the

sculpture

2I 3

150.

Nagarjunakonda, stupa

JO)
O

20

IO

40

30
10

belongs to the same

sanctuary

style.

The diameter

one hundred and

is

six feet,

The ground

is

It will

all

also of
relic

stupas - of the cosmic axis

world mountain

imagined

Meru

to be girdled

as the

of Indian cosmology

is

by successive mountain

ramparts, the Cakravala. 15

axis

just

The

presence of the

was of course indicated on the exterior by

the harmika emerging from the

the sky. 16 It
that the

would be

dome

justifiable to

typifying

assume, too,

arrangement and the number of com-

partments formed by the walls of the interior

were disposed

structure

mandala,
a

just as

in

the

foundation of such magic squares.

lishment

at

form of

Hindu temples were

Nagarjunakonda

raised

The

also

on

the

viharas.

resident

form.

chaitya

The

monasteries

monks from Ceylon.

It

has the typical

plan of a court surrounded by individual

A new

cells.

chronology for the Amaravati sculp-

tures has been suggested in a recent

Douglas Barrett.

work by

He proposes a shorter chrono-

logy extending from the second to the fourth

century a.d. for the entire development in the

Amaravati region. The author

the

states: 'Before

century a.d. there was neither the social

st

organization nor the economic wealth to erect a

series of

monuments

even certain that

Buddhist

its

religion/

in

Andhradesa.

According

arrangement, the sculptures

into an Early Phase

Phase

(r.

150-200

{c.

a.d.),

and fourth centuries

It is

not

inhabitants professed the

to

may

125-150

Barrett's

be divided

a.d.),

Middle

and Late Phase

a.d.)

(third

which would include

estab-

the carving at sites like Nagarjunakonda and

Goli. Barrett believes that the Sanchi sculpture

remains of palace structures and

The former

the

in

included

temples of the familiar chaitya plan, together

with

METRES

include one y building specifically reserved for

be noted that the plan suggests

surrounded by concentric rings,

20

ings

it

the idea - already mentioned as inherent in the

symbolism of

70

and

hidden symbolism of these

interest for the

mounds.

plan of the stupa

15

80 FEET

60

of this

reached an original height of seventy or eighty

feet.

50

are certainly the earliest

surviving examples of actual structural build-

immediately

preceded

the

Early

Phase

Amaravati and provided the inspiration of

style. If we

tion 34

at
its

follow Barrett's chronology, illustra-

would represent the Early Phase; 145

214

'

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

and 149, the Middle Phase; and 144, 147, and

148, the Late Phase in the development.

There

some

It is

unfortunate that the

are not better

reliefs

of Amaravati

known. Certainly from the point

indications based on recent

of view of complex and yet always coherent

excavations in the Amaravati region that the

composition, of massing of chiaroscuro, and

may have survived

aliveness of surface treatment they have seldom

are

so-called Later

Andhra

style

there even after the rise of

Gupta power

in the

fourth century; indeed, until the rise of the

Pallavas.

Andhra

The

persistence of this late phase of

Budwould seem to

sculpture, represented largely by

dhist images of a debased type,

be supported by the continued copying of

Andhra models

in the sculpture of

Ceylon from

the eighth to the thirteenth centuries.

been surpassed
It is

in the history of relief sculpture.

well to reiterate in conclusion that, for the

later history

of Indian

art,

not only for sculpture

Gupta Period, but even more for the

dynamic carving under the Hindu dynasties
that succeeded the Andhras in the South, the
importance of the work at Amaravati is
in the

immeasurable.

J^

|S

jo

c,..

.1

THE GOLDEN AGE: THE GUPTA PERIOD

The Gupta

Period takes

its

name from

the

crowded

as to tax the defences

and revenue of

These centuries of Gupta

founder of this dynasty, Chandragupta, crowned

the Empire.

King of Kings at Pataliputra in A.D. 320, who

asserted his power over the Ganges Valley. The

marked the beginning of

conquests of this Kshatriya sovereign, Chan-

emphasis on Krishna as the exponent and divine

dragupta

I,

and

his successors, notably his son,

Samudragupta, came

northern

to include all of

India from Orissa to Ujjain.

Once more,

under the Mauryas, Magadha

as

Bengal

in the

Valley was the centre of the Empire. Chronologically the

Gupta Period may properly be

extended

include the reign of Harsha of

to

Kanauj (606-47), who revived the

glories of the

dynasty following the interregnum after the

invasion of the White

Huns

in the fifth century.

Although temporarily under the rule of the

Gupta

first

sovereigns, the regions of north-western

India, the ancient

Gandhara, were overrun by

the

White Huns, and even

last

of these

after the

death of the

inhuman conquerors one hundred

years later, these provinces remained apart from

India proper. Neither the

Gupta kings nor

mighty conqueror, Harsha, were able

their conquests to
to

to

was hardly

Hindu

other divisions in the

undergoing

a process

Hinduism

into

different

from

and was

faith,

of intellectual absorption

that led to the final disappear-

ance of the religion of Sakyamuni from India.

Although often referred

to

Renaissance, the Gupta Period

the Indian

as
is

not properly

speaking a rebirth, except in the political sense

reappearance of a unified rule that had not

as a

been known since the extinction of the Maurya

Dynasty
ideals

in the third century B.C. Purely Indian

were never more

span of centuries,

this

isolation

fully
if

expressed than in

only by reason of the

from the Western world that ensued

with the gradual collapse of the

Roman Empire

extend

410: foreign contacts, cultural and religious,

like

inherited

the ancient domains of the Andhras.

We

in this period

with

Mahayana Bud-

teacher of Vaishnava doctrine.

dhism

revival

cult of Vishnu,

culminating in the appearance of the Goths in

be governed by independent dynasties

who had

new

the

South India, which continued

the Pallavas and Chalukyas,

centring about a

rule also

Hindu

now

were

giver, the

Seldom

gather from the accounts of the Chinese

Fa Hsien and Hsiian-tsang,

with the Far East and with south-

eastern Asia, and in this exchange India was the

Far East the receiver.

in the history

of peoples do

we

find a

period in which the national genius

is

and typically expressed

arts as in

so fully

that BudMahayana and Hinayana

forms, flourished throughout the Gupta Empire
Although some of the old centres, like Kapila-

Gupta India. Here was florescence and fulfilment after a long period of gradual develop-

vastu and Sravasti, had fallen into decay and

assurance in expression in music, literature, the

visitors,

dhism, both in

its

depopulation, and even

waste,

the

Gaya was

shone golden in the sun

Pataliputra; at

centre of

ruinous

monasteries and towered stupas

at

Mathura and

Nalanda was the great university

Mahayana Buddhism,

its

cloisters so

ment,

like

drama, and the

may
the

in all the

sophistication

plastic arts.

and

complete

The Gupta

Period

well be described as 'classic' in the sense of

word describing

norm

or degree of perfec-

tion never achieved before or since,

perfect balance and

harmony of

and

all

in the

elements

2l6

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

and iconographic - elements insepar-

stylistic

this interrelated material

able in importance.

became the

Sanskrit

Gupta

chief architectural

The

court.

Mahdbhdrata, underwent

document of

Imperial race the

;

Indian

was regarded

it

is still in situ;

as

emble-

matic of the virtues of the Kshatriya prince

conquering in the service of Vishnu.

It is in this

the

and

A
\

it

then, free-standing cult images

and separate pieces of

a final recension as a

Rdmdyana enjoyed a renewed

popularity because

first

location

types, together with their plastic ornament, if

the

epic,

India under a godly

unified

language of the

official

great

by discussing

monuments by

typical carving; and,

finally, painting.

we meet with a final developmany types already found in earlier

periods. Thus for example, the rock-cut
chaitya-hall that we have analysed in its
In architecture

'mcnt of

period that the Indian theatre, which, just like

beginnings continues as an accepted archi-

Western drama, traced

tectural type.

origins to the per-

its

formance of church spectacles or miracle plays,

reached the extraordinary perfection of dramatic

and

structure

richness

that

Toy Cart and the famed

the

characterize

metaphor

of

The

essential basilican plan

Mahayana Buddhist

Sakuntala. King Harsha himself was a drama-

round

a distinguished

when

period

of the

is

first

time we find the

as patron

but as practitioner

the

for

amateur not only

grammarian. This

As Coomaraswamy has stated, this is

when the works of the classic Sanskrit

arts.

a period

dramatists and the wall-paintings of Ajanta

'reflect the

culture'.

same phase of luxurious

We may

aristocratic

be sure that the aesthetic of

Indian art expressed in the Vishnudharmottaram

was only

finally

and that the

formulated in the Gupta Period,

sdstras

governing the

arts of archi-

tecture and sculpture received their final codification in this age of universal

As

accomplishment.

Maurya Period, the very political

of India made for an artistic unity

in the

unity

transcending regional boundaries, so that ex-

amples
the

in sculpture

whole only

their

intact

From

manufacture.

onward we

and architecture

differ

on

in the local materials used in

the

Gupta Period

are fortunate in having preserved

many more examples

of architecture,

complete with their sculptural decoration. All

the arts are

now

so

much

a part of a single

unified expression that a completely separate

treatment would be not only

leading.

We

find

it

difficult

but mis-

best, therefore, to deal with

[151] at Ajanta

is

will serve to

reveal the changes that have taken place since

this

and

XIX

the dedication of the shrines at Bhaja and Karli.

Kalidasa's rich and sensuous poetic drama,

tist

Cave

work of the Gupta Period and

is

perpetuated in

sanctuary. Inside, the

shafts of the pillars of the nave arcade are

decorated with bands of foliate ornament, and

151. Ajanta,

Cave XIX,

interior

152. Ajanta,

Cave XIX,

exterior

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

2l8

at

the top

a lotiform

is

member forming

neck-

ing under the bracket-shaped capitals.

These

filled

with high-relief statues of Buddhas and

Bodhisattvas. These images are

more

or less

capitals are so closely spaced that they provide

symmetrically balanced according to an all-over

an almost continuous 'triforium' frieze of deeply

decorative scheme, which iconographically

carved

The haunch

relief.

mented with

of the vault

orna-

is

kind of clerestory of deep niches

containing standing or seated Buddhas alternating with panels of foliate ornament.

whole

effect

This luxuriant carving of the nave

mented by

The

extremely rich and 'baroque'.

is

is

comple-

the character of the stupa in the

ambulatory. This structure

is

as elaborate in

be regarded as

may

kind of mandala or diagram

On

depicting the host of the mystic Buddhas.

each side of the chaitya

yaksha-dvdrapdlas;

or

figures

muscled physique,
parallel

tended
to

ward

window are two guardian

heavily

their

kind of abstract Indian

Michelangelo's ternbilita,

for

power of these

to suggest the

off the

in-

is

divinities

enemies of the Buddhist Church.

comparison with the simple rock-cut hemi-

Iconographically they are the descendants of

spheres of Bhaja and Karli as the pillar and

the railing figures at Bharhut and Sanchi.

frieze decoration of the

unornamented

is

in relation to the

interior of the early chaitya-hall.

richly carved monolith reaching almost

It is a

to the

nave

summit of

The

the vault.

original

drum

and hemispherical dome have been made into

the figure of a standing

to accommodate
Buddha. Above rises

an attenuated

which one may

a pillared niche

recognize

and canopy

finial.

in

elements

the

of

now surmounted by

umbrellas

The enormous

the direct result

Buddha

undoubtedly symbolical of the

myriad Buddhas of the Quarters mentioned

the

Saddharma Pundarika,

itself is

just as

in

the stupa

reminiscent of the fantastic miraculous

structures described in the pages of this sutra.

No

less

elaborate

facade [152].

The

the early chaityas

is

is

the decoration of the

familiar lotiform
is still

a free-standing portico

the

The

window of

recognizable; below

richly carved pillars of the

of the nave.

In the

Gupta Period

appearance as

its

it

supported by two

same order

as those

portions of the facade around

window and on

the side walls of the 'court'

Six

permanent materials. One of these

there

is little

doubt that

temple converted

has

it is

At

an ancient Buddhist

been

already

shrine

dedicated to Siva, but

Hindu

to

is

District [153].

usage.

standing chaityas were built

period

makes

the chaitya-hall

free-standing temple of

is

is

of the

906).

present the building

emphasis on the anthropomorphic

are

of China

sanctuaries

elaboration of the stupa, as well

Mahayana Buddhism,

the

Dynasties (220-589) and T'ang Periods (618

Guntur

nature of the Buddha: the multiple

images

rock-cut

located at Chezarla in

as the decoration of the nave,

its

and

ment of multiple Buddha images covering

entire wall surface are the prototype for the

a vase or kalasa.

of the development of

with

harmika

still

Both

these figures and, indeed, the whole arrange-

at

That

free-

very early

mentioned.

The

foundations of such an apsidal building of the

century a.d. have been found in Sirkap

first

(Taxila),

and

temple of similar type

at

Sanchi

on very ancient foundations. The temple

rests
at

Chezarla, built entirely of brick,

chapel

of modest

proportions

approximately twenty-three
nine in width.

twenty-two

feet high.

of the building

constructed

The
is

is

in reality

measuring

feet in length

by

is

approximately

The most

striking feature

interior

its

vaulted roof, which

is

wholly of brick masonry, each

horizontal course having a slight offset inward

There

formed by the recession of the cave-front are

as

completely covered with niches of varying size

no true arching but only

it

rises to the ridge.

is,

in other

words,

form of corbelled

THE GUPTA PERIOD

219

153. Chezarla. chaitya-hall

The

vaulting.

facade of the building presents

A much more

significant structure at this

the characteristic chaitya-arch form of the rock-

same famous Buddhist

site is

cut chaitya-halls which at one time probably

standins

of the

enframed

Buddhist subject

in relief.

There

the

left

is

Ter [154], also dating from

Gupta Period, which is preceded by a
walled-in porch or mandapa, an element that
seems to have come into general usage for
sanctuaries of all types, both Hindu and
a

to

similar shrine at

the

Buddhist,

in the

fourth and

fifth centuries.

free-standing chaitya-hall at Sanchi. prob-

ably built on earlier foundations, shows that this

type

still

columns

persisted in the fifth century;

as restored

may

Probably

illustration

155.

rooted with

wood and

columns of the nave.

the

be seen to the right in

this

chaitya

was

thatch over the stone

154. Ter.

Trivikrama temple

the small temple

chaitva-hall

in

220

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

155. Sanchi,

Temple

illustration 155. It
17. It consists

columned

17

is

{left)

designated as

portico.

This plan of the sanctuary

or garbha griha with the porch or

front forms the nucleus of

all

mandapa

later

in

temple-

Hindu and Buddhist.

building in India both

is

Temple No.

of an enclosed cella preceded by

of the deity. Probably

stone of

wooden

it is

image

not a translation into

prototypes, but an entirely

capital and,

to

back as
It

the

Many

roof with spouts

exterior of the cella

found

and

squalid

closely joined

ashlar blocks; a continuous entablature

braces the sanctum and the porch as well.

emAs so

back

to
is

Hindu

invention: the fact

remains that both are used with modifications

temple architecture

consists of entirely plain

lions are placed

Buddhist and the cella-and-porch

type of temple a

for ritual

flat

massive abacus in

that, a

in the old Persepolitan type.

specifically

Period.

The

above

would be impossible and unprofitable

characteristics of

is

from rather high

attempt to prove that the chaitya-hall type

medium. Among the

to drain off rain-water.

rise

which rather dryly carved

appropriate, not imitative, use of the stone

Gupta

columns

square bases and are surmounted by both a bell

It

the outgrowth of a necessity to provide a

suitable enshrinement for a central cult

shafts of the

by both

sects

throughout the Gupta

varying examples of these types can be

at Aihole, near

modern

village

Badami. There,

and

in the

in the

overgrown

wasteland of prickly-pear forest surrounding

it,

are about seventy old temples, variously used

Gupta art, we find a combination of an

new and fresh concept with elements of
tradition. Thus the columns of the portico are a

archaeologists.

modification of the Asokan order: the octagonal

chaitya type at Aihole

often in

for dwellings, storerooms,

entirely

and cowsheds. Only

handful have been reclaimed by modern

late
is

Gupta shrine of the

Durga

the Brahmanical

THE GUPTA PERIOD

22]

Durga temple

156. Aihole,

temple [156].

It is

an example of a modified

Durga temple

157. Aihole,

structural chaitya-hall with the familiar basili-

can plan of nave,

aisles,

and apse

[157].

flat

roof with stone slabs over the nave replaces the

barrel vaults. In place of the ambulatory of the

rock-cut chaityas,

it

has a pteroma running

round the exterior of the

cella.

The

plain and

very massive bracket capitals of this arcade are

a type that reappears

with variations in

all later

periods of Indian architecture. These capitals

are in a sense a severe or rustic version of those

seen in Cave

more

XIX

interesting

at Ajanta.

Another and even

new element

is

the

or sikhara rising above the apsidal

structure.
as

The

primitive beehive huts or a figuration of the

Gupta and

in

the

later periods.

The

origins of the sikhara have been one of the great

it

processional

mukuta, the towering head-dress of Vishnu.

points of dispute in Indian archaeology.

see in

wooden

Others have suggested an adaptation from

which some writers see

becomes more and more prominent

architecture of the

translation into stone of a

car.

North Indian development,

sikhara,

specifically

spire

little

end of the

Some

development from the stupa, or

Coomaraswamy's proposal
tower was

developed

that

the

sikhara

by the piling up of

successive storeys, as suggested by the representation of the crowning amalaka at each level
or roof,

is

perhaps the best solution. 2

222

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

58. Aihole,

The

of the

sculpture

includes

some of the

The

art.

Haccappya's temple, Vishnu on Naga

temples

Aihole

at

finest reliefs in all

panel with Vishnu on

159. Aihole,

Ladh Khan temple

Indian

Naga from

Haccappya's temple [158], although perhaps as

late as

the eighth century, resembles the carving

Deogarh [162] in the abstract purity of

modelling and the organization of the relief.

at

These small narrative

slabs are adaptations for

themes that
Deccan [246].
have the same sense of emergence

structural architecture of the epic

the great cave temples of the

fill

The

figures

from the

limitless

background; their faces

reveal a rapt, entranced expression of absorption in their

own

being; and the forms

move

in

easy curvilinear rhythms, their contours inter-

mingling with the

Still

sented by the
site

fluidity of

waves or flames.

another type of architecture

Ladh Khan temple

dating from

c.

450

tangular building with a

[159].
flat

is

repre-

at the

This

is

same

a rec-

roof of stone slabs.

15

METRES

THE GUPTA PERIOD

Stone

grilles

admit

light

from two

sides,

and the

eastern end opens into a pillared porch.

wall

is

posts,

in reality a peristyle of

between which the

been placed
a

like screens.

massive stone

latticed slabs

have

double

Hindu Renaissance

Period.

R. Balasubramanyam, the

Ladh Khan should properly be

In so far as one can

the free-standing

referred to as

the

tell

from the ruins of such

Dhamekh

stupa at Sarnath,

monuments of this

type reveal

same tendency towards attenuation

that

notable in the rock-cut stupas at Ajanta.

is

The

Dhamekh

stupa was presumably a memorial

The actual
emblem of

erected to

commemorate

santhaghara?

simply

room

of the interior of the

built into the

hall,

suggesting the temple at

cussed below. Although

Bhumara

its

back wall

an arrangement
to be dis-

thoroughly unusual

and inappropriate arrangement was not perpetuated,

S.

the Surya Narayana temple.

round.

aisle all

sanctuary for housing the Saivite

is

Dr

from the arrangement of the Indian

village meeting-hall or

worship

to

structures as the

not from any pre-existing religious

shrine, but

According

two groups of

This unusual plan, as Percy Brown points out,

derives

use throughout the

The interior consists of

single large hall containing

columns that provide

The

223

the

Ladh Khan

is

important in

the Buddha's ordain-

ing of his successor, Maitreya. Its solid brick

core consists of a high basement
a

drum;

the hemispherical

structure have disappeared, but

to a considerable

height.

feature of this ruin

is

surmounted by

dome and

super-

must have risen

The most

notable

the very elaborate relief

decoration surrounding the niches for images

drum

ornament consists

furnishing us with the earliest example of the

let

massive bracket-like capital that continues in

of chevron patterns and the most luxuriant vine

160. Sarnath,

Dhamekh

stupa, detail of carving

into the

[160]: the

224

"

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

patterns, carved with the utmost delicacy

feeling for effective

sculptural

shadow. This

equivalent

of

is

and

the exact

magnificently

the

painted ceilings of the Ajanta cave temples

which

will

One

be considered

architecture of the

Vishnu
is

at

gems of Hindu

Gupta Period

is

the temple of

Deogarh. This fragmentary building

one of the most ornate and beautifully com-

posed examples of Gupta architecture.

temple

itself

The

occupies the innermost enclosure

of a mandala of nine squares [161]. 4

dates from the fifth century.

The

It

probably

shrine as

it

survives consists of a cubic block of finely joined

surmounted by

ashlar masonry,

midal tower that

feet in height.

at

one time rose

This

cella

ruined pyra-

to

about forty

was originally sur-

rounded by four porticoes, one leading

to the

sanctuary, the other three serving to set off and

protect the reliefs of

stupa.

The

carving of the frame

baroque depth

reliefs.

Brahmanic subjects

the remaining walls of the edifice [162].

set in

These

Their

in their box-like settings gives

the effect of a spectacle on a stage and seems to

prophesy the dynamic chiaroscuro of

later.

of the few surviving

Dhamekh

complements the richness of the

The voluptuous

later

Hindu

sculpture.

figures

and the already familiar metaphorical

grace of the

conventions of anatomy and features remind us

of the style of

Gupta Buddhist sculpture

at

Sarnath. But the richness and dramatic conception of relief are far

more moving than any-

thing to be found in Buddhist art of the

sixth centuries,

fifth

and

and are an unmistakable indi-

cation of the real renaissance that was taking

place in the art of the

Hindu Church.

Originally

temple platform was decorated with

the

continuous frieze representing events from the

Rdmdyana,

epic

a text popular in

for its heroic account of the

race.
is

This

is

Gupta times

triumph of a godly

the earliest example of a motif that

repeated over and over again in the archi-

^^^^^^^^^^

panels are deeply sunk in an elaborate frame-

tecture of Java.

work of pilasters of the Indian order and

The main doorway of the temple at Deogarh

may serve as an example of the extremely ornate
type of portal that makes its appearance now

a frieze

of foliate scrolls and lion heads. This ornament

is

not far removed from the

work on the

161.

Deogarh, Vishnu temple

162.

Deogarh, Vishnu temple, Vishnu on Sesha

tefc

163.

Deogarh, Vishnu temple, doorway

THE GUPTA PERIOD

[163].

feature found in almost

entrances

temple

all

the projecting lintel-cornice.

is

It

overhangs the elaborate frame of the doorway

The main motif here

proper.

consists of richly

decorated pilasters, alternately square, octa-

an architrave

in the

or chaitya roof

Within

mers.

narrow

examples

at

blind chaitya arches in the horizontal courses

enframe

heads

of divine

beings,

framework

bands

of

with

decoration

mithunas

of

enclosed

are

auspicious

or

pre-Khmer buildings of Indo-China. If

its shape, the temple seems to bear some
relation to the original tower sanctuary at Bodh
the

only in

Gaya, and

it

furnishes a remarkably close proto-

plaque of Vishnu on the great naga. Around the

many later
China. The panels

frame of the doorway

panels with

the exterior revetment are

among

and

beautiful examples of Indian

work

itself are

To

crisply carved foliate details.

frame are

right

is

left

type for

shrines in Java and Indo-

of carved terracotta from

most

the

in this anci-

and outside the main zone of the

ent

of the river goddesses of the

the

medium. Like the decorative stone panels of

Gupta period, these reliefs are characterized

by

their

reliefs

Ganges and Jumna. This

is

motif that occurs

repeatedly in this position in the buildings of

Gupta

first

motif that recurs in Pallava architecture and in

couples in the centre of the over-door slab

at the top

the

shape of an elongated vesara

this

vertical

hull-shaped roof of the

appearance of the gavaksha, an architectural

in section,

ornamented with chaitya dor-

representations

we shall see in the Pallava

Mamallapuram and Gwalior. The

chaitya type that

supporting

and sixteen-sided

gonal,

crowned by

originally

227

extreme beauty of

finish, softness

form, and crispness of detailed definition.

At the bases of the overlapping

times.

frames of the door are carvings of dvarapalas or

door guardians and female

divinities.

ness of this sculptured portal

The

rich-

like the reliefs

is,

164. Bhitargaon, brick

temple

of the false windows, set off by the plain surfaces

of the ashlar masonry.

unique and important building of the

Gupta Period

is

near Cawnpore.
for

its

that

effect

its

on

the brick temple at Bhitargaon

The

flat

structure,

which depends

wall decoration,

is

so ruinous

arrangements can be seen better in an

architectural

drawing than

[164]. It dates

from the

fifth

in

photograph

century, and

is

one

of the few surviving examples of Indian architecture

in

dedication,

images.
is

brick.
it

Originally

was intended

Brahmanical

as a sanctuary for

The brick tower, raised on a high plinth,

thirty-six feet square,

and contains

a cella

joined to a small vestibule by a barrel vault.

Domical brick
porch.

On

vaults cover the sanctuary

the exterior

we

and

see a structure with

doubly recessed corners ornamented by double

cornices enclosing a recessed frieze of carved
brick.

The superstructure, rising in diminishing

stages with a decoration of chaitya arches,

was

aw/***"1

of

228

[65.

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

Bhumara, shrine of Siva

complicated

foliate

growth.

The

frond-like

motifs belonging to no botanical species writhe

and twist with explosive vigour. The repetition

of the curling motifs large and small creates an
effect

of constant uneasy

surface, the
itself.

One

movement of

movement
a flame

over the

consuming

has the feeling that in the very

exuberance of

this

rococo fantasy the creative

invention has a vigour and freshness

still

far

from the exhaustion and dryness of expression

found

in the late

Hindu periods of Indian

art.

Sculpture in the period of Gupta supremacy,

like the allied arts

must not

in

of painting and architecture,

any sense be regarded as a revival or

rebirth, but rather as the logical culmination

Closely related to this type of temple and plan

is

the shrine of Siva at

[165].

Bhumara

in

Nagod

This sanctuary, dated in the

State

late fifth

century, consists of a square cella or garbha

griha,

which was

itself originally

contained in a

larger walled chamber, so that an indoor pro-

cessional path was

holies.

formed around the holy of

This enclosure

mandapa.

It

arrangement

is
is

in turn

difficult to

it

can easily be seen that

by linking the porch direct

the

say whether this

the origin of the typical late

Indian temple plan, but

the form of the

was preceded by

to the holy of holies,

Hindu and Buddhist temple

of

Gupta Period was completely evolved.

In

Gupta temples, both Buddhist and Hindu,

the decorative carving was effectively crowded

into the

ornament of the doorways, windows,

and panels

let

into the otherwise plain wall-

surfaces, so that the resulting contrast of small

areas of sparkling relief against the expanse

of

unadorned ashlar

is

not unlike the effect of

Plateresque architectural ornament in Spain.

from the shrine

at

single red sandstone panel

Bhumara

will serve to illustrate the

exuberant

richness of this type of architectural carving in

the

Gupta Period

[166]. It represents

agana

or

goblin climbing the stem of an enormously

166.

Door jamb with

Allahabad, Municipal

floral scroll

Museum

from Bhumara.

THE GUPTA PERIOD

of several continuous traditions.

out of which

it

The

traditions

developed are mainly the entirely

Indian school of Mathura, and the Greco-

Roman art of the north-west frontier.

All

Gupta

sculpture, regardless of its place of manufacture,

is

marked by a finished mastery in execution and

majestic serenity in expression that have

seldom been equalled

in

any other school of art.

We may take as a typical example, to illustrate

what we might

the processes leading to the

call

emergence of Gupta sculpture, any one of the

images of Buddha carved

Mathura from the

at

fourth century onwards [167].

description

tsang's

of this

From

Hsiian-

Kushan

former

can be no doubt that the city con-

capital there

tinued as a flourishing centre of Buddhism.

The

Buddha from Mathura differs

early Kushan effigies of Sakyamuni in

fifth-century

from the

showing the Teacher entirely covered by the

monastic
regarded

garment.
as

Gandhara. The
a

This

in

may be

itself

an iconographical borrowing from

style of the

marked resemblance

drapery bears a

to certain late

Buddhas; what were once

Gandhara

realistically repre-

sented Classical folds have been reduced to a

series of strings, symbolically representing the

ridges of the folds, that clothe the

body

in a net

of parallel loops following the median line of the

figure. In the

Mathura Buddhas the

conventionalization

of

the

late

rather hard

Gandhara

drapery formula has been reworked into a

rhythmic pattern quite apart from

tive function; that

is,

its

descrip-

the repetition of the loops

of the string-like drapery provides a kind of

relief to the static

This

is

columnar mass of the body.

the final development of a formula al-

ready noted in the Buddhas of the Later Andhra

The conception of the actual form of the

Buddha is entirely Indian. We note a perpetu-

Period.

ation of the heaviness

and volume of the early

Kushan Buddhas: this quality, together with

the commanding height of the figures, conveys
a feeling of awesome dignity and power. It is
notable, however, that the archaic crudeness of

167.

Standing Buddha from Mathura.

Calcutta, Indian

Museum

229

**~

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

230

the prototype has disappeared.

We may

'The figure of

be

Great Master they

their

reasonably sure that these figures were carved

stealthily class

according to a fixed set of proportions intended

only in the point of clothing; the points of

guarantee the more than mortal ideality of the

beauty are absolutely the same.' 5 This accurate

to

with that of Tathagata;

it

differs

conception; likewise, individual parts of the

observation by HsiAan-tsang on the dependence

body continue

of Jain art on Buddhist prototypes

to be fashioned in

accordance

number of

may be

with the entirely metaphorical description of

applied to any

the Buddha's person contained in the laksanas.

periods. A sizeable statue of a Tirtharhkara in the

The head
Mathura

of this typical Gupta

reveals essentially the

Buddha from

Archaeological

same

be mistaken

coales-

Museum

at first

cence of the Indian and Gandharan traditions.

dhyana mudrd, were

The sharp

nudity of the figure.

of the planes,

definition

for

as,

at

Jain images of

Muttra [168] could

glance for a
it

Buddha

The proportions of the body

and the technical aspects of carving are

from the eye-socket,

with

precision of the

similar to the hard

in

not for the complete

example, the razor edge that separates the brow

is

all

Buddha images of the Gupta

identical

down

Period,

Gandhara Buddhas, with the

difference that the

Mathura types avoid

mask-like coldness of the Gandhara

the

Buddha

head by the swelling roundness of the interlocking planes which in an almost geometric
fashion combine to impart to the face a feeling

of warmth and fullness.

are again

and

still,

composed

The

in a

individual features

metaphorical manner

as in archaic sculpture,

combined

additive, rather than an organic,

in

an

manner. The

eyes are lotiform; the lips have the fullness of

the

mango

shell

the hair

is

represented by the snail-

convention which we have seen in the

example from Amaravati. The sculptors are

always

at pains to represent the

definite protuberance

ushnisha as a

growing from the summit

of the skull, and in similarly orthodox fashion

the marks of wheel, fish, trisula, etc., are en-

graved on the palms of the hands.

Among

the

most beautiful features of the Mathura Buddhas

are the carved haloes, the

of concentric rings of

ornament consisting

floral

pattern about a

central lotus. Aesthetically this final evolution

of the Buddhist cult image

in the feeling

sculptural

is

mass and the awesome

is

spiritual

achieved by

combination of Late Antique convention

and Indian metaphor and feeling

volume.

68. Jain Tirtharhkara.

Museum

ys

extremely moving

of tremendous and fully realized

dignity of form and features that

their

Muttra, Archaeological

for plastic

to

such details as the lotiform eyes and the repre-

sentation of the hair by snail-shell curls.

The

impression of hieratic stiffness and austerity in

this

and other Jain images

is

due not only

rigid geometrical construction of the

like a

column on the base of the locked

to the

body

set

legs,

but

sri;:

-~i:t i~i

,.

:._

:r.

oc

3-jcmrt has been suppressed in favour

trjireiT abstract conception of the boc

zT".t

.*.:

~.

r:

-i"

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

232

man

in yogic trance, a spiritual state of being in

One

of the most flourishing centres of Bud-

which the body becomes immaculate - purified

dhist sculpture in the

of the dross of material existence.

great monastic complex at Sarnath

Gupta Period,

In the

as at all other

moments

of Indian art history, no distinction in style can

be

made between works of art produced

various religions.

typical

decorated the stupas and viharas was the chunar

site

One may choose as typical of

Buddha type evolved at this site
any one of the many images recovered in the

fragment of the Hindu deity

course of excavation [171]. This statue was

Vishnu with the heads of a lion and

to left

fifth

stylistic

Period.

the standing

to

Narasimha and Vardha avatars of

The body is represented

the god.

Maurya

boar placed

and right of the central human head

indicate the

the sculptors used for carving the in-

numerable Buddhas and Bodhisattvas that once

sandstone that had served the craftsmen of the

idiom as the Buddha images from the same

is

the

The material

for the

ment from the Mathura workshops of the

This

Brahmanical frag-

century reveals the same tradition and

[169].

that

Gupta Period was

with the same

herculean proportions as employed for the icons

of Buddha

the carving in smooth, very simpli-

fied planes is the final perfection

the early

of the style of

Kushan school. The human

centre in

its

face in the

roundness and in the character of

the individual features could scarcely be distin-

guished from a

Buddha mask. A

Vishnu attribute

jewel head-dress or

mukuta which

same luxuriant fancy

is

typical of

Very

all

Gupta ornament.

close in feeling

We

reveals the

in decorative invention as

and

cent Vishnu torso in the

[170].

distinctive

of course, the elaborate

is,

notice here

detail is a magnifi-

New

how

Delhi

Museum

the Indian sculptor,

following a device going back to the archaic

periods,

exploits

to

the

full

the

contrasts

between the precisely carved jewellery and armlets

and the unadorned expanse of the nude

torso. In the

Sena Period

Buddhist sculpture of the Pala-

this insistence

the jewelled ornamentation

end

in itself,

definition of

becomes

a kind of

and the carving assumes

mechanical aspect that

statues of the

on the

is

a dry,

totally absent in the

Gupta Period,

in

which there

is

always a perfect balance between the massive

plastic realization of the
details serving

by

form and the surface

their very delicacy of execu-

170.

The god

New

Delhi, National

Vishnu.

Museum

tion to relieve the statues' almost overbearing

171 {opposite). Standing

heaviness.

New

Delhi, National

Buddha from
Museum

Sarnath.

\P

THE GUPTA PERIOD

dedicated in the year a.d. 474, in the reign of

Kumaragupta, by

a holy

man named Abhaya-

mitra. Several other images donated

by

this

233

departure from any adherence to the style of

Gandhara than the Mathura Buddha

in the

complete disappearance of any indication of the

same monk bear inscriptions with the phrase

structure of the folds of the drapery;

'made beautiful through the science of

citra\

though the mesh of strings typical of the Bud-

may

dhas of Mathura had fallen away, leaving the

The term citra,

usually applied to painting,

be roughly translated as
is

one of the

first

artistic

expression and

indications that

we have

that

Buddha clothed in a smooth

ment that completely reveals

the aesthetic properties of the icon were con-

body beneath

sidered as part of

that strikes us

image.

The

its

effectiveness as a religious

statue

shows an even further

it.

is

marked contrast
slightly

as

is

sheath-like gar-

the form of the

Another immediate difference

the position of the figure
to the

columnar

broken on

its

axis

in

rigidity of the

Buddhas of Amaravati and Mathura,

is

it

in

the

body

kind of

Praxitelean dehanchement, a device that imparts

a certain litheness

and moving quality

Sarnath type. Very possibly this

for

is

to the

an adaptation

Buddhist usage of the characteristic pose of

the Indian dance, the tribhanga, in which,

be remembered, the body

is

it

will

similarly broken

on

perhaps not too bold to think that

its axis. It is

was intended

this posture

to

suggest to the

worshipper that the Buddha image was actually

moving

or walking towards the suppliant,

hand raised
their

its

in the gesture of reassurance. Like

counterparts at Mathura, the Sarnath

images are certainly composed according to

fixed system of proportion;

from what we know

Hindu
some such ratio as seven, or even nine,
thalams (the distance from brow to chin) to the
total height of the image would have been emof later compilations of the sastras in the
tradition,

ployed.

The

'stature'

both physical and hieratic of the deity

ratio

varied

according to the

to be represented.

In

all

the

Buddhas of the Sarnath workshops

the planes have been so simplified that the

sculpture takes on an almost abstract character;

it is

as though,

by the very perfection and un-

broken smoothness of the subtly swelling convex surfaces which compose the modelling of
the body, the sculptor strove not only for a
beautifully refined plastic statement of form

and

volume, but for an expression of the ineffable

perfection of the body of the

Buddha

as well.

234

172.

Buddha preaching

the First

from Sarnath.
Sdrndth, Archaeological

Sermon

One

of the great masterpieces of Gupta

sculpture and,

Museum

periods

indeed, of Indian art of

the high-relief statue of

is

all

Buddha

preaching the First Sermon, discovered in the

ruins of Sarnath [172].

It is, as

Chunar sandstone which

usual, carved of

retains traces of red

pigment on the robe. The Teacher

repre-

is

sented seated in yoga posture, his hands in the

wheel-turning or dharmacakra mudrd; below,

on the

plinth,

Sakyamuni's

may

be recognized the figures of

followers

earliest

who,

after

period of apostasy, returned to him at the

sermon

Deer Park. Between the two

is the symbol of the

in the

groups of kneeling monks

preaching, the Wheel, and, to give the setting,

two badly damaged

The

figures of

recumbent

back-slab, representing a throne,

is

deer.

carved

with hybrid monsters or ydhs and makaras.

Iconographically the relief

is

the final step in a

development that transformed the events from

the

life

of the

career.

Buddha

mere

rather than

into hieratic symbols,

stories of

Sakyamuni's mortal

In early representations of the First

Preaching, as in the reliefs of Gandhara, the

Deer Park sermon

represented as an actual

is

Buddha surrounded by

event, with the

disciples, with all figures

the Sarnath relief it

figure of the

on the same

scale.

his

In

the enormously enlarged

is

Buddha in dharmacakra mudrd that

stands for the event; the narrative elements of

the episode have been relegated to the base.

Both the

attenuation of the Sarnath

svelte

Buddhas and

the quality of sensuous elegance

them are a kind of development out of the Later Andhra style. The seated
Buddha is presumably carved according to a

that distinguishes

system of five thalams

figure,

with the head as

to the total height

of the

composed in a triangle,
apex and the legs as the base.

and the image

is

The relief shows the development of the

Mahayana point of view it is the eternal aspect
:

of the turning of the wheel, typified by the

Buddha and

his

gesture,

that

is

important,

rather than the actual episode from the hero's

THE GUPTA PERIOD

of this and other Gupta

mortal career that appealed to the Hinayanist

beautiful

Church. There could be no more appropriate

Buddhas from Sarnath

nor beautiful illustration of the metaphorical

haloes. In the present

conception of the cult image and

the

parts than this icon the line of the

:

the tensile curve of the Indian

its

separate

brows follows

bow; the eyes

are

nimbus

the carving of their

is

example the ornament of

consists of a

wide band of deeply cut

forms framed in a pearl border with

foliate

flower-bearing apsaras on either side.

No less aesthetically moving than the Buddha

lotiform ; the face has the perfect oval of the egg;

and the body once again

features

235

combination of the

images of the Sarnath school are the statues of

various allegories of great strength and beauty

Bodhisattvas that are the earliest recognizable

is

contained in the laksanas.

One

of the most

personifications

of these

Mahayana pantheon. A
173. Avalokitesvara

example

is

archangels

of the

particularly beautiful

an image of Avalokitesvara clearly

recognizable by the attribute of the small figure

of

Buddha Amitabha in the towering diadem

The radiant face, softly modelled in

[173].

gently fusing abstract planes, has that air of

half-sensuous, half-spiritual introspection that
in

an exaggerated form appears in the provincial

Indian sculpture of Fondukistan [124].

The

body, which appears almost nude through the

transparent dhoti, reveals the same soft, pliant

rhythm

as the

Buddha images of

the Sarnath

school and their painted counterparts in the

Gupta murals of Ajanta [183]. These Bodhisattva images of the Gupta Period are the
artistic ancestors

of the later icons of the Pala

Period [197].

Not

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

the least important aspect of the Sarnath

school of Buddhist sculpture

is

its

great in-

The
Buddha images to be carved in Siam
and Cambodia are all provincial variants of the
fluence

on Buddhist

outside India.

art

earliest

Sarnath types, and a

ment

will

final

and beautiful develop-

be seen in the Buddhas ornamenting

the great shrine of Barabudur in Java.

In relief sculpture the

Gupta workshops of

Sarnath achieved a synthesis of Gandharan and

Kushan elements paralleling the development

Buddha image. A number of steles with
scenes from the life of Buddha very clearly
show the perpetuation of the iconography for
each episode as evolved in Gandhara [174]. The
of the

figures in the reliefs are themselves miniature

replicas of the

monumental

statues.

The style of

174-

Scenes from the Life of Buddha from Sarnath.

Sarnath, Archaeological

Museum

THE GUPTA PERIOD

the relief carving with the forms outlined against

a

deeply shadowed background

as a

may be regarded

development of the archaic

found

style

at

Sanchi and elsewhere. In the individual scenes

the story

is

related in a very clear shorthand

portable statues were imported into China by

Buddhist pilgrims
as

models

like

Among

the statuettes in bronze that have

Gandhara, which are reported

necessary to the action. There

have been excavated

in

at

Sahri Bahlol,

of the manner of continuous narration, so that

all

the events related to the

(Maya under the Sal

Buddha's Nativity

tree, the

Seven Steps, and

the First Bath) are included within the confines

of the same panel.

tive

the

to

most

The

reduction of the narra-

essential figures

is

already

prophesied in the relief style of the Kushan

Period at Mathura.

^^^^^^

Some mention must be made

which

metal,

at

of sculpture in

one time certainly existed

in a

quantity approximating that of the surviving

examples in stone and stucco.

ing metal statue of any size

is

The only remain-

the colossal copper

image of Buddha from Sultanganj,

Birmingham Museum
figure

is

the

in

[175]. Stylistically, the

the equivalent of the fifth-century stone

Buddhas of Sarnath
attenuation of

in the

smoothly rounded

body and limbs, and

in the

that the drapery entirely reveals the

neath. Parallel incisions

way

form be-

on the surface are

all

that indicate the presence of folds in front of the

body. Modelling in the shape of the archaic

chevron pattern connotes the fullness of the

garment
erect

feeling

The

at the borders.

and majestic

like the

of animation

figure, standing

Sarnath statues, has a

imparted

balanced stance and the

by the un-

movement suggested

by the sweeping silhouette of the enveloping

robe. Indeed,

much

this figure derives

of the impressiveness of

from the position of the arms

unfurling the mantle on either side of the body

like giant

wings outspread.

Just as important aesthetically and historically are the

small figures of Buddha and Buddhist

divinities in

both

in

bronze that have been unearthed

Gandhara and

only because

it is

the

Ganges

Valley,

if

highly likely that such small

Far

East. 6

been found

a perpetuation

Hsiian-tsang and served

for the religious sculpture of the

manner, with the inclusion of only those figures

is

237

175. Copper Buddha from Sultanganj.

Birmingham Museum

is

to

an

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

238

example
[176].

of Pierre Jeannerat

in the collection

represents the

It

abhdya mudrd. In

Buddha standing

a general

in

way, the figure, with

the voluminous folds of the mantle indicated by

incised

lines,

but

conceived

separate from the body,

the stone

176.

is

as

volume

miniature replica of

Gandhara Buddhas of the second and

Bronze standing Buddha from Sahri Bahlol.

Radlett, Herts, Pierre Jeannerat

177 {right). Bronze standing Buddha

from Dhanesar Khera.
Kansas City, Nelson Art Gallery

third centuries.

made

at a

Classical

round

to the image's having

somewhat
influence

artistic ideals

and

There are certain features, how-

which point

ever,

was

being

been

when

the

replaced

by

later period,

of a definite Indian nature; the

fullness of the face,

prominent ushnisha,

snail-shell curls are positive hallmarks of

THE GUPTA PERIOD

the

Gupta

Mathura, so

style at centres like

that

figures,

and

239

their metaphorical composition are

Gupta

the object should probably be dated no earlier

all

than the fourth or

continued as a Buddhist centre well through the

century. Characteristic

fifth

of the Gandhara metal figures

the rayed nim-

is

bus and aureole or body halo.

Buddha from

the bronze figure of

is

Dhanesar Khera, now

City and dated

in the

400

c.

tradition.

Sanchi

reign of Harsha of Kanauj, and

dedications include

example of a statuette of the Gupta

typical

Period

parts of the unified

some of the later

Buddha images of consider-

able dignity and plastic significance.

We

museum at Kansas

[177].

The head

is

reduction to a small scale of the heads of fourth-

and fifth-century Buddha statues from Mathura.

The

proportions

body beneath the

of the

drapery likewise correspond to the Gupta type,

but the robe

itself is still

with

formity

the

modelled more

semi-realistic

Gandhara. Again, the halo, with

rays,
in

in con-

of

style

its

projecting

typical of these small metal images both

is

Gandhara and

later

Indian examples. 8

Sculpture in the Gupta Period

limited to

is

of course not

the production of the ateliers at

Mathura and Sarnath; there was, on the

enormous amount of carving of
Hindu and Buddhist images all over India, and

contrary, an

many of these can

pieces of the
great

vie in quality

famous centres

many images and reliefs, Hindu, Buddhist,

and Jain, have been collected

Among

Gwalior.

and

with the masterin the north.

Museum at

these the mother goddesses

Xarasirhha

in the

from

Besnagar,

several

reliefs

of flying apsaras, and a Nativity

either

Hindu

or Jain, are

worthy of

mention. Also from a temple

relief of the

Museum

goddess Gariga,

of Fine Arts.

at

now

The

relief,

special

Besnagar
in the

is

Boston

figure reveals the

attenuated sensuous grace of the Sarnath style,

and the

foliage

and water patterns

are carved

with that combination of convention and inventive

fancy

ornament.

that

Among

Gupta carvings

is

characterizes

the

all

Gupta

most monumental of

the colossal relief of the boar

avatar of Vishnu at Udayagiri, Bhopal [178]. All

these examples from western India are in the

same

style as the

sculptural

work

conception,

at

Sarnath; that
the

is,

proportions

the

of

have

already studied the later cave-temples at Ajanta

Udayagiri, Bhopal, boar avatar of Vishnu

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

240

Gupta Period

sculpture in the

[180J.

Repre-

sented are a gandhdrva and an apsaras

super-

natural aerial beings - divinities of fragrance

and music, once the attendants of Indra.

Appropriately, the divinities are

through the

and

air,

it

shown

flying

should be noted that the

of weightless, endless, soaring motion

effect

is

imparted not, as in Christian angels, by the

unconvincing addition of wings, but by the

direction of the legs

and by the upward swirling

of the billowing scarf that supports the

lines

divine pair like a celestial parachute. As Stella

Kramrisch has pointed

upturned

feet,

out, the device of the

brushing against, but not sup-

ported by, the steps in the frame

adds to the illusion of the

angels. 9

Again,

the

at the right

effortless flight

very

heaviness

of the

of the

massive, intricate coiffures, worthy of Fuseli's

courtesans, seems to add by contrast to the
lightness of the simply modelled bodies.

beautiful apsaras in this group

yakshi in

Gupta terms,

a fully

is

The

the Sanchi

modelled form

in

relief,

but suggesting the possibility of existence

in the

round. Note the wonderful contrast of the

close-pressed roundness of globular breasts and

almost abstractly tubular limbs and, as in

all

great Indian figure sculpture, the expansive

swelling roundness that

as

examples of rock-cut architecture; some of

the sculptural decoration, notably the fine panel

of a Ndgardja and his queen, outside Cave

XIX,

deserve to rank with the great examples of the

period [179].

The

figures have the

same

feeling

appear

'as if

makes these beings

breathing'. 10

Gupta Buddhist sculpture

may

in western India

be illustrated by a panel carved on the

narthex screen of the chaitya-hall at Karli

of elegance and repose which, as

Mahayana temple

presently, distinguishes the

described as an apotheosis of

ings at the

same

site. It will

we shall see
Gupta wall-paint-

be observed that

the reliefs mentioned have a

common

all

classic

quality in being rigidly contained within a boxlike

frame. There

qualities of later

figures

are

is

no indication of the baroque

Hindu

disposed

reliefs, in

which the

without any confining

enclosure.

from Sondani near Gwalior

mature development of figure

the

[181].

This

relief could

be

Buddha

he

as

The
Buddha is enthroned on a lotus in the sky at the
summit of an axis supported in the nether
appears transfigured in the Lotus sutra.

To complete the representation

waters by nagas.

of the old Vedic concept of the division of the

cosmos into
level

beautiful slab

illustrates the

at

time when this sanctuary was transformed into a

air,

earth,

and nether waters, the

of the earth and a reference to the Buddha's

preaching

may

be discerned in the Wheel and

the deer, emblematic of Sarnath.

The Buddha is

180.

Gandharvas and apsaras from Sondani.

Gwalior, Archaeological

Museum

242

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

A.
flanked by the Bodhisattvas Avalokitesvara and

Maitreya, the principal

members of the

celestial

who were vouchsafed a vision of

Body of Bliss or Sambhogakdya. Above the

Painting in the
tecture

Gupta Period,

and sculpture,

archi-

like

merely the culmina-

is

congregation

tion, not the renewal, of a very ancient tradition.

the

References to Indian painting occur in literature

Buddha's head

symbol of

are angels supporting a stupa,

his final Nirvana.

individual figures, like the

The

style of the

Gupta sculptures

at

of all periods as early as the Maurya, and

it

may

be assumed that techniques and traditions had

been formulated long before the Gupta

era.

The

principal source for an understanding of the

aesthetic of Indian painting

mottaram, which

is

classifies the

the Vishnudhar-

types of painting

appropriate to temples, palaces, and private

and

dwellings,

and

'lyrical',

laid

differentiates

between
Great

'secular' painting.

'true',

stress

is

on the necessity of following canonical

proportions and, of even greater import, the

of emotion

expression

through

appropriate

movement. 11

Limbs

Six

enumerated
the

Kama

Period.

or

in the

sutra, a

of Painting are

Essentials

commentary of Yasodhara on
work essentially of the Gupta

These canons may be understood

reference

to

standards

as a

which every painter

would necessarily observe. They include the

proper representation of inner feeling or mood,
ideal proportion, as well as attention to

proper

pose, and the preparation of colours and use of

the brush.

These Indian canons

are

on the

whole practical injunctions, and have nothing

to

do with the Six Canons of the fifth-century

Chinese painter Hsieh Ho.

That

certain

trompe

I'aeil

through the

suggestion of relief was specifically intended in

Indian painting
in the

is

hinted at by certain passages

Lankavatdra sutra: 'As

highness and lowness while

nothing of the sort in

181. Karli, chaitya-hall, Transfiguration of

Buddha

it

...

canvas on which there

it is

is

shows

a picture

(in reality) there is

like the painter's

no depression or

elevation as imagined by the ignorant.' 12

Ajanta,

is

derivation

rough,

even

crude

provincial

from the fifth-century school of

Sarnath, a resemblance to be discerned in the

smooth tubular bodies and limbs and extending

to

such details as the wheel and the flanking

deer.

It is significant

indeed that the Vishnudhar-

mottaram mentions the impossibility of

attain-

ing a proper expression of emotion without a

knowledge of the
in

itself

art of dancing.

serves to explain

This comment

that

wonderfully

vibrant gesture and pose that characterizes the

THE GUPTA PERIOD

great painted forms of Ajanta

and invests them

not markedly different from that described in

with a kind of swaying, flower-like grace and

the paintings at Bamiyan.

movement. Painting in the Gupta Period came

to be a social accomplishment no longer limited

of the wall or vault

but practised by amateurs

to ecclesiastical use

hair.

clay or

Bagh, in the

Nowhere else in Indian art but at Ajanta do

we find such a complete statement of indivisible
union of what

West

in the

sacred and secular

is

referred to as

Like the poetry, the

art.

music, and the drama of Gupta India, this

art

of 'great courts charming the

noble routine' -

all

mind by

As

in the

it,

born by divine right

become an art, in which

ultimate meaning of life is not forgotten
has

and

culmination

perfection

it

this

is

on

this

ground that

done. Although Indian

wall-paintings can never be described as fresco

in the true sense of the

word,

it is

notable that

application of the pigment.

was

first

The composition

entirely outlined in cinnabar red; next

came an under-painting corresponding

to the

terra verde of medieval Italian practice.

The

as a

of outlines and accents.

burnishing process

gave a lustrous finish to the whole surface.

The most famous

Cave

I,

paintings at Ajanta are in

and date from the

late

Chalukya Period; roughly, that

Gupta
is,

to early

the late fifth

life

the

but

have been

attained in which the inner and outer

indivisible;

it is

is

The

prince in a world luxuriously refined.

the actual painting

painting was finished by a general strengthening

sorrow of transience no longer poisons

itself; life

given a coating of gesso (fine white

gypsum), and

their

different yet united re-

so admirably phrased

is

or

been smoothed and

various local tints were then applied and the

splendid settings of the Ajanta wall-paintings

the 'Bodhisattva

this has

an

is

flexions of a luxurious aristocratic culture.

Coomaraswamy

it is

When

the plaster ground was kept moist during the

near Tanjore.

at Sittanavasal

surface

cow dung mixed with chopped straw

levelled,

at

The rough

covered with a layer of

clay or

Remains of Gupta and post-Gupta or Early

Chalukya wall-paintings exist at Ajanta (Caves
a Jain sanctuary

is first

animal

13
as well as professional craftsmen.

I, II, XVI, XVII, and XIX),

Gupta caves at BadamI, and in

243

life

are

psycho-physical identity

that determines the universal quality of

Gupta

painting'. 14

In the Ajanta wall-paintings

change from the

art

we

feel a definite

of early Buddhism, with

its

emphasis on the symbolic quite apart from the

world of
religious

reality.

Here

is

romanticism of a

a turn to a sort

of

really lyric quality, a

reflexion of the view that every aspect of life has

182. Ajanta,

Cave

an equal value in the spiritual sense and as an

The

aspect of the divine. Sensuous physical beauty

to early

emblem of spiritual beauty. One is

reminded of the Hindu god Krishna and his

of a square hall with the roof supported by rows

is

as

an

scriptures, in

which

it is

women are his forms.

The technique of the

written:

all

men and

seventh century.

cave has the form

of pillars [182]. At the back of the shrine

deep niche containing

a rock-cut

is

image of

seated Buddha. Originally, of course, the entire

Ajanta wall-paintings

is

interior surface of the cave, even the pillars,

was

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

244

covered with paintings;

usual

from

details

among

this

cave

the most un-

we

that

shall

examine are parts of the complete decoration of

the

flat ceiling.

Although the painted decoration

does not form

complete or unified icono-

graphic scheme, large portions are thought of as

of a single concept: the two colossal

parts

painted figures of Bodhisattvas on each side of

may

the niche at the back of the hall

as parts of a Trinity,

be regarded

with the sculptured image

of the

Buddha

figure.

Both these Bodhisattvas

in the sanctuary as the central

type of composition in which

are of the carana

principal figure

serves as stablizing factor and guide to the entire

arrangement; for example, on the left-hand

the

enormous

Blue Lotus stands in

forms of

wall,

figure of a Bodhisattva with a

all sorts,

landscape teeming with

the gesture of the hand.

that

human forms, this figure has few equals. We

may see how feature by feature the parts of the

of

face

and body are drawn with reference

forms

shape of certain

in

the

to the

and

animal

vegetable world, which by their beauty and

recommended

finality
fitting

themselves

than any transitory

as

more

human model

for

creating the imagined superior and eternal ana-

tomy of

god: 15 the face has the perfect oval

of the egg; the brows curve as an Indian bow;

We

the eyes are lotiform.

recognize again the

elephantine shoulders and arms, the leonine

body, and, perhaps loveliest of

which

It

all,

the hand,

articulation suggests the pliant

in its

growth of the lotus flower

by any laws of

related not

As an example of

metaphorical rather than organic composition

it

holds.

be observed in the figure of the

will

composition but by their relation

to the

Bodhisattva and his attendants that the flesh

object of their veneration, the Deity of

Com-

parts appear to be modelled in light

spatial

moment

Actually this chiaroscuro has nothing to do

The

with the recording of any effects of illumi-

does not take in the entire huge

nation; like the highly similar modelling of

manifests himself to this group of devotees.

spectator

composition
following

and shade.

that he

passion represented at the

at a

the

gestures and

single glance, but his eye,

suggested

directions

movements of

ways returning

to the

by

the

the forms, and al-

dominating shape of the

Trecento painters such

tion

is

to

as Giotto, its sole

plasticity to the forms. In a

way

func-

impart a feeling of solidity and

areas of

shadow

completely arbitrary

are placed

on both sides of

Bodhisattva, comes gradually to explore and

the bridge of the nose of the Bodhisattva, and in

apprehend the entire arrangement.

some of the dark-skinned attendants bold high-

The

figure of the Bodhisattva

is

worthy of

detailed analysis [183 and 184]. Following the

principle of hieratic scaling,

larger than the attendant figures

only

serves

provides

is

it
;

enormously

this device not

an iconographical function but

dominant

vertical axis

around which

the composition literally revolves.

sure, that the form,

just

like

We may

be

the sculptured

Buddhist images of the period, was composed

lights are painted

on the saliencies of features

and body further

enhance the feeling of

to

existence in the round.

shading has a
the

much

softer sfumato effect than in

Indian painting

provincial

where the technique

a

is

Here

is

probably nine thalams to the

perfect experience'.

figure.

The pose

of the body with

nounced dehanchement contrives

feeling of

to

its

pro-

impart a

tilt

Bamiyan,

of becoming

::

consummation of every

In a marvellous reconcili-

ation of beauty, physical and spiritual, the Great

Bodhisattva

is

realized as the very

embodiment

is

of that compassion and tenderness that his

of the head and

mission of allaying the miseries of the world

swaying grace and movement that

carried out in the exquisite

at

'an art that reveals life ... as an intri-

cate ritual fitted to the

height of the

in process

convention. 16

according to a system of canonical proportion,

total

In the examples at

Ajanta and elsewhere in India this abstract

-anti. Cave

I.

wall-painting of Great Bodhisatrva

246

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

implies.

The

the skin,

Gupta

flawless opalescent

smoothness of

generalized

modelling of

the

like

statues, the eyes half closed in reverie,

by some of the great bronze statues

Hindu Renaissance; this suggestion of the
potentiality of movement as though the figure

is

also given

of the

the physically unreal proportions of the face

were about

suggest a beauty beyond reality; this

express result of the wonderfully rhythmic

ness so refined

appearance that

away from
it

beauty and purity.

becomes

a loveli-

is

transitory

human

flower on the strong stalk of the neck, bends

slightly forward;

an Olympian majesty

the tensile arc of the brows.

The

face

is

of course, the

At the

among the companions of the

we recognize a beautifully drawn

right,

Bodhisattva,

female figure of dusky complexion

who wears

towering head-dress that closely resembles the

veiled in

elaborate mukuta, crowning the Bodhisattva

himself. This

is

a representation

of the sakti or

many
Hindu concepts

one of the half-sensual, half-spiritual ghostli-

female of the Bodhisattva, one of the

ness that animates the faces of Michelangelo's

indications of the intrusions of

demi-gods.
suavity

The

and

figure as a

virile

whole

sweetness

in its tranquil

the

is

realization of this deity of salvation

The proper
Bodhisattva

perfect

and refuge.

expression of the qualities of a

is

no happy accident nor solely the

into

Buddhism.

It is

only the beginning of a

trend that ultimately led to the reabsorption of

Buddhism

into

Hinduism

naissance.

The

strangely cubistic rock-forms

that

in the

Hindu Re-

loom behind the Bodhisattva and support

the result

the shapes of kinnaras and peacocks praising his

knowledge and possession of the

painter's tradition - pro-

manifestation might be compared to the similar-

result of any aesthetic inspiration

of the

artist's

entire

body of the

it is

ly

block-like

mountain forms

portion, drawing, technique - together with an

and Byzantine

understanding of the drama of pose and gesture

to look for

which, as in the dance, conveys the essential

nature of the deity.

The

figure gives an

im-

art.

Actually

any 'influence'

in Early Christian

it

would be absurd

in this or other details

that bear a resemblance to the forms of Western

art; these

conventions for rocks are simply an

moment between

outgrowth of the already conceptual, ideo-

and movement, an impression that

graphic treatment of geological formations in

pression of being arrested in a

tranquillity

on

sits

pensive abstraction that almost reminds

a lyric,

life' is,

disposing of pose and gesture.

symbol of celestial

The head, almost like a heavy

'come to

to

184. Ajanta,

Cave

I,

detail of wall-painting of

Great Bodhisattva

if--.

'

fei

#*~

^sii*~v
&Hs

M^

^gQ L

*%

>*^*ft te?iai
2^
|

'

248

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

early Indian relief sculpture

sets' that

Ajanta

in the 'stage

earliest

X at Ajanta.

wall-paintings in Cave

The

and

form the backgrounds of the

executed in a more

flat,

at

properly

speaking decorative, style than the work on the

walls of the vihara.

The

space

number of contiguous
rectangular in shape,

is

which with

is

and

silhouetting of the figures against a light back-

with

A composition,

repeated no less

ground sprinkled with

Cave

I,

group was identified

painting of Kuvera on ceiling

rosettes, give the panel

a very flat, textile-like character.

truer of the floral

This

and vegetable forms

is

even

that

fill

the panels surrounding this figure composition

These are perfect examples of the Indian

[185].

185. Ajanta,

The

filled

artist's

this

suggests,

Kuvera, the god of

encountered in the sculpture of Mathura.

attended by musicians and cup-bearers [185].

one time

who

seems

whose Dionysian aspect we have already

riches,

dressed in a peaked cap, mantle, and boots,

at

Coomaraswamy

a representation of

it

square

than four times, shows a bearded personage

Although

as

Deccan,

extremely restricted palette used here, and the

panels

slight variation

it is

to the

divided into a

which are

subjects and ornamental motifs.

that

of Khusrau II of Iran,

embassy

more reasonable,

painting of the ceiling of Cave

is

as a representation

actually sent an

ability

to

abstract

natural forms and turn

the

them

essentials
to

of

decorative

86. Ajanta,

Cave XVII,

wall-painting of Indra in porch

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

250

organization without in any

way

losing the

sense of growth and proper articulation of the

plant structure. 18

at the

Behind

Indra and his train are towering clouds, con-

Scarcely less important, but unfortunately

more damaged than the paintings of Cave

I,

are

the fragments of wall decoration surviving in

the porch of

animated figure of a flute-player

fully

right, half turning to glance at Indra.

Cave XVII. This shrine bears an

ventionalized by striated curving lines of ultra-

marine blue of varying thickness against a

nacreous white background. This detail
strates with

Note how the individual

inscription of the last quarter of the fifth century,

figures are drawn.

which may be assumed

features, like the nose

to

correspond with the

illu-

what great breadth and sureness the

and

eyes, appear to be

One of the subjects

defined with a single sweep of the brush, the

on the back wall of the verandah represents

thickness of the line providing a plastic rein-

Indra and his entourage of celestial musicians

forcement. Although parts of the design

period of the wall-paintings.

Buddha at the time of his visit

Tushita Heaven [186]. In many ways this

flying to greet the

to the

now appear

flat, it is

may

apparent that originally

there was a suggestion of relief through shading

comparison with the

and highlights. In the figure of the dusky

sculpture of flying gandharvas at Gwalior [180].

apsaras at the right there are traces of the high-

The

lights

beautiful

detail

bears

suggestion of endless, effortless flight

is

that

originally

gave

saliency

to

the

imparted by the direction of the bent legs and by

features, as, for example, the sharp stroke of

the jewels sweeping backward over the breast of

light

the god,

who

is

differentiated

from

his

com-

pigment on the nose.

Another part of the wall of the court

in

Cave

panions by his light colouring and magnificent

XVII

crown. In addition to the noble beauty of the

Jataka [187],

god, one should note particularly the wonder-

the princely hero announcing to his wife the

187. Ajanta,

Cave XVII,

wall-painting of Visvantara Jataka in porch

illustrates a portion

in

of the Visvantara

which the chief episode shows

THE GUPTA PERIOD

news of

his father's king-

amples of Gupta wall-painting are the damaged

right of the composition, in a

fragments of decoration in the verandah of

banishment from

his

dom. At the

pavilion with orange walls and red pillars, a

Cave IV

swarthy lord clasps his swooning consort; her

their present condition, the style

drooping pose

accented by the bend of her

is

detail of the fresco

is

mentioned above and

art

of painting.

revealed by the

is

solicitude,

by

way

Represented are an

of concern

is

in

all

later

left

of this

is

It will

be

where one should

wonderfully characterized figure

a boldly patterned

staff.

Behind

background of

exotic foliage, in the rich variety of

its

greens

suggesting European tapestry design.

of the whole composition in

effect

its

the device of continuous narration, and the feel-

movement

that leads across the

and animates the individual

stage
is like

a translation

J^j

^-r^ryx^^iAJi

Buddhist

art

of

all

o^

of the technique of

the AmaravatI reliefs into terms of painting.

estimated. In the iconography and style of painting and sculpture

we

find the establishment of a

norm

that lent itself to adaptation in the hands

of

the peoples

all

religion.

India are
art

The

who

followed the Buddhist

paintings and sculptures of Gupta

more than prototypes

for the religious

of Asia; they occupy a position correspond-

ing to that of Greek and

The perfection and

Roman

art in the

West.

balance achieved in India of

the fourth and fifth centuries

recommended

themselves as the

final solution

form and content

in religious art that could not

of problems of

be improved on, just as the perfection and

employment of dramatic and emotional gestures,

ing of stirring

relation to the

of the Gupta Period can scarcely be over-

of a beggar with bowl and crooked

group

its

further height-

the princess appear

detail,

closely related to the later

south-eastern and eastern Asia, the importance

again with umbrella-bearing attendants in the

part to the

In

the prince's

the directions of the glances of the

also notice the

is

paintings at Sittanavasal. 19

principal actors are fixed on the figure of the

He and

style

which she

hovers behind the couple.

hapless prince.

Badami. The

Ajanta paintings and to a cycle of Jain wall-

couch and the maid servant with the

who
noted how

wall-paintings with a date correspond-

anxiety of

ened by the figure of the dwarf glancing upward

carafe

Hindu

ing to 578 decorate the porch of Cave III at

cup of wine.

his offering of the

The atmosphere

in

The

clings to her lord for support;

shallow

from

identical

personage in Kushan or Iranian dress.

is

Limbs of

implied in the Six

is

on the

the princess

figures,

tell

of young girls moving in a circle around a

Painting

The

is

dancing scene with beautifully rhythmic figures

exactly what

this

at Ajanta.

one can

an

This

cated by pose and gesture and glances. This

at the

with the work

far as

how in Indian painting states of

moods are, as in a play, precisely indi-

illustration of

treatises

Bagh. In so

elephant procession and what appears to be a

sizes her distress.

or

at

empha-

head, and the relaxation of every limb

mind

25]

It

authority of Classic art persisted as a

the European tradition.

Wherever

it

norm

in

was intro-

duced, Gupta art provided a firm basis for the

evolution of original artistic expression. Exact
imitation of

Gupta models of the school of

Sarnath marked the beginnings of Buddhist art

in the jungles

of Siam and Cambodia, but the

should be noted further in connexion with this

quick realization and assimilation by native

wall-painting that the representation of the

sculptors of the essential plastic qualities of the

palace with

its

heavy cornice supported by

slender colonnettes

is

probably a reasonable

approximation of the domestic architecture of

the most important surviving ex-

The

wonderful conjunction of serenity of expression

and

the period.

Among

Indian originals produced some of the greatest

works of sculpture in Further India.

plastic

majesty survives in Singhalese art to

the end of the Buddhist tradition. Javanese

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

252

Mahayana

sculpture, as exemplified

by the

carvings of the Great Stupa at Barabudur,

marks

of Bodhisattvas or Taras appear to anticipate

the style of Nepalese sculpture of the seventh

it

was through the

intermediary Buddhist kingdoms of Turkestan,

through the importation of actual

models by Chinese pilgrims, that the Gupta

China and Japan of the

style

was introduced

sixth

and seventh centuries.

to

century and later [202]. This object and related

pieces have sometimes been attributed to

mir,

evidence

it is

The making

the few surviving examples of early

representing a
sattvas [188].
as the
a

is

Trinity in high relief

Buddha with attendant Bodhi-

Whatever

its

date, perhaps as late

seventh century, the central figure

is

like

miniature reduction of a typical Mathura

image of the Gupta Period with the folds of the

188. Ivory

Boston,

perhaps better to regard them as

of Indian origin. 20

Poetically,

Buddhist ivories

^ -c

of jewellery, like other forms of

goes

back to remote antiquity.

many

types of personal ornaments

derive their

names from

flowers, of

Arts

which these

necklaces and pendants are the precious counterparts, not imitations, in gold

enamel.

The names

and gems and

for necklaces (garlands of

enchantment) and earrings (ear-flowers) are

mentioned
century

in Panini's

B.C.

grammar of

Other ancient

Buddhist Trinity.

Museum of Fine

Kash-

but in the absence of any definitive

metalwork,

Among

of sharp

of the Gupta ideal.

already been examined;

as well as

in a succession

The fragmentary attendant figures

of Indian art on Central Asia has

a final crystallization

The impact

garment represented
ridges [167].

189. Ajanta,

Cave XVII, apsaras

texts,

the fourth
like

the

THE GUPTA PERIOD

Dhammapada and

the Pattmapalai, are

filled

with the most extravagant and loving descriptions of the

ornaments which have always been

the special delight of Indian

early periods these
ly

women.

How

in

adornments were conscious-

used to enhance the physical charms of the

wearer

revealed in the sculptural representa-

is

and courtesans from Sunga

Kushan times [29, 44, 45, 100, and 10 1].
The beautiful flying apsaras of Cave XVII
tions of yakshis

Ajanta [189]

is

to

tions of embroideries,

a splendid illustration of the

bandhdna or tie-and-dye

work, brocade, and muslin weaving. Indian

muslins were renowned in

first

Rome

as early as the

century a.d. In the sculpture of the

Kushan

Period this diaphanous clinging material was

appropriately enough,

represented,

hem

indicating the

only by

of the garment [100]. At

Ajanta the Bodhisattva of Cave

muslin dhoti of
at

[183] wears a

a striped pattern

with

same type of

cloth

may be

XVII

Indra and his attendants of Cave

Floral scrolls or bands of geese are also

lace

by a neck-

circled

of large pearls separated by square-cut

Below

sapphires.

this she

wears a strand of

sapphires, perhaps set in diamonds.

from

woven motifs

wall-paintings.

rare

example of Gupta metalwork

ered with foliate motifs. This one picture evokes

of Indian

women

pleasure and power these

their wearers.

One

in jewels

and the

gems bestowed on

has only to think in this con-

nexion of the splendid and fabulous wealth

described by writers

Vijayanagar and the

who visited the courts of

Mogul emperors in later

__.

centuries.

The manufacture

of textiles in India goes

back to the Indus Valley Period, as indicated by

the finding of fragments of cotton at

Our knowledge of

periods, however,
literary references

garments

is

Mohenjo-

this craft in the early

limited almost entirely to

and the representation of

in early painting

and sculpture. 21 Al-

many examples

of sculpture of the

in

Kushan Periods the figures of

yakshas and yakshis are shown wearing em-

Early Classic and

broideries
it

an

plummet [190]. This object, made of iron coated

with bronze, was found in the Surma River in

this delight

10 1],

is

These jewels swing with the apsaras'

movement, and so do the pearl bangles of

her toque, which appears to be richly embroid-

though

in the Ajanta

object that has been identified as an architect's

flying

daro.

[186].

known

chain are looped pendants of seed

this

pearls.

Suspended

in the repertory of

The

seen in the dress of

Gupta Period. Her

is

floral

motifs in the darker bands of colouring.

wealth of jewellery worn by princesses of the

throat

253

is

and transparent muslin

[29, 100,

and

not until the Gupta Period in the

portrayals of textiles in the paintings of Ajanta

we find recognizable representations of the

many types of cloth for which India is famous.
In the Ajanta murals we can find representa-

that

190. Architect's

plummet

from the Surma River, Bengal.

London, British

Museum

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

254

Bengal and
a.d.

On the

may be

dated to the sixth century

neck of this object

is

plaque with a

representation of a group of dancing figures

reminiscent of the bacchanalian

Kushan Period

of the
is

lotus

buds

recall the pliant, decorative plant

forms

framed

which

reliefs

Mathura. The weight

at

in

prongs terminating

of ornamental

Among

Gupta sculpture

arts in the

coins

of
is

in stone.

the most splendid examples of the

minor

notable

in

Gupta Period

reigning

the

a coin of

are the gold

dynasty.

the king slaying a lion [191].

The

Especially
II,

showing

lithe,

surging

Chandragupta

figure of the royal lion-slayer echoes the tense

curve of his bow, and the whole design appears

as a miniature reflection of such

Gupta carvings

Gwalior and Aihole [158 and

This medal and another gold piece of

as the reliefs of
180].

191 (far left). Coin of Chandragupta

from the Bayhana hoard.

Muttra, Archaeological

Kumaragupta

from the famous Bayhana

hoard, showing a king attacking a rhinoceros

[192], are like distant echoes of the scenes of the

hunt on Sasanian

plates and, like them, are

intended as symbolic references to the valour

and invincible prowess of the sovereign. 22

II

Museum

192.

Coin of Kumaragupta

New

Delhi, National

from the Bayhana hoard.

Museum

CHAPTER

tjl^V

LATE BUDDHIST ART IN INDIA, NEPAL, AND TIBET

I. LATE BUDDHIST ART IN BENGAL:

THE PALA-SENA PERIOD

Buddhism and
city

Among
By

we have already
Buddhism had

the seventh century a.d., as

learned

in

largely

disappeared

chapters,

earlier

from

northern

India,

following the invasion of the White Huns. In

the south the rise of

Hinduism had gradually

its art

was the great university

of Nalanda.
the inscriptions found at Nalanda

one recording

a dedication

by

deva, ruler of Sumatra and Java, in 860, a clear

indication of the intimate

between

dhism and the Sailendra Empire

The

Bengal does Buddhism survive as an important

by Hsiian-tsang, who saw them

force until the final annihilation of its establish-

their

Mohammedan

invasions of the

existing

relations

stronghold of Indian Bud-

this last

supplanted the religion of Sakyamuni. Only in

ments by the

is

a certain Bala-

in Indonesia.

description of the monasteries of Nalanda

at the height

splendour in the seventh century,

quoting

in extenso

is

of

worth

twelfth century. This final chapter of Buddhist

history in India

is

at

once a prolongation and

The whole
wall,

degeneration of the Gupta tradition. Buddhist

art in this last

phase of its development

establishment

in India

One

the Sangharama.

that

in the

Ganges

Valley. 1

of the Pala Period represents

outgrowth of Mahayana

described

as

Tantrism, a syncretic assimilation into Bud-

dhism of many elements of Hindu

as the

origin, such

concept of the sakti or female energy of

which are

gate opens into the great college, from

fairy-like turrets, like

Empire

a brick

separated eight other halls, standing in the middle of

was produced under the patronage of the Pala

The Buddhism

surrounded by

which encloses the entire convent from without.

and Sena Dynasties (730-1197) that were the

heirs of Harsha's

is

The

The

gated together.

richly

adorned towers, and the

pointed hill-tops, are congre-

observatories seem to be lost in

the vapours of the morning, and the upper rooms

tower above the clouds. ... All the outside courts, in

which are the

The

priests'

chambers, are of four stages.

stages have dragon-projections

eaves, the pearl-red pillars, carved

and coloured

and ornamented,

the richly adorned balustrades, and the roofs covered

the Bodhisattva

and

ritual.

and the reliance on magic

The worship

spells

of the mystical Dhyani

with

Buddhas of the Four Directions and the creator,

Adi-Buddha, a kind of Buddhist Brahma, completely replaces

The

person of

at

phase of Buddhism,

so

any devotion

to the

that reflect the light in a thousand shades,

tiles

these things add to the beauty of the scene. 2

actual monasteries or viharas excavated

Nalanda are ranged one next

to

another

like

usually described as the Vajrayana, that, to-

many adjacent colleges in a university complex. The plan of the individual viharas is nearly

gether with the paraphernalia of its

identical in the structures excavated,

the mortal

way

Buddha.

to Tibet

It is this

and Nepal

centuries. Progressively until

the twelfth century,

aspects
principal

of Saivism
site

art, finds its

in the eighth
its

Buddhism

and ninth

last

of

many

and con-

small cells grouped around the

extinction in

four sides of an open courtyard, an arrangement

on the

already found in earlier examples of the type. In

takes

and Vaishnavism.

of this

sists

The

centre of Indian

another place Hsiian-tsang observed: 'To the

north ...

is

a great vihara, in height

about three

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

256

hundred

feet.

cence,

dimensions, and the statue of Buddha

its

placed in

actual

revealed

little

With respect

to

its

magnifi-

resembles the great vihara built

it, it

under the Bodhi

The

tree.'

base consists of two storeys, the

second zone

excavations

at

Nalanda have

of the magnificence described by

is

with

its

stronghold of Indian

with

Buddha

the

stupa that was disengaged from

masonry of a

at a later

tion of

Gupta

is

93. Nalanda, stupa at Site

statues in niches.

surmounted by

a saucer-like

and decorated

The whole

dome. The

is

treat-

The

the view of the ground storey reveals, the revet-

The elevation

No. Ill

faces alternately plain

ment of the facade is not unlike that of the

Mahabodhi temple as we see it to-day [194]. As

around

architectural forms [193].

building rests on a podium.

an attic

a continua-

larger structure built

period reveals a style that

is

The drum of the stupa is octagonal,

roll cornices.

Buddhism.

this

storey separated into two levels by projecting

preserved to give an idea of the architectural

last

with

decorated with chaitya arches

framing smaller images. Above

Hsiian-tsang. Certain buildings are sufficiently

character of this

first filled

Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in niches separated

by columns derived from the Gupta order; the

it

of the

ment of the Mahabodhi shrine dating from

194.

Bodh Gaya, Mahabodhi

temple, detail

the

AND TIBET

INDIA, NEPAL,

number

257

Pala Period consists mainly of multiple niches

cross with a

separated by square engaged pillars ringed by

corners between the arms. In elevation this

garland collars and surmounted by lotiform

sanctuary consisted of a pyramid of three super-

capitals.

This arrangement was repeated on

of recessed projecting

imposed terraces and

summit

at the

a square

every successive level of the shrine proper and

cella

the pyramidal tower. Originally these recesses

The shrine can be described as a prasada or

Meru type of temple, in which the diminishing

contained Dhyani

Buddha images, probably

with projecting porticoes on

four sides.

all

placed with reference to the Four Directions; at

terraces magically symbolize the steps

present, the niches are filled with a haphazard

of the world mountain.

collection of sculpture recovered in the course

of the nineteenth-century restoration.

space, as in the stupa at Xalanda,

The

wall

repeatedly

is

divided into horizontal zones by projecting

and above the band of niches

string courses;
a

is

massive frieze of lion heads supporting a

continuous ribbon-like garland. If the reader

will

examine the plate of the temple

he

[108],

as a

whole

note that just as on the sikharas of

will

Gupta temples at Aihole, the storeys of

tower are marked by lotiform quoins at the

the late

the

corners of each level, and the

comprises
at

of the spire

complete amalaka that

the lower stages.

The

Gupta

is

repeated

style of the figure

sculpture in stucco at Nalanda

of the

finial

a dry repetition

is

statuary of Sarnath, as

may be

seen by comparing the statue in the topmost

niche with the famous preaching

Since these statues are so

early

Mahayana imagery

ment of Tantric forms,

decoration

may be

much

Buddha

[172].

in the style of

before the develop-

this structure

and

its

dated as early as the seventh

of multiple terra-cotta relief plaques

sisted

temple

at

Since there

no mention of

is

monument by Hsuan-tsang,

it

cations are that

it

was originally

installation, later taken over

imposing

this

has been dated in

The

the late seventh or eighth century.

a

indi-

Brahmanic

by the Buddhists.

As may be seen by

a glance at the

the arrangement

unique among Indian tem-

ples,

although

is

its

ground

general disposition

is

plan,

remini-

scent of the shrine at Parihasapura in Kashmir.

Actually

temple

at

the

approximations to the

closest

Paharpur, both in plan and in the

elevation in successive levels for

circumambu-

be found in Java in such temples as

lation, are to

Loro Jongrang and Candi Sewu at Prambanam

and, ultimately, the vast temple-mountain at
Barabudur.

It

furnishes the clearest possible

evidence for the close relations between Bengal

and Java already suggested by the Nalanda

inscription.

The common
is

form of the great vihara described by Hsiian-

Xandangarh

in

of

Gupta

Bhitargaon.

monuments

same type

and peak

decoration con-

attached to the brick facades, as in the

century. It seems highly likely that the original

tsang was only a larger version of this

The

the

ancestor for

great

stupa

at

all

these

Lauriya

northern Bihar.

Characteristic of the sculpture of the Pala and

Sena Periods are the numerous examples of

monument.

What must have been one

of the greatest

religious establishments of the Pala Period

is

to

images carved in hard, black stone found

Xalanda and many other

be seen in the ruins at Paharpur in Bengal [195].

them

The remains

precision of execution.

consist of a

vast square court

sites in

by

at

Bengal. All of

a great finesse

and

Many of these icons

give

are characterized

nearly a thousand feet on a side, surrounded by

the impression of being stone imitations of

more than

metal-work, and in almost every case the sense

an enclosing peristyle consisting of

one hundred and seventy-five individual

In the centre

is

a shrine in the

cells.

form of a Maltese

of plastic conception

of surface detail.

is

lost

under the intricacy

m**ii*\**i*mmnit,m*i*n*******h*m**mu
O

32

IO

64
20

96

128 I60 FEET

30

195. Paharpur,

40

50

METRES

temple

II

259
'/

o-y*

Us^

ffrm*

-ft****?

6vlZ^

196.

Buddha from Bengal.

Museum of Fine Arts

Boston,

A typical example is the seated Buddha in the

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

collection of the
[196].

The Buddha

is

represented in the yoga

pose and earth-touching gesture of the Enlightenment.

feature that might at

first strike

the observer as a rather strange anachronism

that the

Buddha wears the crown and

is

jewels of a

Buddha's
the

deification in

power

but are intended to suggest that state of radiant

splendour or transfiguration attained

graphy

is

the same as in the

carded

The

time of the renunciation. This can

at

the

supreme moment of Enlightenment. The iconoFondukistan discussed

at the

his

as Cakravartin or universal sovereign,

royal personage, the very worldly attributes dis-

best be explained as part of the process of the

Mahayana Buddhism

crown and jewels not only proclaim

in

Buddha from

an earlier chapter. 4

actual style of the carving

desiccated perpetuation of the

is

kind of

Gupta school of

26l

and sixth centuries; in it one is much

more conscious of the precise and sharp defini-

interlock to give the structure of the body; the

ornaments than of

device of the constricting belt raising a welt of

the fifth

tion of the detail of jewelled

the plastic significance of the bodily form that

seems

to

exist

as

framework

for

these

very famous example of Indian sculpture,

generally accepted as of
likely

suggested again by the

below the navel.

flesh

In

addition

to

the

exquisite refinement in the carving of details,

Gupta

date,

is

more

parted by the breaking of the body on

pose already familiar to us in

its axis,

many

earlier

an exceptional masterpiece of the Pala

examples. Not only the similarity of the tech-

the so-called Sanchi torso in the

nique to other examples of Pala sculpture, but

Period; this
Victoria

is

and Albert

Museum

in

London

[197].

the attribute of the antelope skin

From both

the stylistic and iconographic points

across the

of view

seems

this

it

to

correspond closely to the

sculptural technique of Bengal in the centuries

of Pala domination.

body point

emblem was used

deity

as a scarf

to identify the esoteric

Khasarpana Avalokitesvara, whose wor-

serves as an

ship, related to Saivite concepts, does not begin

method

practised in

before the rise of Tantric Buddhism.

periods of Indian sculpture the suggestion of

:

seventh and ninth centuries,

tween the hard, cold definition of the metal

its

rounded smooth planes that

The

Sanchi torso, probably datable between the

the nature of flesh in stone by the contrast be-

accessories with the

worn

to the Pala Period, since

The fragment

illustration of a technical
all

is

the torso has a certain athletic litheness im-

attributes.

softness of the flesh

kind, in

is

a masterpiece of

which emphasis on technical

and virtuosity of carving and

plastic

finish

modelling

are maintained in perfect equilibrium; whereas

in

Torso of a Bodhisattva from Sanchi.

London, Victoria and Albert Museum

197.

the vast majority of Pala sculptures the

elaboration of surface detail militates against

the properly sculptural conception of the whole.

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

262

Of greater

aesthetic as well as iconographical

interest than the stone sculpture of

Bengal

in

power are the

numbers of bronze images found at

the last centuries of Buddhist

large

Nalanda and elsewhere

[198].

Like the stone

images, they reveal a development reflecting

changes in the character of Buddhism from

Mahayana types

forms of

to purely Tantric

Many

of

these images were exported for dedication

all

and Vaishnavite derivation.

Saivite

over south-eastern Asia in the centuries

Nalanda was

and Sailendra Dynasties

Indeed, at one time

when

touch with the Srivijaya

in close

it

in

Malaya and Java.

was uncertain whether

these metal statuettes were

made

in India or in

Java, so exact was the correspondence and so

numbers of examples found

large the

in the

two

regions. 5

Some examples

of Nalanda bronze images

appear to be close imitations of earlier types of

Gandhara and Gupta Periods, and it may

some of these were specifically intended as more or less faithful replicas of famous

the

well be that

images venerated

The

at the

holy sites of Buddhism.

vast majority of them, like their stone

counterparts, perpetuate the

They

Sarnath.

Gupta

style

of

by the same

are characterized

kind of stylized elegance and fondness for

precise definition of detail that characterize the

stone figures. This finicky and often 'rococo'

manner

is,

of course,

metal than stone.

style of

more

It is

suited to malleable

on the basis of the Pala

metal imagery that the whole of later

founded;

Nepalese and Tibetan sculpture

is

and there are indications that

manner was

also translated to

2.

this

Kashmir.

NEPAL

As has already been noted, the

Buddhist

art in India

tion of nearly a

last

phase of

has enjoyed a prolonga-

thousand years

in the

Himalayan

regions of Nepal and Tibet. For this reason

seems

it

logical to deal with this aspect of pro-

198.

Bronze Buddha

Nalanda, Museum

in

abhaya mudra from Nalanda.

INDIA, NEPAL,

vincial Indian

of

Buddhist

account of the

to the

Hindu

proceeding

equivalent to the harmika of the Indian relic

mound. The four sides of this member, at

Bodhnath and elsewhere, are decorated with
enormous pairs of eyes painted or inlaid in ivory

art in India.

The beginnings

of art as well as history in

Nepal are so obscured

in legend that

nothing

can be said with any certainty of early civilization in

the so-called Valley of Nepal, that

beautiful

little

tract of

263

of development

art before

last stages

AND TIBET

ground, surrounded by

and metal. This

is

perhaps the most distinctive

and striking feature of Nepalese stupa architecture.

Now

interpreted as representing the

all-seeing eyes of the

supreme Buddha of the

the peaks of the Himalayas, which has supported

Nepalese pantheon,

it is

an extremely interesting culture for more than

symbolism referred

to the eyes of Prajapati or

two thousand years. The original

Purusa, who, as Universal

settlers

of

likely that in origin the

Man and

world

axis,

Nepal were presumably immigrants from Tibet

properly had his eyes at the summit of the sky-

who became

dome. Above the harmika

race

Niwar

the ancestors of the ruling

and contributed

distinctive

Tibetan

at

Bodhnath

character to the religion, language, tempera-

the thirteen heavens of the devas. This

ment, and appearance of the people. Although

mounted

in turn

which

Nepalese stupas was

pious legend records a

self to

Nepal,

it is

visit

Buddha him-

of the

to this

Himalayan

Emperor Asoka.
many monuments

fastness before the days of the

Persistent tradition ascribes

and it is quite possible that

some of the surviving stupas were originally

to the piety of Asoka,

dedicated by the great Dharmardja.

The

entire

of Nepal has been linked with

India, especially after the foundation of a feudal

dynasty by the Licchavis from India in the

second century a.d. Nepal and Tibet perpetuated the forms and the art of Indian
after the extinction

Buddhism

of the religion in India.

According to tradition,

a great

many

of the

surviving stupas in Nepal are relics of the

legendary

visit

of Asoka, and

it is

quite possible

that the essential structure of some of these goes

back to the third century

oldest stupas in

B.C. Traditionally, the

Nepal are the monument

Sambhunath and the Bodhnath shrine

Bhatgaon,

which very possibly were

around tumuli of Mauryan

at

in

built

origin. In its present

form the Bodhnath has a typically Nepalese

form [199]. On a square platform rises a rather
flat,

saucer-like

in

by the

finial

is

of the mast or

surhti,

literally a single

unlikely that the religion of

Sakyamuni was introduced

later history

rises a

stepped pyramid in thirteen storeys typifying

tumuius,

suggestive

of the

mounds at Lauriya-Nandangarh. This is surmounted by a square, box-like construction,

199.

Bhatgaon, Nepal, Bodhnath stupa

^^c^CtL-

264

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

tree rising

from the foundations of the stupa and

here supporting a final parasol and kalasa

finial.

mediately reminded of the pagodas of China and

Japan.

The

explanation for this resemblance

On the Sambhunath stupa is a range of thirteen

probably

parasols representing the heavens of the devas. 6

towers and their Far Eastern equivalents have

Around

the

drum

of that

monument

sculptures representing the mystic

the

are relief

Buddhas of

Four Directions and Vairocana, executed

a style ultimately derived

in

from the Pala school

of sculpture in Bengal. 7

An even more characteristic form of Nepalese

is to be seen in the many wooden

temples erected in the ancient capitals of the

It is

quite possible that

structures preserve

now

Indian construction.

Bahavani temple
in

its

at

tectural

the fact that the Nepalese

in

prototypes in

forms

now

in India.

lost

We

wooden

archi-

have already seen

pyramidal stone roofs of a similar type in Kashmir.

The

skyscrapers of ancient Nalanda, as

described by Hsiian-tsang, or even the famous

architecture

realm.

common

lies

lost

typical

some of these
styles

of early

example

is

the

Bhatgaon, which, although

present form dedicated only in 1703,

wooden pagoda

at

Peshawar,

may

well have

furnished the inspiration for this and similar

Nepalese temples.

The

fc

eighteenth-century temple at Patan in

our illustration [200]

is

typical of Nepalese

ecclesiastical architecture, not only in its

podium and

in the

form of the

tiers

high

of sloping

roofs supported by elaborately carved

wooden

combination of

probably repeats the shape of earlier prototypes.

struts or brackets, but also in the

The

an underlying brick fabric with an overlay of

sanctuary proper

pyramid

in five stages,

is

and

raised

on

stone

itself consists

of a

wooden tower with sloping roofs

supported by wooden brackets. One is imfive-storeyed

/^oo. Patan, Nepal, Buddhist temple

201 (far right). Patan, Nepal, Durbar Square

intricately carved

woodwork.

Another type of Nepalese building

Krishna temple which may be seen

is

the

at the right

INDIA, NEPAL, AND TIBET

in

Durbar Square

the illustration of the

Patan [201]. Roughly

it is

in

copy with Nepalese

modifications of the Indian sikhara

mounted

and perpetuating many

layan Farnese Palace - with

its

in the brick

masonry used

windows of

elaborately carved

and fluted

turrets

finial.

Nepalese temples were

not meant to accommodate a congregation but,

like

the typical

Hindu

shrine, were intended

only for the housing of images. Also, like

Indian prototype, the temple was

of worship.

The

mandapa, but
storey

is

present

itself an

example

its

object

has

no

surrounded on the ground-

by an arcade with monolithic octagonal

columns branching

into

elaborately

carved

Among

typical Nepalese

monument, a memorial column

statuettes in

Museum

of Fine

Arts [202]. These figures very clearly reveal the

derivation

Gupta

of Nepalese sculpture from

or Pala models.

The Padmapani

late

in the

Boston collection has the svelte elegance of

the carved Bodhisattvas of the Pala Period.

The

and armlets of this and other early Nepalese

figurines

shows another

number of bronze

the collection of the Boston

'order'.

also

wooden frames

sills.

the earliest examples of Nepalese

sculpture are a

belt

illustration

combination with

in

and screens with tooled metal

bracket capitals characteristic of the Nepalese

The same

is

characteristic of Nepalese secular architecture

details

cell

heavy cornice

overhanging the severe facade. This building

of the Indian prototype, such as the attached

over a single

265

were originally studded with tur-

quoises. Another interesting characteristic

is

the persistent archaism of the swallow-tail con-

of the eighteenth-century ruler, Bhupatindra,

vention of the drapery scarves, a mannerism

which

ultimately derived from the

is

a distant

of Asoka.

The

descendant from the

pillars

kneeling bronze image of the

king overlooks the Durbar Hall -

like a

Hima-

sattvas,

Gandhara Bodhi-

which, as we have seen, also enjoyed a

great longevity in Central Asia and found

its

266

way

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

at last into the earliest

of China at Yiin

Of definitely

Buddhist sculpture

Indian inspiration, too, are the

scanty fragments of early Nepalese painting.

manuscript, also

Museum

Kang and Lung Men.

in the collection

of the Boston

[203], dated 1136, reveals a hieratic

linear style which, in the character of the figure

drawing and ornamental frame,

extremely

is

close to the surviving examples of Pala painting.

The manuscript

is

in the

form of

palm

leaf

prayer book enclosed in painted wooden covers

and contains invocations of the

pantheon

Tantric

with

divinities in the

illustrations

principal beings in the hierarchy.

ature illustrated

is

of the

The mini-

of Tara, offspring of the tears

Avalokitesvara shed for the miseries of the

world.
style

figure

is

completely characteristic of the

later

Buddhist painting. Although the

It

of

preserves something of the sensuous

elegance of the Ajanta manner, the entire con-

ception has

become

flat

and decorative, with the

figure of the divinity of

no more importance

than the ornamental accessories.

tion
flat,

is

entirely linear with an

jewel-like colours

The concep-

employment of

a close imitation of the

surviving fragments of manuscripts from the

Pala school in Bengal. 8

The

art

of Tibet

is

in certain respects

only

another example of the prolongation of the

religious art of

Dynasties.

Bengal under the Pala and Sena

The

social

and

historical factors that

may be summarized
Before the introduction of Buddhism the

influenced Tibetan art

briefly.

Tibetans were followers of Bonpo, an animistic

religion including

many elements

of sorcery

and sexual mysticism. Perhaps the most important single historical happening in Tibet was
the marriage in a.d. 630 of the

first

king to a

Nepalese princess and the alliance that the same

sovereign formed shortly afterwards with the

daughter of the Chinese Emperor T'ai Tsung.

202. Bronze

Boston,

Padmapani from Nepal.

Museum of Fine Arts

These unions

in a sense are a

whole Tibetan

civilization

symbol of the

which forever

after-

wards has been composed of elements drawn

INDIA, NEPAL, AND TIBET

203. Tara

>:.

from Xepalese manuscript dated

Museum

a.d.

267

136.

fFime Arts

from India and China. The country had already

China, the destinies of Tibetan art had been

been converted to Buddhism by the Xepalese

largely

queen

East. In the period following the invasion of the

in the seventh

foundation

of the

but the real

century,

religion

dates

from the

missionary activity of the priest, Padmasarhbhava,

who came to Tibet from Kafiristan in the

eighth century.

He is remembered

duction of Tantric

Buddhism

Mongols,

Tibetan

accepted in China.
is

Buddhism was officially

sculptor named A-ni-ko

reputed to have worked for Kublai Khan.

There

for his intro-

that appealed

determined by contacts with the Far

is

not

much to

be said on the subject of

Tibetan architecture from the Indian point of

particularly to the Tibetan tendencies to sorcery

view, beyond the rather interesting fact that

and mysticism, based on terror and sexualism.

various types of Tibetan stupas dedicated to

The

great events

final

form of Tibetan Buddhism was

established by the holy

ot

man. Ansa,

as a

mixture

Buddhist magic and animism. Beginning

as

when Tibetan conincluded Tun-huang in north-western

from the Buddha's

life,

such as his

Nativity and Nirvana, are perhaps originally

derived from famous prototypes in India.

The

early as the ninth century,

most usual form of Tibetan stupa or chorten has

quests

bulbous dome

set

on one or more square bases

268

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

pyramid or prasada was

this

built the actual

stupa dome; circumambulation was possible at

each successive

level.

monument from our

10

The

interest in

point of view

this

lies in its

resemblance to the great Mahayana sanctuary

of Barabudur in Java. Both

common

of Tibetan

may

derive from a

A more

Pala prototype.

architecture

form

original

by

represented

is

the fortress-style of monasteries and palaces,

perhaps ultimately derived from ancient NearEastern prototypes. These skyscraper structures, like the Potala at Lhasa, are built of stone

and sun-dried bricks with the white-washed

walls thicker at the

lines

Western Tibet

204. Chorten in

is

surmounted by

square harmika, and a mast upholding a

'telescoped' umbrellas
finial [204].

shows

surmounted by

tier

of

a flame

unusual plan and elevation:

it is

erected in five stepped terraces on a polygonal

plan with multiple recessions or step-backs

9
;

on

rhythm

becoming narrower at the

in

Our main

A large monument at Gyan-tse [205]

a rather

their sloping

mountain peaks. Doors and windows repeat

this

and, like the Nepalese type,

bottom so that

echo the contours of the surrounding

top.

interest in the art of Tibet lies in

the perpetuation of the forms and iconography

of the

last

almost

phase of Buddhist

unbelievably

art in India.

conservative

The
of

nature

Tibetan art enables us to discern these survivals

even in modern examples of Tibetan
either at

Lhasa or in the Lama temple

In Tibetan sculpture

we can

art,

at

made

Peking.

find the perpetu-

ation of the form and iconography of Indian

50

25
5

10

15

IOO FEET

75

20

25

METRES

images of the early periods.

Any number

of gilt

bronze images dating from the sixteenth to the

twentieth

century

faithfully

drapery formula of the

Gandhara,

in

which the

network of strings
body.

The

late

reproduce

the

Buddhist statues of

folds are

reduced to

affixed to the surface of the

actual proportions, facial types,

and

ornaments of these and other Tibetan images

are invariably reminiscent of the sculpture of

Bengal from the seventh to the twelfth centuries.

The
at

known examples of Tibetan

number of fragments discovered

earliest

painting are a

Tun-huang

that

presumably date from the

period of Tibetan occupation of this

site in

the

tenth century.

We may

illustration the

banner of Avalokitesvara, sur-

choose as a typical

rounded by forms of the goddess Tara and

scenes from the litany of the Bodhisattva of
205. Gyan-tse, chorten

269
206.

Banner of Avalokitesvara from Tun-huang.

207.

Banner of the White Tara from Tibet.

Cambridge, Mass., B. Rowland

Museum

London, British

^^,

^^3
^

^^m

RRt j|

f#

Compassion

JH

i
f

-*-

[206].

The

central figure of Avalo-

*r^^^

Bengal, as seen also in the Xepalese manuscript

Boston

Museum

immediately reminiscent of the

in the

types of Bodhisattvas found in the fragments of

nation

Pala manuscripts from Bengal and Nepal, as

accessories as the clouds, flowers, and the waves

kitesvara

may

is

be seen in the sensuous elegance of the

proportions and the dry, linear definition of

form.

The surrounding

the perils

from which

little

this

scenes illustrating

Bodhisattva delivers

the devotee are entirely Chinese in costumes,

setting,

of the goddess Tara in the author's collection

[207], dating

presumably from the

late

eigh-

teenth or early nineteenth century, reveals

little

how

change has taken place in nearly a thousand

years.

The resemblance

between the two

as well as

is

only

[203]. In the illumi-

the

painting

of such

beneath Tara's lotus throne reveal an assimilation of

Chinese decorative forms.

It

is

this

admixture of Chinese motifs that more than

anything else distinguishes the

late

tankas from

their age-old prototypes.

The

and execution.

comparison of this painting with a banner

of Tara

principal subjects of the votive banners

are scenes

from the

life

of Buddha, the Dhyani

Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, Taras,

etc., local saints

and heroes, and Bonpo themes. 11 As has often

been

said, there

is

no

variety,

even

stylistic, in

Tibetan painting beyond that which comes

almost unbelievable

from the multiplicity of subjects and the rich-

pose and attributes

ness of the Buddhist pantheon. Indeed, Tibetan

figures, in

drawing. Both are of course ultimate

derivations from the late Buddhist school of

art furnishes us

how

all

with the supreme example of

creative effort without anv

freedom or

THE GOLDEN AGE AND END OF BUDDHIST ART

270

reduced to a merely mechanical

real vitality is

of the

new canon of

Pala Buddhist art [196].

process by the rigid control imposed by an un-

This heart-shaped face and the sinuous delicacy

changing traditional society

of this figure anticipate the art of Nepal [202].

of traditional

from Marco

art, as

it

reduces the ideal

The

defined in the quotation

Pallis in

our Introduction, to a

meaningless and repetitious formula. 12

decorative arts in Nepal and Tibet

may

be represented almost entirely by objects of

liturgical use.

None are presumably earlier than

the eighteenth century;

many, however, are

undoubtedly derived from earlier Indian shapes,

What may be an example of ivory-carving of the

Pala Period

is

a small

plaque representing the

Buddha attended by Brahma and

Indra,

but, as in painting

and sculpture, Chinese

three centuries.

dharmacakra, originally the emblem

is

Tushita Heaven [208], and occasionally

of a local king dispossessed by the

strated in steles of the

Gupta

Period. 13 Both the

shape of the Buddha's halo and the completely

linear

definition

of the

drapery

recall

the

a silver

The

shape has unmistakable reminiscences of earlier

Indian

emblems of

association of this

umbrella-bearing Indra

explains

its

this type,

and the ancient

symbol with the Cakravartin

survival

as

the

208. Ivory Buddhist Trinity from Tibet.

209. Silver dharmacakra from Tibet.

New

Newark,

York, private collection

Gurkha

invasion of the eighteenth century [209].

bronzes of Nalanda [198], and the face of the

at the right is typical

last

A remarkable and unique object

composition illustrating the descent from the

illu-

influ-

ence has dominated Tibetan art for the

New Jersey Museum

palladium

of

INDIA, NEPAL, AND TIBET

royalty. 14

The

phurbus or magic daggers were

used by Tibetan sorcerers to stab the

of the air [210].

on the

271

The

hilt recall

evil spirits

raging masks of Hayagriva

the demoniacal types of Indian

sculpture of the Pala Period of the age of the

Hindu Dynasties. 15 Surviving Tibetan

textiles,

such as the ketas or scarves often used as coverings for tankas, are either of Chinese

made

in imitation of

weave or

Chinese designs.

Among

the occasional examples of ivory carving from

Tibet

a beautiful

is

plaque in the Victoria and

Museum, with representations of scenes

from the life of Buddha [211]. Both the style of

Albert

the individual figures and the iconography of

the episodes from the sacred story are, like so

much

of the art of the trans-Himalayan king-

dom, derived from the Pala sculpture of

Bengal. 16

210.

Phurbu from Tibet.

London, British

Museum

211. Ivory plaque with scenes

from the life of Buddha from Tibet.
London, Victoria and Albert Museum

PART FIVE

<

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

CHAPTER 17

THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

I.

INTRODUCTION

of the Hindu Dynasties' to describe this

final

phase of art in India.

The term

'Medieval', which

ployed in

all

universally

is

books on Indian

em-

art to designate

the historical periods of art after the

fall

of the

Gupta Empire, is an extremely unfortunate one

first,

because

it

Hindu

West, and secondly,

so far as

is

European usages a syno-

logical,

with sub-divisions by styles, dynasties,

in the

because the word, in

its

nym for the Middle Ages, implies

num - between two moments
cultural

in India has

The

art

graphic sense, and

as

can in no way be regarded

it

It is

rather the

Rajput

terial

style, will receive a separate treat-

from the

late

and

word 'Baroque' both

a parallel

is

much more

as a descrip-

appropriate for

the character of this final phase of Indian cul-

from the point of view of

its

tremendous

ma-

periods of Indian art can be

treated in our chapter, and only the most sig-

examples

apply the names of European periods to

in

possible, so that only

a relatively small portion of the

The

the East, the

ture

in the

ment. Only

nificant

like to

is

Even more than

separation of archi-

the final developments in painting, culminating

cussed.

Actually, for those

strict

tecture and sculpture

who

art.

location.

Gupta Period no

and inevitable development out of the

maturity of Gupta

tion

the

in a parallel icono-

an interlude or interruption.

final

of supreme

nothing to do with the European

and painting. In

possible, the treatment will be chrono-

and geographical

described by 'Medieval'

Middle Ages except perhaps

architecture, sculpture,

an interreg-

achievement, the Classical and the

Renaissance.

most important works of

deal with the

will

comparison with the

invites

Medieval Period

The amount of material for study is so enormous that some arbitary division in the analysis
is imperative. The greater portion of the chapter

in every

medium

can be dis-

selection of those to be analysed

has been based on their intrinsic importance for

Indian

art

and

ther India. In

for later

some

developments

in

Fur-

cases the choice has had to

be limited by the photographs of monuments

actually available to the author.

power and dynamic richness of expression.

What above

determines the character of In-

all

2.

dian art for the

last fifteen

revived power of the

hundred years

Hindu

therefore,

it is

Buddhism

For our purpose,

proposed to use the

title

LATE HINDU ART AND ARCHITECTURE

the

religion, which, as

has been noted above, entirely ousted

as a universal Indian faith.

is

'Period

As we have already seen

the architecture of the

form was actively

in

our consideration of

Gupta Period,

the temple

in process of evolutii n.

was only the beginning of the

final

This

establishment

274

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

'

of types of buildings that persist for

all

the later

Besides the evidence of the

Hindu

of later
builders'

architecture are the various

manuals or

These are

sastras.

late

compilations of far earlier oral tradition, because

the silpins or initiated craftsmen for
turies

of

handed down

mouth

many

their lore entirely

cen-

by word

in the instruction of apprentices in

the guild. In

some

cases the sastras contain only

such dimensions and rituals as were

likely to

forgotten, since the essentials were the

at

once the house and body of the deity,

The

monuments them-

our chief sources for the understanding

selves,

is

its

fabric the very substance of the divinity.

tradition of religious architecture in India.

be

common

plan

geomantic

is

prescribed by the most elaborate

designed to ensure the security

rites

of the shrine on the earth upon which

and

to

make

cosm which
reproduce.

way

in every

it

its

The

it is

built

the proper micro-

plan and shape are intended to

plan

laid

is

out in a square, the

perfect magic diagram repeating the imagined

shape of the world. This square or mandala

is

divided into a

number

cated to the

gods concentrated around the

of smaller squares dedi-

Brahma, and with

central

specific reference to

heritage and knowledge of the class of architects.

the influence and positions of the earth and the

Among

heavenly bodies in the eight directions of space.

tion

is

the sastras existing in English transla-

compendium of sculpfor the silpins who are

ture and architecture

designated as the descendants of Visvakarman,

god of craftsmen.

Bhuvampradipa,

methods

Many
is

for

An

Orissan document

a text

is

the

devoted entirely to the

constructing religious edifices. 2

of the observations in this book, which

ascribed to Visvakarman himself, hold good

not only for Orissan buildings but for

architecture in general.

many documents

cited

Hindu

These works, and the

by Stella Kramrisch in

monumental work on

her

This whole aspect of Indian architecture, so

the Mdnasara, a

the

Hindu temple, 3

deal with such matters as the types of structures

vast

and so complicated

in origin

essential nature,

its

since

call style.

comparison

West

in the

The only possible

for building entirely

for metaphysical rather than physical needs

the Christian architecture of the

which we know that

in

architecture prevailed,

a similar concern for re-

combined with

God

in

a regard

magic of numbers and proportions,

for the

is

Middle Ages,

producing the image of the world or of

to

ensure the harmony of the structure with the

cosmos that

selection of an auspicious site, the laying out of

ture as that of India an emphasis

and the most

history,

transcends and

it

determines what we

suitable for various deities or secular use, the

the plan with proper magical rites,

and

can never be disregarded in a consideration of

is

it

reproduced. In such an architec-

on the

vertical

not determined by any aesthetic or structural

specific instructions for every last detail of the

necessities as in the skyscraper, but because this

shrine's elevation.

vertical, the sikhara or spire, is literally

Throughout
last

the entire consideration of this

phase of building activity,

it

must be remem-

bered that every work of Indian architecture,

Hindu, Buddhist, or

Jain,

most be regarded from

that

is,

its

must

and

as a kind of magic replica of some

region or sacred being; and that

this

first

fore-

metaphysical aspect,

it

unseen

was precisely

metaphysical factor that determined the

plan and elevation, rather than any aesthetic or

functional consideration.

The temple or vimdna

point to

God,

to be the very

magic axis that

and

is

meant to
embodiment of that

pillars apart

heaven and earth

variously symbolized by the mountain,

the tree, or the Universal

Every

slightest

Man, Purusa.

measurement

determined by the most

in the

temple

is

specific laws of propor-

manner comparable to the employment of the Golden Mean, since the dimensions

tion, in a

of the building were designed not only for security

and appropriateness, but

to

put the struc-

THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

ture in
basis

harmony with

the mystical numerical

of the universe and time

itself.

The

measurements of the temple plan, precisely

drawn with

gnomon

appropriate to
site

it

form of a mandala

in the

after the auspiciousness of the

had been determined, were co-ordinated

with the measurements of the elevation. Putting

it

as

simply as possible, we can say that the

architectural

Greek temple,

garbha griha; this shrine

is

always in the form of

a cube, so that the height is the

width the sikhara

;

is

made

same

as the

measure twice the

to

height or width of the temple. 4 In the same

way

was

itself a

concrete object of

devotion, the dwelling-place of the gods on

From what

earth.

has been said above,

not

it is

through Indian history magi-

surprising that

all

cal properties

were attributed to the builder's

art.

Many

temples are traditionally ascribed to

semi-divine beings or to the design of the architect

of the gods, Visvakarman.

In the history of Indian architecture the

modulus was generally the outer

width of the wall of the shrine enclosing the

it

275

life

of the craftsman has always been within a

guild, the
a

maintenance of which was often upon

hereditary basis, with whole families and

generations of one family dedicated to the pro-

As

fession.

system of medieval

in the guild

the curve of the sikhara was not left to chance but

Europe, learning was entirely by practice and

was determined by

reiteration.

system of geometric pro-

The

metaphysical laws governing

gression taking into account the intended height

site

and structure were, properly speaking, the

and width of the base of the tower. In parts of

first

principles to be learned

India the same effect

prentice.

is

achieved by making the

width of the shoulder of the tower three-quarters

the

measurement of the base and the

total

He had

for his

by the builder's ap-

guidance those com-

pendiums of canonical recipes, the sastras. They

were intended as grammars of the craft and

height twice the width. 5 Ritual and dedication

designed to preserve the integrity of the

extended to the selection and laying of every

These books of architectural techniques, cor-

piece of material of which the temple was built,

responding to the writings of Vitruvius, are

since this fabric itself was the mystic equivalent

known

of the body of Purusa. Various types of stone or

Period, although very probably they consist of

wood came

a codified

to be regarded as especially appro-

priate for the shrines dedicated to the multiple

The word

gods of the Hindu pantheon.

means 'mountain

peak'. It

designated by names like

the building

is

is

sikhara

implicit in temples

Meru and Kailasa that

specially intended as an archi-

tectural facsimile of the

world mountain or the

sacred peak of Siva, so that the worshipper

might, by thus having the mountain

literally

to go

practice.

back

this

complete uniformity

more ways than one

to

is

in

be thought of as heaven

on earth. 6

all

often

modern

dhist chaitya, the

Hindu temple was never

designed for congregational worship. Like the

is

so

Indian

art,

they

forgotten

in

times, that true originality and creation

can flourish under discipline of mind and hand.

The

classification of types of temple architec-

Hindu Period

is

an enormously

problem that can be only

lined in a

work of

this kind.

briefly out-

The problem

is

complicated further by the fact that no very

strict

Unlike the Christian cathedral or the Bud-

eloquently shown by the

demonstrate what

intricate

The temple

is

temples themselves. Like

merit that would be his through an actual

abodes of the gods.

seemingly rigid control of an

architect's imaginative faculty did not lead to

ture in the later

to these

Gupta

body of material based on immemorial

That

brought to him, receive the beatification and

visit

at least as far as the

art.

geographical or stylistic division

sible, so that

tional type

is

pos-

temples belonging to one tradi-

borrow elements from buildings

in

another category. In the most ancient surviving

276

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

sources mentioning temple architecture

we

dravida,

and

Geographically,

vesara.

these

types are assigned respectively to northern In-

from the Himalayas

dia

southern

Vindhyas, to

from the Krishna River

India

Cape Comorin, and

Vindhyas

to the

to

from the

to central India

Krishna River. Although actu-

to the

types extend to the

ally the differences in these

orders and the smallest details of ornament, for

purposes of clarity we

may

differentiate

them

by their most salient feature; namely, the

treat-

ment of the

The

spire or superstructure.

is

known

generally conceded to be not

only the earliest but the most important temple

form.

Its

dominant feature

which

ara,

in

many

is

the spire or sikh-

examples forms the

later

entire roof of the sanctuary proper. It

and convex
a

form and

in

vase-shaped

member

Whereas the

is

usually

tecture
styles

it is

period of Indian archi-

later

make any

not possible to

on any sectarian

and Hindus

all

basis.

division of

Buddhists, Jains,

used the same style with slight

modifications of structure to meet their ritualis-

same way Dravidian types of

needs. In the

tic

buildings are

known

Indo-Aryan type
actually

the

is

and the

in northern India

found

in the south, so that

better to think of the three types in

it is

same way

that

we think of the Greek

orders,

designated by geographical names, without im-

any geographical limitation

plying

their

to

usage. In describing later Indian temples there

type, or nagara, sometimes

first

Indo-Aryan,

as

Throughout the

find

that the sanctuaries are classified as nagara,

is

conical

crowned by

is

number of terms that must be used

The sanctuary as a whole is
the vimana; the spire is known as the

a certain

for convenience.

known

as

sikhara

the actual cella for the cult image

garbha griha. The sanctum proper

is

the

is

preceded

by one or more porches or mandapas dedicated

to the

performance of music and dances

in

honour of the gods.

or kalasa.

temple

is

Stone continues to be the principal building

always convex and curvilinear with an emphasis

material throughout the later periods of Indian

profile of the nagara

on the continuous

verticality of the spire, the

effect of the dravida

type of temple

that of a

is

tower ascending in a series of horizontal terraces. In the architecture of

the term sikhara

major

member

is

Dravidian India

applied only to the topmost

of the edifice, a round, square,

hexagonal, or octagonal dome-shaped feature.

architecture. Usually the

iron dowels were

masonry

employed

is

dry,

and

to hold the blocks

together, although there are occasional notices

of the use of resinous lacquer and other materials as a

cement. Brick, both in combination

with stone and separately,

is

ployed as a building medium.

universally

The

em-

use of brick

repeated on the cor-

goes back to the making of altars and tombs in

ners of the successive levels of the structures. In

Vedic times, so that a certain sanctity became

Dravidian architecture the emphasis

attached to

This crowning member

is

symbolical and structural.

terraces or bhumis, each
atic scale, is

It is

is

both

on the successive

one of which,

in a hier-

assigned to a different divinity.

The third type of temple

we have already

building, the vesara,

seen, largely restricted

is,

as

to

western India and the Deccan. This type

of building with

its

barrel roof

is

obviously

derived from the old Buddhist type of chaityahall,

and, although

it

survived in comparatively

monuments, never enjoyed the widespread

popularity of the nagara and dravida types.

late

as a particularly appropriate fabric

it

for the building of sacred edifices.

say, the

in the setting

in

of both stone and brick foundations

conformity with the magic ground-plan or

mandala of the
was used

for

shrine. In

ornament

in

stone and terracotta, and

some

cases plaster

addition to carved
it

should be noted

many

of the great shrines, like the Kailasa

Ellura,

were originally painted white to

that
at

Needless to

most complicated rituals were employed

stress their

symbolic relationship to the sacred

snow-capped peaks of the Himalayas. 7

THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

We

have dwelt

at

such length on the icono-

graphical and ritualistic determination of In-

dian forms in art so that the reader

warned

survive today

Hindu temples and images

ex-

the late seventh and early eighth century.

of the sastras, such a

conformity to sacred texts

is

not in

itself the

monu-

of the aesthetic worth of the

ments, any more than a glassy-eyed and simpering saint by Carlo Dolci
exactly

is

may have met

it

work of art, however

the anti-aesthetic re-

quirements of Jesuit propaganda. For the same

reason, works of Indian art - especially for the

Western student - must be subjected

from the point of view of

analysis

Badami and Aihole, where there

numerous temples dating from

dakal, near

in a

plicitly follow the recipes

final criterion

to an

their final

Pattadakal

is

the sandstone

an insignificant

modern mud houses one

roofs of the

been a great stronghold of Hindu worship. At

this

one site we can see standing side by side four

temples.

Of these

the most pretentious

was

that, in addition to

ensuring the

magical appropriateness of an icon or a temple,

they were certainly intended to maintain a

norm

of aesthetic and technical probity by the estab-

lishment of methods and canons arrived

at

and

found right through generations of experience

in

workshop

From

the historical point of view the great

period of

Hindu

architecture

is

that of the var-

Gupta

ious dynasties that succeeded to the

Empire
dia
in

in the

seventh century. In western In-

and the Deccan the Chalukya Dynasty was

power

until 750,

when

it

was overthrown by

the Rashtrakutas. In south-eastern India,

mean-

while, the Pallavas ruled as far south as the

Kaveri
it

river.

was, as

These were Hindu kingdoms, and

we have

seen, only in the

Ganges

the Viriipak-

by the monarch Vikramaditya

much

king was so
ture of

It

who

has been surmised that this

Kancipuram, which he had conquered,

that he persuaded architects

that site to return with

him

and workers from

to Pattadakal.

on the Virupaksha seems

inscription

it

'the

by

built

Dravidian

An

con-

most eminent sutradhdri

with

type,

above

to

speaks of the shrine's having

firm this, since

been

roofs

was

It

II,

impressed with the architec-

of the southern country'. 8

tradition.

is

sha temple, dedicated to Siva in 740 [212].

died in 746 or 747.

one of the great values

Indo-Aryan and Dravidian

or five examples of

As we have tried

to stress,

sees the

splendid temple towers of what must once have

built

of the seemingly rigid prescriptions of the

little village in

near Badami. Above the

hills

aesthetic as well as iconographic effectiveness.

sastras

Another

at Aihole.

great centre of temple-building was at Patta-

one would expect

that, although, as

traditional art,

may be

Ajanta and the earlier shrines

277

It is

sanctuary,

the

of the typically
of terraced

series

dominated

by

the characteristic stupika of the Dravidian order.

The main
hall

and

shrine

is

preceded by an assembly

a small porch; in front

shrine for Siva's bull

Nandi

tally of these structures

is

[213].

a separate

is

The horizon-

emphasized by the

employment of heavy overhanging

some

earlier

cornices,

in stone of

which are evidently an imitation

thatched construction.

The same

Valley that Buddhist art survived under the

type of entablature crowns the individual panels

Pala and Sena Dynasties.

with

reliefs

of Hindu deities that are

walls of the temple proper

pattadakal:
the genesis of later hindu styles

Light

is

admitted through pierced stone

3.

in the walls of the enclosed hall.

buildings

We

have already considered some of the build-

is

supported on

podium ornamented with

The

the

grilles

Each one of the

high basement or

reliefs

of lions and

thatch-like entablature

ings in the territories of the Chalukyas in the

fantastic monsters.

Gupta Period, notably

decorated with blind chaitya arches

the late cave temples at

let into

and the Nandi porch.

is

repeated

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

278

in

each of the higher levels of the superstructure

of the main temple, so that one gets the impression, as so often in Indian architecture, that the

whole

is

component of many

isms infinitely repeated in

effect

echoed

is

its

cell-like

organ-

structure. This

also in the repetition of the

shape of the terminal stupika in smaller replicas

at the

corners on the successive levels of

its

terraced spire.

The many Indo-Aryan

still

temples which

may

be seen in the nearly deserted temple-city

of Pattadakal are
early

all

perfect examples of the

development of the northern sikhara.

typical

example

is

the

Saivite

Galaganatha

temple that dates from this same period of building activity in the late seventh century [214]. It
is

constructed of massive, closely joined blocks

of ashlar.

The

actual

form of the spire proper,

214. Pattadakal, Galaganatha temple

212

(left)

and 213. Pattadakal, Virupaksha temple

012345

280

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

convex and curvilinear in

profile,

with the

marked by the heavily

amalaka form, is essentially the same

angles of alternate storeys

rusticated

its

structure. False

as in the

doorways containing images,

Gupta temple of Deogarh, decorate

three sides of the tower base ; at the fourth

is

the

as the towers over the sanctuaries of the late

entrance to the cella preceded by a shallow

Gupta

porch.

like

Whereas

shrines at Aihole.

the

Durga temple

that

its

high podium, as

on the roof of the

hardly different from the disposition of these

grown

four sides rest directly on the four walls

members in so-called Dra vidian temples, which

may be taken as a clear indication that in origin,
at least, the Indo-Aryan and Dra vidian types of

The shape of the channelled

temples were constructed in part from the same

installed as a kind of cupola

form

The employment of the

well as the profiles of the encircling cornice, are

cella, here, at Pattadakal,

to

in buildings

Aihole the sikhara was

at

the tower has

complete roof over the sanctuary, so

of the garbha griha.

amalaka quoins was repeated

shape of a crowning amalaka -

in the

bulbous

repertory of architectural motifs.

now lost - so that

The most

simple type of Dravidian shrine

is

here again the unified effect of the whole build-

represented at Pattadakal by an old Jain temple

from the repetition of the shapes of

[215] that stands about a mile to the west of the

ing results

village.
215. Pattadakal, Jain temple

The

elevation of the surviving tower

sanctuary shows the regular method of stepped

diminishing storeys characteristic of the Dravi-

The whole is crowned by an elaborate

The general shape and flaring profile

dian order.
stupika.

of

its

silhouette are repeated in the profiles of

the cornices of the successive terraces.

iA
if>
4.

INDO-ARYAN ARCHITECTURE: ORISSA

As has already been stated in the introduction

to Late Hindu architecture, the term IndoAryan or nagara

style

of architecture

is

used to

designate the temple-building characteristic of

northern India in the dynasties that succeeded

power of the Gupta Empire. This is a

some of the Gupta

to the

type already anticipated in

temples

at

Aihole and Pattadakal.

chief sites where

One

of the

Indo-Aryan temples were

built as early as the eighth century a.d.

is

the

holy city of Bhuvanesvar in Orissa.

In our study of Orissan temples

we

are for-

tunate in having preserved a considerable body

of sastras, furnishing the most precise directions

for the laying out

and erection of the temples.

In these Orissan texts the temples are classified

under the designations rekha and bhadra. The

rekha

is

bhadra

the conical, beehive-shaped spire; the

a terraced

pyramid.

The

rekha

is

divid-

THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

ed into elements entitled shin, trunk, neck, and

skull, analogies that

suggest that the temple was

tuaries of the

Gupta Period and the Galaganatha

The successive storeys or bhumis

at Pattadakal.

marked by heavy corner quoins

regarded as a microcosm of Prajapati, the Cos-

are

mic Man. The rekha

form amalaka shape, and the tower

further divided into

is

stages or bhumis, each one of

over by
these

its

specific deity.

same sikharas

to certify that

which

Not

is

presided

infrequently,

are designated as

mountains

they were regarded as architec-

tural replicas of Mount

Meru or

Kailasa.

The earliest example of Indo-Aryan architecture at

Bhuvanesvar

is

the Parasuramesvara

temple off. a.d. 650 [216].

It

consists of a tower

281

in the loti-

is

capped by

complete amalaka supporting a metal trident

of Siva. Although the tower clearly consists of

identical repeated storeys diminishing in size

towards the summit, neither

emphasis on

this

horizontal division nor the heavily rusticated

character of the exterior decoration in any

detracts

from the soaring curvilinear

the spire.

The

porch, which

is

way

profile of

covered with

sanctuary of the rekha type with an attached

corbelled slabs of heavy masonry,

enclosed porch. This tower

with pierced latticed windows in stone and low

is

simply an en-

largement of the types already seen in the sanc-

216. Bhuvanesvar, Parasuramesvara temple

reliefs

of dancing dwarfs.

The

is

decorated

raised courses of

282

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

masonry framing the corners and dividing the

in

faces of the sikhara give the impression of the

is

which the original or cubical form of the

entirely

merged

cella

into the curvilinear profile of

tower being tied in by ribs converging in the

the tower. Inserted one above another in alter-

crown or amalaka. The precise curvature of

nate converging ribs of the spire are turrets

these

members was

members

by the

carefully regulated

sastras. Just as the ascent

and meeting of these

symbolically connoted for the wor-

shipper the aspiration and ultimate absorption

of

all

in

the godhead, their presence in an

architectural

sense

provided

the

strongest

impression of verticality to offset the

horizontal lines of the porch

The

latest

is

now

spire

may

of

be seen in the

temple of a.d. 1000 [217].

a completely

style

The

sikhara

beehive-shaped structure

217. Bhuvanesvar, Lihgaraj temple

these are the Orissan version of the urusringas

that appear as

more

salient projections in the

temples of Khajuraho.
that even the

It

should be pointed out

most elaborate of the Orissan

temple towers are extremely primitive in construction.

They

are built entirely

on the prin-

ciple of corbelled vaulting, so that in section

itself.

example of the Orissan

architecture at Bhuvanesvar
Lirigaraj

and

static

repeating the shape of the tower as a whole

would

see a hollow

we

pyramid with overlapping

courses of masonry roofed by the terminal cap

of the structure.

The

sikhara shrine of the Lih-

temple was preceded by a number of

garaj

porches of the bhadra type reserved for the

accommodation of worshippers and the performance of religious spectacles.

The

final

the Surya

achievement of Orissan builders

Deul or Temple of the Sun

at

is

Kona-

raka [218]. This sanctuary was erected in the

reign of Narasirhhadeva (1238-64).

It

stands

to-day a desecrated and impressive ruin on a

10
lonely stretch of sea-coast north-east of Puri.

The temple was never finished, perhaps because

the problems of construction proved too much
for the builders, so that the

rekha or tower

already familiar to us from examples at Bhuva-

nesvar

only a stump of masonry behind the

is

massive assembly hall or jagamohan that precedes

it.

The

plan of the temple

is,

as

would be

expected, a repetition of arrangements found

in earlier

Orissan shrines

the holy of holies or

garbha griha was to have been located

in the

sanctuary tower, and was entered through the

frontispiece already mentioned. This shrine was
originally a dedication to the

One

sun-god Surya.

of the most striking features of the design

of the temple

is

that the entire sanctuary

was

conceived as an architectural likeness of the

god's chariot or vimana; around the circumfer-

ence of the basement platform on which the

temple proper rests are affixed twelve great

THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

283

wheels intricately carved in stone [219], and, to

the lowest zone of the base

complete the illusion of the solar

car, colossal

representing a great variety of genre scenes

free-standing statues of horses were installed in

dealing mainly with the hunting of elephants

front of the

main entrance,

as

though actually

The

this,

arranged in

rated by widely projecting pilasters filled with

porch or cere-

sculpture of a very interesting and highly erotic

hall. It is

and rising

lofty

conceived as a great cube of

masonry measuring

hundred

to a height of a

feet

hundred

on

a side

feet.

The

incomplete spire presumably would have attained a height of nearly two

exterior decoration

the line

friezes, is a series of niches sepa-

principal fragment which survives at

Konaraka consists of the

monial

a continuous frieze

and other wild animals above

two separate

dragging the god's chariot through the sky.

is

is

hundred

in entire

storey

is

The

harmony with

and mass of the building

The basement

feet.

as a whole.

ornamented

first

with

the stone wheels standing free of the fabric

218. Konaraka,

Sun a Deul temple

in

type the facades of the hall proper are divided

;

into a base

and two

distinct friezes

by heavily

accented and repeated string courses [219];

above

this rises the

pyramidal roof that we have

already found in the bhadra types at Bhuvanesvar.

Three

distinct terraces recede to the

crowning member

in the

shape of

stone lotus of the amalaka type.

are

emphasized -

in

a gigantic

The

terraces

ascending order - by

six

219. Konaraka, Surya temple,

detail

220

of basement storey

{opposite).

Konaraka, Surya temple, erotic figures

THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

and

These

five separate string courses.

285

string

courses follow the various setbacks or recesses

of the plan so that a distinct impression of a

kind of wavy or curvilinear

movement

relieves

any feeling of straightness or rigidity in the mass.

Returning

to the subject

must be aware of the

of the sculpture,

we

1
la

Black Pagoda

fact that the

f
>

-J

jj^|

has achieved a great deal of notoriety through

the frankly obscene nature of most of the carving

basement and

decorating the

exterior of the porch.

described as a
recipes of the

the

of the erotic

literal illustration

Kama

also

This carving might be

Sutra

represents

it

num-

erous couples engaged in a great variety of

amorous

antics,

some of them of

a definitely

9^1m*~ .k^B&/ ^Bl

perverse nature [220]. This endless round of

dalliance

is

mkt

kind of sculptural apotheosis of

the relations between

mithunas or aus-

Bm J

picious pairs, which in less extreme forms were

in

men and women. These

figures are representations of

employed

Indian art from a very early

period. 11 Their embraces have been interpreted

as typifying the idea

oimoksha or union with the

divine, the achievement of that primordial unity

broken

at the

time Purusa divided himself to

create the world.

In a further metaphysical

L'

wed-

b^b^bTb^P

sense the couples represent the mortals'

ding with the divine or the idea of the gods'

cosmic procreation of the universe.

beings, following the devas
the sexual act,

and

Human
BL

their saktis in

play of the immortals. This

is

an expression of

love found in Indian literature

from the L'pani-

romance ofSakuntala, 12 but it seems

Konaraka the function of these endlessly

an B/

bW>K/'

assume an identity with the love-

shads to the
that at

repeated pairs in dalliance must have had something to do with actual orgiastic rites conducted
in association

with a special cult of the sun as

universal fructifying force. 13

that, for

It is

unfortunate

obvious reasons, none of these mith-

unas can be reproduced

in

detail;

each

is

separate masterpiece of relief composition in

which the feeling of movement,

as well as the

be

'<

** ^m

X
m*&0

"

22i. Konaraka, Surya temple, Surya

THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

287

of descent from the great tradi-

marvellous suggestion of the participants melt-

in a direct line

ing with love, transcends the character of the

tion of sculpture in the

Gupta

Period.

action.

In some of the niches of the arcade are

5.

CENTRAL INDIA: KHAJURAHO

notably gajasithha - a combination of elephant

It

could well be said that the culmination of the

and lion - that are among the most powerful and

Indo- Aryan genius in architecture was attained

dynamic

in the extraordinary

representations of fantastic hybrid monsters,

art

realizations of the fantastic that Indian

has given us. These hybrids, possibly, are

allegories of the sun's (lion's)

rain (elephant), or possibly

triumph over the

symbols of the

wandering from one shape to another

soul's
in the

In addition to this sculpture, the shrine at

reliefs

included

originally

number of

of the sun god Surya, carved in green

chlorite [221].

The

shown standing

in a static frontal position in the

figure of the

samabhanga pose used

sun-god

is

for divinities in a state

of spiritual equilibrium, inviting the prayers

of the devotees.

On

the chariot with Surya are

the twin figures of his charioteers and the

kneeling

group of temples erected

in central India.

dawn maidens. These pendant

are set off against miniature stupikas,

figures

and Surya

himself is framed in a trefoil chaitya arch capped

put sovereigns,

who are remembered

Only twenty of the

are

now standing, and all but one of these are out

They arise like mountains of bluff

of worship.

masonry above the dusty

and the Jain

of a central charger in frontal view, in ac-

we have seen used for

Bodh Gaya [38]. It is an

tion that
at

this

same theme

'archaism' that

enhances the hieratic effectiveness of the

These carvings

at

Konaraka

are

among

examples of Indian sculpture in which

balance
the

is

form

idol.

the last

a perfect

maintained between the realization of

as a plastic

mass and the extreme

deli-

Although the

patriarchs, there

is

no essential

dif-

ference in their architectural character. This

is

simply another illustration of what we have

seen so often in the history of Indian

it is

art, that

impossible to make any sectarian difference

with regard to style in the art of a given period.

We may take as a typical example of this magMahadeo

cordance with a conceptual method of presenta-

plain.

surviving shrines are dedicated to Siva, Vishnu,

Below, on the plinth, in very small

left

utilitarian character.

original eighty-five temples

nificent architecture the

horses of the quadriga, deployed to right and

chiefly for

their enterprise in the construction of reservoirs

by an apotropaic monster mask or kirttimukha.

scale, are the

at

These magnificent

shrines were dedications of the Chandella Raj-

and other undertakings of a

endless process of sathsdra.

Konaraka

Khajuraho

temple of Kandariya

which was dedicated

[222],

c.

Like the most ancient Indian stupas and

Mesopotamian

citadels, the

1000.
earlier

temple proper

is

elevated on a high masonry terrace. Quite different

from the Indo- Aryan temples of Orissa,

is a compact architectural unit, not a

group of connected separate buildings so that,

the shrine

for

example, in the

sive

Mahadeo temple the

mandapas, leading

share a

common

to the

high base or podium, and the

contours of their domical roofs

like successive

cacy and precision in the carving of the orna-

mountain peaks are

mental accessories which, as so often, enhance

minate in the highest sikhara above the

In general,

succes-

garbha griha,

hieratically designed to culcella.

could be said that the enormous

and sculptural character of the

smooth surfaces of the semi-nude body on

effectiveness of the shrines at

which they are strung. The carving has, to be

pends on their beauty of proportion and con-

the fullness

sure, a certain dry

and hard quality about

but the general conception of the figure

it,

is still

it

Khajuraho de-

tour and the vibrant texture of their surface

ornamentation.

The

plan

is

generally that of a

222. Khajuraho, Kandariya

Mahadeo temple

THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

and one or

cross with the entrance at the east

two transepts radiating from the

In this

cella.

mandapas are only

organism. The dominant im-

plan the garbha griha and

of a unified

cells

amalaka

its

finial

amalaka, in

final

like a lotus flower or a solar halo

already seen, the stressed verticality of every

vertical

moun-

emphasized

is

throughout, from the high base through the

the

architectural

ward

member

leads the worshipper up-

to that centre of

And,

divine.

in

like

magic union with the

manner, the sculptural

successive walls and roofs to the ultimate range

decoration of the temple points the

of lesser peaks that constitute the main spire.

desired union. This

fect

at

that of a

is

building up to a great

These temples may

with rays,

heaven, the sun-door

typifies the passage to

superstructures, each with

masonry. The

tain of

shape

summit of the world mountain, or the dome

of the skull of the Universal Man. As we have

pression of the Khajuraho shrines

number of separate

Accordingly, the

universe.

21

also be regarded as a per-

balance of vertical and horizontal volumes

is

the

way

meaning

to that

implicit in

the multiple representation in the frieze of

mithunas or

men and women

in erotic

embrace,

with the vertical ascent interrupted by friezes

which

of dynamic figure sculpture girdling the entire

of the soul with the divine, the reconstitution of

structure.

the primordial wholeness that was destroyed

In comparison with the towers of Orissa, the

spires at

Khajuraho are domical rather than

The

pyramidal in contour.
sikharas

is

more

those of eastern India, and a refinement pecuthe architecture of Khajuraho

liar to

seen in the turrets or urusringas

masonry of the main tower

of

its

let

to be

is

into the

at successive levels

construction; so that in the duplication,

and even

triplication,

of these towered shapes

almost the effect of the eyes travelling

there

is

from

lesser ranges to the

mountain.

summit of

The whole mass

a distant

of the sikhara

is

kind of wonderful rising crescendo of curves,

the curves of the lesser turrets
the

main tower having

intersection,

amalaka that

and the

ribs of

their separate points of

and yet leading inevitably

at

to the

once crowns and girdles the

The symbolism of these

Indo-Aryan architects

is

final

buildings of the

only an enlargement

of the metaphysical meaning inherent in the

simplest structures of Vedic times.

The temple

no more than an architectural replica of the

imagined world mountain

pillar separates
ly,

Meru which

heaven and earth,

or,

as

anagogical-

an equivalent of the body of Purusa, the

Universal

human and

Seen from the

union

into a polarity

divine.

exterior, the temples of

Kha-

juraho impress the beholder with the same

grandeur of unified design that we recognize

a

in

Gothic cathedral, whether or not we are ac-

quainted with

The

its

iconographic significance.

magnificent balance of horizontals and

verticals

travels

is

maintained throughout.

upward from the

The

eye

successive levels of the

base divided by string courses and shallow

friezes to the level of the principal

shrine.

rooms of the

There open porches with overhanging

eaves provide a temporary horizontal interruption to the successive levels of the

main tower

constituted of the repeated shapes of the smaller

sikharas building

the

up

to the

dominant

profile of

main tower.

Typical of the veritable flowering of temple

whole.

is

when Purusa divided himself

separating

curvature of these

accelerated and impelling than

in their ecstasy typify the ultimate

Man, whose body comprehends

this

sculpture during this final period of

architecture in Central India
tion of the

Vamana Temple

illustration 223.

naked apsaras

We

is

Hindu

the ornamenta-

at

Khajuraho

in

look upon a double tier of

in a celestial chorus, vaunting

their voluptuous

charms

in an infinite variety of

attitudes displaying a 'languid

eroticism', rendered the

and calculated

more provocative by

the contrast between the slim bodies and the

290

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

towering complication

These dancers

in the

of the

cording to legend, creatures not

flesh

In spite of the ravages of time and the icono-

head-dresses.

heaven of Indra

are, ac-

made of

but constituted rather of the

air

gross

and the

clasm of the Islamic invaders, the number of

ancient temples
great that

still

standing in Rajputana

would be impossible even

it

to

is

so

men-

We may take as representative of

movements that compose their heavenly dances

tion

they are here as appropriate 'entertainers' in

the best of Indo-Aryan architecture in northern

the reconstructed heaven that

is

the fabric of the

them

India the group of temples erected from the

eighth

sanctuary.

Although ostensibly only so many spots or

all.

century

tenth

the

to

Jodhpur. All these shrines,

in

Osia,

at

near

what once must

accents in the total decoration of the facade,

have been a flourishing religious community,

they have an irresistible individual attraction:

now

'With every movement of the eye of the beholder

aries include

new

perspective shows the images from a dif-

ferent angle; to avoid being bewildered he has

to concentrate

on each of them

his attention to the next.'

14

is

Most of

pahca ay at ana

the

class, a

temples

belong to the

and then give

four extra shrines (making five in

figure carved

inally attached

its

own

shaded by an individual canopy.

In addition to their separate fascination for the

perform the function of contri-

many

vertical accents in the ascent of

ary.
at

sanctu-

designation meaning that

eye, the figures

buting so

tions.

The

both Brahmanic and Jain dedica-

Each

almost in the complete round stands on

platform and

stand deserted and in ruins.

by

all)

were orig-

main sanctu-

cloisters to the

Most of the temples at Osia, like the temples

Khajuraho, are raised on plinths or podiums.

The sikharas

follow most closely the early Oris-

san type, as exemplified by the Parasuramesvara

temple

at

The mandapas,

Bhuvanesvar.

in

the sikhara. Individually these celestial maidens

almost every case, take the form of an open

possess a great vitality expressed in their tor-

pillared hall.

tuous movements and the provocative warmth

ways of the sanctuaries

and fullness of the modelling of

in

some of the very

earliest

their flesh.

As

examples of Indian

by the con-

trasting exaggerated straightness of the

arms

and limbs.

at

lintels

of the door-

Osia are ornamented

with a richness equalling the carving of the Sun

temple

at

Konaraka.

A typical example of the

sculpture, the roundness and softness of the

breasts and belly are emphasized

The jambs and

Rajputana

is

Indo-Aryan

style in

the Surya temple at Osia [224].

The four lesser shrines surrounding the sanctuary have disappeared and only the cella with

its

open porch survives. The building presumably

6.

RAJPUTANA

In the days of the great Brahmanic revival dur-

dates from the tenth century.

The

open mandapa are erected on

a raised platform.

cella

and the

The colonnade of the mandapa is augmented by

pillars rising from the ground level. The

ing the eighth and ninth centuries the plains of

two

Rajputana must have flowered with temples.

spaces between the pillars on the porch were

Most of

these temples were distinguished by

originally filled with elaborately carved stone

mandapas, and the fragments of

screens like the pierced decoration to be found

their pillared

some of the Chalukya temples

scores of such porches were appropriated by

in

.Moslem builders of the Qutb mosque

The

rather squat sikhara with

tion

and massive amalaka quoins

which

in its four

at

hundred and eighty separate

columns includes the material of nearly

temples.

Delhi,

thirty

cent of Pattadakal.

at Pattadakal.

heavy rustica-

its

is

also reminis-

The columns

of the Osia

temples belong to the same order that

is

seen in

223. Khajuraho,

Vamana

temple, apsaras

mi

the countless examples appropriated for the

Mohammedan
carving

is

shrines

of Delhi

[225].

The

concentrated on the base and bands of

tracery interrupting the shaft of the column.

These

pillars consist for the

most part of

high square base, from which grows an octagonal

shaft that supports a richly carved capital.
shaft

and

Both

capital have a repeated motif of a vase

292

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

or kalasa wreathed in foliate detail. This order

is

simply an elaboration of the columns of the

Gupta Period, with every

face of the pillar richly

embellished with a veritable lace-work of figural

and

Some have

foliate motifs.

afterglow of the

discerned in this

Gupta Period

a reflexion of

that sensuous love of nature, the

perfumed

descriptions of the floral bowers in which

enacted the love-poem ofSakuntala.

cipal

doorway of

this

temple

is

The

is

prin-

typical in

been moved to the base of the jambs. The other

Brahmanic temples

ated with representations of the planetary divinor navagraha, together with representations

The jambs

are covered

with different avatars of Vishnu and lesser members of the Hindu pantheon.

which flanked the

lintel

224. Osia, Surya temple

of

as the shrines

the

same

typically

Indo-Aryan

style.

The same

that differs only in the character of the sikhara.

This tower with

lesser turrets

echoing

its

shape

corresponds more closely to the special type of

architecture seen at Khajuraho. 16

its

Brahmanic temples at Osia. 15 The lintel is decor-

of garudas and nagas.

such

could be said of the Jain sanctuary of Mahavira

richness and iconography of the portals of the

ities

at Osia,

of Hari-Hara, present only slight variations of

The river goddesses

Gupta temples have

7.

GUJARAT AND WESTERN INDIA

Of a special richness and delicacy are the ruined

Indo-Aryan temples of Gujarat. Although some
of these shrines and also those of Kathiawad

and Kach were begun

in the tenth century, the

majority of the structures

1025, the year of

may be dated between

Mahmud

of Ghazni's icono-

clastic raid

on Somnath, and the

THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

293

Church

lies

conquest

final

of this whole region by the Delhi Sultans in

The

1298.

present ruin of most of these splen-

did structures

is

due not only

to the fury of the

invaders but to a cataclysmic earthquake that

devastated western
century.

made

India in the nineteenth

The magnificence

of these shrines was

possible by the commercial wealth of

interest in the

in the fact that they

in the

Gothic period

were the work of builders'

guilds under the direction of master

who

masons

transmitted their knowledge of the sastras

to successive generations of apprentices

to

modern
Almost

down

times.

all

ruinous that

the western Indian temples are so

it is

difficult to select a single

exam-

The

Gujarat under the Solanki Dynasty, a period

ple of the style to illustrate their character.

when

most famous of the Gujarat temples was the

the

ports

of western

India

were

clearing-house for the trade between the East-

ern

and Western worlds.

These

originally

jewel-encrusted temples were not entirely the

result of royal patronage, but

were communal

Siva shrine at Somanatha-Patan that was the

special object of

Mahmud of Ghazni's

religious zeal against idolatry,

when,

fury and

in 1025,

he

smashed the jewelled lingam and put the

The

dedications in the true sense of the word, in that

temple to the sack.

they were erected through voluntary subscrip-

stored after this desecration, was totally wrecked

tions

and contributions of

kinds.

225. Delhi,

further

parallel

Qutb mosqiu

skilled labour of all

to

the

communal

from Hindu temples

by the

final

shrine, although re-

Mohammedan invaders at the end of

the thirteenth century.

The

plan,

which

is

294

^anaoooo^rz^rczcr^Ssoo^^gy:

226. Sunak, Nilakantha temple

approximated

in other

examples

in

Kathiawad,

cella,

of course, the roof is replaced by the sikh-

These

divisions are in turn separated into

consisted of a closed pillared hall, octagonal in

ara.

shape, preceding a square cella surmounted

numerous horizontal courses, each specifically

named and its exact measurement prescribed

originally

by

a sikhara.

Something of the same arrangement

in the

ruined temples of Xavalakha

and Ghumli. The polygonal

tiple

hall

is

found

Sejakpur

at

with

its

mul-

step-backs in plan precedes a cella set in

in

The

temple of Nilakantha

at

some of them perhaps

originally

in several storeys. 17

On

turrets or urusrihgas, each a replica of the

of the principal spire.

terraced roofs,

from the usual

main

tower, and almost free-standing from the fabric

pillared

These

differ

Indo- Aryan type in being composed of clustered

western India were covered with low

the core of an attached sikhara.

porches

The sikharas

in the sastras.

reconstruction of the

Sunak

[226] gives us a

very good idea of the original elevation of these

sanctuaries.

the exterior the temples of Gujarat and

Kathiawad are generally divided

into

three

Among

the better-preserved examples

Surya shrine

at

Modhera

in

is

Gujarat [227].

the
It is

golden-brown sandstone of the

zones of horizontal ornament and mouldings

built of the soft

including the base, the main body of the wall

region,

up

reflected in the disused tank or pool for ablutions

to the cornice,

and the roof or

attic;

over the

and its

derelict splendour

is

romantically

295

bM^'-r

wW*.t:

***&**.!>

2fe^-

227 and 228. Modhera, Surya temple

IO

15

20

METRES

296

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

that lies beneath

One of
Modhera

eastern approach.

its

the most impressive features of the

temple and other Gujarat shrines

229.

Mount Abu,

Tejpal temple,

dome

the entirely

is

organic plan in the relation of all the parts of the

distinguished, the interior of the pillared hall

shrine to the whole and

reveals a

ment of

all

its

functional arrange-

the architectural accessories of reli-

gious worship.

The Surya temple

open pillared porch connected by

consists of an
a

narrow pas-

sage to a building containing an assembly hall

and the garbha griha

itself [228].

The seemingly

dome rising in many concentric circles

supported on a circular arcade of dwarf

The dome

joined by cusped arches.

in a richly

carved pendant,

pillars

culminates

like a stalactite

hung

of the vault. Placed athwart the

in the centre

lower rings of the

dome

are brackets with rep-

separate portions of the structure are related by

resentations of Jain goddesses of wisdom. In

the horizontal lines of the mouldings that follow

their semi-detached projection they appear like

the usual tripartite division of the wall.

lar

simi-

struts actually

upholding the cupola.

division in the proportion and decoration of

cult to give an

adequate account of the

the pillars of the interior brings

them

into unity

with the whole scheme.

The

carving typical of the Solanki Period

is

at

It is diffi-

this extraordinary decoration.

Any real

architectural construction

lost

intricacy of the carving

is

effect

beneath the

and the profuseness of

The very texture of the stone is destroyed

once extremely luxuriant and exquisitely re-

detail.

fined in the rendering of detail. Special attention

by the elaborate

should be called to such beautiful ornamental

true beauty in the pearly radiance reflected

motifs as the toranas or cusped arches intro-

what seems

duced

as

tympana to the entrances and also link-

summits of the columns in the interior of

porch. Always there is such a depth to the

ing the
the

relief that the effect

is

almost that of pierced

and applied metal-work rather than stone. In

of

sense of

fretting.

like a

is,

to

be sure,

from

huge and weightless marble

Looking up

flower.

There

at this ceiling is to

behold a

dream-like vision looming, in the half-light,

like

some marvellous underwater formation

in

and mother-of-pearl. The deeply pierced

coral

working of the figures and the unbelievably

of snow-

the technique of this extremely delicate carving,

delicate foliate motifs

which certainly must have been done by labori-

flakes.

ous abrasion rather than direct cutting, the

Percy Brown observes, 'There remains a sense

sculpture at

Modhera is not far removed from

domes at Mount Abu.
The renowned Jain sanctuaries of Mount
Abu in Rajputana, for generations among the

of perfection

the famous carved

with an over-refinement and concentration on

favourite tourist attractions in

sense

the

Gujarat

all

India, are in a

baroque culmination of the

These buildings - the Dilwara

final

style.

detail

zeal possesses a

marble brought up from the

own

ornate

way they can be counted among the archi-

tectural

wonders or

curiosities of the world.

Although the exterior of the temple

is

in

no way

but

it is

mechanical perfection,

complete consistence in that

is

covered with the same exuberance of surface

berance

their lofty setting. In their

every portion of each dome, arch, and pillar

ornament.

below

temples,

implying the beginning of a decline'. 18 At

shrine of the tenth century and the thirteenth-

valley

fragility

Mount Abu

the same time this monument of Jainist religious

century Tejpal temple [229] - are constructed

entirely of white

have the

Writing of the

is

'It is

one of those cases where exu-

beauty.' 19

centre of Indo-Aryan building in western

India

is

the city of Gwalior, on the main rail-

way between Delhi and Bombay. A

little

group

of disused and largely ruined temples and frag-

ments of shrines crowns the plateau of Gwalior

,"

"^tek

*
'-r

^^

-sV"

t VVi

Jl"

/rd.

'f^&K

%t

'

'

vJ*

&&

>

&
:?&

fjM

k\\M
**\
*

LXrVf

sSH

& ml
w^i

<,*Oo

v>

*~^

'*

*f

Fat

298

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

-A

231. Gwalior, Teli-ka-Mandir, relief

Fort.

The earliest of these is the Teli-ka-Mandir

The structure as

of the eleventh century [230].

it

stands today

is

better described as a shrine

than a complete temple.

The

height of eighty feet and

is

building rises to a
in the

shape of an

oblong, a plan repeated in the cella and the

porch.

Not only

Hindu

architecture, but so, too,

it

necessitated

is

this design

the crowning

unique
is

in later

the roof that

member

is

in the

sculptured panels on either side of the main

entrance, although badly
clasts, are

carving [231]. In both

one of

whom

arcades in

memory

is

one of the

appearances of the rare vesara type of temple

which we

shall note again

sanctuaries

at

among

Mamallapuram.

style

is

a prolongation

magnificent

in a relief

Also
ings

at

from the Gwalior region

[180].

Gwalior are the remains of two build-

known as the Great and the Small

Sas

Bahu

temples. Only the former of these, dedicated to

need detain us

is

not

complete sanctuary, but only the porch or

hall

the rock-cut

Vishnu

The

deeply

ornament, the

Gupta workmanship in
western India which we have already examined

of the nave columns of the

chaitya on the lateral facades. This

last

the elegantly

broadly realized forms and exquisitely defined

of the

each end; the resemblance to the Buddhist

movement of

attenuated figures and the contrast between the

windows of the Buddhist type

basilica type extends to the representation of

holds an umbrella over her; in

the subtly swaying

details of

at

we see a female personage,

possibly a river goddess, with three attendants,

shape of a barrel-vaulted chaitya with the sunplainly indicated

damaged by icono-

magnificent examples of later relief

in 1093,

[232]. It

THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

299

four gigantic stone piers to support the great

mass of masonry of the superstructure. The

carving of the under-surfaces of the massive
stone beams in an all-over foliate design does

much to relieve the

heaviness of these members,

an effect of lightness and delicacy continued in

the

dome, which

carving

is

in the intricacy of its fretted

suggestive of fan vaulting.

8. DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE.
EASTERN INDIA:
THE PALLAYA STYLE

Of the greatest significance for the later development of Dravidian

architecture are the shrines

dedicated by the rulers of the Pallava Dynasty

who were

the successors of the Andhras in

eastern India from the fifth century through

the ninth. For our purposes the

most important

contributions in the genesis of the style were

made under

the

Mamalla Dynasty (625-74) and

Whereas

the Dynasty- of Rajasimha (674-800).

232. Gwalior, Great Sas

Bahu temple
the earlier dedications consisted of rock-cut
shrines, the later activity

was devoted entirely

to structural buildings.

in front

of one

exterior, the

now

temple

divided into three storeys

of open loggias separated by massive architraves.

The

From

vanished. Viewed from the

is

penetration of the mass of the build-

the

Mamalla Period there date

or

'Seven Pagodas' on the sea-coast below

Madras. The work here was under the patron-

ing by these deep balconies provides a feeling of

age of the king, Xarasirhha.

lightness and elegance; the design

tectural

by the alternation of accents of

provided by the columns

enshadowed porches.

is

also

light

helped

and shade

set off against the

On the exterior the build-

ing terminates in a rather flattened terraced

pyramid which continues

the structure the eccentric

with

its

to the very

summit of

and picturesque plan

multiple set-backs and recesses. Inside,

the impression

is

to the full height

the re-

markable rock-cut temples of Mamallapuram

monuments

The principal

consisted of

archi-

some temples

or raths- that are really free-standing sculptural

replicas

of contemporary structural temples

carved from the granulitic outcrops on the shore

[233A.

b].

These monuments

importance for the

later

are of the greatest

development of Dravid-

ian architecture because they reveal the

dence of the

later

Hindu

style

depen-

on pre-existing

that of a single large hall rising

types of Buddhist architecture. Especially re-

of the building, rather

vealing for this latter aspect of the style

crossing of a cathedral.

The

like the

effectiveness of this

motif has been partially spoiled and an

effect of

crowding introduced through the necessity

for

Dharmaraja rath

[233A].

It

is

the

has a square ground-

storey with open verandahs, which forms the

base of the terraced pyramidal sikhara above.

It

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

300

has been rightly suggested that this typical

Dravidian form
vihara, in

is

an adaptation of a Buddhist

which successive storeys were added

accommodation of the monks. 21 The

for the

terminal

member

of the structure

sikhara,

which

repeated in smaller scale on

is

a bulbous

is

each of the lower levels of the terraced superstructure. Perhaps the

most

distinctive feature

Mamallapuram

of this and the other raths at

lies in

The

the open verandahs on the ground-storey.

pillars are

of a distinctive Pallava type with

the shafts of the

columns supported by the

bodies of seated lions.

different type of structure

Sahadeva's

by

sified as a vesara

inal building

rath,

is

represented

must be

which

temple [233B].

It is a

clas-

longitud-

with a barrel roof of the so-called

elephant-back type, faithfully reproduced in

the carving. This vault, terminating in the semi-

dome of an apse and with the chaitya motif at its

opposite end,

is

very obviously a survival of the

Buddhist chaitya-hall
had persisted

we have

that, as

seen,

such structural temples as the

in

Gupta example at Chezarla and, to

Durga temple at Aihole.

a modified

extent, the

Bhima's

rath, so called,

simple barrel roof with

arch, at either end.
stupikas.

its

It is

is

distinguished by a

cross section, a chaitya

crowned by

later structural

form of Bhima's rath may be seen

Deul

at

Bhuvanesvar

gested that

we

row of

development of the
in the Vaital

in Orissa. It has

been sug-

are to see here the prototype for

the gopuras or porch-towers of the later architecture of southern India. Another distinctive

element of the Pallava

style

may

be seen in the

gavaksha motif of chaitya arches framing busts

of deities that

crown the entablature. These

framed protomes, already seen

become
tecture

and may

also be

Hindu and Buddhist

at Bhitargaori,

a regular feature of Dravidian archi-

found

shrines in

in the earliest

Cambodia.

among
Mamallapuram may be seen in

third type of building represented

the raths at

233B. Mamallapuram, Sahadeva rath

THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

Draupadi's rath.
square

consists of a one-storey

It

surmounted by an overhanging,

cell

curvilinear roof, suggestive in

modern Bengali

There

huts.

is

its

shape of the

every reason to

is

that of all creatures great

in the skies, the holy

members of

and small, the devas

men on

life-giving flood, the nagas

301

the banks of the

m its waves, and the

the animal kingdom, one and

all

believe that this, like so

many forms of structural

giving thanks to Siva for his miraculous

gift to

Indian architecture,

is

an imitation of a proto-

the Indian world.

The

of the

type constructed of

bamboo and

resemblance

The

to the sikhara suggests that this

may
bamboo

characteristically Dravidian element

most
also

thatch.

have had

hut or temple

its

origin in the form of a

car.

it is

Hindu

impossible to treat of sculpture

was

at

from

Indian art between an intensive naturalism

an appropriately abstract

to the principles of

the

ment that supports

it.

The

plastic

adornment of

in niches

on the exterior of the shrine, and

also

have here

and the conception of divine forms according

degree than in the earlier periods the carving

the raths consists of images of Hindu deities set

We

a perfect illustration of that dualism persistent

canon of proportions.

melts into the architectural enframe-

Descent of the Ganges

a basin at the top of a rock.

apart from architecture, since to an even greater

literally

cleft in the centre

one time an actual channel

for water, simulating the

in

In the consideration of the art of the

Renaissance

giant boulder

same

distinction

the earthly as

is

We have, in other words,

between the divine and

noticeable in El Greco's 'Burial

of the Count of Orgaz', in which the figures in

the celestial zone are

drawn according

to the

Byzantine canon of attenuated forms for super-

Hindu myth-

natural beings, whereas the personages in the

ology ornamenting the interior of the sanctu-

lower, earthly section of the panel are painted in

of panels illustrating legends of

The

aries.

figures appear to be a

from the

style of the Later

development

Andhra

Period,

manner. In the

a realistic

puram

Mamallamoving like

relief at

the shapes of the devas,

They retain

clouds across the top of the composition, have

the extremely graceful attenuation of the forms

the svelte, disembodied elegance of the art of

rather than from the

at

Gupta

school.

Amaravati, and are animated by the same

movement and emotionally expressive poses and gestures. A new canon of proporfeeling for

tion

notable in the heart-shaped faces 22 with

is

their high

cheekbones and the almost tubular

exaggeration of the thinness of the arms and

legs.

In the reliefs decorating the raths the forms

are not so

completely disengaged from the

background

as in the

to

Andhra Period, but seem

Amaravati.

By contrast, no more perfect realiza-

tions of living animal types are to be

where
This

vast, densely

populated composition,

no longer confined by any frame or

available surface of the boulder

into the space occupied

enormous granite

boulder on the seashore with a representation

of the Descent of the Ganges from the Himalayas
[234].

To

give the reader an idea of the scale of

this gigantic

undertaking,

it

may be pointed out

men and animals,

that the scores of figures of

including those of the family of elephants, are

represented in

life size.

The

subject of the relief

from which

it is

carved [235]. Just as the space of the relief as a

whole

sculptors was the carving of an

is

artificial

boundary, but flows unrestrained over the entire

be emerging from the matrix of the stone.

achievement of the Pallava

like

the Chalukya paintings of the Ajanta caves,

The

greatest

found any-

in the sculpture of the Eastern world.

is

untramelled and, indeed, seems to flow

individual forms in

it

by the spectator, so the

are only partially disen-

gaged from the stone which imprisons them.

One

has the impression, indeed, that they are in

continual process of emerging from the substance of the rock

itself.

suggestion of the birth of

that

was so apparent

Bhaja.

As

the late

There
all

in the

Dr Zimmer

is

the

same

form from Maya

Sunga

reliefs at

expressed

it:

302

/
Here

an

art inspired

that appears

everywhere

is

myth. Everything

is alive.

only the degrees of

life

by the monistic view of

in

Hindu philosophy and

The entire

universe

is

alive

vary. Everything proceeds

from the divine life-substance-and-energy

porary transmutation. All
display of God's

life

is

as a

tem-

a part of the universal

Maya. 23

234 and 235. Mamallapuram, The Descent of the Ganges,

details

304

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

The

very epitome of the art of the Pallava

sculptor

is

to

be discerned in the free-standing

group of a monkey family

below the great

of the tank

in front

relief [236].

Although separate

from the great composition,

it

was certainly

intended to be considered a part of

it.

The

understanding of the essential nature of the animals and the plastic realization of their essential

form could scarcely be improved upon. This

piece of sculpture

is

the very

embodiment of

the quality of cetana, the vitalizing principle

mentioned
painting.

in relation to the Indian

The

canons of

shapes, although only partially

adumbrated, connote the finished form and proclaim the nature of the glyptic material from

which they are hewn. 24

Mamallapuram, monkey family

236.

237.

from The Descent of the Ganges

fine relief depicting

demon

Mamallapuram

is

carved on a panel in a cave at

[237].

The goddess

a lion in this splendid

style at its finest.

She

is

seated on

eight-armed, and holds

by Siva and Vishnu

Her ornaments include

is

example of the Pallava

weapons such as the bow,

lent her

fighting the

buffalo Mahisha, an episode from the

Puranic legends,

the

Durga 25

Mamallapuram, Durga

slaying the

discus,

and trident

for the epic struggle.

towering head-dress

{karana mukuta), necklaces, and jewelled belt;

demon

buffalo

*r

THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

and her arms are covered with bracelets

like

those of the Dancing-Girl from Mohenjo-daro

[5].

This

figure,

like

all

Pallava

sculpture,

belongs to the earliest and at the same time

classic

phase of Dravidian

art.

Ultimately

it is

an outgrowth of the Later Andhra figure style

in the elongation

of the form with long tubular

limbs, but the whole conception

is

with a peculiarly dynamic quality that

invested
is

always

Hindu art. We can

more in this single figure the suggestion

characteristic of Dravidian

see once

305

the figui al canon differ from earlier practice, as

may

be discerned in the heart-shaped face

already noted at Mamallapuram.

The

figure of

the triumphant goddess has a militant energy

conveyed by the moving pose and the deploy-

ment of

the arms in a kind of aureole. This

combined with
ity

a suggestion of

and feminine

softness, as

is

complete seren-

is

entirely appro-

priate to the conception of the divinity.

The

death of the Pallava monarch Narasirhha

in a.d.

674 brought

to

an end

all

work on the

of the emergence of the form from the stone -

five raths

achieved here by the gradually more salient dis-

Mamallapuram. The dedications of his succes-

and other sculptural undertakings

engaging of the successive planes of relief with

sor, Rajasirhha,

the details of the ultimate plane being entirely

One of

merged with the background. Certain aspects of

[238], erected

238.

Mamallapuram, Shore temple

were

all

at

structural buildings.

these was the so-called Shore

Temple

on the beach not far from the great

306

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

relief of the

Descent of the Ganges. The temple

was planned

in

such a way that the door of the

sanctuary opened to the east, in order to catch

the

first

rays of the rising sun. This in itself

resulted in a rather peculiar arrangement, since

it

necessitated the placing of the

mandapa and

the temple court at the rear or west

main sanctuary. The terraced

spires

end of the
crowning

both shrine and porch very clearly reveal

development from the form of the Dharmaraja

rath. In the

Shore Temple, however, the depen-

dence on the vihara type

to the

new emphasis on

is

less

marked, owing

the height and slender-

the pilasters with the

Another building of the Pallava Period

veram), which must date from
In plan

it

pillared hall or

lesser replicas

prevails,

on the successive terraces

still

but these recessions are so ordered as

c.

700 [239]. 26

mandapa, and

a rectangular

courtyard surrounding the entire complex.

pyramidal tower of the main shrine

The

is

again very

obviously a development out of the

Dharma-

raja rath.

The

storeys are

marked by heavy

cornices and stupikas echoing the shape of the

Around

are clustered a

terraced structure with

the

consists of a sanctuary, a connecting

the Dharmaraja rath. Actually, the character-

Dra vidian form of a

is

Kailasanath temple at Kancipuram (Conjee-

cupola.

istic

lions persist in

monument.

ness of the tower, like an attenuated version of

the shape of the terminal stupika echoed in

rampant

the decoration of the facade of this structural

the base of this central spire

group of supplementary shrines

that again rhythmically repeat the

terminal stupika. This shape

is

form of the

repeated once

more in the row of cupolas crowning the parapet

of the courtyard.

The gateways of the enclosure,

to stress the vertically of the structure as a

surmounted by hull-shaped members of the

whole. Such hallmarks of the Pallava style as

vesara type repeating the form of Bhima's rath

239.

Kancipuram, Kailasanath temple

Cf^/

THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

at

Mamallapuram, suggest the form of the

temple-towers or gopuras of the

Hindu

architecture at

Temple,

Madura. As

pillars rising

phase of

last

Shore

in the

from rampant leonine

forms are employed throughout.

this

technique

shadowed
by placing

is

of

Dra vidian

one of

is

art: the

Kailasanath temple at Ellura in the Deccan

[240].

This monument

of Krishna

Dynasty.

to Siva

was

a dedication

(757-83) of the Rashtrakuta

The Rashtrakutas were the successors

their shrine

Kailasa temple

is

on an enormously high

sacred
is

is

dedicated to Siva,

As

name

its

Mount

implies, the

building, with

home. Indeed, the

central spires

its

summits of the
Xandi porch, seems

Mount

Pallava prototypes

same

terraced spire that has for

not a structural temple, but

an enormous monolithic rock-carving in archi7

tectural form.-

the temple,

The

entire precinct, including

mandapas,

its

a pillared shrine for

monumental

Siva's bull Xandi, as well as the

portico, are

all

hewn

directly out of the great

quarry of rock. Although we

amount of labour
carving,

went into such

at

the

a gigantic

should be pointed out that there was

it

probably

that

may marvel

less

expenditure of work in

quarrying the entire complex from the

tain-side than

literally

moun-

would have been required

for

transporting the cut stones necessary to build

Described

it.

as briefly as possible, the technical

method followed by

the carvers of the temple of

down

Ellura was to cut three great trenches

the quarry of rock

into

and carve the free-standing

Dharmaraja rath
istic

storey, but also for the

two free-standing stam-

bhas or columns and the

lifesize

carving of an

elephant on the floor of the surrounding courtyard. Bridges connect the

halls

main temple with the

and subsidiary shrines cut

ing 'walls' of the quarry.

The

ultimate model the

on the lower

sanctuary, porches, and

Xandi

tinctly reminiscent of the

levels of the

Kailasa temple

is

pavilion

is

dis-

Yirupaksha temple

a lineal

at

same token, the

Pattadakal, so that, by the

descendant of the

shrine at Kancipuram.

As has already been noted, the main elements

of the Kailasa temple are

all

placed on a

podium

twenty-five feet high, so that they appear to

stand on an upper storey raised above the level

of the courtyard.

The essential

asa temple proper

is

plan of the Kail-

that of a cella preceded by a

spacious hall with pillared mandapas extending

as transepts to east

bull Xandi.

basement

its

Mamallapuram. Character-

terraced pyramid. Actually, the arrangement of

maining. Masses of rock had to be

its

at

especially evident in the

is

of this Dravidian style are the replicas or

the porch on the

not only for the main sanctuary and

of the architectural form on

refrains of the finial

buildings from the isolated block of stone releft intact,

contour

Kailasa in the Himalayas.

The dependence

is

mandapa, and

to follow the actual

height of their power in the eighth century. This

half times as high,

profile of the

somewhat above

roofs of the

the

great sanctuary, occupying an area roughly the

a

monument

summit of which

Kailasa, on the

Siva's eternal

of the real

Parthenon and one and

who

intended as an architectural replica of the

of the Chalukyas in central India and were at the

as that of the

At Ellura

enshrined as a giant lingam in the innermost

sanctuary.

Closely related to these Pallava shrines

monuments

pit.

base.

THE DECCAN

the ^greatest

bottom of a deep

the carvers sought to compensate for this defect

The
9.

that the temple is left en-

is

at the

307

and west

main

axis

[241]. In front of

is a

shrine for Siva's

Two lesser portions

radiating

the main narthex give the temple

from

roughly

cruciform plan. Around the sanctum are carved

five lesser shrines, like

The

chapels in an ambulatory.

exterior decoration of

all

these structures

and of the Xandi porch preceding the main com-

surround-

plex consists of niches enclosing statues of deities

disadvantage of

and engaged columns of the Dravidian order

in the

308

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

240. Ellura, Kailasanath temple

[240].

These niches

J*

consist of slender colon-

nettes supporting an overhanging cornice of

the Bengali roof type,

finial in

surmounted

in turn

the shape of a chaitya arch.

type of heavy convex cornice

is

by a

The same

repeated in the

entablature of the main buildings. All these

capital

which continues the

on the neck.

lines of channelling

modification of this type can be

seen in the free-standing pillars in the court,

and, in

its

usual form, in the columns of the

mandapa.

spectacular feature of the Kailasa temple

is

elements, like the formation of the central spire,

the deeply carved frieze of the podium, con-

are completely Dravidian in character

sisting of very freely disposed lions

ly

and

clear-

derived from Mamallapuram. Although at

we

and elephants

that appear to be effortlessly supporting the

'jar-

massive superstructure on their backs.

and-foliage' capital typical of Indo-Aryan build-

architectural carving of the Kailasa temple

Ellura

find occasional

examples of the

ings, the vast majority of the

columns reveal the

Dravidian order almost entirely evolved.

pillars

The

have a square or polygonal base, suc-

ceeded by an octagonal shaft;

at the

summit

of the shaft the reeded neck of the pillar

is

constricted beneath a bulbous cushion type of

The
is

not

limited to the almost incredible achievement of

the

main

shrine, but includes lesser sanctuaries

dedicated to the river goddesses and other members of the

Hindu pantheon, forming an almost

continuous cloister around the great pit in

which the principal temple

is

isolated.

10

241. Ellura, Kailasanath temple, upper storey

310

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

Iconographically and structurally part of the

Kailasa temple

is

the sculpture of Saivite themes

arm

shrinking Parvati clutches her lord's

feels the

mountain quake. She

as she

reclines before

and episodes from the Rdmdyana that almost

the darkness of the background, into which

The most dramatic of a

rushes the terrified figure of a maidservant.

entirely clothes

number of

it

[242].

reliefs, all

monumental

in scale,

is

one illustrating a famous legend of Mount Kailasa [243].

a

On

shadowed stage we see

a deeply

mountain

block-like representation of the

peak

itself and,

lovers, Siva

seated on the summit, the divine

and Parvati.

moment

We have here an illus-

Below, in a cavern of almost Stygian gloom,

appropriate to his nature and purpose,

trapped giant. In writing of

Kramrisch

artist invests

Space and

root the sacred

mountain

in order to use

it

as a

kind of dynamo of magic spiritual energy in his

war against

Rama and

his allies. In the

upper

part of the composition the figure of Siva, in an

elegant pose of effortless

command,

is

set off by

the plain back wall of the stage. His outstretched

foot, barely

touching the ground, imprisons the

demon giant in the bowels of the mountain. The

Ravana and Jatayu

the

each single

figure.' 28

and shade have been em-

light

ployed to heighten the emotional effect in the

same way

that these elements

Baroque tableau,

We
in

were used

like Bernini's Saint

in a

Teresa.

have here a new type of relief composition,

which some of the figures are carved com-

pletely in the round,

and the whole action takes

place in a deep box. Indeed, the whole effect

is

not unlike that of some of the elaborate dramatic

242. Ellura, Kailasanath temple,

demands of

psychological suggestiveness with which the

Rdmdyana when

in the

'Depth and darkness are

states:

parcelled out according to the

the Singhalese giant, Ravana, attempts to up-

tration of the

the

is

this relief Stella

effects

achieved in the performance and

setting of the Indian theatre. In this

new con-

ception of relief sculpture there seems to be no

We

longer any limitation in space.

feeling that

we

have the

are not looking at a relief in the

usual sense, but as seen taking place in the same

general space or atmosphere which

we occupy

and with which the space of the carving

extensive. This

is

is

co-

a quality vaguely suggested

by

the Amaravati reliefs and partially realized by

Ganges
But the extraordinarily

the great carving of the Descent of the

at

**&K*

Mamallapuram.

dynamic conception of the Kailasa relief and the

dramatic emotionalism of the individual forms
are creations of the
finest

Dra vidian imagination in

its

hour of artistic expression.

From the stylistic point of view, the figures of

Siva and Parvati, with their long, pointed faces

and attenuated grace of proportions, are closely

related to the shapes of the gods at

Mamalla-

puram. The communication of emotional tension through pose and gesture, rather than

through facial expression, was,

it

will

bered, already highly developed in

be

remem-

some of the

243- Ellura, Kailasanath temple,

Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa

J"

312

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

Later Andhra
artistic

least
trical

reliefs,

which were, of course, the

prototypes of the Pallava

important element
tableau

is

Not the

in this gigantic thea-

the figure of the giant Ravana.

His multiple arms, indicative of

powers, are spread out
their

style.

arrangement

like the

his

manifold

spokes of a wheel,

effectively

communicating

superhuman pressure

than the eighth or ninth

The temple proper

is

a pillared hall roughly

ninety feet on a side with six rows of six columns

'supporting' the roof of the cave.

ment of

the sanctuary

earlier plans as the

is

The

arrange-

an outgrowth of such

temple

at

Bhumara

in

which

great achievement of architectural

Elephanta the main object of worship is attached

sculpture in western India

is

lation of the shrine [244]. Actually, since at

the cave temple on

the island of Elephanta in the harbour of

Bom-

bay. This sanctuary was ruthlessly desecrated

by the Portuguese

in the sixteenth century.

stone panel with a lengthy inscription, presum-

ably including the date of dedication, disap-

peared

earlier

space was provided for an interior circumambu-

that he

exerting against Siva's mountain throne.

last

no

is

century.

is

the idea of the

The

date

at the

same time,

so that the age of the

temple remains a matter of conjecture, but

IO

20

30

40

50 FEET

12

15

METRES

244. Elephanta, Siva temple

<*

its

to the

back of the

hall, the

arrangement more

nearly resembles the interior of the

Ladh Khan

temple, where the shrine occupies a similar

position and pradaksina

As

in

many

is

impossible [159].

cave temples, the pillars show the

greatest irregularity not only in alignment but

in individual details

of carving; in

many

the

corners of the bases are not even true right

THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

angles.

mous
in

These imperfections, due

difficulties in

to the enor-

disengaging these

members

the process of hollowing out the interior,

might be regarded

as architectural accidents

which add aliveness

to the

conception.

The

individual columns are essentially of a Dravidian type, with a high, square base
a

growing into

round, channelled neck surmounted by a

flat,

the temple,

of the three faces

abacus block and

in structural

a bracket-like

member, which,

examples, supported the weight of

at

the

as the central

left, in profile, is

the Destroyer; and, balancing

the

it

at the right,

the

face of lima, the beautiful wife or sakti of the

third

member

in

at Ellura.

skull-crowned head of Aghora-Bhairava, Siva

velopment of the form already seen

and the roof-beam are an

carving of a Saivke

supreme form of Siva Mahadeva

some of the

capital

a gigantic

Trinity. This triune conception presents the

ribbed, cushion-shaped capital, the final de-

Between the

is

313

of the Brahmanic Trinity. As in

reliefs at Ellura, the figures are set

an enormously deep, box-like niche, so that

they seem to emerge from an unlimited and

nebulous darkness.
are perfect

The

three gigantic heads

embodiments of the tomographic

the rafters.

concept they signify: the impassiveness and

The interior contains no less than ten enormous and spectacular carvings of the legend of
Siva [245]. Most awe-inspiring of all, at the end

august serenity of the supreme Siva

of the nave, opposite the northern entrance to

ful

245. Elephanta, Siva temple. Siva

Mahadeva

./

made

manifest; the moving, satanic countenance of

the wrathful Aghora-Bhairava; and the youth-

peace and beauty of the face of

L ma.

314

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

The

subsidiary tableaux at Elephanta are

arranged

many

like so

Stations of the Cross,

spouse are set off against a recess of darkness, in

which hover the forms of countless airborne

come

each dedicated to a significant aspect of Siva

devas

Mahadeva. They

union with his Himalayan bride, a wedding that

are, like the great Trinity, a

perpetuation of the Ellura

style.

The

treatment

of the subjects, ranging from the Trimurti and

such dynamic conceptions as the Nataraja (Siva

as

Lord of the Dance)

to a panel like the Betro-

and Parvati

typifies the

to praise the climax of the god's

world and

all its

myriads proceeding

from the reunion of the One who was never

divided.
is

The mood

of untrammelled, ideal love

enhanced by every aspect of pose and gesture -

[246], reveal the extra-

the tenderness with which Siva turns to his

ordinary ability and scope of the Dravidian

consort, and the gentle swaying of Parvati's

sculptor in presenting themes both terrible and

youthful body. Like the reliefs

thal of Siva

The

at Ellura, the

Wedding

colossal panels at Elephanta suggest spectacular

deep

presentations on a stage, their dramatic effective-

grotto, the cavern of the heart, 'wherein the fire

ness enhanced by the bold conception in terms

lyrical.
is

of

representation of Siva's

a timeless scene of bliss,

its

setting a

the energy of the creator,

life,

the ardour of

its

eternal source

is

and

quick with
at the

same

instant throbbing with the pulse of time'. 29

This

is

peace.

a scene of

complete tranquillity and

The columnar

figures of Siva

and

his

of light and shade. Probably such a resemblance

to the unreal

world of the theatre

accidental;

for

philosophy,

all life,

Indian

art,

even the

life

in

is

not entirely

as

in

Indian

of the gods,

is

an illusion or play set against the background

Hid,

of eternity.
246. Elephanta, Siva temple,

Betrothal of Siva and Parvati

may be noted in conclusion that current

by Dr Walter Spink of the style

It

investigations

of the sculpture of Elephanta, supported by

comparisons with carvings of the

century

fifth

and sixth

at Ajanta,

suggest that the truly classic

aspect of this noble

monument may be explained

by regarding

as a

it

work of the

late

Gupta

or

immediately post-Gupta Period.

10.

SOUTHERN INDIA

The

great period of Dravidian structural archi-

tecture in southern India culminated under the

Chola Dynasty, which became paramount

power over

all

and extended

in

India as far north as the Ganges

its

sway

at

one time

as far as

Ceylon and Burma. The history of the Chola

monarchy reached its climax under Rajaraja the

Great (985 - 1018). This ruler, like all the Chola
kings,

was

devotee of Siva.

He

recorded his

conquests in an inscription girdling the base of

the great temple that he raised to Siva at Tanjore,
the Rajrajesvara temple, erected
[247]-

c.

a.d.

1000

247- Tanjore, Rajrajesvara temple

3l6

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

This building

one hundred and eighty

is

feet

long and has a tower rising one hundred and

ninety feet in the
a

air.

The

elevation comprises

pyramidal structure rising from

about

fifty feet

cal finial.

square base

the employment of the roll cornice, on the basement storey and on every successive level of the

superstructure,

The

high and surmounted by a domi-

The

top of this spire

is

not difficult to discern the

decoration of the basement, divided into

covered by a

two

A ramp

free-standing figures of deities, an arrangement

single stone weighing eighty tons.

miles in length was required for

it is

survival of elements of Pallava origin.

four

its installation.

levels, consists

that again has

its

of deep-set niches

origin in the raths at

Far more important than these dimensions

puram and, under

testifying to the colossal nature of the achieve-

frieze of unfinished busts of lions,

ment and

the labour that went into

its

making

the actual aesthetic effectiveness of the

ment.

The

steep tower

is

proportion.
that of the

empty

sea of court-

but extremely beautiful in

it,

its

The width of the apex is one-third

base. The form of the tower is that

of the Dravidian sikhara, but the horizontal

dividing lines of

its

this a

thirteen storeys have been

the lowest

with

Mamalla-

row of niches,

is

and beneath

wide band of masonry given over

an

to

inscription of Rajaraja's campaigns.

not only enormously

impressive, rising above the

yards around

is

monu-

filled

should be noted that the plan of the Rajra-

It

jesvara temple, consisting of the garbha griha

under the central spire preceded by a pillared

mandapa,

is

only an enormous enlargement of

the very simplest form of Indian sanctuary.

The

wonderful balance between architectural mass

and

verticality, together

with the subordination

suppressed so as not to interfere with the effect

of enormous detail to the complete form, makes

of soaring vertically achieved by the converging

this

lines of the truncated

pyramid

massiveness of this pyramid and

in straight lines

is

offset

in profile.
its

The

composition

by the curvature and

dome. This member

now

temple

Tanjore perhaps the

at

creation of the Dravidian

architecture.

As we

finest single

Hindu craftsman

in

shall see in later chapters,

the importance of the Chola style in architecture,

from

is

not

octagonal and topped by the usual Dravidian

limited to the actual domains of the Chola

em-

stupika. Attached to

perors, but was to exert a powerful influence on

lightness of the

it

at the points

is

correspond-

ing to the sloping faces of the tower are chaitya

arch-shaped 'horns', composed of an ornament

formed of nagas and

demon-mask,
peated

a terminal ktrtimukha or

shape that

is

rhythmically re-

many times in the ornamentation of both

the tower and the base that supports

Like so

it.

many temples of the Hindu Renais-

sance, this structure proves

upon

close inspec-

all

its

plans to

its

smallest details,

the architecture of south-eastern Asia.

The stone sculpture of these Chola temples

period of South Indian civilization. Although

parts of a vast iconographic scheme, the images

on the temple faades are

as individual
are,

works of

still

art.

worthy of analysis

The main themes

of course, the various manifestations of

tion to consist of the repetition of many identical

the great gods of the

elements, comparable to the

gateway of the Great Temple

organism.

We

cells in a biological

notice here, for example, the

reiteration of the shape of the terminal cupola

in lesser replicas at the corners of all the thir-

teen storeys.

Between these on every

level of the

terrace are aedicules with hull-shaped roofs,

clearly reminiscent of this

puram. Indeed, not only

form

at

Mamalla-

in such details but in

is

typical of the creative vitality of this last great

Hindu pantheon. As on

find the gods set in niches,

at

Tanjore,

the

we

framed in engaged

columns that repeat the order of the Rajrajesvara temple.

doorkeeper
teristically

in

The

individual figures, like the

our illustration 248, are charac-

Dravidian in the suggestion of dyna-

mic movement and the massive conception of

the form.

The iconography of this most dramatic

THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

Hindu

architecture, then the fantastic architec-

ture of the city at Vijayanagar suggests the

florid

phase of European Baroque.

history of this principality

tic

317

is

linked up with

Hindu India

the final stand of

most

The romanagainst

the

Mohammedan invaders. According to tradition,

Vijayanagar, the City of Victory, was founded

Mohammedan

by refugees from the

in the rocky wilderness

The

Kistna River.

invaders

on the banks of the

accounts of Arabic, Portu-

guese, and Italian visitors present a picture

of the fabulous wealth and luxury of this bul-

wark against Islam. The

Dra vidian dynasty was

a wild

huge

capital of this chivalric

located in a landscape of

and desolate character, dominated by

fantastic boulders, so that probably

even

in the days of the glory of Vijayanagar the effect

was that of a

on

city rising

dead planet.

The

picturesque irregularity of the terrain not only

aided the builders in erecting fortifications that
repelled the

Mohammedans

tion

between the buildings and

foundations, so that
248. Tanjore, Rajrajesvara temple,

gateway, doorkeeper

tell

for

it is

where nature leaves

begins.

When

the

more than two

made for a

centuries, but perforce

close associa-

their solid rock

sometimes

off and the

difficult to

work of man

Mohammedans

finally

con-

quered Vijayanagar in 1565, the victors devoted

aspect of Siva will be found fully developed in

an entire year to destroying the city methodi-

the magnificent bronze images of the Nataraja

cally

of the Chola Period. 30

today only the broken skeleton of the mighty

its

The bronze medium by

very nature afforded the craftsman greater

freedom

to express the

movement and

passion

with

fire,

gunpowder, and crowbar, so that

fabric remains.

In contrast to what

we have seen

at

Tanjore

of Siva's Dance; but even in this stone figure,

and elsewhere, the architecture

which

a sugges-

consisted of groups of small structures rather

tion of the boundless, whirling energy of the

than single large temples. Perhaps the most

is

actually a high relief, there

cosmic measure.
effortless

The

sense of violent and yet

movement is conveyed by the contrap-

posto of the figure

rhythm of the

I I.

is

and by the co-ordinated

left leg

and arm.

VIJAYANAGAR

could be said that if the temple at Tanjore

may

be described as typical of the Renaissance of

Vijayanagar

famous single temple was the Vitthala sanctuary,

begun by Krishna Deva

in a.d.

513

The struc-

mandapas and a garbha

griha, two hundred and thirty feet long and
twenty-five feet high. The most striking feature
of this edifice is the immense pillared hall of
ture consisted of two

fifty-six
It

at

columns, each twelve

Each one of these

piers

is

feet in height.

really a

complete

sculptured group rather than an architectural

249- Srirangam, Trichinopoly,

mandapa

THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

order,

composed of such motifs

rearing

as

chargers, trampling barbarians, and fantastic

much

a sign of

India as

decadence

in Italy of the

it is

IG

in sixteenth-century

Baroque Period.

monsters. These gigantic pillars flowering into

immense brackets and entablatures were desby the Portuguese

cribed

'Romanesque' and

Paes, as

that they appear as if

The
in

visitor,

made

executed

'so well

of Victory.

after the fall of the City

notable example

is

the

The

final

chapter of Dravidian architecture

the building activity of the

in Italy'."

Yijayanagar style of sculpture persisted

South India long

MADURA

12.

Domingo

mandapa

of the enormous seventeenth-century temple at

is

Xayak Dynasty of

kings who were established with their capital at

Madura in the seventeenth century. The temples
of this

last

Dravidian dynasty, exemplified by

the shrine at Tiruvannamalai and the Great

Srirangam, where we see an entire colonnade of

Temple

rearing horsemen, each steed nearly nine feet

of all by a great expansion of the temple precinct.

in height [249].

These charging cavaliers

at

Madura

[250], are distinguished first

are in a

It is

veritably a city in itself [251]. This expan-

sense the final fantastic evolution from the

sion

is

column supported by

the

rampant animal, which

begins in Pallava architecture.

It

here attains an

extravagance that has an inevitable suggestion of

the grotesque and fanciful quality of some Euro-

pean medieval

art.

This motif, suggestive of St

George and the Dragon, was, according

Percy Brown, inevitable for
that of Yijayanagar,

which

to

a civilization like

in so

many

respects

due

to the

corresponding enlargement of

Hindu

ritual

with specific reference to the

spiritual

and temporal aspects of the

deity.

The

immense courtyard surrounding the central

shrine was designed to accommodate the crowds
who would gather to see the processions, when
the gods, like temporal rulers,

from

their shrines

tude.

The temple grounds

would be taken

and displayed
are

to the multi-

now surrounded

The

by a high boundary wall with immense portals

precision and sharpness with which the highly

carved into the most

surmounted by towers or gopuras located at the

cardinal points. These structures can best be

and baroque entanglements of figures

described as rectangular towers, concave in pro-

parallels the chivalric period in the \Vest. 3:

polished chlorite stone

fantastic

almost

make

wrought

it

is

appear as though they were

in cast steel, rather than stone.

This

extraordinary dexterity in the working, or, per-

haps better, torturing, of the stone

medium

is

as

file

and surmounted by hull-shaped roofs of the

vesara type.

The gopuras

scale completely

in

their

immense

dwarf the central shrine within

the temple enclosure.

250.

Madura, Great Temple

251. -Madura, Great

Temple

These immense structures

are covered

from

number of heavily
Hindu pantheon. It is

to stir the

is

emotions of the devotee.

It

has

top to bottom with a vast

been pointed out that the plan

stuccoed images of the

of the temples of ancient Egypt, in that the wor-

hard to believe that each of these hundreds of

drily carved

the

work of a

and vulgarly finished images was

silpin

and held

in the

same regard

we consider the few surviving

masterpieces of the Gupta Period. This sculpby their makers

ture,
is

as

important only in

its

iconographic aspect,

an illustration of the stultifying

adherence

to technical recipes

effect

of

and systems of

gopuram, and through a series of immense hypostyle halls

Madura
mandapas of the early Dra vidian style have
been expanded to vast pillared halls. Indeed, the
number of individual columns at this famous
shrine is

by

come

to the central shrine

maze of covered courts and colonnades. The whole purpose of this huge complex
through

ultimately led to the innermost

the

duction.

finally

is

ghostly gloom of the holy of holies. At

is

Within the outer walls of the temple com-

not unlike that

shipper enters by an awe-inspiring pylon or

canonical proportion in a period of mass pro-

pound we

is

more than two thousand.

A new element

a tank or basin for ritual ablution

a

columned

cloister.

For

all

surrounded

the novelty of its

huge but unsystematic plan, the architecture of

Madura represented only an

exaggeration of

already established forms in every detail of

structure, rather than a

new development.

its

322

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

Thus

it

might be appropriate

our

to close

pleasing

lightness

is

achieved

through

the

consideration of Dravidian architecture with a

character of the sculptural decoration of the

more charming example of the style. This is

Subrahmaniya temple which was erected in

the

tower and cornice and the attenuated engaged

the

columns that are

enclosure of the Rajrajesvara temple at Tanjore

as late as the eighteenth
is

century [252].

Its

plan

very simple, consisting of a garbha griha pre-

ceded by a completely enclosed mandapa.

effect

is

Its

considerably more ornate than that of

the Great

Temple which adjoins

it.

In compari-

son with earlier works of Dravidian architecture

affixed to the wall

more

as

decoration than as part of an organic architectural

scheme.

carving

is

The immense

quantity of delicate

part of that insatiable desire for rich-

ness of effect which seems to have

Indian architects of this

last

overwhelmed

period, the period

that has been well described as one of brilliant

decadence.

the style can be described as Rococo, since the

architectural impressiveness of the temple

is

dependent not so much on the proportions of

13.

MYSORE

the structure as a whole as on the animation of

What

the entire surface through very delicately carved

type of temple building related both to the

sculptural

252. Tanjore,

and architectural

detail.

Subrahmaniya temple

very-

is

sometimes regarded

as an intermediate

Indo-Aryan and Dravidian traditions

is

rep-

THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

resented by a large group of shrines erected

a small

under the Hoysala Dynasty in Mysore between

the radiating stellate plan

the years 1050 and 1300.

which the Kesava temple

These
at

sanctuaries, of

Somnathpur may

323

but perfect illustration of the type with

of three shrines

attached to a central hall plainly visible in the

illustration. It will

be noted that the sikharas do

be taken as a typical example, have certain

not have the continuous parabolic silhouette of

them from the rest of

main stylistic developments of the North and South. Among

the northern type, but are constructed in well-

spires the general effect of horizontally

such peculiarities are a star-shaped plan with

ried through

three shrines grouped around a central pillared

as

features that separate

India and yet partake of the

The

hall.

sikhara towers over each cella carry

upward the indentations of the ground

windows, polished and apparently lathe-

turned
ible

richness

temple

253.

pillars,

at

and, above

all,

an almost incred-

of sculptural decoration.

Somnathpur

Somnathpur, temple

The

[253], erected in 1268,

is

so that even in the

is

car-

types.

The most
sala

tiers,

These towers could be described

compromise between the Aryan and

Dra vidian

plan.

Also characteristic are the high podium, intricate

grille

defined horizontal

extraordinary feature of the

Hoy-

temples, and one that makes them so

extraordinarily photogenic,

of sculpture that covers

is

them

the incrustation
literally

from top

The material of most of these shrines

is chloride schist, a very fine-grained stone much

to

bottom.

254- Halebid, Hoysalesvara temple, detail

THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

more

tractable to the chisel than sandstone or

granite. It has the

added virtue of being

soft to

Brahma. Above
Somnathpur,

many

is

this, as

a frieze

may

work when first quarried and turning to adamanon exposure to the air. In the

like so

by

hands of the Mysore craftsmen the exterior of

the carving, suggesting an

the temples

is

Churrigueresque

that defeats description.

exuberance there

is,

riot of carving

Underlying

of course, a

this plastic

strict

icono-

graphical framework governing the installation

of divinities and epic narratives.

detail of the

be seen also

at

of divinities conceived

tine hardness

separate panels or bibelots set side

and each,

side,

325

in the

amazing virtuosity of

enormous enlarge-

ment of

a small sculpture in

ivory. It

is

difficult

sandalwood or

not to admire the

these craftsmen, but at the

skill

of

same time we must

recognize here, as in the late architecture at

Tanjore, a kind of Rococo over-ripeness and

Brown

Hoysalesvara temple at Halebid, built in 1141-

decadence, a style that, as Percy

82 and surpassing

observed, might better be described as applied

its

others in the prodigality of

all

sculptural embellishment, shows the fixed

order of decoration for the base [254]: in the

lowest

tier is

symbols of

an endless

stability

blems of valour; above,

speed, and, in

still

defile

next, a

of elephants,

row of

a tier of

lions,

em-

horsemen

for

higher horizontal registers,

makaras, and hamsa, the geese, or birds of

art

than as architecture.

It

has

should be remarked,

however, that, even though the architecture

seems smothered
call this

carries out

main

in carving,

what we would

'wedding-cake' embellishment actually

and does not

interfere with the

structural lines of the building

ments, atf

it

orna-

255- Bronze Siva from Tanjore.

Kansas City, Nelson Gallery of Art

CHAPTER

SOUTH INDIAN BRONZES

The

earliest

metal sculpture in South India

is

closely related to the style of stone carving, just

Gandhara and Gupta bronze

as the

work

Buddha

wax' process. 2

'lost

icons were

made according

essentially the c ire

The South

to just

Indian

such canons

in

of proportion as determined the forms of Bud-

beautiful example of metal

dha statues of earlier days. The total height of the

are the counterparts of images of the

stone [175-7].

statuettes

method of casting them was

perdue or

in the Pallava Period

is

bronze statue of

when
medium for

number

statue in proportion to the

of thalams

depended on the

Siva [255]. This figure represents a period

or palms that comprised

the full possibilities of bronze as a

hieratic status of the deity represented. Like-

fluid

and dynamic expression had not been

The

realized.

from

lifted

Mamallapuram, has something of the

rigid quality imposed by carving in

relief at
static

image, as though

and

stone. It

is

the metal counterpart of the

of illustration 237 and

is filled

Durga

with the same

vibrant feeling of self-contained ecstasy. This

figure

a stone relief, confined to a very

is like

few planes with the arms and scarves deployed

in

semaphoric fashion to right and

the later bronzes

it

left.

Unlike

does not give the impression

it

wise three distinct poses were employed to

express the spiritual qualities of special deities.

These varied from

directly

frontal,

static

position reserved for gods in a state of complete

which the

spiritual equilibrium, to poses in

image was broken more or

less violently at

two

or three points of its axis, a pose reserved for the

great gods personifying cosmic

movement

or

function. In addition to these poses there was

also, as in

Buddhist

art, a

great repertory of

mudras, the enormously formalized and

culti-

of the form's embracing space and moving

vated language of gesture, in which the wor-

freely in an unlimited ambient.

shipper might read not only the special powers

The

final,

and

in

ter

of Dravidian art

in

southern India.

India, the

home

the history of metalwork

The

art of

southernmost

times been dedicated entirely to the

torical

The

creator
tury,

is

the finest, chap-

of the Tamil race, has in his-

Hindu religion and,

Siva.

many ways

and attributes of the god, but also the particular

ecstatic

mood

or feeling that the deity per-

sonified. Also rigidly prescribed

Hindu pantheon.

deities of the

worship of

Typical productions of the South Indian

popularity of the great Yogin, at once

school of the eleventh century and later are the

especially, to the

and destroyer, began

when bands

in the eighth cen-

of Saivite holy men, real

troubadours of Hinduism, journeyed through

the country singing

hymns with

reference to

images of Siva
of these

is

saints.

One

of the most popular

Sundaramurtiswami,

day.

The example

illustrated [256]

the personifications of this

version was so great that by the year 1000

showing him

Buddhism and Jainism had

disappeared.

practically

The South
bronze with

all

Indian metal images were

a

large copper content,

whom

Siva

claimed as his disciple on the youth's wedding

every shrine they visited. Their success in con-

traces of

were the types

of head-dresses and jewellery appropriate to the

as

is

Hindu

though arrested

in

typical of

psalmist,

sudden ec-

stasy at the vision of Siva

and

noted that the figure

cast in tribhanga pose,

is

his court. It will be

made of

which we have seen so many times

and the

from the Sunga Period onward.

It is

in

images

the

moving

328

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

ment, together with the exquisite gestures of the

lous realizations of a moment between movement and tranquillity, together with a suggestion

hands, that imparts such a feeling of tremulous

of a quality of breathless rapture denoted by the

line

of the silhouette provided by this dehanche-

movement

The

to the form.

tions of features

actual exaggera-

and proportions, such

lotiform eyes and leonine torso, are the

that

had been employed

nium of Indian
of

all

to a
a

art.

for

The

more than

as the

same

a millen-

peculiar combination

these traditional elements, subordinated

kind of elegant attenuation and litheness,

moving

characteristic of

all

is

the great South

Indian bronze images.

Like some of the masterpieces of the Gupta

Period, the icons of this type appear as marvel-

gestures and the tension of the form.

These

might be regarded

as per-

statues of Siva saints

They

sonifications of the quality of devotion.

reveal the ecstatic readiness of the devotee for

his divinity, the

whole figure seemingly vibrat-

ing in response to the divine communication.

Although differentiated

Hindu

individual

and by

as types

butes, they are really not so

much

attri-

'portraits'

of

seers as they are concrete

presentations of the idea of bhakti in plastic

form, just as a Byzantine mosaic of a saint

a likeness

An

not

is

but a symbol of dedication to God.

extraordinary South Indian bronze

image of Parvati

in the

ington [257], where

it is

Freer Gallery in

the

is

Wash-

dated in the eleventh or

twelfth century a.d. Like

many

of the South

Indian metal statues, this was a processional

image, as

may

be seen by the lugs for the inser-

tion of poles at the base.

The

figure has an

extreme attenuation of nine thalams

to the total

height; this svelteness, together with the elon-

gated limbs, give the goddess an air of aristocracy and grace, suggestive of the refinement of
figures in the

Mannerist

reason that this quality

style in
is

Europe, for the

achieved by a similar

exaggeration of bodily proportions. As

may be

seen by an examination of the torso, the body

is

animated by the same inner torsion that imparts

such dynamic aliveness to the classic figure of
the Sarichi tree-goddesses.

The roundness

of

the breasts, corresponding to the traditional

description as 'golden urns',

is

emphasized by

the cord that passes through the narrow channel

spite of the hieratic propor-

between them. In
tions

and the archaic rendering of the features,

this statue has the

same

feeling of lightness

and

animation that characterizes all the great masterpieces of South Indian metalwork.

quite

statuette

Kansas City
256.

Bronze Siva

saint,

perhaps Sundaramurtiswami, from South India.

Kansas City, James Baldwin

different

of

Kali

type of bronze

from

Tanjore,

[258]. Kali the 'Black

is

now

One'

is

the
at

the

SOUTH INDIAN BRONZES

329

fa

257.

Bronze Parvati from South India.

Washington, D.C., Freer Gallery of Art

terrible aspect of Siva's

spouse Parvati. She

is

the goddess of destruction and death, worship-

ped

at the

noisome Kali temple

at Calcutta,

who

claims the blood of millions in pestilence and

war. She

is

shown

as a dreadful,

emaciated hag,

squatting in the burning-ground and holding

the cymbals which clash the measure of her

ghoulish dance.

The same

suggestion of tension

and imminent movement observed

South Indian bronzes

is

in other

present in this statue.

Protruding tusks specifically proclaim her de-

moniacal aspect, and the modelling of her

enormous

eyes, scored with lines repeating their

outline under brows in the familiar shape of the

Bronze Kali from Tanjore.

Kansas City, Nelson Gallery of Art

258.

lf^

330

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

bow, emphasizes
tensity.

their strange

There is in

and burning

in-

this figurine an appropriately

Dravidian imagination, Siva's dance, the Naddnta,

is

the personification of all the forces and

horrid suggestion of the famine victim and, in

powers of the cosmic system

the spider-like limbs, a reminder of those arti-

movement of energy within the universe. In

him they have their dayspring and in him their
death. 4 'This plastic type, more than any other,
expresses the unity of the human consciousness,

ficially

made

cripples that

legs in every Indian bazaar.

their

flail

broken

The rendering

of

the emaciated figure has nothing to do with the

realistic

know

it

we

for

such Hellenistic works as the Alex-

art.

definition of wasted
in

anatomy

as

it

in operation, the

represents equally religion, science, and

This unity has illumined the imagination

andrian statuette of a sick man: 3 the very

of the philosophers of

abstraction of the tubular limbs and the exag-

dian Nataraja

most

may

many

races; but the In-

well be claimed as the clear-

and impassioned statement of

gerated attenuation of the torso, especially in

est,

the great distance between pelvis and thorax,

the conception of

not only emphasize the nature of the famine-

Siva's dance personifies his universe in action

racked body, but impart a certain grandeur to

and destruction. This

the seated figure by thus increasing

its

night of the world

when

and bestowing

this

courses and

reduced to ashes,

on

a regal bearing

height

most

The most famous and dramatic

of the images

of the South Indian school are those of Nataraja,

Lord of the Dance

all is

life

as an eternal

is

his

Becoming'. 5

dance in the

the stars

fall

from

last

their

be ever

to

rekindled, ever renewed by the boundless power

frightful of Indian goddesses.

or Siva as

logical,

[259].

To

the

of the Lord. Siva

flux of

energy in

is

personified as the universal

all

matter and the promise of

ever-renewed creative

activity. 6

The

dionysian

frenzy of his whirling dance presents a symbolic

affirmation of the eternal, unseen spectacle of

the

dynamic disintegration and renewal,

birth

and death, of all cosmic matter in every second

as in every kalpa of time - the same illusion of
endlessly appearing and vanishing forms that

implied in great

monuments of Indian

art

is

from

Bhaja to Mamallapuram.

One

of the greatest Nataraja images

museum

served in the

at

Colombo

is

pre-

[260].

It

one of the Hindu

was found

in the ruins of

temples

Polonnaruwa, and may have been

at

imported from the workshops of Tanjore

eleventh century.

The figure,

serenity and balance,

in the

a perfect fusion

of

moves in slow and gracious

rhythm, lacking the usual violence of the cosmic

dance; this

is

cadenced movement communi-

cated largely by the centrifugal space-embracing

position of the

arms and the suggestion of the

figure's revolving in space.

South India.
Madras, Government Museum

259. Bronze Nataraja from

The

turning effect

that

comes from the arrangement of the mul-

tiple

arms, one behind another, and the torsion

of the figure, emphasized by the directions of

260.

Bronze Nataraja from Polonnaruwa.

Colombo,

Museum

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

332

the limbs, give something of the effect of the

figura serpentinata in Mannerist sculpture that

seems

to coerce the beholder into a consecutive

inspection of the image from every angle.

In their canon of absolute, rather than

human,

beauty, and the almost mathematical purity and

clarity of

form, these images are the perfect

symbols of the Indian

human

ideal.

Although

cast in

shape, the abstraction of modelling and

iconographic explicitness give them the power

of a diagram.. Like

Indian images, they were

all

emblematic evocations, not descriptions, of

deity that the worshipper

and mind. Indeed, the

icons

is

had always

art

in his heart

of these South Indian

not the language of any one time or any

one place, but a language that can be understood

everywhere and eternally in the hearts of spiritual

men.

The number of objects

tive arts surviving

Dynasties

from

is

belonging to the decora-

from the Period of the Hindu

so vast, especially in the remains

later centuries, that

only a small sampling

of this material can be presented, and only the

most unusual and interesting types described.

The account of this aspect of later Indian civilization may be divided into accounts of objects
in metal, ivory, textiles,

previous sections,

may be
mental

and

jewellery.

As

in

have chosen objects that

integrated with the account of

monu261. Steel

art.

Metalwork

is

one of the most ancient and

sword from South India.

London, Victoria and Albert

Museum

splendid crafts in India, and the forging of iron

was

far in advance of any methods developed in

Europe before the nineteenth century. Precious

metal, as well as tin and lead, are mentioned in

the Yajur Veda, and there

the

is

a possibility that

making of steel may have even originated

India and was

The

in

known to the Greeks and Persians.

subject of Indian arms and

armour

is

vast

and specialized, and one can only mention

as

at

Tanjore and elsewhere

in

South India

in the

seventeenth century [261]. Damascening, or

inlaying by the pressing of gold and silver wire
into grooves prepared on the surface of the metal,

has been practised for centuries for the embel-

kinds of weapons and metal

examples the magnificent swords and elephant

lishment of

goads forged and chiselled with intricate designs

objects in steel or brass.

all

SOUTH INDIAN BRONZES

in

Hindu

sanctuaries.

The

333

figures of dancers

interrupting the links of the chain remind us of

Chalukya sculpture [242 and 243], and the

beautifully wrought elephant recalls the characterization

of these beasts at

Mamallapuram

[234 and 235]. Metal objects of this sort were

cast solid, according to the cire-perdue process.

A number

of literary works of the Pallava and

Chalukya Periods

refer to the art of

casting, notably the Manasollasa of the

bronze

Western

Chalukya king Somesvara (1122-38).

Another early example of metalwork
India

is

a large

in

by elephant caryatids, which was found

Kistna region [263]. This object
Pallava or early Chalukya date.

262. Bronze temple

lamp and chain

from the Jogesvari caves, Bombay.
Bombay, Prince of Wales Museum

One

263.

of the earliest examples of metalwork

is

chain for a temple lamp found in the Jogesvari

caves (Bombay) [262]. 7 This object

may be

is

The

in the

probably of
elephant as

Bronze basin from the Kistna region.

London, Victoria and Albert

from the Period of the Hindu Dynasties

South

round bronze basin supported

supporting

ture of

member is

Museum

familiar in the architec-

Gandhara and on

monumental

on the base of the Kailasa temple

scale

at Ellura

and

in the platform, or 'Elephant wall', supporting

dated in the eighth century, the period of the

the Ruvanveli dagaba at Anuradhapura. 8

Western Chalukyas. Such chains were used for

swinging lamps, like censers, at evening worship

Period of the

Among

the great works of minor art from the

Hindu Dynasties

are the jewel

334

'

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

caskets with revetments of ivory plaques.

These

objects are usually attributed to South India

and, specifically, Madura, although

some may

have been carved in Ceylon in imitation of

Tamil models.
example

is

very complete and beautiful

in the British

'facade' of this jewel

elevation of a

Museum

box

is

[264].

like a

Hindu temple, with

its

The

miniature

superim-

posed friezes of lions and rosettes, dancing

figures,

and

a cornice

of swans recalling the dis-

Mysore

to the present day,

tition

The manner in

intertwine and literally melt one into another

in

Museum

[26s].

adds to the provocative charm of a work in

Polonnaruwa

264. Ivory jewel casket from South India.

embrace, a tiny repe-

which these smooth, seemingly boneless bodies

which

London, British

in erotic

Konaraka and Khajuraho

set off the

of ivory carving survives in Travancore and

descended

of the mithuna theme favoured earlier at

tribution of such subjects on the temples of Hale-

This South Indian tradition

is

resented by a superb plaque of Krishna and

Radha entwined

bid [254] or on the classic Singhalese buildings of

[304].

and

from the beautiful craftsmanship of eighteenthcentury Madura. This classic technique is rep-

originally the addition of colour

creamy

lustre of the bodies.

and gold

As usual

South Indian ivory carvings the figures are

in

high relief against the openwork background.

3UUIM

lfNUlAIN BKUINitS

SSb

from early

of the Ajanta ceiling paintings, 11 and a scene of

Hindu Dynasties

combat between men and beasts has many ana-

has survived in India, but a great collection of

logies with Gujarat manuscript painting, notably

cotton fragments discovered at Fostat, near

in the beak-like noses

Not

a single

fragment of

centuries of the Period of the

Cairo,

is

composed of

textile

actual Indian textiles of

the twelfth and thirteenth centuries or, as

some

think, Egyptian copies of Indian designs. 10

The

presence of block prints in imitation of real

tie-

and-dye work has led some to suppose that these

are local imitations; but other scholars assert

that

from the thirteenth

turies India

was the

sole

and the attachment of

second eye to a profile view. 12

The

designs, in

addition to the harhsa and elephant patterns,

include lotus wheels and

many

others omni-

present in Indian painting and sculpture.

The

textiles

of western India

may

be repre-

sented by the embroidered and painted palam-

to the sixteenth cen-

pores of Gujarat. As early as the sixteenth

producer of printed

century these magnificent 'callicoe hanginges',

cottons and linens. Certain motifs, like that of

as they

geese or harhsa in lozenges [266], are reminiscent

exported to Holland, Portugal, France, and

were called

in early inventories,

were

265 (left). Ivory plaque with Krishna and Radha

from South India.
London, Victoria and Albert

Museum

266. Cotton textile from Fostat.

Cairo,

Museum

336

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

England Their patterns are made up of elements

.

of European, Indian, and even Chinese origin,

produced

to satisfy the

exotic, but united into

Western

Indian hands [267]. There

same

taste for the

an individual design by
is

evidence that the

were used for painted,

stencils

embroidered,

the technique, but in later examples

stitches

as well as

quilts. Generally, chain stitch

was

many fancy

were employed to show off the glossy

fineness of the satin threads.

splendid of

all

Among

the most

Indian textiles are the painted

cotton hangings of Golconda. 13 These cotton

Hindu

paintings were produced by guilds of

craftsmen in the

first

half of the seventeenth

Mogul

century for the markets of Persia, the

Empire, and Europe. Presumably they were

assembled from pattern books based on an earlier
tradition,

The

perhaps the mural

art

of Vijayanagar.

designs were transferred to cloth by means

of elaborate stencils.

particularly beautiful

seventeenth-century hanging, formerly in a

Japanese collection [269], is perhaps the earliest

of all, and shows unmistakable connexions with
the wall-paintings of the Lapakshi temple. 14

Embroidered cotton bed-hanging from Gujarat.

Ashburnham, Sussex, Lady Ashburnham
267.

We
and

Embroidered knuckle-pad from Jaipur.

London, Victoria and Albert Museum
268.

recognize such mannerisms as the heads

feet presented in profile

and the

flaring

draperies with repeated rippling lines.

details as the typically

Such

South Indian temple

pavilions at the top of the composition, and the

pattern of

many

monkeys

in flowering trees,

other examples of these

textiles.

occur in
Typical

of later Indian embroidery are the knuckle-pad

covers for shields of the Rajput Period. These

worked

are usually

thread.

The

in cross stitch

and

early eighteenth-century

depicting a lady and a peacock [268]

Jaipur, and

is

like a translation

silver

example
is

from

of a Central In-

dian miniature into textile design.

An epitome

of the jewelled ornaments of

the Rajput courts

may be

seen "in eighteenth-

century Jaipur miniatures, such as the painting

of a Lady arranging her Hair [280] and a large
cartoon for a wall-painting of Krishna in the

Metropolitan

Museum

of Art,

New

York. 15

269.

Andhra

textile

Japan, private

from the Kalahasti region.

collection (formerly)

339

These princely personages wear ropes of pearls.

The

hair or turban pins

and ear pendants may

many

actual jewels of this

be duplicated in

period of splendour, such as the superb sarpesh

or turban pin of white jade

combined with

diamonds, rubies, and emeralds

in gold

and enamel [270] and

set

with pearls

pearl-studded

ear-pendant also in the collection of the Victoria

and Albert

Museum

[271]. It should be

noted that, as in the miniature paintings of the

seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the jewellery of this time

Indian and

is

always a mixture of Rajput or

Mogul

styles

and techniques.

<L>
\

mm

270 {left). Turban pins.

London, Victoria and Albert Museum
271. Ear-pendants.

London, Victoria and Albert

Museum

CHAPTER 19

PAINTING OF THE PERIOD OF THE HINDU DYNASTIES

WALL-PAINTINGS AND MINIATURES

Although probably at one time the great temples

of the

Hindu Renaissance were many of them

decorated
interior

with

wall-paintings

and exterior of sanctuaries and manda-

pas, the actual

remains of late painting in India

are fragmentary indeed.

nants

both on the

of post-Gupta

Among

the few rem-

wall-painting

are

the

The composition represents a celestial region in

the form of a

pond

in

which apsaras, geese,

elephants, etc., are sporting in a thicket of

enormous lotus-blossoms and fronds. The

style

perpetuates the Ajanta wall-paintings of the late

Gupta and

early

Chalukya types, both

ing and colouring.

in

draw-

As even the line-drawing

decorations of a Jain temple at Sittanavasal,

shows, the fanciful and intricate setting

near Madras. These pictures do not lend them-

trayed with the greatest clarity and a feeling for

selves

to

photographic

reproduction,

drawing of the main ceiling

is

shown here

so

[272].

is

por-

the decorative possibilities of the multiple lotus-

flowers and buds set off against the

enormous

272. Sittanavasal, Jain temple, ceiling painting

342

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

leaves.

The

com-

direction of the lines in the

position inevitably suggests a

the panel, as though a

movement

across

wind were bending the

the late eighth or early ninth century, contains a

representation of Vishnu and

Lakshmi sur-

rounded by Garudas. Although we may recog-

some

trace of the Ajanta paintings in the

heavenly blossoms.

nize

These Jain paintings are not far removed in

date or style from the earliest paintings in the

general composition and colour scheme, certain

Two layers of painting

figure drawing, that proclaim these paintings as

Kailasa temple at Ellura.

exist

on the

mandapa of

ceiling of the western

the Kailasa temple.

The

earlier paintings are

changes have taken place, particularly in the

definitely

individual

style.

This

is

to

be

discerned in the way that the faces are drawn

almost certainly datable to the period of the

with extremely sharp features, typified by beak-

temple's dedication. These fragments, especi-

like

decorations in the spandrels around the

ally the

carved lotus boss in the centre of the ceiling

[273], are very close in style to the decorative

panels on the roof of Cave

Both the

at Ajanta.

technique and the subject of celestial beings and

noses and bulging eyes, mannerisms which

definitely suggest the style of the later Jain

miniatures of Gujarat. 1
Certain later fragments of painting at Ellura
are,

on the contrary,

Gupta

a direct continuation

tradition, as represented

These

of the

by the Ajanta

elephants playing in a gigantic lotus pond are

wall-paintings.

almost a duplication of the Jain fresco

Jain paintings in the Indra Sabha cave. 2

Sittanavasal.

The upper

at

layer of paintings in

the Kailasa temple [274], datable

no

earlier

than

are the ninth-century

The

figures of apsaras are reminiscent of the earlier

style,

but are distinguished from

it

by an almost

W-*

'ti^

;t

.jfPJTt.

&2gC

mE SSBLm
Wr'<
jBT'

t*

'

m
''*2al

bs W

Wt

273. Ellura, Kailasanath temple, wall-painting

274. Ellura, Kailasanath temple,

wall-painting of

Lakshmi

WALL-PAINTINGS AND MINIATURES

343

Manneristic exaggeration of the canon of the

feminine form, as seen at Ajanta, and by an even

more marked employment of

entirely abstract

plastic shading.

Among

the few examples of ancient wall-

painting in South India are the decorations of

The figures

the Rajrajesvara temple at Tanjore. 3

in this cycle are

devoted to the

murtiswami

in

life

of Sundara-

completely Chola

which the poses, gestures, and

style,

in

facial types are

the pictorial equivalents of the great South

Indian bronze images.

Although no example of wall-painting has

survived from the Bengal Valley, a very few
surviving specimens of illuminated manuscripts
give us

some

idea of the type of painting that

flourished under the Pala Dynasty. 4

strations

The

of scenes from the

consist

illu-

life

of

Buddha and
The latter,

like

sculpture,

completely Tantric. Although the

is

portrayals of Buddhist divinities.

the

subject-matter of Pala

275. Jain manuscript

from Gujarat.

Washington, D.C., Freer Gallery of Art

They

technique and compositions frequently reveal a

they illustrate [275].

perpetuation of classical prototypes, the differ-

panels set into pages of text, and the composi-

ence between these paintings and their Gupta

tions are

models

ments

is

the

same

as

that

between Pala

borrowed from

in earlier Jain or

consist of square

traditional arrange-

Buddhist

art.

The

Jain

sculpture and the great masterpieces of the

manuscripts generally are characterized by their

fourth and fifth centuries. The drawing has

become more delicate and nervous in outline.
There is the same combination of elegance and

brilliant,

sensuality, together with a loss of really plastic

invariably are

modelling, that distinguishes the

with long pointed noses and protruding eyes.

statuary

late

of the Ganges Valley.

Buddhist

These Pala

even jewel-like colour, and by the type

of accomplished linear decoration of every ele-

ment

The

in the drawing.

drawn

mannerism whereby the cheek

removed from the spectator is made to

farther

the ultimate prototypes of

project almost

painting in

all later

exaggeration

If the Pala paintings are the final

development

of what Taranatha described as the ancient

Eastern school of painting, the

'Western school'

his

is

to be

final

evolution of

found

in the Jain

individual figures

curious

manuscripts are perhaps chiefly important as

Nepal and Tibet.

The

in three-quarters view,

Ellura.

beyond the nose

of a formula

is

already

only an
seen

at

Although many individual Jain manu-

scripts have a certain

charm

in their wiry

ing and brilliant colouring, there

of execution that

is

is

draw-

monotony

paralleled in the elegant but

painting at Gujarat. These illuminations, which

entirely mechanical Jain figure sculpture of

date from the thirteenth century and later, are

Mount Abu.
The final chapter

all

of them illustrations of Jain texts, such as the

life

of Mahavira, or the Kalpa sutra. Invariably,

these pictures are as stereotyped as the texts

of Indian painting

is

in the

work of the Rajput schools. Rajput painting is

the work of artists attached to the princely

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

}44

courts in Rajasthan, Central India, and the

local

Himalayan

lines.

Punjab from about

foothills of the

the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries. It

a style of painting that

is

apart in subject-matter

is

the

pigments and a

The

final definition

above

this perpetuation

many

work of the

the rhetoric of the ancient schools.

Moguls. 5 Whereas Mogul painting

its

is

modern

in

recording of subjects peculiar to the courts of

exactly

of classical technique

the Rajput school continues

attached to the courts of the

is

same as that of the Ajanta frescoes. Over and

and conception from the exactly contemporary

artists

of the out-

technique, in other words,

no sense any drawing from

life,

motifs and

There

is

presentation of elements according to formulas

Akbar and Jehangir, Rajput painting always

imparted by workshop tradition which, as

remains entirely traditional in

earlier

its

illustration of

in

but rather a

Indian

art, are

in

designed in heroic ideali-

beyond the accidentals of ordinary

the Indian epics, romantic Vaishnava literature,

zations

and musical modes. The development of the

existence. Rajput painting has probably never

Rajput

been better defined than

of painting

school

counterpart of the

Hindustan.

the

is

vernacular

The Rajput

earlier classic styles in eactly the

that

Hindi

vernacular

and

writing

as a

merging of folk

from

art with

The Rajput

traditions.

classic

in the

words of the

late

Dr Coomaraswamy

same way

stems

In this regard Rajput art

Sanskrit.

might be presented
hieratic

of

miniatures are derived

from

classical

pictorial

literature

Sensitive, reticent,

and tender,

it

perfectly reflects

the self-control and sweet serenity of Indian

and

life,

the definitely theocratic and aristocratic organization

of Indian society.
serene

passion

It

lends itself to the utterance of

and

the

unmixed

of

expression

emotions. 6

paintings are in a sense the product of the

development of popular Vaishnavism centred

particularly

on the devotion

to

Rama and

Krishna who typified the worship of Vishnu and

Siva in their

more

accessible

and loving aspects

In the study of Rajput painting

ways keep

in

mind

we must

contemporary schools that flourished

courts of the

al-

the influence of the exactly

at the

Mogul emperors. Whereas Mogul

rather than in the hieratic form in which they

painting was dedicated to realism and the con-

The

quest of natural appearance, Rajput painting

were venerated according to Vedic

rise

ritual.

of popular Vaishnavism coincides with the

renaissance of

Hindu

literature

and the begin-

was, as

Sherman Lee has observed,

lyrical

and

emotional rather than intellectual, appealing

mind. 7

Many

nings of Rajput painting in the late sixteenth

more

century. Rajput paintings are usually on a small

Rajput miniatures, especially the albums of

many of them are very obviously

Rajasthan and Central India, have a bold,

scale,

although

to the heart than the

early

reductions of themes originally employed in

primitive quality, lacking the refinement of

mural compositions.

Mogul and

Actually, the technique

is

not

much

different

The

from that of classic wall-paintings, although the

pictures are done on paper.

composition were

first

in light red, possibly

The elements of the

outlined with the brush

over a preliminary hard

Persian painting and suggesting the

abstract use of form

history

and colour in modern

of Rajput

painting

art.

may be

divided into an early period (sixteenth and early

seventeenth centuries) and a late period from

c.

1630 to 1825. According to a geographical

may

pencil outline. After the entire surface had been

division, the miniatures

covered with a white priming of starch paste,

schools of Rajputana and central India, gen-

the

main

lines

were re-drawn

in black.

The

be assigned to the

erally designated as Rajasthani,

done

ing of the figures then covered with appropriate

referred to as Pahari.

in the

and the work

Punjab Himalayas and Garhwal,

background was coloured and the underpay-

WALL-PAINTINGS AND MINIATURES

The Pahari group comprised the work of

many local schools. The most important centres
for this late flowering

Jammu,

Basohli,

The

of the Rajput style were at

Guler, Kangra, and Garwhal.

Bhairavi

Rdgmi from Mandu

which may be dated

c.

in

345

Central India,

1550 [276].

The

picture

represents a lady kneeling in ardent supplication of a lingam, the phallic

emblem

of Siva.

great days of this art were in the eighteenth

many

but in

century,

of the more remote

localities the tradition lasted until the

present

century.
All Rajput painting, both early

and

may

late,

be considered according to the themes represented.

The

of these

first

Ragas and Raginis. In

is

the illustration of

this category

we

find the

illustration of the thirty-six

musical modes that

are associated with seasons,

months, days, and

hours and are actually regarded as personifications of different phases of love, or various

emotional situations in

human

experience that

find their perfect expression in

one of these

modes. The second category comprises the

illustrations of the Indian epics

and romances,

such as the Mahdbhdrata and the Rdmdyana, as

well as the epics of Rajput chivalry.

group of subject-matter

third

based on Puranic and

is

Tantric texts, and includes such subjects as the

jftfc^

Birth of Brahma, the Churning of the Sea of

Milk, as well as pictures of saktis of the great

gods.

One might include as

class

of illustration the innumerable paintings

a subdivision

dedicated to the legend of Krishna.

of Rajput paintings

is

of this

A final class

276. Suppliant lady in the Bhairavi Rdgini

from Mandu.
London, Victoria and Albert

Museum

concerned with the theme

of Srihgdra, 'the flavour of love', with pictures

Although there may be lingering reminiscences

representing in rhetorical fashion the various

of the Persian decorative manner, a strongly

phases of love and types of heroines and lovers.

In

all

the Rajput schools occasional pages, under

the influence of

Mogul

fashion and technique,

present scenes of courtly

life,

the hunt, and

In our consideration of Rajput painting

be

possible

examples
stylistic

to

discuss

only a

to illustrate the

main

it

will

few notable
historical

and

development of the whole school. The

transition

from the early Jain manuscripts

discussed

above,

mature

drawing

flat

itself in the

colour and the

in sharp, angular forms. Invariably in

Rajput miniatures the colours play

role; in this case the red

contemporary personages.

portraits of

Indian primitive character asserts

boldly patterned areas of

to suggest the

ground

a symbolical
is

intended

burning passion of unfulfilled

desire.

A quite different school of painting came into

being in

From

Mandu

in the early sixteenth century.

1469 to 1501, this Central Indian State

of

was under the sovereignty of the Sultan Ghiyas-

Rajasthan, begins with an illustration of the

ud-din-Khilji, a potentate renowned not only

to

the

style

346

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

patronage of art but for his insatiable

for his

women,

zest for

lishing a

comely

'city

girls

a taste

women'

of

from

which led

all

staffed

by 15,000

parts of India, Khorasan,

and Bokhara. In addition

for Persian girls,

to his estab-

to

pursuing his hobby

Ghiyas-ud-din and

his suc-

cessor, Nasir-ud-din, also maintained cultural

affiliations

with Iran, and Persian

artists

un-

doubtedly contributed a Turcoman reflexion of

the Shiraz style to the

famous manuscript, the

Nimatndma, or 'Book of

Delicacies', an illumi-

nated

the

compilation

of

ruler's

favourite

the predominantly Persian traits of this style

were absorbed into the

painting in
It

Malwa and

later traditions

an easy step from the style of these

is

pictures to a group of miniatures painted in

Malwa

in

century.

the

first

We may

half of the

manner an illustration of the Vibhdsa Rdgini,

in which we see Kama Deva loosing an arrow at
the cock whose crowing announces the end
of love's dalliance [278]. This represents the
purest style of Rajput painting.
the illustrator

the abstract beauty of colour are Persian, but

for

the jewellery and vessels, the types of feminine

tion.

beauty with large eyes, and the

as conceptual or popular.

veils are

i~T

Indian in character. As will be noted,

is

presentation of the theme, with

The

little

thought

treatment, again, could be described

The

The

bower

and the

presented as

Sultan refreshed with a Sherbet in the

Kama Deva

Boston,

figures

are

Nimatndma from Mandu. London,

278.

of

any graces of draughtsmanship or composi-

architecture of the

277.

The aim

the most direct and legible

Such elements as the formalized

blossoms, the dress of some of the women, and

angular

seventeenth

choose as an example of this

recipes [277].

stiff,

of Indian

the Deccan.

in the Vibhdsa

Museum of Fine

Arts

India Office Library

Rdgini from Malwa.

279- Krishna and his Beloved in the Hindola Riga

from Ahmadnagar. Sew Delhi, National Museum

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

348

completely

may

The cock

silhouettes.

flat

plantain tree

the

in

enormously enlarged, so that he

is

be easily recognized.

The background

is

setting - the golden sky, the chalky

ground

strewn with flowers, and the star-shaped pool

the foreground

is

in

of Persian origin. Although

dark bluish-black, except for a wavering band

certain elements, like the types of costumes, are

of white that symbolizes the coming of the

recognizably Indian, the minute realism of the

dawn. The drawing, again,

trees

and even crude

The

forms.

is

entirely freertand

in the abbreviated definition of

lyricism of pages like this derives

The

suggest the miniatures of Akbar.

sprightly animation of the delicate forms ap-

pears characteristic of the

Indian styles of

from the moving directness of presentation and

miniature

the abstract pattern of the enamel-like colours.

device of the enlargement of the soulful eyes.

The

Painting in the Deccan was patronized by the

rulers of the three

Bijapur, and

kingdoms of Ahmadnagar,

Golconda from the sixteenth

eighteenth centuries.

It

to the

was the confederation

of these three States that brought about the

fall

of Vijayanagar in 1565, and there are indications

that

all

the Deccani schools inherited something

from the painting tradition of

capital.

famous

this

These Central Indian States

also

had

close connexions with Iran, so that elements of

Persian origin are far

more apparent than in any

Mogul Empire.

painting,

as

does the Rajasthani

painting of Jaipur follows the formulae

of earlier traditions, both Rajput and Mogul, in

a

school dedicated to recording the pleasures of

court

life

and the status of the

A number

rajah.

of pictures from the late eighteenth century

were made
typical

as cartoons for

example

the Metropolitan

pages, like the

mural painting.

the large coloured drawing in

is

Museum in New York." Other

Lady arranging

her

Hair [2S0]

Museum, have

the Victoria and Albert

same largeness of conception. This

is

in

the

a perfect

Hindu

other Indian schools outside the

illustration of the timeless quality of

The

The metaphorical treatment of such details and

the arched bow of the eyebrows belongs to all

scarce examples of Deccani miniatures

van- so greatly in their combination of Hindu,

Mogul, and Persian elements

to

select

single

example

character of the school.

ful

Deccani

Ragamala
[279].

One

miniatures

series,

that

it is

difficult

illustrate

to

of the most beauti-

is

page

from

This picture was painted

is

Krishna and

swing suspended from

two

girls

representing the Hind old Rdga

at

his

the peculiar

nacreous beauty of the body that

especially expressive of Rajput civilization.

pale,

warm shading of the

face

soft,

this picture is

The

and body, which

serves to give a suggestion of relief and to

impart a kind of translucency to the complexion,

beloved seated in

a flowering

mango

picture

is

is

only the

last

refinement of the abstract

chiaroscuro employed in the ancient classic

tree

spray them with saffron water, while

The

It is in

The

third attendant approaches, carrying a stringed

instrument, or vina.

periods of Indian painting.

refinement of linear definition and in the

Ahmadnagar

in the last quarter of the sixteenth century.

subject

the

art.

poetic

schools
typically

of

Indian

painting.

The

figure

Rajput, too, in the essentially

pattern of the form.

The minutely

is

flat

exquisite

which the immortal lovers enact

realism of the flowered background and the

an exquisite charade in a flowering garden of

ornamented balustrade are borrowings from

unmistakable Persian type. Every element

the Persian

dreamland,

in

in the

Mogul

tradition.

280. Lady arranging her Hair from Jaipur.

London, Victoria and Albert Museum

35

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

Certainly, one of the most individual styles to

evolve in Rajasthan was the

ed

in the late

Kishangarh.

mode

that flourish-

the State of Bundi.

Kotah was an extension of

The Bundi painters of the

eighteenth century at the court of

eighteenth century had evolved a style of harsh

The

simplification, in

rulers of this state

were de-

voted to the cult of Krishna, and a local

artist,

perhaps Nihal Chand of Delhi, invented

peculiarly personal type of beauty to represent

the immortal lovers Krishna

The

well as politically,

and Radha

[281].

which episodes from the hunt

were isolated as they had been

earlier in the

thousand years

famous scenes of the chase

in

Sasanian metalwork. Something of the same

with an admixture of

sort,

Mogul

realism,

with their wildly attenuated

appears in the Kotah miniatures representing

eyes and soaring brows, are a suave Mannerist

the rulers indulging their passion for shooting

facial types,

They have a

lions

and

wan, neurasthenic refine-

with

its

exaggeration of the Jaipur formula.

fragile elegance

ment

and

that are like an echo of the beauty of

Ikhnaton's queen.

tigers [282].

The

painting illustrated,

precise and isolated forms placed in a

kind of luxuriant undersea landscape, might at

first

remind

us, as

W. G. Archer

has noted, of

Rousseau's jungles, palpitant with symbols of

281. Krishna and

Radha from Kishangarh.

erotic anticipation. 9

Cambridge, Mass., private collection

paintings

is

The ardour

of the Kotah

not, however, the passion of love,

but the reckless ardour of the chase and

ment

its fulfil-

Although

in the slaying of the quarry.

certain details, such as the characterization of

the hunters, suggest the realism of

this naturalism

Mogul

art,

does not extend to the strange

fungiform rocks and the

trees, like

ornaments

in

more reminiscent of Persian than

Indian tradition. Kotah painting has a naive

coral or jade,

directness of narration and a simple ornamental

may have been directed to the

who sponsored it.
What was in many ways the most enchanting

beauty which

taste of the childlike ruler

chapter of Rajput painting unfolded in the

many

small courts that had their seats in the

secluded valleys of the Punjab Hills. Nominally

under Mogul suzerainty, the rulers of these

isolated
their

principalities

political

and

were able

artistic

tastes

to
in

cultivate
relative

security during the eighteenth and nineteenth

centuries.

There

is

no evidence

for the existence

of any earlier traditions in the Pahari centres

before the emergence of these court schools of

miniature painting.

The

style

of Rajasthani

which

Basohli was the earliest of the schools of

eighteenth

painting in the Punjab Hills and provides a

painting

flowered in Kotah State in the

late

century under the patronage of Rajah

Singh (1771-1819) reveals how,

Umed

artistically as

transition

from the Rajasthani style to the

manner which became the

elegantly refined

Guman shooting Tigers from Kotah.

London, Victoria and Albert Museum

282. Rajah

352

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

_e^

VM-?******

AA\^

tvri

U S'u igysot

Jm
Jr&!3n
k^\/r>A*
r?*' .rr./r

|**

- T

<*v >wytt

/<5^i>C;

"-O

i5 y

^^

S?aj

.g^ll

lilting

$
_L^'^\
J

|OTH(Vuvw
Pahari tradition.

The

Basohli artists retained

something of the primitive simplicity and rather

angular quality of

rigid

combined with

painting,

Mewar and Malwa

a fondness for warm

283.

^^^mk

jjj?

^
1

"'j8

ttflJK-Zi^l

KH -

Radha awaiting Krishna

in the

Rasamanjari

from Basohli.
London, Victoria and Albert

Museum

colours of burning intensity. Except for the use

anguish. In the attic of the plaisance the cat and

of a suggestion of abstract shading, the Basohli

the

miniatures are completely different from any

requited desire, and the prowling rat a reference

Mogul manner

in their

smouldering brilliance

to

empty bed

are

emblems of Radha's un-

Krishna's wayward loves. This

is

a typical

example of the use of objects from everyday

of colour

and savage

example

is

a late-seventeenth-century illustra-

tion of the

Rasamanjari of Bhanu Datta [283].

In the early decades of the eighteenth century

drawn from the Krishna

there was an infiltration of Basohli artists into

The

poetic

legend.

awaits

theme

Radha

is

distortion.

typical

in a forest pavilion desperately

the return of her errant lover.

composition

is

alive

The

with symbols of erotic

to

life

symbolize sexual feelings.

the court of Guler, which, by

the Plains, was of

all

its

location near

the Pahari States most

subject to outside influences.

The

painting of

353

2S4. Lady with a Hawk from Guler.

London, Victoria and Albert Museum

burning passion, and the

Typical of Guler and the
the cadenced

Guler shows us

for the first

time

a peculiarly

idealized provocative canon of feminine beauty

that

is

the ultimate and

specifically

Pahari

refinement of earlier tradition. Guler painting,

as
.

represented by the painting of The Lady with

Hawk

[284],

is

still

Pahari schools

is

and the slender

qualities

and the en-

tranced preoccupation with the ecstasies of love

are

removed

at

once from Mogul symbolism

and the primitivism of the Rajasthani schools.

The

final florescence

of Rajput art

is

to

be

meditation

Kangra. This magnificent development took

love, in this case

The

flat,

geometric areas of

angular schematic drawing.

is,

as usual, a

metaphor

place

largely

under the patronage of Rajah

The

Samsar Chand, who ruled from 1775 to 1823.

This ruler had a particular sensibility for paint-

for

ing and was passionately attached to the cult of

colour proclaim the inheritance from Basohli.

does the

These

line

seen in the paintings of the Pahari capital of

theme of romantic

red background

physique.

trail

later

rhythm of

concerned with the ageless

on the absent lover.

as

rigid cypresses are a

further veiled reference to the lady's thoughts.

354

'

THE HINDU RENAISSANCE

Krishna.

We may

suppose

have been the case, the

and Radha provided

that, as

must often

loves of Krishna

illicit

a special

sublimation for

the sexual ideals of the patron, if not a justification

covert amorous adventures.

for

Fre-

quently, the setting for the events from the

Krishna legend
gardens

at

immigration of
the

is

Kangra

artists

style

is

and

in the fantastic palaces

Nadaun. Kangra

art

began with the

from Guler

in 1780,

and

only a more exquisite, softer

take

as

beautiful page of the

example the

typical

skeleton.

notes of the

Hour of Cowdust, repre-

it

may be

same way

school of Rajput painting the intention of the

The

entirely intuitive attempts

rendering complicated effects of perspective

by the
is

So animated and

life is this

presentathat

life

of Hindustan, a trans-

much the

that Duccio's 'Entry into Jerusalem'

terms of the

a sacred event in

of fourteenth-century Siena. This illustrais

place that in this

in

described as a kind of loving idealiza-

commemorated

in

at

set off

from the legend of Krishna

tion of the village

way

artist is realistic.

school.

natural in terms of everyday

tion

first

Kangra

tion of an event

Brindaban, welcomed by the adoring gopis

notice in the

powdery harmony

women's garments,

peculiar to the

life

We

a soft,

is

chalky whiteness of the architecture which

senting Krishna returning with the cows to

[285].

There

the pattern of the chrome-yellow and vermilion

figuration of day-to-day experience in

refinement of this neighbouring school.

We may

dental to the perfection of the brittle, linear

in the

completely typical of Indian art in the

which the realm of sacred legend

is,

as

Ajanta frescoes, presented as contem-

porary experience.

It is

but one more example of

the endless variety which could be achieved

Hindu

and foreshortening are based on observation.

within the set themes of

This point of view, together with

within which the artist was expected to express

a suggestion of

kind of atmospheric perspective in the hazy

outlines of trees in the background,

may

very

Hindu

his originality.

art,

art,

themes

both hieratic and

more

vernacular, has always been

or less a

possibly reflect the influence of Mogul, or even

national art, determined by the wish to have

The

certain groups of ideas constantly represented.

European, painting on the Kangra

style.

The

question of possible foreign influences, beyond

making

for a

more

effective expression,

important beside the

real,

new, beauty of the Kangra

and

in

style.

is

un-

many ways
The Kangra

miniatures can best be defined as coloured drawings, since their peculiarly lyric quality

depends

almost entirely on the exquisite, meaningful

definition of forms in linear terms.
figures are

grace.

The female

imbued with an attenuated, moving

Although conceived

as types, they

have

in

the

late

centuries.

Peculiar to

the

emotionally

turbulent

notable example

painted in the

The drawing

century.

its

suggestion of the animals pressing towards

the village gate

and

is

etched

the emotional

blacks

landscapes

and the

and

the

particularly

is

The Night of Storm [286],

last

decades of the eighteenth

As W. G. Archer has so admirably

analysed it, the picture is a web of symbols

in the artist's realization

alluding to the plight of the lovesick girl racing

movement of

through the tempestuous night to meet her

of the essential articulation and

individual beasts.

stem from

of drawing.

delicacy

dramas of passion.

the rhythmic elegance of their pose and gestures.

masterly in

lyric

Garwhal painting

and attraction, imparted perhaps most of all by

to

itself in the precisely

of dark greens and

palette

setting for

is

at

art

its

Kangra, seems

Guler and reveals

and

capital

phase of Pahari

principal formative influence in

this school, as at

heads

last

eighteenth and early nineteenth

The

an entirely individual quality of voluptuousness

of the herd of cows

Garwhal with

State of

Srinagar produced the

The

colours are only inci-

love. 10

The

cobras slithering on the ground

285.

The Hour of Cowdust from Kangra.

Museum of Fine Arts

Boston,

I
286.

The Night

London, British

of Storm from Garwhal.

Museum

WALL-PAINTINGS AND MINIATURES

suggest danger, and their imminent mating

the girl's desire.

anticipates

The ribbon

lightning in the sky not only echoes her

hem

beauty and the zigzag gold of the

garment but,

as a poetic

of

this continuity in a tradition

357

spanning more

mono-

than thirty centuries, do not constitute

frail

tony or repetition. Indian art in the great variety

of her

of its expression has only the limitations of what

metaphor, symbolizes

was

to

be expressed, and, as an art both hieratic

the climax of desire. Like a musical refrain, the

and popular, has perforce repeated themes from

twining net of branches repeats the rhythms of

the epics, the romances, as well as the incar-

and the

the cobras

cadence of

lines,

body. This

lines of the girl's

the calculated

of

fragility

nations of the great gods that are a part of the

race,

heritage and

its

its

desire.

form, and the poetic setting unite to enhance

We are apt to forget that anything like art can

and interpret, metaphorically, the passion of

be a necessary part of a racial or national heritage.

and

refinement

It is this, together with the gradual growth of

methods of making icons and temples appropriate to Indian needs, that makes for a sense

We have followed the course of Indian art for a

of unity and continuity in the art of India

period of more than three thousand years. In

unmatched

love,

of Pahari

stylistically

present the

art.

that span of centuries

deviation from a
artistic

last

we have seen hardly any

way of presenting the divine

in

terms which was already fixed in that

immemorial time of the Indus

there has been deviation

has been not so

civilization. If

from the

tradition,

it

much change as variety, imposed

by new iconographical demands and the gradual

acquisition of a greater
skill in all

and greater technical

the crafts serving the Indian religions.

in

modern

may be
flag,

ashlar

dolmens

and

the

Vedic

triumph of the Dra-

vidian genius, the Nataraja,

is

only slightly

removed from the mysterious dancing figure

from Mohenjo-daro. In architecture either the
simplest or the most baroque fabric can
bolize the world

and the body of God,

sym-

just as the

times.

Something of this continuity

seen in the constitution of the Indian

dominated by the dharmacakra and com-

various mystic meanings of the

in

number

Indian metaphysics. Similar, but

Asoka

prehistoric

and iconographic

posed of three bands of colour typifying the

is

altars of brick, so that final

Many

racial tradition.

tradition of technical skill

Gupta Period and the Hindu Renaissance

iconographically and technically present in the

any other

observance in building and image-making even

Just as the essentials of the Indian temples of the

are

in

instances could be cited of the survival of the

less

three

happy,

India's adoption of a 'restored version' of the

lion

capital at

Sarnath as a national

emblem.

The concern
art has

of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain

always been the directing of

union with the Great Beings that

tangible form.

To

that

end no

men

to

it

reveals in

skill,

nor time,

The works
men by slow

nor patience could ever be too much.

of art were guide posts to lead

apprehension or sudden intuition to find the

own

elementary ideograph of a dancer in sandstone

treasure hid in the shrine of their

and the dynamic image of the Chola metal-

the seat of the Buddha, of Vishnu, of Siva. In

worker's art can symbolize the endless change

our

within the cosmic scheme. These similarities,

discover for us a similar treasure.

own

hearts,

quest, religious or aesthetic, they

may

PART SIX

INDIAN ART IN CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

CHAPTER 20

CEYLON
The beginnings of civilization in the island of
Ceylon are known only by the legend that in the
century

fifth

B.C.

Prince Vijaya from the

Ganges country espoused

and

a native princess

established a Singhalese dynasty.

It is

only with

the accession of Devanam-Piyatissa (247-207

B.C.) that

we may speak with any certainty of the

its art. The reign of this

finally to

be abandoned to these invaders from

the mainland; Polonnaruwa, which succeeded

as the centre

of government and religion, was

taken by the Tamils in the fifteenth century.

There ensued a melancholy period,

in

which the

older capitals and, indeed, the whole fertile

portion of the North gradually reverted to

history of the island and

jungle. There, the ancient temples

king witnessed what was perhaps the single

have slept amid the forest greenness until their

most important event

visit

in Singhalese culture

the

of the son of the Emperor Asoka, Mahinda,

and the introduction of Buddhism by

missionary

made

the capital of the island, and there a slip

of the original bodhi tree at

religion

it

took root.

One

Gaya and

the

introduced by Mahinda,

typified,

other early Singhalese king

is

worthy of mention, Duttha Gamani (101-77

B.C.),

who

is

known

his zeal in the

as the

Asoka of Ceylon

for

propagation of Buddhism.

In the period of

con-

people, but also because there, in the great

monuments by
- sometimes carried to unfortunate
extremes of renovation - the student feels that

veneration accorded the ancient

the people

the subject

is

much more

part of a living tradi-

Buddhist foundations

of India, only a very few of which, such as the

the final renaissance of the thirteenth century,

worship today.

and archi-

years.

because of its great beauty and the amiability of

its

famous temple

the inspiration for both sculpture

hundred

a setting particularly

genial to the study of Buddhist art, not only

until

years,

last

Ceylon provides

tion than in the deserted

more than twelve hundred

from the times of Duttha Gamani

ruins were gradually recovered in the course of

excavations in the

this

Anuradhapura was then

prince.

and palaces

We

at

Bodh Gaya,

are maintained in

are in a remarkably fortunate position in

came from India; especially, as we shall

from the Later Andhra civilization of the

the study of art in Ceylon in having for our

eastern coast. In the second century Singhalese

of Ceylon, which, based on earlier recensions,

monks were

gives a precise account of the reigns

tecture
see,

in residence at

Nagarjunakonda.

reference the

Mahdvamsa,

the Great Chronicle

and build-

Also throughout this period the Singhalese

ing activities of the Buddhist kings through the

were almost continuously engaged in repelling

fourth century.

the incursions of the

Tamils of South India;

early as the eighth century

later

chronicle, the Cula-

as

vamsa, carries the history into the eighteenth

Anuradhapura had

century. Often these descriptions are invaluable

360

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

enabling

in

us

reconstruct

to

appearance of temples almost

no

remodelled;

or

the

totally

original

destroyed

important

less

the

are

accounts of methods of building and the cere-

monies attending the dedication of the shrines.

In the green darkness of the forest at Anura-

dhapura there
years

rise the ruins

of Singhalese

asteries,

of nearly a thousand

mon-

Palaces,

history.

and stupas, once completely engulfed

by the jungle waves, have been reclaimed

a

in half

century of conservation, so that some idea of

the extent and grandeur of this Buddhist capital

is

afforded the visitor. If he finds these ruins

rather austere

more than
remember that
ancient monuments of

some

in

cases

IS.

little

stone skeletons - he has only to

at

one time,

the

like

>wi&

Taxila and Nalanda in India as described by

Hsiian-tsang, they shone with a splendour only

echoed

faintly

the

in

tawdry decor of the

modern temples of Colombo and Kandy.

Dominating the landscape

at

Anuradhapura

the great stupas or ddgabas, 2

covered

with

literally like

forest. In

vegetation

some

small mountains rising above the

Ceylon the dagabas are

classified by
dome, designated by such

the shape of the

poetic terms as 'bell-shaped', 'bubble-shaped',

typical Singhalese

dagaba

is

the threefold base (trimala), the

divided into

dome

(anda),

and the superstructure comprising the harmika

and

yasti or mast.

As

in Indian religious archi-

tecture, the strictest ritual

governed the laying

of the magical foundation stones, and no less

rigid proportions fixed the

monuments. As

far as

dimensions of these

we can

rely

on

its

and concepts such

a rather

of this

represents one-third of the total height of the

dagaba, and

threefold

is

its

is

three

of

planes

number

in

Buddhist philosophy. 4

Mahdvamsa, some of the

to the

although probably

modelled

B.C.

An example

is

[287].

In

its

dominated by

rests

upon

is

the

said to have been dedicated in

present form

characteristic Singhalese dagaba:

ment

B.C.,

were enlarged or re-

at later periods.

Thuparama,
244

all

a 'bubble'

it

the

dome

on three circular bases or

is

monu-

of brick,

'bracelets'

round paved foundation [288]; the

surmounted by a balcony-like member

corresponding to the harmika of the Indian
cupola

is

the traditional ringed

equal to the height of the spire

stupa, and, over

base) and to the height of the

spire with a series of seven umbrellas telescoped

base. 3

three parts

the

Devanam-Piyatissa in the third century

set

is

as

ruined tumuli were founded in the reign of

the builders, the height of the cupola, which

ground plan,

number three, with

existence and other similar magical properties

which

(including

Sf^

symbolical allusion to the Buddhist Trinity

corrupt text dealing with such instructions to

three-fifths of the diameter of the

Thuparama dagaba

poseful incorporation of the

According

'lotus-shaped', etc.

The

287. Anuradhapura,

so

appear

they

that

are

still

The

essential

division

into

probably no accident, but a pur-

all,

is

together, so that in profile this

member resem-

bles an inverted child's top.

Leading

to

the

361

288. Anuradhapura,

Thuparama dagaba

Jbtsrv^-A^

a-a^.

50 FEET
15

METRES

round platform supporting the dome were

stair-

and the monument was surrounded by

cases,

three concentric rings of stone pillars which

woodsustained by wooden

were probably intended as supports

and-metal domical roof,
rafters

for a

and entirely enclosing the whole stupa. 5

Structures of this type,

known

20

40
10

15

60
20

80 FEET
25

METRES

in origin at least, goes

back

to the

time of Duttha

Gamani. This monument has undergone such

a

complete renovation in the course of the

seventy-five

years

original elevation

that

may

better

in

and presum-

India proper, the appearance of

which may be divined from occasional rock-cut

replicas. 6

Here, as in

all

Singhalese stupas, the

main approach was from the south, the direction associated with the
in the

the

sun

at its highest point

heavens and with the supreme

Buddha's

moment of

career, his Enlightenment. Al-

though, obviously, no trace of them has been

found,

it

has been assumed that the dagabas

were originally surrounded by wooden railings

and toranas

after

Indian originals in stone.

One of the largest of all the stupas in Ceylon is

the Ruvanveli dagaba at

last
its

stupa on the platform of the great dagaba [289].

ably have a relationship to ancient circular

shrines

of

be had from a miniature

as thupa gharas,

are referred to in Singhalese texts,

idea

Anuradhapura, which,

289. Anuradhapura, Ruvanveli dagaba,

dedicatory stupa

362

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST

The monument

is

ASIA

roughly one and a half

times the size of the Great Stupa at Amaravati

the diameter of the
fifty-four feet,

dome

is

two hundred and

and the height of the

finial

more

than a hundred and eighty feet above the

ground.

dagabas

The dimensions
at

Anuradhapura

of this and other

are as great as

all

the largest of the Egyptian pyramids. 7

many

but

As

beasts as

directional

we

shall

Singhalese sculpture. This stupa

encounter in
is

built

on two

typical

square terraced basement platforms.

element of Singhalese dagaba architecture

present

in

four

the

wdhalkadas situated

altar-frontispieces

at the cardinal points

is

or

of the

monument. These sculptured platforms bear

in

the strongest resemblance to the similar offsets

of the Singhalese dagabas, the relics in

on the Later Andhra stupas of Amaravati and

the Ruvanveli were contained in a

built in the interior of the solid brick

chamber, according

to the

chamber

dome. This

Mahavamsa, con-

tained a jewelled bodhi tree of precious metals

Nagarjunakonda, 9
pillars

although

the

five

dyaka

of the Indian stupas are never found in

Ceylon. 10

It is likely

that these altars, together

with most of the sculpture found at Anura-

from

and was originally painted with 'rows of four-

dhapura,

footed beasts and geese', 8 probably the

centuries a.d. All the ancient dagabas were

290.

same

date

the

second

or

third

Anuradhapura, vihara near Thuparama dagaba

METRES

>

CEYLON

originally covered with

chunam

plaster painted

white, and this technique has been recreated in

the restoration of

many

of them, such as the

Thuparama and Ruvanveli.

Buddhist

Singhalese
vi haras,

11

times differ from the usual types of Hinayana

structures.

A monument

identified as

known

such as those attached to

all

as

the great

the Indikatusaya

is

hills

Mihintale

at

above Anuradhapura. Excavated copper

plates,

inscribed with invocations of Prajnaparamita,

Supreme Wisdom, by

dagabas at Anuradhapura, have a characteristic

the

rectangular plan, generally with a single en-

epigraphy confirm

trance on the long side of the building [290].

in the eighth century. 13

The

that can positively be

Mahayanist

dagaba in the jungle-clad

temples,

363

the nature of the

this affiliation

The

and the date

stupa proper at

walls were originally of brick, and, to-

Mihintale rests on a raised quadrangular base-

gether with the rows of pillars inside, supported

ment faced with stone. During the course of

excavations it became apparent that the brick

roof of

wood and metal. The pillars, seen on

Thuparama and the 'vihares'

the platform of the

of Anuradhapura, belong to an order that

peculiar to Ceylon.

is

The columns have square or

octagonal shafts at the top, below a constricted

;

neck,

is

a carving of garlands held

by lion heads,

and, above, a lotus capital, square or eightsided,

crowned by

band of beast-forms or

Among
at

the most ancient and famous

Anuradhapura

monu-

the Lohapasada or

is

'Brazen Palace', built by King Duttha Gamani.

Unfortunately

all

hundred granite
hundred and
this

that survives

is

consisting of a forest of

tion,

pillars

the founda-

some

sixteen

standing in an area two

square. The account of

Mahavamsa 12 enables us to

fifty feet

building in the

reconstruct this royal monastery as a nine-

storeyed structure in which the

accommodated
floors

of the

hieratically

monks were

on the

different

according to their level of enlightenment.

monument was

found, for example, in the

originally of the

Dhamekh

stupa at

Sarnath.

Something has already been

said of the con-

nexions between the earliest Singhalese architecture

and the Later Andhra foundations

Amaravati.

yaksha caryatids.

ments

dome

elongated type, possibly with a high drum,

This relationship

is

at

even more

apparent in the fragments of sculpture dating

from the second and third centuries

a.d.

Chief

among these examples of Singhalese carving are

a number of Buddha statues originally arranged//
around the base of the Ruvanveli dagaba. 14

Two^

of these dolomite images are standing Buddhas,

and

a third, traditionally identified as a likeness

of Duttha Gamani,

is

perhaps more

Bodhisattva Siddhartha.

likely the

The Buddha

figures

have an awe-inspiring hieratic quality induced

by their massive scale of proportions and the

rather archaic rigidity of pose [291].

It

needs

The entire superstructure was built of wood and

but a glance to see in them a Singhalese adapta-

precious fittings of jewels and ivory and roofed

tion of the type of

with sheets of copper. Destroyed by

Amaravati under the Later Andhra Dynasty.

fire in

the

fourth century, the building was reconstructed

in five storeys.
(p. 299), it

this

As has been suggested above

seems possible

to see a reflexion of

type of terraced building or prasada in the

Dharmaraja rath

at

at

an even greater degree than the Andhra

prototypes these statues have a heaviness and

grandeur immediately suggestive of the very

earliest

Indian

Kushans

Mamallapuram.

Although the Buddhism of Ceylon can

To

Buddha image fashioned

at

Buddha

effigies

made under

the

Mathura. The treatment of the

in

drapery of the sanghati, with the folds repre-

general be designated as Hinayana in character,

sented in a combination of incised lines and

there were certain periods of

tration.

The

Mahayana pene-

buildings erected during these

raised ridges, follows the style of the

Amaravati

workshops, and another characteristic trade

364

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

mark of

this south-eastern Indian style

voluminous billowing fold

^_^^

robe.

We may

further mention a bronze

probably made

found
This
style

by

far the

known

[292].

Buddha,

Anuradhapura, which was

at

in the ruins of

is

the

is

bottom of the

at the

Dong Duong

in

Champa.

most perfect example of the

15

A certain attenuation and a

nervous elegance in the hands differentiate the

image from the true Amaravati type and

pate later

antici-

Hindu metal images in Ceylon.

In connexion with these earliest Singhalese

Buddha images it is well to mention the relations

between Ceylon and China

in the first centuries

of the Christian era: an embassy bearing a jade

image arrived

in

China between 405 and 418;

428, the king of Ceylon dispatched a

later, in

Buddha

statue

Relic. 16

Presumably these statues were of the

Anuradhapura

may have

from the temple of the Tooth

type, and

it is

possible that they

exerted some influence on southern

Chinese sculpture during the Six Dynasties

Period. 17

Although no exact precedents

Amaravati, the so-called Duttha
[293]

is

combination of the

Mathura sculpture with

may be

exist for

Gamani

it

at

statue

fullness

of

a certain stiffness that

the result of inexperience in the carving

of portrait-statues in Ceylon. 18

The

seated

Buddha images from

period of Singhalese sculpture are,

more
the

this early

if

anything,

moving than
examples of the standing type. As in the
interesting

and

aesthetically

statues at the Ruvanveli dagaba already dis-

cussed, the style of the figures of the

yoga pose has been

to a large extent

Buddha

in

conditioned

by the nature of the granulitic stone, which

does not permit any special refinements of
carving.

surface

The

resultant abstraction of

upon these figures a

and
291. Anuradhapura, Ruvanveli dagaba,

Buddha

form and

and the largeness of conception bestows

particularly

moving dignity

serenity.

The massive statue of a Buddha in dhyana

mudra in the Colombo Museum - formerly, as

Buddha from Dong Di

Museum

Anuridhapura, Ruvanveli dagaba,

zqz. Bronze

293.

Hanoi,

'Duttha Gamani'

<r

366

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

our illustration shows, more picturesquely and

appropriately

dhapura -

is

located

in

grove

Anura-

at

example of the type

a perfect

[294].

Although some seated Buddhas from Anuradhapura are related

to

Later Andhra models,

the Indian prototype for this statue

is

to

be

sought in such Kushan images as the Buddha

from Katra

[98].

We

note the same herculean

physical proportions and the complete revelation of the

form by the sheath-like mantle.

In this later aspect and the

snail-shell

employment of the

Anuradhapura

the

curls

image

approaches some of the masterpieces of the

Gupta Period
it is

a.d. In
in

at

Sarnath, although, probably,

be dated no

to

later

than the third century

few other representations of the Buddha

yoga trance do we get such a sense of the

complete self-absorption and serenity of the

Enlightened One. This impression of the perfect

embodiment of

the idea of samddht

is

conveyed through the very simplicity of the

conception; the perfect material equilibrium of
the figure connotes the perfect mental state

of Sakyamuni through the massive stability of

the triangular base

formed by the locked

surmounted by the

erect

legs,

columnar body which

supports the perfectly impassive mask-like face.

It is

important for us to examine in connexion

with these

Buddha images the method of manumodern Ceylon, a technique

facturing statues in

which

very

is

According

made

as

to

probably of great antiquity.

Coomaraswamy, 19 the

one would expect, according

icon

is

to the

traditional proportions of five thalams to the

total

height of the seated figure. For the actual

carving of the image from the block of stone, the

sculptor employs a kind of pointing machine or

lamba tatuwa, a wooden frame from which

plumb lines are suspended to indicate the

exact amount of cutting necessary at various
points to disengage such features as the tip of
the nose, the ears, shoulders, etc.

of the frame

itself

The diagrams

and the suspension of the

294-

Anuradhapura, seated Buddha

*A

r
I

295.

Diagram of Buddha image

and 'pointing frame'

'

'

Level of frame (lamba tatuwa) from

which plumb

lines are

suspended

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA\
T^&sm^m#i^^mjm<jWA
y^mmmmw^mm
mmmamtyim&

CEYLON

369

cords in front of an actual image are self-

explanatory [295]. Although the use of such a

mechanical device might appear to result in

it

must be remembered

like this

and the system of pro-

complete deadness,
that

machines

portions were merely aids which the artist's

particular inspiration

and

skill

measure of

utilize to the full

was expected

his technical

to

and

aesthetic capacity.

Common

subjects in the early sculpture at

Anuradhapura

are the reliefs of gate guardians

(*+->

or dvarapalas, usually in the shape of nagas

with nine-headed cobra hoods; their svelte and

elegant proportions again recall the work at

Amaravati
sories

[296].

The

elaborate jewelled acces-

and conical head-dresses are

close to

Gupta representations of Bodhisattvas. These

nagarajis carry jars emblematic of prosperity

and good

The

luck.

visitor to this ancient capital will find a

characteristic type of threshold-stone placed at

many of the shrines [297].

moon stones from their semi- (^37

the entrances to

Usually called
circular
296. Anuradhapura, dvarapala
297.

cAs"

Anuradhapura, 'Queen's Pavilion', moon stone

form,

these

reliefs

are

extremely

37

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

interesting

from both the

graphic points of view.

stylistic

The

and icono-

decoration consists

of the

The unbroken

of concentric zones of ornament, comprising

the four beasts of the cardinal points - horse,
lion, ox,

the

and elephant - exactly

Asokan column

at

as figured

on

Sarnath, together with a

row of harhsa enclosing

a central lotus boss.

Although these carvings are presumably no

earlier

style

than the third or fourth century a.d., the

is

strangely reminiscent of the

originals.

Mauryan

Iconographically there can be

little

doubt that the same cosmic symbolism implicit

in the pillar at

Sarnath

is

intended here, with

the beasts standing at once for the points of the

compass, the great rivers of India, and possibly

the seasons as well; the hamsa, represented

the

Maurya

pillar at

on

Sanchi, were the symbols

fifth direction

or zenith, so that the whole

forms a complete cosmic diagram. 20

cultural relationship

Ceylon and south-eastern India

number of

sculptures

at

is

between

revealed by a

Isurumuniya

the

Vihara, near Anuradhapura. There, carved on

the face of a low

cliff of granulitic

hanging a partly

artificial

boulders over-

tank,

we may

see

carvings in a pure Pallava style. Isolated in a

kind of niche

is

personifications

a relief of

of the

Parjanya and Agni,/*-|-y

and the

cloud

rain

warmth that brings seeds to blossom 21 [298].

Not only are the proportions of the figure of the
holy man remarkably close to the work at
Mamallapuram, but the suggestion of the
form's emergence from the matrix of the rock
in the

same technique

the account of the styles

sance.

is

we have analysed in
of the Hindu Renais-

that

Presumably these works date from the

period immediately before the final retreat from

Anuradhapura

in the eighth century.

Although no actual examples

sixth century survive,

it

earlier

than the

may be assumed

the tradition of painting in Ceylon

is

that

just as

ancient as that of sculpture and architecture

fragments of decorative painting were discovered on some of the early structures

at

Anuradhapura, and the Mahdvamsa describes

lost cycles

of wall-painting ornamenting the

stupas and viharas.

The
in

only considerable cycle of early painting

Ceylon

Sigiriya.

is

decoration in the

the

These paintings

hill

of

are located in a pocket

of the great rock at Sigiriya ('Lion Rock') that

was the

fortress of the parricide,

from 511

to 529; at that

King Kassapa,

time this

now

isolated

cave must have formed part of a system of apart-

ments and

galleries

the face of the

cliff.

wall-painting

is

which completely clothed

The

subject of the frieze of

parade of opulent

celestial

females, apsaras or devatas, advancing singly

and
298. Anuradhapura,

Parjanya and Agni

Isurumuniya Vihara,

in pairs [299].

The

divinity of these almost

oppressively sensuous queens

by the clouds that

veil

is

indicated only

them below

the waist and

CEYLON

371

of urna on the forehead, a device

through their exaggeration. The resemblance of

regularly used to designate divine beings in

these figures to the maidens of the Amaravati

India.

reliefs

by

a sort

In studying these works

we

are struck at once

suggests their derivation from a lost

school of

Andhra

painting. If the boldness of

by the robust strength of both the drawing and

the drawing and the brilliance of the colours are

was

recognizable as typically Singhalese, the actual

colouring.

That the

entirely freehand

note the

many

draughtsmanship

becomes apparent when we

corrections, not only changes in

the contours but complete alterations of the

positions of the hands of certain figures.
swelling, nubile breasts, the tiny waist

greater than the girth of the neck

The

physical types represented, with heavy-lidded

eyes, sharp aquiline noses,

full lips,

may be

types.

- hardly

- the shapely

and

taken as direct reflexions of actual Singhalese

rather distinctive technical feature of the

Sigiriya paintings

Of these

is

the

method of drawing

there are two distinct types

the

tapered arms and exquisitely poised flower-like

noses.

hands - these are

one of these conceptual presentations the nose

all

elements of the same canon

that determined the types of physical beauty in

the wall-paintings of India proper.

Here these

charms are rendered even more provocative

299. Sigiriya, wall-painting of apsaras

is

represented in profile, although the face

in

may

be in three-quarters view; the second method

shows the nose

in three-quarters view, with the

372

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

farther nostril clearly defined. 22

technical aspect

teresting

Another in-

manner

and

at the

make

as in the

rendering of drapery folds in a series of parallel

a surface pattern

ridges with the characteristic billow at the lower

same time reinforce the form.

hem,

As has already been noted, the continued

raids by the Tamils of South India finally
forced the

abandonment of Anuradhapura

the eighth century.

&L

was located
situated

at

From 781

to

in

1290 the capital

The ruins are

Lake Topawewa in

Polonnaruwa.

on the beautiful

the deep jungles of north-eastern Ceylon there,

;

300. Polonnaruwa, Gal Vihara, Parinirvana image

at certain seasons,

one can

originally planted a

still

site

with the reign of Parakrama Bahu

at

lotuses,

coincides

(1164-97),

monarch of the Singhalese

simply an enormous enlargement of the

Buddha images of Anuradhapura,

here, for the purposes of a Nirvana image,

placed in a recumbent position.

and of great impressiveness

figure of Buddha or
feet high, carved

One of the principal

this period is the

sculptural dedications of

group of images

The most

impressive

at the
is

is

More unusual
the standing

Ananda, nearly twenty-five

from the rock next

of the Nirvana Buddha.

The

to the

head

figure has very

much the same feeling of grandeur, through

Gal

a colossal

the

massive plastic realization of the form that

characterizes the

Buddha

statues of the earlier

period; the representation of Sakyamuni, his

arms folded, one

leg slightly bent at the knee,

has an extraordinary feeling of serenity and

strength, qualities which, as

dynasty.

Vihara [300].

is

standing

o^

millennium ago. The great

period of artistic activity at this

the last notable

growing

see

enormous red

the water's edge the

fifty feet in

length; the style, as seen particularly in the

which the individual brush-strokes,

painting of the breasts,

rock-cut Parinirvana image nearly

in

the

is

we have already

seen, are always notably present in the Singhalese

sculptor's

realization

Enlightenment. There

is

of the

peace

of

a certain archaistic

CEYLON

301. Polonnaruwa,

quality in

all

the later

work

at

Polonnaruwa,

holding a yoke as

emblem of the king's burden is

one of the

finest pieces

what was then considered the great

combines

a feeling for

period of

Of

Buddhism and

similar nobility

colossal figure of a

that

is

comparable

its art.

and magnitude

is

the

Buddhist king, sometimes

identified as a portrait of Parakrama

self,

373

Parakrama Bahu

probably the result of a conscious effort to

revive

Bahu him-

carved from a large boulder over-

looking the waters of Lake

Topawewa

[301].

This representation of a bearded sovereign

of sculpture in Ceylon.

It

volume and weightiness

to the great yakshas of the

Period; and with them

it

Maurya

shares a feeling for

pent-up inner energy realized

in the swelling

convex planes of the construction of the body.

At the same time the image

seemingly momentary-

by the

is

lifting

animated by the
of the head and

slight contrapposto; in this respect,

and

302. Polonnaruwa, great quadrangle

i.

'Hata-da-ge'

2.

Wata-da-ge

3.

Thuparama

Mandapa

4.

Nissaiika Malla

5.

Sat Mahal Pasada

^f^

303. Polonnaruwa, Sat

Mahal Pasad;

CEYLON

in spite

of its great scale and weight,

it

has some-

thing of the feeling of the bronzes of the Chola

- the suggestion of

Period

moment

of

suspended animation, and the communication

of the idea that the figure
stir

may

at

moment

any

Perhaps the most notable group of

architectural

monuments

is

associated

later

with

the reign of Nissanka Malla (i 198-1207); this

and viharas

the collection of temples

so-called Great Quadrangle, in

what

must have been the centre of the

Only
are

few can be selected

among

configuration of the world mountain. Actually,

the building

is

much

closer in style to

at

is

in the

one time

capital [302].

for analysis, but they

the most beautiful and satisfyingly

the

San Mahapon

at

any structure known

Lamp'un

the benefit of the

in

Siam 23 than

in India proper. It

Singhalese kings, so that

its

unique elevation

could" be explained as an intentional imitation of

one of the more familiar

Nearby

named

is

the

Khmer

'Hata-da-ge' 24 [304]. This structure

and

built entirely of finely cut

ashlar

types.

Tooth Relic Temple, mis-

masonry.

It

rests

on

fitted

an

encircling

The

pyramidal

originally a stupa,

Pasada [303].
sastras

Its

known

shrine,

as

the Sat

perhaps

Mahal

shape conforms to what in the

would be designated

as a

Meru

temple,

walls proper are

lions.

bare, except for

two

rectangular areas on the facade enclosed in a

sunken

relief pattern of harhsa

and containing

inscriptions incised into the face of the wall.

The

effect

produced by these

with the seven successive storeys of the terraced

surface, relieved only

structure representing the imagined hieratic

face ornament,

304. Polonnaruwa, 'Hata-da-ge'

left

is

blocks of

world. In the extreme north-east corner of this

the

for

Cambodian mercenaries of the

podium ornamented with panels of seated

is

may

up expressly

proportioned buildings in the entire Indian

precinct

many

of the pre-Angkorean shrines of Cambodia and

well be that this temple was put

into action.

375

is

large areas of wall

by the most delicate sur-

not unlike that produced by

376

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

the similar contrast of plain ashlar surface and

one time covered by a roof of wood and

sharply shadowed frieze in the Ionic Treasury

supported in part by the row of

of the Syphnians.

The doorway

is

unorna-

mented, save by the mouldings of almost Attic

simplicity.

At the top of the wall

is

a continuous

of the

Thuparama

at

is

The

so close to that

Anuradhapura

that the

connexion between these two thupa-gharas

is

entablature with a delicately carved band of

probably more than coincidence. Indeed, in

hamsa, which provides another accent for the

thirteenth-century texts, the

undecorated wall surfaces. 25

referred to as a 'Wata-da-ge'.

The

entrance

is

flanked by two makara balustrades which are

The

sanctuary

circular

Thuparama
rests

is

also

on an un-

of naga guardians. These

decorated base; on the inner circumference of

can hardly be distinguished from the dvarapalas

the wide platform rises the wall of a second

of Anuradhapura.

terrace, its

preceded by

reliefs

Immediately adjoining

this

sanctuary

is

one

of the loveliest examples of Singhalese architecture,

which may perhaps be

identified as the

Wata-da-ge - 'round temple of the tooth

built

by Parakrama Bahu

Culavamsa

[305].

26

The

I,

mentioned

entire structure

305. Polonnaruwa, Wata-da-ge

I

resemblance of the plan [306]

tiles,

pillars.

relic'

pilasters.

and dwarfs separated by short

Above

this rises the railing

of the

upper processional path, divided into panels

with a delicate lotiform ornament; this wall

in the

originally

was

pillars,

at

podium carved with superimposed

friezes of lions

supported

succession

of stone

intended, like the columns surrounding

*>*
\ob.

Polonnaruwa, Wata-da-ge

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

378

the

early

stupas

at

Anuradhapura,

the

for

support of the domical roof. This level of the

shrine

is

reached by stairways

at

the four

cardinal points; girdled by the pradaksina

is

the

inner round brick shrine enclosing a low stupa

with

images

directions. 27

Tooth

patterned

the

after

ancient

stupa railing or vedika; within, on a raised

platform, rises a granite

clump of columns

in

the shape of curling lotus stems with capitals

in the

form of opening buds. The

visitor has

an

four

immediate and curious impression of beholding

Shrine of the

Bernini's baldacchino suddenly transported to

the beauty of the Wata-da-ge

the jungles of Ceylon. Although these columns

of

As

Relic,

Buddhas

stone enclosure

facing

in the adjoining

depends on the subtlety of

delicate contrasts of plain
faces. Special attention

its

the

proportions and

and ornamented sur-

must be

may have upheld

their

wooden superstructure,

primary function was purely and simply

called to the

figuration in stone of the great symbolic flower

loveliness of the rhythmically repeated curva-

of Buddhism, appropriate to a shrine intended

ture of the mouldings and railings and central

for offerings to the deity of the

same flowers

shrine, as seen particularly well in illustrations

sold outside every temple today.

The

305 and 306.

one of extreme chastity and Baroque fancy that

Another unique type of Singhalese architectural

monument

same quadrangle
Lata Mandapaya;

is

also to be

[307].
it

This

is

found

in this

the Nissahka

consists of a rectangular

307. Polonnaruwa, Nissarika Lata

Mandapaya Qt> V'

/

3F

effect is

has no rival in any Indian shrine.

Another contemporary structure

called

Northern Temple from

that quarter of the city of

its

is

the so-

location in

Polonnaruwa

[308].

CEYLON

The

exterior of this large rectangular brick

was originally completely ornamented

edifice

in

stucco, with a series of niches housing statues of

and separated by attenuated

deities

308. Polonnaruwa, Northern

Temple,

pilasters

detail

reminiscent of the style of Chola architecture. 28

Of even

greater interest were the paintings of

Jataka scenes, which at one time completely

covered the interior walls of the sanctuary;

unfortunately these have deteriorated to such

an extent that no photograph can give any ade-

quate idea of their

style.

Like the

earlier Sigiriya

paintings, they have a provincial flavour that

may be
Indian

the Singhalese equivalent of a South

style.

Examples

^^^^^^^^^^^m
Singhalese

of

metal-work

are

known from the very earliest period of Buddhist

art. Somewhat later in date is a splendid female
statue of pale, gold-coloured brass in the British

Museum

[309].

This

is

one of the

finest speci-

mens of Singhalese Hindu metal-work. The

traditionally identified as Pattini Devi,

figure

is

and

said to have

is

come from

part of the island.

309. Brass Pattini

London, British

The

the north-eastern

great beauty of the

Devi from north-eastern Ceylon.

Museum

379

modelling of the nude torso and the clinging

drapery of the dhoti

is

reminiscent of Gupta

workmanship. Coomaraswamy has noted certain parallels to the so-called

Parakrama Bahu

380

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

statue at Polonnaruwa, 29 but actually the closest

stylistic

comparison

apsaras of the Sigiriya frescoes:

same exaggerated
narrow

waist

the

mented with

we note

the

are unmistakably

is

fullness of the breasts

combined

with

an

and

elaborate

the Great

a series of niches

Temple

and

pilasters that

from the same workshop

at

as

Tanjore. 30

Hindu

In the ruins of this and other

shrines

towering head-dress as in the Sigiriya nymphs.

were recovered some of the

On

Hindu Renaissance, earlier than any specimens

known in India proper. It is likely that these

the basis of this comparison

it

seems

justifi-

able to assign the image to the sixth to eighth

"y,

massive ashlar blocks and the exterior orna-

in

for this figure

finest

centuries.

were cast by Tamil

Mention should be made of the various

Hindu temples or Siva Devales, uncovered in
the jungles of Polonnaruwa. These sanctuaries

the

were probably erected during the period of

quern for their manufacture.

310. Polonnaruwa, Siva Devale No.

Chola occupation

in the eleventh century

nor

less

style

[310].

and

II in the

As might be expected,
the Siva Devale No. 1 are no more

century.

shrines like

than miniature constructions in the

of Chola architecture in southern India

The

building illustrated

is

accordance with

employed

canons

eleventh-century Tanjore.

The

date

in

of the

temple's desecration furnishes a terminus ante

Among

the finest

were desecrated by Parakrama Bahu

thirteenth

silpins in

and

techniques

bronzes of the

constructed of

of these statues

is

the beautiful Nataraja in the

Colombo Museum,

already discussed in our

chapter on the metal images of the Chola Period.

The

statue

Polonnaruwa
close

is

of Sundaramurtiswami
a fitting object

from

with which to

our account of Singhalese

art

[311].

Probably made by artisans imported from the

J8i

311.

Bronze Sundaramurtiswami from Polonnaruwa.

Colombo,

Museum

Tamil country,
ecstatic radiance

it

reveals the

and

is

same wonderful

art

fell

on

evil

days; scarcely a

monument

animated by the same

worthy of serious consideration survives from

suggestion of complete balance and imminent

the various later capitals, including the final

movement that characterizes the great examples

of Hindu metal images in South India.
With the final conquest of Polonnaruwa by

tectural forms

the Tamils in the thirteenth century Singhalese

considerable degeneration, does the tradition of

stronghold

nique

do

at

Kandy. Some of the old archiand

survive,

debased sculptural tech-

and

so,

in

state

of

382

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

painting; but beyond a certain felicity in the

carving of architectural details on

kandy

was produced

I.

with regret that

It is

we

leave the subject of

Ceylon, an art which, over a period of

more than

fifteen

hundred

and exquisite

vigour

sculpture,

years, reveals great

taste

and painting,

in

architecture,

marvellous inte-

matched anywhere

gration that can scarcely be

in the

the

under

Renaissance

the

after

Parakrama Bahu

art in

some of

temples, nothing of real artistic worth

Buddhist world. The best of the archi-

tecture and the best of the sculpture have a truly

classic quality of balance

and perfection and

constitute final models of technical probity.

What must be one of the earliest examples of the

decorative arts in Ceylon
the Yatthala dagaba,

from the third

to the

Represented on
wicker throne.

this

is

a carnelian seal

second century

gem

is a

The nude

B.C. [312].

king seated on a

figure in

its

and attenuated proportions suggests the

style of

Amaravati

from

which has been dated

as represented

elegant
earliest

by the

reliefs

from Jaggayyapeta

[34].

Wicker chairs of

make

their

appearance both in

similar type

Kushan and Amaravati

centuries of our era.

carvings of the early

312

(left).

Carnelian seal from the Yatthala dagaba.

Manchester,

Museum

313. Ivory plaque with Rati

from Ceylon.

Cambridge, Mass., Fogg Art

Museum

CEYLON

Singhalese ivories, even as late as the seven-

goldsmith work, notably in

varieties of

motifs with

work and the embedding of

indication of further influence

383

Singhalese jewellers have always excelled in

teenth century, continue to preserve traditional

little

from the Indian mainland. Notable are the large

setting of soft gold.

ivory plaques with representations of richly

necklaces,

filigree

tiny jewels in a

These exquisite

objects -

bejewelled divinities [313]. These rather drily

and single beads, usually

hollow and made of wire and seed-like gems -

carved figures appear enveloped in a network of

have an exquisite and rarefied delicacy of

jewelled ornaments, but their descent, both

iconographically

is

of the

immediately apparent

heavy undercutting

is

from

stylistically,

of dvarapalas

stone-carvings

periods

and

Kama or Rati,

is

The

medium.

gods of love, with

flower arrow and sugar-cane bow.

Singhalese craftsmen have been distinguished

in the art of

ornaments

metalwork since early times, and

precious

in

metals,

exquisite

design and technique, have been

modern

times. 31

Bronze

made

in

until

vessels dedicated to

temple use and dating from the twelfth century

and

have been found

earlier

throughout the island. There

at

many

are, for

sites

example,

bronze lamps, some recalling ancient

Roman

shapes and others in the form of lotus plants

like similar

types found in Cambodia.

A remark-

able example of this kind of temple furniture

a

lamp

in the

found

basin,

is

shape of an elephant standing in a

at

Dedigama, the legendary birth-

place of the great

King Parakrama Bahu, and

dated to the twelfth century [314].

The magnifi-

cent plastic form of the elephant stands in a

and when the

basin,
a

low

level,

pachyderm
receptacle.

oil in this

in the case of so

impossible to

local

India.

burned

to

to urinate a fresh supply into this

Singhalese metalwork of this

it is

vessel

an ingenious mechanism caused the

As

tell

many

objects of

final renaissance,

whether

this object is

of

manufacture or an import from South

It

bears a certain resemblance to the

famous lamp from the Jogesvari caves [262] and

the carved elephants of the Ruvanveli dagaba at

Anuradhapura

[289].

that can never be appreciated in

the craftsman's exploita-

tion of the pictorial possibilities of his

Represented

workmanship

photographic reproductions. 32

earlier

296).

(cf.

the

clasps,

314. Bronze lamp from Dedigama.

Dedigama, Museum

CHAPTER 21

CAMBODIA:

THE ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF THE KHMERS

Mouhot,

In i860 Henri

French botanist

Siam, stirred by natives' reports of empty

pushed onward into the great

lost in the jungle,

Mekong River,

forests of the

tropic

until,

one burning

dawn, he looked upon the incredible

spectacle of the towers of

some

in

cities

Angkor

rising like

mirage of mountain peaks above

fantastic

the sea of jungle.

There had,

to

be sure, been

discredited tales of vanished cities by Spanish

missionaries as early as the seventeenth century, !

but

Mouhot's discovery was the

the

first

modern Western world knew of one of the

great

civilizations of Asia.

Even

Cochin China, and southern Siam. Presumably

it

marked

who even

more than

development from the

earliest

had occupied the land around

earlier

mouths of the Mekong and Menam rivers.

From this earliest period of Cambodian history
the

there

abundant evidence, both

is

finds,

and of reports of Chinese

form of

in the

con-

visitors, to

firm the close relations between the

kingdom of

Funan, India, and China. 3 There are indicatoo,

tions,

that during these

same centuries

Indian colonists established themselves in

parts of

until quite recently, after

settlements by peoples of Sino-Tibetan origin,

Cambodia and

the

many

Malay Peninsula;

indeed, the finds of sculpture in the style of the

eighty years of research had largely resolved

Later Andhras in Java and even the Celebes

the problems of the history of the builders of

indicate the extent of the spread of Indian

Cambodian

Buddhism and

civilization,

used to be fondly

it

believed - and the legend probably survives in

'science-fiction'

- that the colossal ruins

Indo-China were the work of

origins are as mysterious as

we

its

in

whose

race

disappearance.

Asia.

The

already

its

art over all south-eastern

kings of the earliest dynasty had

adopted

the

the origins of their culture. All the

pre-Khmer

shall

be concerned with trac-

of this

ing the history of art in

Cambodia, culminating

and seventh centuries point

In this chapter

in the great

monuments

of Angkor.

patronymic

Pallava

-vartnan (protector), a very sure indication of

of this

earliest

monuments

civilization of the fifth, sixth,

style.

to the

Indian origin

Pre-Khmer

Indo-

or

Khmer is the name given to this period from

I.

THE PRE-KHMER PERIOD

According
ancient

to

The

Chinese legend, Funan, the most

kingdom

was founded
a

first to

in present

in the first

day Indo-China,

century A.D.,

when

Brahmin adventurer, Kaundinya, espoused

the

the seventh century.

earliest architecture of

the population of the region,

Cambodia,
is

like

mixture of

indigenous elements and forms imported by

Indian cultural invasions.
invariably

of an

isolated

The temples
sanctuary,

consist
a

form

native princess; according to native variants of

determined by the necessity

the story, this princess was a nagini, one of those

shrines to house the cult images of the deified

half-human,

half-serpentine

beings,

who

in

India are the spirits of the waters.- This earliest

kingdom comprised the

territory of

Cambodia,

for

individual

ancestors of the royal house. 4

The

largest centres of

Pre-Khmer

what

is

properly called

civilization are located at

Sambor

386

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

and Prei K.uk, the ancient

Thorn on the road from Saigon

There one may

Funan,

capitals of

the almost impenetrable jungles near

in

Kompong

to

see literally dozens of

overgrown with vegetation and scarcely

in the

Angkor.

adequately photographed

towered

stration 315 will give the reader an idea of the

shrines in brick and stone, most of them covered

giant banyans rooted in the spires. Forecasting

technique of

later

Khmer

numbers of the individual

temple planners,
cells set

within a

more

walled enclosure are grouped around a

impressive central edifice. These towers, each

originally containing a cult

image or lingam, are

either square or rectangular in plan.

The

super-

structure rises in gradually diminishing stages

so that the buildings are conical in profile.

only ornament

is

massive stone

lintels

with a

frame of makaras and carved brick panels

the

main

wall faces.

The

set in

These panels generally

represent a miniature prasada, perhaps a replica

of the shrine

315.

316

itself.

The

sanctuaries at

Sambor,

the drawing in illu-

general appearance of most of them.

Both the use of brick

with vines or crushed in the octopus grasp of

visible

green half-light of the jungle, cannot be

employment

as a material

carved

for

and

suggest Indian precedents, such as the temples

at

Sirpur and Bhitargaoh.

similar

employ-

ment of brick ornament may be seen in the early

temple at Bayang [316]. The main temple of
Siva, dramatically
in the first years

crowning

a hilltop,

was

of the seventh century.

built

It is a

rectangular shrine - a plan occasionally found

at

Sambor, too - surmounted by

a keel roof

of Bhima's rath at

mind the form

Mamallapuram [233]. The

building

three

of the vesara type that

rises

in

calls to

diminishing storeys

demarcated by cornices with blind chaitya

windows. These storeys, unlike the similar

Sambor, shrine
(right).

Phnom Bayang

/:

...

its

decoration

exterior

,
J

111, 11

H4J1 lui

gun

art!?

Is

IIDI!

PI f f

1|

jjjjjg

jtjx>

LL^

f>

.?

J-

.TT/pn

1R

CAMBODIA: THE KHMERS

317. Prei

Kuk,

cella

terraces of Indian temples, are not functional

stone have been found at

but entirely decorative - evidently borrowings

where. 5

from

Gupta

The employment

type.

vesara roof as a finial

is

of the

anticipated in such

One

of these

is

Sambor and

[317]: rectangular in form,

it

subdivided by pilasters and

monolithic

mented by

arches enclose heads of deities, as

is

again an adaptation of

an Indian model, such as the shrine

it

shows an

at

Bhumara

interior cella separated

from

the outside wall by a passage intended for ritual

circumambulation.
shrines at

These

earliest

Sambor and Bayang

though not directly

related, to

Khmer

are a parallel,

many Javanese

is

Kuk

has plain walls

of the Bayang temple

roof which

else-

a small cella at Prei

monuments as the porch of the Kailasa

Temple at Kancipuram [239]. The ground plan
Indian

[165];

387

flat

girdled by a roll cornice orna-

These
we have

the device of chaitya arches.

Gupta and

already seen

them

tecture. It

possible that this stone cell was at

is

in

Pallava archi-

one time preceded by a wooden mandapa.

The

sculpture of the

pre-Khmer Period

reveals an indebtedness to Indian

more obvious than

models even

in the buildings surviving

temples. Both are derived from the same Indian

from these centuries; indeed, many of the

prototypes.

Buddha images found

Although the majority of pre-Khmer temples

are of brick, a few constructed entirely of sand-

earliest

at

the centre of the

Indian settlements in Siam and

Cam-

bodia are so closely related to types of Gupta

388

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

sculpture that one might well mistake

works

of actual

Indian

them

for

The

[318].

having been carved by

of their

possibility

origin

imported craftsmen can of course not be dis-

The Buddha images

regarded.

found

Takeo and

at

Prei

that have

been

Krabas have the same

gentle dehanchement and transparent sheathlike

robes as those which characterize the Gupta

Buddhas of Sarnath and some of the

rock-cut images in Cave

One
type

Gupta

late

at Ajanta.

of the most beautiful examples of the

a

is

specimen from northern Siam, now

Museum

the Seattle Art

in the beautiful

the

XIX

loveliest

[319].

ordering of

in

Buddhist

its

The head
parts,

art.

swallow-wing eyebrows are made

is

The
in

in

alone,

one of

arching

conformity

with the injunction of the sastras, suggesting the

leaves of the neem tree as a

arched brows.
is

echoed

head

The

metaphor

in the curve of the full lips.

have

alike

solidity of

for the

lotus-petal shape of the eyes

the

simplicity

Body and

and

plastic

Gupta Buddhas, but the whole

is

imbued with a new feeling of inner tension that

makes it a veritable emblem of serenity and
ecstasy.

Throughout
a

the history of Cambodia

we

find

continuous alternation, sometimes from reign

to reign,

This

is

between Buddhism and Hinduism.

true of the very earliest period,

and some

of the most remarkable pieces of sculpture in

Further Indian

art

date from one of these

Hindu supremacy, presumably the

seventh century, when the kingdom of Funan
periods of

was divided, with one

The most
is

capital at

Sambor.

often reproduced of these images

a free-standing statue of Harihara

318 {left). Buddha from Prei Krabas.

Phnom Penh, Musee Albert S arrant
319.

Buddha from northern Siam.

Art Museum

Seattle,

from Prasat

r
\ m

390

320. Harihara from Prasat Andet.

Andet near Sambor

Phnom Penh, Musee

details,

Albert Sarraut

^>

[320].

Although certain

notably the cylindrical head-dress and

piercing of the ears for earrings, are reminiscent

Andhra and
more than

of Indian sculpture from the Later

Pallava Periods, the statue, perhaps

any other single work of Cambodian sculpture,

autonomous
As Coomaraswamy puts it, 'The

gives the impression of an original

creation.

Cambodian

figure exhibits a miraculous con-

centration of energy

combined with the

subtlest

and most voluptuous modelling. Works of this

kind are individual creations - not, that is to
say, creations of personal genius unrelated to

the racial imagination, but creations of a unique

moment.' 7 Partly
is

suggestion of 'energy'

this

imparted by the way

in

which the weight

distributed, so that the god seems about to

into the steps of a dance;

much

the

it is

in a sense very

same type of balance and

of thrust that characterizes the

Polyclitus.
dress, but

Not only

is

move

alternation

Diadoumenos of

the shape of the head-

even more the minimal working of

the sculptural surface, the suggestion of plastic

volume

remind us of

in almost abstract terms,

the perfection of the carvers of ancient Egyptian

art.

Early Brahmanic figures, like the Harihara

and the torso of either Krishna or Lokesvara

in

the Stoclet Collection in Brussels [321], have a

wonderful athletic litheness about them,

a feel-

ing of resilient inner vitality. In contrast to the

general simplification of the

precise
textile

definition

patterns. 8

period of

surface

the

is

of details of drapery and

of this

Characteristic

Cambodian sculpture

first

are the eyes,

represented entirely open, and the

full lips

with

only a slight suggestion of the smile so typical of

Khmer

sculpture of later periods.

2. THE CLASSIC PERIOD:

EARLY PHASE (80O-I000)

In so far as

it is

possible to conclude on the basis

of contemporary Chinese accounts, the

kingdom of Funan disintegrated

first

in a period

of

321. Lokesvara

from Cambodia.

Brussels, Stoclet Collection

392

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

warfare during the seventh and eighth centuries.

It split

into

two

principalities designated

now

Chen-la of the Land and Chen-la of the Sea. 9

as

There

are mentions for the

first

Khmers, who presumably were

their

autonomy during

Hereafter

it is

proper to speak of

Khmer

earlier styles

building tradition

is

art as

with their

architecture and forms and techniques

imported from India. According

to the

French

scholar, Parmentier, the original timber build-

ings consisted of halls or galleries

by angular

surmounted

tiled roofs, often multiplied or piled

may

is

Khmer

timber construction of Cambodian or

origin in Chen-la, contributed the concept of

towers joined by walled

elements,

native

tectural

There
chosen

development
are

galleries.

All

at

last

phase of archi-

Angkor.

many monuments

that could be

to illustrate the successive steps

this solution.

these

and Indian, northern and

southern, merge in the

composed of

elements derived from an earlier indigenous

wooden

groups,

Northern architecture, derived from indigenous

asserted

heavy dependence on Indian models.

The Khmer

ancient

in

Cambodian

this period of upheaval.

something replacing the

in

the most important feature of temple-building.

who

people from northern Indo-China

wooden prototypes

Funan, the tower, either singly or

of the

time
the

now

the earlier southern style of architecture based

ultimately on

towards

But within the limitations of

this

book we can mention only the dedications by

Yasovarman
remarkable

at

for

Lolei (Roluos) near Angkor,

the

concept of grouping a

number of

individual cellas on a single terrace

modern architecture of Cambodia, Siam, and

Burma. 10 A distinction is also to be made

and

new cruciform

between northern and southern elements. In

separate towers containing statues of divinities

up

in

pyramidal fashion, as

322. Lolei (Roluos), towers

be seen

in the

for the

towers

[322].

This

plan of the individual

arrangement

of

many

CAMBODIA: THE KHMERS

mandala has

in a sort of

its

origin in the very

Sambor and

earliest precincts at

the ninth century the tower

Prei

Kuk. By

form had reached

stage in

ably

removed from any dependence on Indian

development, already consider-

At Lolei the sanctuaries dedicated

and

to Siva

Parvati are cruciform in plan with massive pro-

and

jecting porticoes, real

forming the

false,

arms of a cross around the central square of the

building.

The

cessively

diminishing

superstructure
storeys

suc-

rises

in

in

manner

faintly reminiscent of Dra vidian temples;

it

was

a stupika or finial ultimately derived

from the same source. Miniature

whole shrine stood

The

With regard
it

to the cult of the

must be explained

that the

replicas of the

corners of each level.

at the

construction of these towers

is

brick, with

stucco also employed for relief decoration.

whom the well-being of the realm was confided.

The

and

cult of the Devaraja centred

a sacred

lingam which was imbued with

ritual

around

the essence of divine kingship and installed in a

temple-mountain, described

the Universe.

The

around

it

were

to

and supported by
doorway,

tympanum,

its

is

framing the

pilasters

even more

an

this

massive

shape suggesting a flattened

trilobed chaitya arch.

Beyond the

stand together on an

fact that they

platform, the

artificial

Of extreme importance

Khmer

Summarizing the

we

notice the appearance in archi-

of other

new

completely

types

building methods and ornamentation.

important and typical

cella

of the

is

of

Most

the elevation of the

pre-Khmer type

to the

summit of a

this
first

capital

It

can be stated that the

was founded by Yasovarman

its

as

was the centre of

this sanctuary

rangle, nearly

two miles on

Khmer Empire

or

Mount

Kailasa,

is,

of

cept of praribtmba, the

making of

either sacred

a side,

a vast

deviated

from

its

this site

course

to

quad-

and bounded

on the east by the Siemreap River

temple-mountain and

Mount Meru

Yasodharapura,

its

result of the cult of the

course, the importation of the old Indian con-

city of

name from the king, Yasovarman,

was built around the temple of Phnom Bakheng
between Angkor Wat and Angkor Thorn [323];
which took

Presumably

mountain, simulating the imagined shape of

as

Bayon temple or the shrine

the Phimeanakas in the city of Angkor

stepped base are the

either

(889-

had

centre either the

lofty

The temple-

910). It used to be believed that this city

sanctuary and

of the Devaraja or 'God-king'. 11

famous site of Angkor.

by generations of French archaeologists on

The form

its

the

vexing problem, 13

stepped pyramid.

of this type of

is

results of brilliant researches

Thorn. Actually, the

art,

architecture

question of the chronology of the successive

known

tecture

state.

to us in its relation

of the temple-mountain and the

to the cult

one to another.

Khmer

perpetuity

kingship essential to the security of the

shrines have no real architectural relationship

In the beginnings of the Classic Period of

a cult in

ensure the magic essence of

capitals established at the

makara heads. Above

inscrip-

consecration of this symbol

and the continuance of

carved with foliate motifs framed in a reversed

in

many

and the Empire - and magically in the centre of

development of

U, terminating

in

tions as being located in the centre of the capital

Khmer architectural
sculpture is the door lintels that are now heavily

distinctive feature for later

lintel,

it

even

were regarded as incarnations

in their lifetimes,

sandstone for the doorways and niches, with

whole

Devaraja 12

Khmer kings,

of a deity like Siva, Vishnu, or Lokesvara, to

prototypes.

crowned by

celestial regions in archi-

tectural constructions.

new

its

mountains or unseen

393

form

artificially

moat.

remained the capital of the

until the

founding of a new

Angkor Thorn by Jayavarman VII

(1181-1201), with the Bayon as its centre and
capital at

temple-mountain. 14

The temple-mountain in
may be illustrated by the

its

simplest form

shrine of Baksei

323. Angkor,

Yasodharapura and Angkor

Thom

CAMBODIA: THE KHMERS

395

Chamkrong, dated 947, and standing in the

shadow of Phnom Bakheng [324]. Here a tower
of the type seen at Roluos and Lolei
the

summit of

staircases

on

all

pyramid of

is

placed on

five storeys

with

four sides. Originally there were

sedent lions flanking these approaches at each

level of the ascent.

course, the

'official'

This temple was

not, of

temple-mountain of the

realm, but a lesser dedication, perhaps to a

deified royal ancestor.

The Phnom Bakheng itself, sometimes

desig-

nated as 'the resting place of Indra', was a true

temple-mountain dedicated to the worship of

the Devaraja, Yasovarman, in the magic centre

of his capital and realm [325]. 15

It is

located at

the intersection of great avenues leading to

gates in the city walls.
artful
324. Angkor, Baksei

325. Angkor,

Chamkrong

Phnom Bakheng

The sanctuary is

camouflaging of a natural

really

hill in

an

stone.

396

'

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

This eminence has been made into

pyramid

in rive levels. Five

a terraced

sandstone towers

stand on the upper terrace, with smaller replicas

on the lower stages of the elevation. Presumably

at

one time the spires

shrines

at the

grouped around

building, in which the

top were auxiliary

vanished central

symbol of the god-king

was worshipped. The most important architectural aspect of this building

a

is

the location of

group of still isolated individual towers on the

summit of

a pyramid.

Before the solution of the riddles of the Bayon

and

Phnom Bakheng,

that the sanctuary

'celestial palace'

Yasovarman

327.
it

known as the Phimeanakas or

was the temple-mountain of

[326].

Angkor Thorn, Phimeanakas

used to be maintained

This was presumably

built in the tenth century as a subsidiary

within the walls of Yasodharapura.

temple

chief temple-mountain of the Empire.

exists today, the

monument

As

it

consists of a three-

storeyed pyramid faced with sandstone and

surrounded on

its

topmost storey by

a fene-

too

strated stone gallery [327]. Stairways with lion

small and inaccessible ever to have served as the

guardians on each landing lead to the summit

326.

Angkor Thorn, Phimeanakas

It

is

LAMHUUIA: IHh KHMtKS

on

all

The

four sides of the massive base.

repetition

of multiple horizontal mouldings

around each terrace

device adding to the

is

sense of height that reappears in

many

later

buildings. Probably the superstructure of the

is

the quadrangle

In

employed

Khmer

beginnings we find

Khmer

in later

architecture

from

struggle

buildings.
earliest

its

between the

horizontal and vertical elements of the structure.

This was conditioned by the primitive character

the presence here of

of the vaulting available to the builders, and by

is

concentric galleries connecting the tower pavilions at the corners

with slender stone balusters, such as were

universally

of

sanctuary was originally of wood.

chief import for us

What

filled

397

and over the entrances of

on the top

This

the

demand

for large sanctuaries with

chapels. Since

it

many

was impossible with corbelled

the

vaulting to cover anything but the narrowest

beginning of the employment of an element

spaces, edifices covering a large area under one

of northern architecture which was to be one of

roof could not be built.

the

most

many

later

architecture. Probably here, as

and more grandiose temples, the

were intended either for the accom-

galleries

modation of pilgrims or

for the storage

distribution of grain as alms.

this

\2%.

is

distinctive aspects in the final develop-

ment of Khmer
in

storey.

peristyle at

and

The openings

in

Phimeanakas were originally

Anekor Thorn, Takeo

de^v\

cV^C^^

^v

development

of

The

plan

result

with

was the

many

small

individual units joined by narrow corridors or

galleries.

horizontal

Opposed

to

this

distribution

tendency towards

was

the

desire

for

vertically which arose from the need for buildings symbolizing the

world mountain.

The

struggle was finally resolved by placing the

r.

329.

Angkor Wat

^ n. ivi i> \j u i n.

330.

Angkor Wat,

air

small sanctuaries

them by an

together on the top of one

all

Angkor Wat, linking

as at

elaborate system of connecting

this

the

problem

important
period:

many
is

temples of this transitional

unfinished

Takeo, founded in

B^

structure

we

steps in the resolution of

one of the largest and most

Khmer

the

a.d.

Saivite

sanctuary of

889 [328].

In

this

find a collection of eight separate

^f\ towers located on the uppermost platform of a

stepped pyramid. These sandstone spires were

perhaps dedicated to eight manifestations of

Siva.

As

in

the

Phimeanakas,

galleries link the angle spires

race, but the towers

most

level. It

JVV

structure to produce the final and most compli-

cated development of

This brings us

Khmer

fenestrated

of the lowest ter-

remain isolated on the top-

required only the joining of these

individual shrines and separate levels of the

architecture.

to the task of analysing the

grandest and most famous

galleries.

Among

int/ ivniviLnj

view

pyramid and,

central

monument of Khmer

Angkor Wat [329 and

Every writer on the ruins of Angkor has

civilization, the shrine of

330].

16

complained of

his inability to

convey

to

his

readers an adequate impression of this vast dead

city rising silent

above the jungle. Even Pierre

Loti in Le Pelerin

Angkor

d' Angkor

wrote of his

visit to

as the greatest experience of his life

'Au fond des

forets

du Siam,

soir s'elever sur les ruines

j'ai

de

Angkor.' Whether we see the

vu

la

l'etoile

du

mysterieuse

monument

at

dawn, when the towers seem consumed by

orange fire, or in the light of the full moon, when
the effect

is

that of a range of incredible silvered

peaks against the dark sky, the impression

33i-

Angkor Wat

CAMBODIA: THE KHMERS

which

this fabulous ruin

makes on the

incomparable. This effect

is

is

only in part due to

the beauty of the architecture;

greater degree

visitor

4OI

to

an even

caused by the immensity of

it is

the scale and the complete isolation of this great

temple-mausoleum

in the jungle stillness. Per-

might be compared

haps

it

that

would be produced on

impression

to the

wanderer

in

another millennium coming suddenly upon the

Manhattan

ruins of

and empty

rising silent

above the Hudson.

The

city of

Suryavarman

ment

Angkor Wat was the

to the Devaraja

monu-

and the sepulchre of

The monument

founder.

creation of

once

II (11 12-52), at

is

its

orientated towards

the west and laid out on a rectangular plan, sur-

moat nearly two and a half miles

The main entrance is
causeway lined on either side by balus-

rounded by
in

circumference [331].

over a

trades in the shape of giant nagas that rear their

enormous hoods

at the

beginning of this avenue.

A monumental portal on a cruciform

base forms

The

the frontispiece to the temple proper.

foundations of the sanctuary are a vast stone

platform, over three thousand feet on a side.

After passing through the portico, the visitor

finds himself in a vast galjery,

more than

half a

mile in circumference, decorated for some two

thousand
reliefs

of

five

hundred

feet of its length

332.

Angkor Wat,

central shrine

with

from the legend of Vishnu and the Land

Yama, the Lord of Death. This

cloistered

arcade forms the outer perimeter of the entire

stairway rising from the main portico

sides

rising

at

precipitous angles,

increase the illusion of height.

serves

to

At the very

this level

summit looms the topmost spire, joined to the

galleries surrounding the uppermost level by
cruciform arcades. At the angles of this highest

another staircase on the main axis brings us to

storey lesser sikhara towers echo the shape of

the second level of the temple in the form of a

the central spire, originally

plan.

leads to a square, crossed by galleries

and con-

From

taining four small

open

courts.

great courtyard surrounded by colonnades

with towers at the corners.

this

From

and

the centre of

lotus

crowned by a golden

which rose over two hundred

the ground.

Under

this central

feet

above

tower which

platform rises the mountainous turreted

contained the image of the Devaraja was dis-

Khmer

covered a well, more than one hundred and

pyramid,

itself the size

of

many

earlier

temples, that supports the innermost shrine of

the sanctuary [332].

The

steep declivity of this

tremendous mound, with stairways on

all

four

twenty

feet deep, in

objects

was found.

which

It is likely

deposit of gold
that this shaft

symbolized the world pivot that was the pestle

402

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

employed by the gods and giants in the churning

Sea of Milk.

of the

Here

at

Angkor Wat the whole temple

levels

stepped pyramid, with

is

in

stellate
it is

of the

plans

temples

Khmer

Indian antecedent to this

of

any one

really impossible to assign

The

form.

terraced

towers are built in nine levels or rings of

completely unified by connecting galleries

masonry, and each one of these horizontal

reality a vast,

and

favourite

Mysore,

staircases.

its

Indeed, the temple marks a

divisions

girdled by sharply pointed acroteria,

is

culmination of all the architectural refinements

their shapes vaguely suggestive of the chaitya

More than any-

arch form. All these projecting details, however,

contained in earlier buildings.

thing else,

it is

the cruciform plan, with

its

arms

joining the enclosing galleries at each level, that

made possible the architectural unity of

new and grandiose ensemble, a plan that,

like

universal radiant

power of

lesser replicas

Roi Soleil or

mass

is

effect of scale

Khmer builders is the

obtained by subtle methods of

from one

transition

level to another: the roofs

of the galleries overlap or telescope one another,

so that each lower level
a

becomes progressively

smaller replica of the upper segment.

monument marks

the

successful

The
inte-

and horizontal elements

of vertical

gration

final

which had always troubled the Khmer architects.

'As a correlation of parts to the whole, in

the measured
ception, in a
lation,

word

in the

the entire con-

cadency of

its

articu-

has few equals.' 17

it

The

movement of

individual

spires

bombshell or pine-cone

Angkor have

profile,

only faintly

[332]. Ultimately, of course, the prototype

is

the Indian sikhara, but the towers of Angkor are

from the sikharas of Bhuvanesvar

by Christopher Wren

from

its

Gothic prototype. The bases of the towers

at

as a spire

Angkor

differs

are square, but a transition to a star-

shaped plan
curvature.

is

made

Although

might be tempting

at the

in this

to see a

ing

its

fabric are individually

and

collectively

single type of

moulding and fenestration could

be traced step by step through an evolution

beginning with the very
architecture. 18

Cambodian

Among the

elements worthy of special notice

in

examples of

earliest

is

which the curved roofs of the

multiple

manner

the

galleries are

carved in imitation of earlier overlapping

construction; each individual
the shape of a lotus petal.
cloister

on the

first level

'tile'

The openings

and

the temple were originally

all

the

filled

tile

cut in

is

of the

windows of

with slender

balusters in continuation of a technique already

observed

at

the Phimeanakas.

noted that there

in the pillars

is

no

It

should be

Khmer

distinctive

order

used for support in the structure

of Angkor Wat: these are for the most part

at

suggested in the towers of earlier structures

as different

plan and elevation

decoration. Again, the development of each

at

Again typical of the originality and

galleries.

its

enhanced

on the corners of the

the sense of rhythm of the

Just as the temple in

marks the high point of architectural design in

Cambodia, so the hundreds of details compristhe ultimate refinement of Khmer architectural

of the innermost tower

successively lower levels

interfere with the verticality of the

Indian

a principle of

origin, the scale of the central

by

no way

soaring profile.

this

another Versailles, was calculated to suggest the

Devaraja [330]. Following

in

beginning of the
latter

regard

it

connexion with the

square posts with a very simple lotiform necking at the top of the individual shafts in no

comparable with the elaborate

pillars

Indo-Aryan and Dra vidian orders

builders of
skill

and

in India.

Angkor Wat displayed the

taste in

way

of the

The

greatest

providing textural variety to

the exterior in terms of light and shade;

we have

already seen evidence of this in the carving of

the -roofs; and

it

is

especially notable in the

depth and number of torus mouldings relieving,

and

at the

same time strengthening by these

bold horizontal accents, the facades of the

CAMBODIA: THE KHMERS

Even

central pyramid.

such details as the

in

individual profiles of these mouldings the archi-

Khmer

tectural motifs appear to be original

inventions in no

As

way

related to Indian models.

in all its predecessors, the vaulting of the

galleries

and towers of Angkor Wat

con-

is

structed entirely on the corbel principle, with

flowing with deeply carved

bhdrata; the wall

by niches containing images of

pinnacle and crenellation
ing.

As may be

[333]< trie figures

supported by weight and

is

At Angkor Wat we have what

only a

is

and

frames, as was the case with relief sculpture of

the

Gupta

Period.

The

separate

ignorance of any but the most primitive types

unlike that of the

Gupta

monument
by

number

individual panels.

of vaulting.

What most impresses the visitor to Angkor

Wat beyond its gigantic scale and clarity of plan
is

and variety of sculptural

the great beauty

ornament. This decoration

is

not only the finest

achievement of the Cambodian sculptors, but of

tremendous significance

for

of the iconography of the

monument as a

The development
Cambodia, which

of

attains

an understanding

its

whole.

sculpture

relief

in

apogee in Angkor

Wat, follows step by step the growth of Khmer

architecture from

strongly Indian begin-

its

nings to the final explosive Baroque style of the

last

Khmer

In early

period.

illustrated

by the temples

at

architecture, as

Sambor, sculpture

plays a subordinate role; in these buildings that

are so closely derived

models the carving

from

is

late

Gupta

or Pallava

limited to the decoration

of the lintels and tympana and the insertion of

figures in niches let in the walls.

Sambor

structures

at

medallions

filled

certainly stems

form

at later

with

are

Some

of the

ornamented with

reliefs, a

type that almost

from the employment of

Buddhist

sites like

this

Amaravati. :

During the next three hundred years there is

marked increase in the amount of sculptural
ornament and in the richness of its carving;

lintel

and tympanum panels are

filled to

over-

2,2,3-

is

not

stelae at Sarnath, with

episodes enacted

figures located in a

from

effect of the scenes

building which, as has already been explained,

architects'

by

Baphuon

compositions are

relief

the legend of Vishnu on this

Khmer

every

confined to the limitation of panels and

more complicated combination of many small

elements to form a larger whole, a method of
was necessitated by the

deities;

bristling with carv-

illustrated particularly well

still

gravity.

is

the tenth-century decorations of the

imposed courses of masonry. 19 The structure

mortarless and

motifs or

Rdmdyana and the Mahdis more and more broken up

subjects from the

iron dowels used to hold together the superis

floral

403

Angkor Thorn. Baphuon.

scenes from the legend of Vishnu

relatively

few

of superimposed

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

404

When we come
Wat, the

reliefs

to the sculpture of

Angkor

have completely burst their

rendering of details of costume and ornament

provides a

foil for

the generalized treatment of

nude portions of the bodies.

boundaries and are extended over the entire

the

surface of the wall: even the figures of apsaras,

The famous reliefs of the cloister at Angkor

Wat extend like a continuous stone tapestry

sometimes

placed in niches, for the most

still

part stand free of any encompassing

many

[334]. In

details of

pose, these celestial

framework

costume, gesture, and

nymphs

immortal

are the

sculptural counterparts of the dancers in the

modern Cambodian

Phnom

ballet at

Penh.

individual forms could be described as

pletely

The

Khmer

The

com-

ethnically as well as stylistically.

square faces with wide eyes and enormous

lips are

seen in the

Khmer Buddha

type as well.

This combination of the stereotyped smile, the

around the entire lower circumference of the

building [335].

They

are executed in a

planes of very low relief, with

some of

few

the ele-

ments no more than incised on the surface;

this

technique, together with their strongly pictorial

character, suggests that they

intended

as a

may have been

more permanent

substitute for

wall-paintings. It has been supposed from the

generally

unornamented

interiors

of

Khmer

shrines - in contrast to the richness of exterior

delicacy of proportion, and the affected elegance

decoration - that

of gestures lends a certain wistful charm and

decorate the insides of sanctuaries with paint-

piquancy
the

to the conception quite different

much more

ception

of

female

The

beauty.

apsaras are relatively

334.

from

frankly sensuous Indian con-

flat

and the

was probably customary

ings that have not survived the

to

dampness of the

climate and the ruin of the fabric.

The iconography

individual

in carving,

it

of the building and

its

destination can be understood partly from an

Angkor Wat, apsaras

HHHHI
a

*f 'jf~*

-
^B^^Bl

Jt^^

*-

-j/''.rfMP

^~

^"J

^^^^^^^B

.-lg-^

:?5PC

-*

mZ

:z:k

:*-.'.'.=

examination

ot' the

rebels which cover the =..

of the basement cloister.

through the western entrance,

reading from right to

:r:rr.

:he

Krishna,

F..I-'-.:

.::.;.

_>

:r.

me Churning

presumably likenesses of his minis rers, the

nineteen lords

of the Sea of

These

M:^.

reliefs
I:

::

"'::

..-

that bore a resemblance

7:.:>.

::-

her with the counter-clockwise arrangement

/ of

the

reliefs, indicates

funerary
rr.

-in's

that the

ttfltfHHHI

monument, dedicated

lifetime to the

powers of death. The dual

.....

spire r

used

szatue of the

king - the Devaraja-in the guise of Vishnu,.

statues of other avatars of

Vishnu:

The Churnine of the

me

ms-reie:s

:r:ser.

~:re

.is

men. Their
red by

rier ::::

r.

'

rim -z

for the

irnr.zerr.e-:

mir.e

z: r::

mm., rimer

by a desire to instruct the

visitors

mm

to the

sanctuary.

Suryavar-

character ot the temple is completed bv the

- .
,,
nature ot the statues onginally installed
its
:?.z: 1.

:hi:

meeim;.

god than as didactic scenes destined

from the king's

life

;:-.

rr.in.entt magicairy appropriate ro the palace

::

edification oi

the legends portray e.:

rememrerei

he

tions are partly historical, symbolizing even is

are represented marching

mis:

Ar.*k:r

mz

rerreser.:.:-

who

with the king to the realm of Varna in one of the

_._ie s;er.es

.ererds at Vishnu ind

scenes of heavens and heLs

odes

the visitor

expected to perform a counter-clockwise

is

circmnambulatiori

we find the reliefs

left: that is,

onaiiy placed in the subsidiary towers were

On entering die gallery

k:-:v:

::-::

The rmm prise

me

Vishnu which were

Sea of Milk

|. THE CLASSIC PERIOD:

THE LAST PHASE (iOOO-tlTOf
<::'

Khmer

:e.
mis

I450)

?m.d:r.r

em

Flamboyant ".
;i::;r

::

L:::

"t'l

he

406

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

architecture implies,

it is

characterized at once

by an almost overwhelming exuberance of

sculptural methods.

period

is

The

the reign of

1201), but significant

what reduced

scale

great

moment

of this

One of these

Khmer

This plan

libraries.

of

longation

is

essentially only a pro-

arrangement

the

Jayavarman VII (1181-

towers placed in groups that

monuments on

at

some-

continued to be built well on

later constructions

architecture. This

Sambor and

Lolei.

of

separate

we have

The whole

seen

precinct

is

surrounded by an enclosure with gopuras,

concept that seems ultimately related to South

into the fourteenth century.

of

other buildings generally identified as temple

is

is

a great

gem

the sanctuary of

Indian architecture.

The individual towers have

ground plan and

cruciform

usual

the

are

doorways repeating

Banteai Srei, the ancient Isvarapura, which was

equipped with three

336. Banteai Srei, tower

They have the steep pyramidal elevation topped

false

the form of the actual entrance to the cella [336].

by

a kalasa finial of earlier

here the profile

much

is

Khmer

towers, but

steeper and elegantly

pointed. Small turrets at the corners of each

serve

level

cover

to

the

of the

transition

separate terraced storeys.

It is

ment

the sculptural decoration of this

that gives

it

monu-

such a definite refinement and

elegance. Every wall-space of the base has

its

niche with a divinity framed in elaborate scrolls

The

of foliate carving.

scheme going back

Sambor, are crowned with

tion there

is

following a

portals,

to the earliest shrines at

massive

and

lintels,

omega-shaped border terminating

naga hoods. Not only
in

reduced

level

scale,

in addi-

tympanum framed
this,

in

an

upraised

in

but the tympanum,

repeated at every successive

is

of the superstructure, as though to pro-

vide suitable entrances to the devalokas personified in these storeys.

These tympana

the final development of a

as early as the

One

Khmer form

of these pediments from the eastern

worthy

of

we

building

have already seen

is

particularly

at Ellura: the giant

Mount Kailasa. 22 Here, as

Khmer architectural reliefs,

shaking
other

was evidently done

Srindravarman

in 1304.

21

relatives of

The group

King

consists of

the Chalukya version of this

the conception

basement platform. There

removed from

two

after the

Ravana

in countless

the carving

sandstone blocks

of the fabric were in place. In comparison with

three shrines dedicated to Siva, placed on a

are, in addition,

evolved

seventh century.

analysis [337]. It represents a tableau that

library

founded by the teacher and

are only

is

its

theme

at Ellura,

about as original and farprecedent

as,

let

us say, a

337- Banteai Srei,

tympanum
Mount Kailasa

with Ravana shaking

408

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

reclining

Venus by Cranach

Italian versions of the subject

Titian.

From

composition
lacks the

Indian

is

from the great

by Giorgione and

the illustrative point of view the

is

entirely clear, but

it

completely

dynamic, awe-inspiring character of

in the

measures of an

The pyramidal shape

of the tympanum.

of the

The interior of the serpentine

border framing the panel and surrounding areas

in the

shape of an ox-yoke or omega that run

across the field of the panel. Every available

space

is

filled

with twining leaf-forms with

covered with a luxuriant

floral

ornament

that

basic design a curling fern frond motif,

ment.

The

carving

of a

is

'Rococo' phase of

The most
ment

Khmer

in this last chapter of

design

is

capital at

history

Angkor

and the

earlier capital of

Yasodharapura were

Indian, sense of the

cities in our, or the

The

word

vast enclosure

within the encompassing walls and moat was

certainly to be regarded as accidental.

floral

Cambodian

Thorn by Jayavarman VII. This foundation

as centres of population.

This same basic

art.

was the laying out of the new

Chinese T'ang sculpture. But

resemblance

final

spectacular architectural achieve-

not

this

and

crispness

extravagant richness that are typical of this

not unlike the cloud and water patterns of

is

kind of foliate

stems forming vertical divisions in the orna-

moving

is

main compositional elements, of course, lends

itself remarkably well to filling the chaitya form

its

set in a

about the representation, as though

elaborate ballet.

is

hamsa -

inverted calyx cups suspended from beaded

the figures were

has as

polylobed embrasure, and the curling garlands

a play-

reliefs

ful feeling

of the Rdmdyana. There

Brahma on

even more

reserved only for temples, and the palaces of the

noticeable in the lintels at Banteai Srei [338].

king and nobles, together with buildings for the

These

military

reliefs are, as in the case

of the tympana,

the last and most florid stage in the evolution of

a

member

typical of

decoration from
final

its

Cambodian

architectural

beginnings. Indeed, in this

example many of the

essential features are

copied from the arrangement of earlier

reliefs.

These borrowings would include the general

composition with a single deity - in this case,

The

and

judicial

branches of government.

body of the population serving these

institutions lived outside, around the various
great

artificial reservoirs

the

or barais and the banks of

Siemreap River.

Kremlin

Vatican

City,

or

remote European

parallels

capital planning; in India,

for

this

type of

one can think only

*-*-*

338. Banteai Srei, lintel with

Brahma on

hamsa

the

in Tsarist days, offer themselves as

-ngkor Thorn, the Bayon

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

410

of the great temple cities of South India such

as

Madura, but

these, of course,

were sacred

enclosures not comprising any secular buildings.

The

Khmer

outer system. Finally, the central tower and

its

subsidiary spires were built over the original

structures.

At

a later

(Hindu) period the sixteen

building of any size to be

chapels were entirely demolished. Probably the

dedicated at Angkor was the Bayon, erected in

temple was finished and converted to Mahayana

the early years of the thirteenth century as the

Buddhist usage by Jayavarman VII

last

centre of the

new capital of Angkor Thorn

The Bayon,

as

it

[339].

his restoration

stands to-day, represents four

by the Chams

different remodellings [340]. It

ned as

a horizontal

outer

galleries

was

first

plan-

temple of this stage only the

survive.

There followed the

340.

^^

sixteen chapels to the

The

in 1177.

its

sack

thirteenth-century

Chinese pilgrim Chou Ta-kuan, who visited

Cambodia in 1296,
Angkor Thorn:

erection of an inner gallery system, raised on a

podium and connected by

to celebrate

of the capital following

The

city wall is

the wall there

is

says of the royal city of

twenty

It

in

circumference. Outside

wide moat, beyond which there are

Angkor Thom, the Bayon

The
a

inner galleries built in the form of a cross with recessed corners. This

primary

The

state of the central block of

four angles of the inner galleries

which only

commenced

first

stage corresponds to

fragment of the basement has been recovered.

at the

same

level as the

preceding galleries but at

a later date.
xfflffl

The

outer galleries.

The

sixteen passages or chapels,

which afterwards were intentionally demolished, and the two

libraries.

4 ii

causeways with bridges.

On

either side of the bridges

there are fifty-four stone demons, like stone generals,

gigantic

and

terrible.

The

five gates are identical.

The

parapets of the bridges are of stone, carved in the

shape of nine-headed serpents.

The fifty-four demons

On the

hold the serpents in their hands. ...

city gates

there are five stone heads of Buddha, their faces turned

to the west, the

middle one being adorned with gold.

The two sides of

heads. The wall
blocks of stone.
solidly joined,

We

the gates are carved as elephants'

entirely built of

is
.

The

superimposed

stones are carefully and

and no weeds grow on them. 23

elements

shall presently recognize all the

mentioned

in this precise account.

specifically to the

Referring

Bayon, Chou Ta-kuan writes

is marked by a tower of
more than twenty towers of

'The centre of the realm

gold surrounded by

stone and a hundred stone chambers', a succinct

description of the sanctuary with
spires

In

its

multiple

and maze of galleries.

its

essential

present form the

monument has the

many earlier

pyramidal elevation of

examples [339]. The most distinctive feature is

the carving of gigantic masks of the Bodhisattva
Lokesvara - 'the Lord of the World' - on the
four sides of each and every one of the towers. 24

Similar heads are repeated on the towers of the

chapels, at the corners of the city wall, and, as

Chou Ta-kuan

noted, over the gateways at the

four points of the compass.

The Bayon

is

in the

centre of the square city plan, from which intersecting avenues radiate to the portals in the
walls [341].

These

walls

may be

regarded as the

outer enclosure of the sanctuary and symbolicintimately related to

ally

The temple proper was

or

Meru,

capitals
walls,

like

it.

the central mountain

the centre of earlier

Khmer

here the symbolism extends to the city

which stand

for

the

cakravdla,

the

circumambient mountain ranges around the

mythical world mountain; and the outer moat

completes the magic image as a likeness of the

ocean that girdles the world.

vast

complex

The import

in architecture

is

of this

completed by

341.

Angkor Thorn

412

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

parallel

rows of the colossal figures

giants - the 'demons' of

of

gods and

Chou Ta-kuan's

des-

cription - holding the coils of a great serpent, so

that they

appear to be

the city of
for their

Angkor

literally

Thom

using the

itself

Meru

as the pestle

churning of the Sea of Milk [342].

Not only the four faces on each of the towers

of the Bayon [343], but also the head of the
Buddha image found in the ruins of the central
tower [344] are probably to be interpreted as
ideal portraits of the king as an incarnation of
the Bodhisattva Lokesvara. This
like

the

central

deities

or

Buddha statue,
of Hindu

lingas

Devarajas, was the very palladium of Empire.

The

multiplication of the masks of Lokesvara at

every point of the compass was intended to

indicate

and magically

the Devaraja's

realm.

power

There were not

to ensure the radiation of

to every corner of the

fifty

Lokesvaras but one

deity everywhere manifested.

Bayon were

all

The chapels of the

inscribed with dedications from

343.

342.

Angkor Thom, Gate of Victory

Angkor Thom, the Bayon, head of Lokesvara

4i3

344-

Angkor Thorn, the Bayon, Buddha

345.

Angkor Thorn, the Bayon, outer

wall,

scene of military campaign

B'SvS
various provinces of the Empire, and had in

them images, Brahmanic

were

locally

to proclaim

worshipped

by

or Buddhist,

which

in these places, in order

this concentration in the central

carved in imitation of

tiling.

The

towers, con-

structed as usual without any mortar, maintain

through the sheer downward

their stability only

pressure of the enormous mass of masonry.

The

temple of the Empire that Jayavarman was king,

monument

not only at Angkor, but in every region of his

whereby the sculptural ornament completely

dominates and overwhelms the architecture

Empire.

It

was the magic function of the masks

of Lokesvara and of the chapels of the provinces

to

maintain the essence of sovereignty, the

divine

power of the Devaraja,

in

every quarter

of the realm.
into

mountain by Jayavarman VII,

arrangement of horizontal and
only

somewhat

that supports

The
great

different

illustrates

vertical

from

temple-

that

determined the form of Angkor Wat.

galleries are all roofed

an

elements

which

The

with corbelled vaults; the

exterior of these roofs, as at

Angkor Wat,

is

^^^

it.

quantity of carving on the Bayon

that

individual

The Bayon, transformed

illustrates the final stage in a process

analysis.

is

it

difficult

details

The

to

single

sculpture

of

for

is

so

out any
special

outer walls of the precinct are

decorated with

reliefs

of scenes of peace and

war within the Empire and subjects from the

Rdmdyana [345]. This carving remains unfinished,

and we can see

in

our illustration

the sculptors proceeded by

first

how

incising the

design on the surface and then chiselling out the

346.

Angkor Thorn, Neak Pean

* "

'Z*

CAMBODIA: THE KHMERS

background of the low

are even

The compositions

relief.

more densely crowded than those of

Angkor Wat, and, although the narration

lively, the actual workmanship

extremely

last

Bayon,

is

monument

and hidden

is

banyan

really not so

tecture as one of sculpture, with the towers, like

so

many statues in the round, arranged as a great

mandala

Here, as

in stone.

Angkor Wat,

at

It

was formerly entirely crushed

in the

network of roots from

grew from

tree that

now been

Khmer building, the

much a work of archi-

of

was erected on the usual

central tower

is

cruder and more summary.

This

The

cruciform plan.

415

its

summit, but has

freed of this entanglement to reveal a

tower culminating in

a lotiform finial

and

in

profile suggesting the fourteenth-century spires

of Banteai Srei.

The

false

doors of the

little

building are carved with reliefs of the same

Lokesvara enshrined

at the

Bayon.

The whole

circumscribed panels are not sufficient for the

has a lightness and delicacy of conception,

accommodation of the narrative

combined with an extremely complex icono-

whole

building

reliefs:

and the outer wall of

the
its

enclosure provide the background for the endless defile

of moving figures.

The

347.

Angkor Thom, Xeak Pean

sculpture has,

other words, overwhelmed the building,

in

unconfined by any space or limitation. This

development from

a limited, almost classical,

conception of relief to an overflowing Baroque

manner

exactly parallels the transition

we have

already studied in the evolution from the tech-

nique of Gupta relief sculpture

conception of the

and

later

Hindu

to the

medium under
dynasties.

It

dynamic

the Pallavas

could be said,

perhaps, that the immensely complicated and

rich

type of this late sculpture was exactly

appropriate to the complexity of Vajrayana

Buddhism.
Without the walls of Angkor Thorn

is

dedication of the late thirteenth century,

as

Xeak Pean [346 and

347].

The

two nagas

square basin of water.

small

known

graphically this

is

this font radiate

main reservoir

human

a perfect

face. 25

Icono-

reconstruction of the

concept of that magic lake in the Himalayas,

the waters of

which pour out through the four

great rivers to solace

30

40 METRE

lotiform

by gargoyles in the shape of the heads of a horse,

an elephant, and a

20

in the centre of a

From

four smaller tanks fed from the

a lion,

IOO FEET

single tower of

the sanctuary stands on a stepped

plinth circled by

men and

the spirits in hell.

graphical meaning, that

last

period of

One

Khmer

is

entirely typical of this

religious architecture.

has the feeling, in studying this and

centuries of
prises

Khmer

history, that these enter-

were the result of the patronage of the

nobility

and entrenched priesthood with the

collaboration of a privileged class of silpins and

The

tanks were intended for ritual ablution and

the enforced assistance of what

the

whole

whole armies of slave labour. Once

complex

was

dedicated

merciful Bodhisattva Lokesvara.

to

the

all

the vast architectural dedications of these final

upper

class

and

its

must have been

this entire

patronage disappeared with

4l6

the

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

military

defeat

century,

fifteenth

by the Siamese
the

culture

it

in

the

supported

vanished forever.

eighth, ninth,

and tenth centuries that types of

Buddhist and Hindu images completely

Khmer

in character are gradually evolved.

Although the history of

relief sculpture in

During

this period

Brahmanic

figures pro-

Cambodia must properly form

a part

of the

longing the style of the pre-Khmer Period

discussion of the architecture

decorates, the

continued to be carved, but, as early as the tenth

development of the

it

cult image, generally free-

century, in the sculpture found at the sites of

up as a separate topic.
We have already examined the types of sculpture that flourished in the so-called Pre-Khmer

Phnom Bakheng and Koh Ker there are signs

of the evolution of definite Khmer traits that

works under the strongest possible

Indian influence, and a group of statues typified

development. Taking as an example a fourarmed statue from Phnom Bakheng [348] -

by the Harihara of Phnom Penh [320],

probably the royal donor Yasovarman in Saivite

standing, can be taken

Period,

apparent.

in

which

completely native originality are

signs of a

It

is

in

the period following the

Khmer supremacy

establishment of

in

the

remain more or

apotheosis -

towards
rigidity

348. Angkor,

Phnom Bakheng,

we

notice

first

generalization.

of

all

There

and heaviness about the

The modelling

tion.

the entire later

less fixed for

tendency
a

certain

plastic

concep-

is

of the body

is

now

little

more than a definition of the main architectural

mass of the strictly columnar form with a

Siva (?)

disappearance of the extraordinary sensivity

and

'^1

vital surface quality that

pre-Khmer

distinguished the

statues.

The costume

has undergone certain modifi-

cations, too; instead of the dhoti of the seventh-

century images we have a pleated skirt supported

1

by a

belt

and characterized by an anchor-

shaped fold hanging down

sporran.

The

in

front

figured design of the cloth

indicated by incision, but has

become

like

is still

rather

obtrusive and lacking the delicacy of the carving of such details in the earlier statues.

In the Early Classic Period the heads of

images retain the essentially block-like - one is
tempted to say 'Polyclitan' - form typical of the

i
i

very earliest works [349].

ever, begins to

assume

The
a

sculpture,

more hard,

howlinear

character in the incised definition of the features,

as, for

example, in the double contour lines of

the eyes and

.
1

lips.

The

features also take on a definite

racial character, a

f|

The brows now form an

almost straight horizontal line across the face.

be explained in part,

many

Cambodian

degree of realism probably to

at least,

by the

fact that

of them, although ostensibly representa-

CAMBODIA: THE KHMERS

tions of

Buddha,

Siva, or Vishnu, are ideal

portrait statues of the Devaraja.

flavour manifests itself in

noses with flaring

The Khmer
Wat continue
line

Buddha heads and

the face

probably

illustration 349, are

from

men,

Koh Ker

like the

in

our

rendered with an engraved

precision of cutting that gives a certain hardness

to the carving.

This same laborious treatment

of detail extends to the representation of the

The

as

and ushnisha. The precise

the features

is

somewhat

above

these heads

all,

by the lowered

lids

thick and broad

lips.

already one of dryness and hieratic

is

severity,

lacking the feeling of vitality that

distinguished the works of the

349.

Funan

Head of Vishnu from Koh Ker.

Museum of Fine Arts

Boston,

Period.

marked

of

the eye-

in raised relief; but,

show

tendency in the

direction of sweetness of expression, accented

effect

centuries

The out-

lineal definition

less

brows are very often carved

of these sculptures of the ninth and tenth

jewelled intricacies of head-dresses.

of the

style

is separated from
- sometimes by a broad band or edging
though it were a cap pulled over the skull

fullness of the lips.

the hair and beards of heads of

the rather hard

of the mass of the hair

and the voluptuous

example

heads of the period of Angkor

pervious period of development [350].

snail-shell curls of the

nostrils

The

flat

This ethnic

417

and the

beatitude becomes a cliche of

sculpture.

It is a

set smile

of the

This suggestion of inner

manner

all later

Khmer

that can be just as

meaningless and aesthetically displeasing as

350.

Head

of Buddha, Angkor style.

Philadelphia,

Museum

4l8

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

European Baroque

the expression of piety in

and

painting, through the upward-rolling eyes

of development and are of a very high order of

fineness of casting and craftsmanship.

gaping mouths of the saints by Guido Reni

the loveliest and at the

and

specimens, said to

his followers.

The

tendencies towards generalization and

formalized hardness persisting in the sculpture

Wat

of Angkor

reach a culmination in the style

of the Bayon of the late twelfth and thirteenth

centuries.
[343],

Not only the giant heads of Lokesvara

where
but

feeling,

might explain the lack of

scale
all

sculpture of this

period

is

characterized by a mask-like fixity of expression

Khmer

enhanced by the exaggeration of the

more mechanical execution

smile and an even

[344].

There

is

no longer

end any indi-

in the

cation of that striving for the rendering of the

vitalizing structure

human body

and

efforts of the sixth

essential nature of the

marked the magnificent

that

and seventh centuries.

The heads from

is

in the collection of the

Boston.

One

of

same time most unusual

have come from the Bayon,

Museum of Fine

Arts,

was probably part of a kind of flower-

It

ing candelabrum representing a

wonder

tree in

Indra's Paradise the fruit of which consisted of

beautiful maidens for the pleasure of the gods.

The fragment

our illustration 351 shows an

in

apsaras dancing on an open lotus pod, while

another celestial
left.

emerges from

girl

bud at the
we find

In few pieces of Khmer sculpture do

such a wonderful realization of the quality of

rhythm

stylized

that

is

at the basis

of all

Cam-

bodian design - in the dance, in architecture,

in sculpture.

The

lines

of the ogee-shaped

floral

enframement repeat the sinuous outline of the

arms and legs of the dancer. The gesture of her

in

upraised arms continues the wonderful sug-

certain respects have a dreamy, soft quality

gestion of pliant growth in the supporting vine.

which

is

due

to the

Bayon

the period of the

abandonment of that

linear definition of details typical of the

the

Early

Classic

Period.

do not stand out

features

The

precise

Although badly corroded, enough of the original

work of

surface

individual

separate parts

as

affixed to the block of the head, but melt into

this

mass, so that to some degree there

is

return to the strong plastic conception of the

Funan

Period.

Many

of the heads, however,

notably the collection of masks on the Bayon,

are so
cast

much

alike that they

might have been

from the same mould. There

in this

is

monotony

formula for expressing the peace of the

Buddhist soul which

totally lacks the

feeling of individual creation

for the solution of plastic

and

form

wonderful

fierce striving

we

as

see

it

in

ment

visible for us to see the great refine-

is

modelling and in the rendering of the

in

chased details of the

figure of the dancer

tion of apsaras

no hesitation

floral accessories.

The little

so close to the representa-

is

on the Bayon

itself that there is

in dating this piece in the late

twelfth or early thirteenth century.

This
one

final

of

which

period of

gigantic

in a

Khmer

civilization

was

programmes,

architectural

way imposed mass production. One

has the feeling that the labour involved in the

erection of the vast complexes of the last century

of Angkor

more than anything

not only the

Khmer genius,

else

exhausted

but the strength for

the great masterpieces of the sixth and seventh

any kind of resistance against the Siamese, who

centuries.

for

Examples of Cambodian metal-work of

all

periods are preserved in various collections in

long had been threatening the western

frontiers.

fifteenth

The end

of Angkor came in the

century with a disastrous Siamese

Indo-China and the West. 26 They are reason-

campaign. Although the shadow of a Cambodian

ably exact counterparts on a small scale of the

monarchy continued

monumental sculpture of

Phnom

the different periods

Penh, the

for

Khmer

some

centuries

at

epic ends with this

ri

351. Bronze apsaras

from the Bayon, Angkor Thorn

Boston,

Museum of Fine Arts

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

420

debacle. Another reason that might be advanced

for the
that,

disappearance of

Khmer

civilization

is

with the sweeping away of the Cambodian

fantastic

symbolic architecture

in favour of the

simple philosophic Pali Buddhism which their

Siamese conquerors offered. 27

aristocracy and priesthood, folk-art replaced

the grandiose dreams of a cosmos created in

The

stone.
It is a

commentary on the

century of

Khmer

religion

failure of the last

that

the

people

apparently were quite eager to abandon the

complexity of Vajrayana Buddhism and

its

finds of ceramics in the precincts of the

ancient

Khmer

numerous

include

capitals

which are presumably Sung or early

vessels

Ming imports or the productions of Chinese

workmen attached to the local kilns. Other
wares are almost certainly of indigenous manufacture.

These

are pottery vases,

some

shape of animals, covered with

glaze. 28

particularly splendid

amphora with an elegant

in the

brownish

shape

an

is

profile that recalls the

curvature of the balusters of the Angkor style

[352].

352. Pottery amphora.

Hanoi, Musee Finot

with which to close our con-

fitting object

sideration of the

minor

arts in

Prah Khan, or sacred sword,

Indo-China

a relic

the

is

returned by

the Siamese in 1864 for the coronation of the

first

Cambodian king and presumably

still

pre-

served as part of the royal palladia in the palace

at

Phnom

and

its

Penh. 29

hilt are

The two-edged

steel

blade

heavily encrusted with relief

decoration in gold [353].

The ornament com-

prises representations of a kirtimukha or monster

mask, Indra on

three-headed elephant, and

Brahma. The same type of long sword without

may be seen in many reliefs at Angkor

Wat and the Bayon, so that it would seem

guard

possible to date this precious object, to which

many

fantastic

twelfth
relief

or

legends are attached, to the

thirteenth

ornament

is

centuries.

The

executed with

actual

the

same

precision of craftsmanship that distinguishes

Khmer

all

As a kind of symbol of the

passing of Khmer power into the hands of the
Siamese, the scabbard of the sacred sword
sculpture.

[354], executed in an elaborate gold filigree,

originally studded with rubies

red

enamel,

is

and green and

almost certainly of Siamese

workmanship comparable

to

objects

famous golden treasure of Ayudhya. 30

in

the

4-i

353- Sacred sword.

Phnom Penh, Royal Palace

354. Scabbard.

Phnom Penh, Royal Palace

at

CHAPTER 22

ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN SIAM

Although in the early periods of its development

the art of

Siam can

from the tradition

scarcely be differentiated

Cambodia,

in

it is

worthy of

not only for certain

a separate consideration,

unquestioned masterpieces of Oriental sculpture, but for the lesson contained in the decline

of a traditional

art,

with which Siamese work

of the later centuries furnishes us.

In so far as

it is

possible to be definite about

the hazy beginnings of the Siamese

and

kingdom

can be said that probably in the

its art, it

early centuries of the Christian era Indianized

groups of the

Mon

Burma
Mekong

people from lower

gradually settled themselves in the

Valley,

where they merged with the Lao-Thai,

originally

from Tibet and South China. About

550 the

a.d.

Mon

their superiority

invaders were able to assert

and

to

found the Empire of

Dvaravati with themselves as the ruling

This

first

Siamese dynasty maintained

ereignty until

c.

1000,

when

class.

its

sov-

the territories

around the Gulf of Siam were reconquered by

the

Khmers. Although

been limited

to only a

scientific excavation has

few

sites, a

amount of material, sculpture

in

considerable

both stone and

metal and fragments of architecture, has been

brought

to light

and enables us

to

form some

idea of the character of this earliest Siamese

culture.

Like the contemporary Buddhist sculpture

of Cambodia, the Siamese images of the sixth

century reveal an unquestionable dependence

on the prototypes of the Gupta Period

in India,

but even these statues from ancient Ayudhya

and Romlok show the emergence of certain

definitely recognizable
1

[355]

This

is

>

Siamese characteristics

to be discerned particularly in

the type of heads and features.

The heads

are

Buddha from Ayudhya.

Bangkok, National Museum

355.

**

p^

(^

iV"

356. Head of Buddha from Siam.

Schiedam, Holland, C. S. Lechner

Ajfi>^

SIAM

more often than not too

large for the bodies, so

which the form appears to emerge,

that there cannot have

been any

entirely disengaged,

obser-

strict

vance of the Indian canonical systems of pro-

example

portion. In the

illustrated there

Siamese ethnic type

definite suggestion of a

the broad face with a relatively

enormously
of the
size

full

the Dvaravati Period

shell curls that cover the

head

actual carving of the body,

is

derived from the style of the

images of the Gupta Period

Ajanta.

duced

is

The extremely

in

at

has certain characteristics in

as a

period.

Buddha

is

typical of this

common

art.

It

with the

Buddha's

features.

method of representing
Although the arched

brows and lotiform eyes are here entirely integrated with the thoroughly sculptural conception of the head, this tendency to patternize the

features

- treating them

as parts of a decorative

applique to an inorganic mask - was to end,

centuries later, in the disintegration of

Siamese sculpture into an empty ornamental

formula.
in

Cambodia of

the

Pre-Khmer

Period,

Indian missionary activity included the intro-

duction of Hindu as well as Buddhist ritual art;

a

closely related to Indian originals

Sarnath and

Siamese interpretation of

the Indian metaphorical

As

more

in Seattle, specifically the very pattern-

may be regarded

many

again

than the contemporary Buddha images of this

The

ized flower-like shapes of the eyes and lips that

the

is

number of Brahmanic images of

the sixth

century are extremely interesting, and quite

different

from contemporary work in Cambodia.

A typical example is the standing image of Vishnu in the National Museum at Bangkok [357].
Certain technical factors relate this statue to the
Pallava style of the sixth and seventh centuries.

Not only the conception of the

figure in terms of

mass and simplified planes, but the manner

in

Mamallapuram.

rather pointed face with high cheekbones

entirely

Indianized phase of Siamese Buddhist

image

The

beautiful head repro-

our illustration 356

though not

of rock is immediately reminiscent of the masterpieces of Pallava carving at

snail-

like a cap.

which

the

425

from the plain background

through the simplified sheath-like

revealed
is

in

nose and

flat

and prominence of the individual

robe,

Another characteristic

lips.

Buddhas of

is

as

357. Vishnu from Siam.

Bangkok, National Museum

358. Torso of Bodhisattva from

Bangkok, National Museum

Jaiy;

SIAM

One of the great masterpieces of early Siamese

is

bronze torso of a Bodhisattva,

likely

form of Avalokitesvara, pre-

sculpture

most

served in the National

The term

[358].

and

this

Museum

at

Bangkok

Srivijaya has been applied to

few related images

to indicate that

they date from a period of Javanese dominance

of the

Malay Peninsula. This

closely related to the late

as represented

object

is

very

Buddhist art of Bengal,

by the bronzes of Nalanda and

the ninth- and tenth-century sculpture of the

Pala Dynasty.

The

exquisite precision in the

complicated details of jewelled accessories and

the

way the sharpness and hardness of

features contrast with

these

and enhance the softness

of the flesh parts are not far removed from the

style of the

[197].
that,

Sanchi torso of the Pala Period

The sinuous twist of the body indicates

when complete, the figure was cast in

the pose of the three bends (tribhanga), the

359.

Buddha from Wat Mahadhatu, Lopburi.

Bangkok, National .Museum

dehanchement that

is

427

almost universal in Indian

images of all periods.

The end of the Dvaravati Empire comes with

Khmer invasion in the tenth century and the

establishment of a viceroyalty at the capital of

Lopburi, about eighty miles north of Bangkok.

This

is

phase of art in Siam that

local off-shoot of the

the

Angkor Period

developed

[359].

The Buddha

this period, difficult to distinguish

Cambodian work,

is

simply a

Khmer

style of

heads of

from actual

are characterized, as were the

very earliest icons, by certain very definite

Siamese

traits:

the very straight overhanging

brows, pointed noses, and broad, prominent

chins are
as is the

all

hall-marks of the Lopburi

style,

fondness for a particularly elaborate

conical ushnisha. 2

As

early as the ninth century, groups of the

Thai people of Yunnan

had again begun

to

in

south-western China

move westward

Head of Buddha from Chiengmai.

Bangkok, National Museum
360.

into

what

is

428

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

to-day northern Siam.

By the thirteenth century

these invaders had so strongly established them-

were able

selves that they

and to found the

first

Chiengmai (Chiengsen)

at

Menam

Valley.

marks the

Khmers

to expel the

national Siamese dynasty

in

the

northern

The Buddhist art of this

first

definite

period

emergence of what

can accurately be described as a Siamese style

and

although influenced to a certain

ideal,

extent by Pala prototypes from Burma.

Chiengmai Buddha type

is

The

distinguished by

the arched eyebrows, the exaggerated

almond

eyes with a double-upward curve in the

lids,

the hooked sharp nose and rather small and

delicately

modelled

lips

[360].

Bronze now

enormous amount of material

insignificant that such

is,

most of

it,

so

an analysis need not

detain us.

The

later history

of sculpture in Siam

is

one

of decadence towards the evolution of the final

Buddha image manufactured durAyudhya Period. The statues made

stereotyped
ing the

during the Suk'ot'ai Period (thirteenth to fourteenth centuries)

are

marked by

simplification of the formulas of the

gradual

Khmer and

types. A particularly attractive head

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, belongs to
period of transition from a Khmer to a

Chiengmai
in the
this

purely Siamese expression [361]. In this head,

which

is

of stone covered with gold lacquer, the

almost entirely supplants stone as a material

shape of the brows and the mouth, sharply

for sculpture.

defined by linear incision,

In the last seven hundred years of Siamese

the

Khmer

is still

suggestive of

type, but the elongation of the face

to trace

and the appearance of an indefinable sentimental

quality - a softness partially due to the gilt

the gradual transformations in the stylistic evo-

applique - unmistakably mark the evolution

lution of sculpture, but the aesthetic value of this

towards the sculpture of the Ayudhya Period.

history

it is

possible, of course, to differentiate

among many

different local schools

and

361.

Head of Buddha from Siam

Museum of Fine Arts

Boston,

>*

430

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

In the bronze images of the fifteenth century

f-f

^and later

we

find a

pronounced exaggeration of

wi

the linear definition of the features.

The

parts

of the face are treated in a decorative rather than

a structural

\>

manner, so that the area between

the eye and eyebrow

is

modelled continuously

with the side of the nose [362]. This dry,

A

decorative

manner extends

to the treatment of

the hands with fingers often of equal length,

and the

stiff,

formless bodies are set off by

meaningless Rococo swirls of drapery sometimes heavily encrusted with gold relief in
imitation embroidery texture [363].

Siamese

architecture

exactly parallels

in

its

development

what has been revealed by the

analysis of sculpture in the historical periods

we

find, as is to

be expected, a kind of Indian

colonial architecture in the early periods, suc-

ceeded by structures,
362.

Head of Buddha

first in a

purely

frorti^Ayudhya.

Bangkok, National Museum

Khmer,

363. Siva from

kok.

Ayudhya.

National

Museum

SI

and

later a

Burmese

style of building; the final

development of Siamese architecture,

of sculpture,

is

in the direction

like that

of Rococo rich-

ness of detail and a decorative rather than functional consideration of structure.

sanctuaries in
Sri

Siam proper,

The

like the

earliest

temples at

Deva, are the exact equivalents of the sixth-

and seventh-century buildings

in

Funan. The

form of the sikhara tower and the employment

of the

roll

like the

cornice and protome

pre-Khmer

spires at

reminiscent of the Pallava

The shrines
Khmer Period,

at

window

Sambor,

at

are,

once

style. 3

are closely related to the tenth-

Mahadhatu (Mahat'at)

at

at

Angkor.

Lopburi

is

it

Wat

a typical

example of the Siamese temple of the

Period [364]. In plan

storey in the

set

Khmer

consists of a sikhara

preceded by a closed mandapa, so that the

on

manner of some of the

The

semblance

to the towers of

make

Khmer

Mahadhatu

marked by spiky

It

will

masonry

is

not

sanctuary.

On

the corners of each

acroteria,

from

a vertical transition

richly carved lintels

ments.

shrines at

Angkor Wat. Al-

division into horizontal rings of

to

obvious.

in diminishing storeys, the

present, as in the great

level are

43:

sikhara itself bears a certain re-

though constructed

the spire of Wat

is

common basement

Pattadakal.

Plainly derived from

Lopburi, the capital of the

and eleventh-century buildings

resemblance to Indian temple plans

Both elements are

AM

Khmer

which serve

level to level.

prototypes are the

and flame-shaped pedi-

be noted that the successive

stages of the sikhara have diminishing repeti-

pediment shape,

tions of the

as in

some of the

towers of the Late Classic Period in Cambodia.

A rather

monument
Wat Kukut at

puzzling but interesting

of Siamese

architecture

364. Lopburi,

Wat Mahadhatu

is

365.

*.*

}**

Lamp'un, Wat Kukut

ifc^

4-v

(y^l

,j>^

SIAM

Lamp'un, erected by the Mon King Dittaraja

(1120-50) [365]. The form of the principal
tower
will

is

that of a terraced pyramid, a shape that

immediately

recall the Sat

Mahal Prasat

at

from foreign models that went on uninterruptedly through every phase of Siamese architecture.

This

temple

between these two buildings should be inferred,

most

common derivation from the

Khmer temple-mountain,

simplest form of the

as seen in a shrine like Baksei

Chamkrong. At

Lamp'un the stepped pyramidal

Cambodian shrine has become

base of the
the

temple

is

structure that

Polonnaruwa. Probably no direct relationship

but, rather, a

at

Wat Chet
is

clearly a

Yot, a massive brick

copy of the Mahabodhi

Pagan [366 and

Ultimately, of course, the sanctuary

of the original

Mahabodhi temple

topmost

level of the building. 4

At Wat Kukut the niches on every

structure are filled with

level of the

Buddha images

that

Buddha attached
Examining the

main masses of its prototypes

lofty

yet another illustration of the kind of borrowing

turrets.

^%L>

new

illustration of

Near Chiengmai in northern Siam is a dedication of the Thai Period, which presents us with

^^ij^'

Bodh
like

site,

through

to the prototype in India. 5

style.

<i>/t

at

such imitations, something of the essence of the

we

Wat Chet Yot

290.

was an act of merit that was believed

represent an archaistic revival of the Dvaravati

366. Chiengmai,

a replica

the making of replicas of venerable Indian im-

magically to transport to the

at the

is

Gaya. Copying famous Indian shrines,

ages,

by the spire

built,

paid to this

Burmese temple city by King Meng Rai in

proper, and the form of the tower shrine at the

suggested only

was

367]. It

likely, shortly after the visit

summit of the Khmer prasada

is

433

Wat Chet

Yot,

notice that the replica closely embodies the

cated

in the

basement surmounted by
pyramidal

form of the

a central trun-

tower with four auxiliary

The figural sculpture on the exterior was

367. Pagan,

Mahabodhi temple

{&<J^\s\/*fisVX

434

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

'

added

period, but, in

at a later

its

arrangement,

attempts to imitate the Mahabodhi shrine as

was

in the Pala Period.

Temple

at

Siam, and

Certainly the Great

Gaya was the most copied

the Buddhist world, but

in the

it

its

edifice in

replicas in

Far East are always

Burma,

in a

sense

tended as shrines for the ashes of Buddhist holy

men and

the Siamese kings.

They

are

round

in

plan, with a series of diminishing rings leading

up

to the bell-shaped

tapering, onion-like
dis are

dome, from which

finial.

composed of

The Siamese

rises a

prache-

variety of borrowings

original creations, just as the different versions

from Singhalese and Burmese models: the

of the basilica of St Peter's are original architec-

ringed base and bell-dome suggest the dagabas

tural designs.

of Ceylon, and the peculiarly pointed form

The

ruins of Ayudhya, the capital from 1350

to 1767,

when

it

present us with
istic

was destroyed by the Burmese,

many examples of the

character-

Siamese development of the stupa form

[368].

These monuments

368. Ruins of

Avudhva

or prachedis were in-

related to

The

is

Burmese examples.

last

phase of Siamese architecture

is

represented by the numerous palaces and temples erected in

Bangkok

The bots
wood with

since 1782.

or sanctuaries are built largely of

JU-'
,*

f*

c6i

'si.-

435

elaborately carved

One

barge-boards and gables.

of the most distinctive features of these

modern

buildings

is

the projecting 'ox-horns'

on the gables. These are actually

resentations of nagas.

stylized rep-

The decorative accessories

of these later structures are a hodge-podge of

borrowings from ancient Siamese and modern

Chinese sources. Although often verging on the

garish in the variety of materials and colours

employed, they are extremely pleasing in the

contrast between the white walls and columns

and the richly

inlaid gables

and

tiled roofs.

The

overlapping or telescoped roofs that are such

an inevitable part of these structures recall the

galleries of

Angkor Wat, but

both

in actuality

descended from the employment

are ultimately

369.

Wat

Gold crown from Chiengmai.

Cetiya Luang, Siam

of this technique in early wooden buildings

both in Cambodia and Siam.

Siamese painting, including work

survives only from the

illuminated

in

manuscripts,

with occasional

wall-paintings and temple banners.

istic style,

ment

in lacquer,

Ayudhya Period mainly

The

archa-

exactly paralleling the final develop-

in sculpture, reveals only the exhaustion

mannered and ornate decorative

of a highly

which the individual forms are

tradition, in

reduced

to the

same patternized emptiness that

characterizes the Buddhist statues of the seven-

teenth century and later.

The end of art in Siam is decadence whereas

;

'art

now

and

craft

were once indivisible, the

predominates'. 7

The

craft

traditional formulae,

exhausted by meaningless simplification, are

reduced

to

an unhappy combination of archa-

ism and sentimentality,

just as the panels of the

Sienese painters of the early fifteenth century

reveal only an

empty and decorative repetition

of the work of Duccio and Simone Martini.

The

surviving examples of Siamese metalwork

from the early periods are most of them

form of votive objects recovered
sacred

sites.

An example

is

at

in the

various

the jewel-studded

golden crown of the sixteenth century from

Chiengmai

[369],

an object probably presented

by royalty as a token
like a

to the

Buddha and more

metal wig comprised of snail-shell curls

43^

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

than an actual diadem. 8

particularly beautiful

metal object from the treasure of Ayudhya

golden plaque
[370].

in the

The moving

form of

is

swan or harhsa

abstraction of the bird's

tail,

part flame, part plant, recalls the relief orna-

ments of the Classic period of Angkor

[338],

here reduced, in typical Siamese fashion, to an

even more heraldic pattern.

The Siamese from classical times excelled in

The earliest type of indigenous
Siamese pottery was made during the Lopburi

the ceramic art.

Period and, like the architecture and sculpture

of this famous Buddhist

Cambodian

influence.

site,

illustrated

amphoras of the

[371] resembles the terracotta

Angkor type

reveals strong

The example

[352], and, like them,

partially

is

covered with a brownish paint. These native

wares were replaced

in the fourteenth

and

fif-

teenth centuries by decorated glazed stoneware

made in imitation of the designs of

Chou kilns of Sung China. 10 This
of pottery was made at Sukhodaya and

vessels

the Tz'u

type

Swankalok and
celadon.

also includes local imitations of

These types were continued

in the fif-

teenth-century kilns of Chiengmai. In ?.ddition

to this

made

one should mention the Chinese wares

for the

Siamese market

in the eighteenth

and nineteenth centuries. The design consisted

of a polychromatic decoration under a colourless glaze

made

in imitation of

of the Ayudhya Period.

370.

Gold plaque from Ayudhya.

Bangkok, National Museum

Siamese designs

37i- Pottery amphora from Lopburi.

Bangkok, National Museum

CHAPTER 23

THE ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF BURMA

Although

Burma

most Europeans the idea of art

for

up

conjures

vision

in

of elaborately

carved wooden palaces and gilded pagodas,

background

as a suitable
to

Mandalay, the

Road

for Kipling's

classical

period of artistic

achievement must be sought in

a far earlier

epoch of the history of the region. The history

may be roughly divided into

The first extends from the second

certain characteristics of

of

periods. 2

all

The

Burmese architecture

construction

of solid

is

brick-work with mortar as a binding medium,

and only

is

square

walls.

Above

a sparing use of stone. It

enormously thick

in plan, with

the basement storey the building ascends by

terraces

marked by

string courses to a conical

more of

of Burmese art

superstructure that

three periods.

minal members of Singhalese stupas than any

to the

eighth or ninth centuries a.d. This

lowed by

from the ninth

fol-

is

Burmese, period

a classical, or truly

to the thirteenth centuries. After

the disastrous invasions of Kublai

Khan and the

Siamese in the thirteenth century, Burmese

art

completely severed from

its

in its last period,

monuments

suggestive

is

in India proper.

this early period at

Other temples of

Pagan, such as the Ngakye

Nadaun of the tenth

Gupta stupas, such

century, recall the form of

as the

Dhamekh

stupa at

Sarnath. 3

The most

distinctive

Burmese structures

connexions with Buddhist and Hindu India,

date from the period of unification under

assumed the character of

Anawrata of Pagan and

a folk art, typified at

once by exuberance and poverty of expression.

The

original races of

lennium

B.C.

Asian origin,

Burma

in the first mil-

comprised the Pyus of Central

who had

the Talaings of

settled in the

Mon-Khmer

North, and

stock, settled in

the South. This division continued until the

eighth century,

when

when no fewer than five thousand pagodas were

The buildings may be

erected in the capital.

roughly divided between stupas and temples

that in varying degrees represent a

assimilation and re-working of

foreign elements.

The most

the Talaings conquered

typical

example

stupa of a.d. 1274 [372].

Burma

cer-

sists

and Buddhism was firmly established by the

fifth

century, with the country divided between

Mahayanist centres

Buddhism

The

earliest surviving

tecture date
first

in the

shrine

North and Hinayana

flourishing in the South. 1

monuments of

archi-

from the tenth century. Perhaps the

is

the

Nat Hlaung Gyaung

at

Pagan,

temple traditionally dated in 931 and one of

Hindu monuments
Burmese architecture. Even
the few

many

Burmese
familiar

^^^^^^^

new

capital at Pagan. Indian colonies in

King

his successors, a period

the northern provinces and established a

tainly existed as early as the first century a.d.,

ter-

is

the Mingalazedi

The monument con-

of three stepped terraces surmounted by

stupa consisting of a circular basement, likewise arranged in terraces or rings, and a

supporting a tapering

finial.

drum

This shape, which

is

suggestive of the terminal stupa of Barabudur,

is

echoed

in smaller replicas at the four corners

of the uppermost terrace. Smaller members,

shaped

like the

Indian kalasa, are located on the

corners of the terraces of the basement. Characteristic

of the Burmese stupas are the stairways

the four points of the compass, giving access

in the history of

at

this structure has

to the

upper portions of the monument. Perhaps

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

44

the most distinctively

Pagan Period

is

Burmese aspect of

the

the emphasis on vertically,

stressed by the terraced recession culminating

in the tapering slenderness of the superstructure

of the stupa proper.

a certain

sical buildings,

temple

whole bears

of square terraces and circu-

some Javanese

superstructures. Like

lar

as a

resemblance to Javanese monuments

in the relationship

at

The shrine

at

clas-

such as Barabudur and the Siva

Prambanam,

the walls of the terraces

Mingalazedi were decorated with

ture leading the pilgrim to the

relief sculp-

summit of

his

The

closest relations

between Burma and the

Buddhist kingdoms of Bengal are evident

not only from the style of early

ture,

Burmese sculp-

but from an actual copy of the Mahabodhi

temple

at

Gaya, dedicated

372. Pagan, Mingalazedi

The copy

ment and

repeats such features of the

enormously high and

solid base-

the shape of the truncated pyramid or

central tower with lesser replicas of this spire at

the angles of the podium. 4

The most famous temple

at

Pagan

is

the

Ananda temple, rising like a great white mountain of masonry topped with pinnacles of gleaming gold [373], This sanctuary

is

the

first

to

strike the eye of the visitor to the ancient city of

Buddhist

ruins. It

is

and popular temples

one of the most venerated

in

Pagan, and has been

in

worship since the day of its dedication. Accord-

circumambulation.

late

[367].

original as the

//
2?

at

Pagan

in

121

ing to tradition, the temple was

by Buddhist

friars

first

constructed

from India during the reign

of King Kyanzittha (1084-1112). Legend has

that the temple

was intended

to

it

reproduce the

general appearance of the cave where the Indian

BURMA

373. Pagan,

441

Ananda temple

monks dwelt on Nandamula

Hill.

Although

probably greatly restored, the temple preserves

the plan and essential fabric, dating

dedication in a.d. 1090.

Greek cross

[374], the

The

plan

is

from

its

that of a

arms formed by massive

porticoes radiating from the centre of the struc-

The central portion of the building consists

ture.

immense

of an
to

solid block of

masonry

that rises

support the central sikhara. In the interior

are

the

two concentric narrow corridors that enable

visitor

to

perform

circumambulation

around the thirty-foot statues of Buddhas.

set

in recesses at the four sides of the central core.

The dim
leries

illumination that

filters

into these gal-

through small lancet windows gives the

effect of a

deep natural grotto, and lends some

support to the legend regarding the derivation

from the Indian cave temple. The elevation

is

374. Pagan,

Ananda temple

simply an elaboration of earlier buildings with

an

enormously

mounted by

high

a terraced

basement storey sur-

pyramid supporting the

central spire. Smaller replicas of this

member,

ing variety to the silhouette. Although extended

to a very thin

and tapered

nnial, the essential

shape and construction of the terminal stupa

at

placed at the corners of the terraced platform,

Pagan, with vertical ribs and horizontal bhumis,

serve to enhance

are not unlike those of characteristic Orissan

its

scale

and

to give an interest-

442

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

The

construction of this enormous

has something of the hieratic elegance and

over one hundred and sixty feet high and

refinement of detail characteristic of Hindu and

temples.
pile,

three

hundred

tirely

of brick with walls of great thickness and

feet wide,

almost en-

as usual,

is,

Buddhist sculpture under the Pala Dynasty in

The most

Bengal.

frequent subjects for illus-

Burmese

true vaults and arches of the type described

tration in the

above, employed in the porticoes and interior

Period are the Jataka stories. These evidently

corridors.

Much

of the exterior decoration

an almost incredible extravagance and

Although

Burmese

a great deal

is

of

floridity.

of this carving, typically

may be

in its exuberance,

modern

embellishment, the terra-cotta decoration of the

exterior terraces

and the stone

terior corridors represent

Period of Burmese

work of the Classic

plastic unit in

gives the impression of a

much the same way as do

the temples of the Classic Period in

The

Cambodia.

it is

Pagan

in a.d.

The

1057.

Buddhism

to

style of the reliefs

decorating the Mingalazedi pagoda seems to

have

little to

do with any Indian or Singhalese

prototypes. In each panel the principal or key

episode

is

presented in a conceptual, archaic

manner,

in

which directness and conciseness of

portrayal were the sculptor's principal aim. 6

Most

typical of

Burmese sculpture of the

Classic Period are the countless reliefs illus-

and the life of Buddha in the

Ananda pagoda at Pagan. Perhaps in the interest

the great Brahmanical temple at Paharpur

of directness and the opportunities for pictur-

Bengal [195]. The plan of this temple in the

shape of a Greek cross and the elevation in a

in

series of terraces leading to a central spire are

features dramatically adapted in the

reworking.

The

Burmese

decoration of the facades of the

successive terraces with countless relief plaques

is

enjoyed an enormous popularity after the introduction of Singhalese Hinayana

structures related

only possible Indian prototype for the

Ananda temple and Burmese

to

of the in-

art.

The Ananda temple

compact

reliefs

of the Classic

reliefs

another feature repeated in the shrine at

trating the Jatakas

esque elaboration of
entirely

detail, the sculptors

abandoned the

traditional

have

method of

continuous narration, in favour of a system in

which each episode of the story

separate panel.
stiff,

These

is

reliefs also

presented in a

have

a certain

archaic quality, but are characterized by

qualities of clarity, animation,

and grace,

to-

Pagan. In view of the close connexions between

gether with a fondness for the elaboration of

Burma and Bengal throughout

Classic

decorative minutiae, that are typically Burmese.

surprising that the shape of

The remains of painting of the early period in

Burma are so scanty that little can be said of its

Period,

it is

not at

all

the

the great temple should have been determined

by such

The

North Indian prototype.

Burma

development. Such fragments of thirteenth-

marked

century wall-paintings as survive in various

by an original derivation from Indian models

shrines near Pagan are clearly derived from the

history of sculpture in

towards the formation of

Burmese

is

style that

exactly parallels the evolution of architecture.

Little or

nothing is known of the sculpture of the

early periods.

Such fragments

as

have appeared

are only provincial variants of the

Among

Gupta

style.

the earliest examples of relief sculpture

Nat Hlaung
Gyaung. The style of these carvings, which
illustrate the avatars of Vishnu and date presumably from the tenth or eleventh century,

are the the panels decorating the

style

of Tantric painting of Bengal. 7

After the disastrous invasions of the twelfth

century,

Burma falls to the level of a

known mostly in the enormously

all art in

folk art that

is

elaborate wood-carving of the declining centuries of the dynasty.

At the very end of this

last

period - the nineteenth century - were pro-

duced the hideously sentimental and miserably

carved alabaster Buddhas, images that are a
final,

sorry degeneration of sculpture in

Burma

BURMA

of the older Indian tradition from which

it

all

443

their elaborate-

ness, are the ultimate descendants of old Indian

stems.

The

setting of the last chapter in the artistic

history of

Burma

is

Road to Mandalay, the

tecture of wooden palaces and
in the capital of

Kip-

that romanticized in

ling's

The

Just as these buildings, for

fantastic archi-

gilded pagodas

Mandalay, founded

in 1857.

palace structures are supported by whole

forests of gigantic teak pillars

and crowned by

palace architecture, the typically

Burmese tech-

nique of lacquer decoration goes back

at least to

the period of florescence at Pagan in the thir-

teenth century. Actually, this final phase of

Burmese

culture, because, rather than in spite

of, its provinciality, reveals a truly

indigenous

expressiveness in the native genius for exuberant

multiple roofs and spires decorated with the

wood-carving and inlay that has the vigour and

most

imagination of what might be described as a

lavish inlay of gold

towers

rise in

and lacquer. The

storeyed slenderness, the sensa-

and attenuation en-

tion of soaring elegance

sophisticated folk art, no longer consciously

dependent on any outside

traditions.

hanced by the wavering flame-shaped acroteria

that make these structures appear like

something

out of a fairy-land of architectural fancy.

The

multiple overlapping roofs are perhaps an indication of an ultimate relationship to the primitive

northern Cambodian wooden architecture

from which

this

same device was adapted

to the

stone sanctuaries of Angkor.

375.

Gold stupa from Burma.

London, Victoria and Albert

Museum

For centuries Burmese craftsmen have been

famous for work in lacquer as well as silks and
embroideries, mostly the work of

376.

(formerly)

hill tribes.

The most spectacular examples of the minor

arts in Burma are part of the royal regalia, exhibited for many years in the Victoria and Albert

Amber duck from Burma.

Museum

London, Victoria and Albert

(formerly)

444

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

Museum

and comprising crowns and

jects of all kinds in gold

materials.

Many

ritual

ob-

and other precious

of these, like the golden

reli-

quary stupa [375], are highly suggestive of

Singhalese forms

[cf.

287 and 289], and the

heraldically stylized duck, carved

from

a single

amber [376], is strangely reminiscent

of ancient Xear Eastern forms.
piece of

CHAPTER 24

JAVA

The

history of religion and art in the inland of

Java was determined by the continuous

tion of immigrants
India.

infiltra-

from eastern and southern

That some of these settlements took

place as early as the fourth century a.d.

is

attested

and Chalukya prototypes are actually more Indian than Javanese.

typical

example of the Dieng temple

Candi Bhima
cella

[377].

It consists

is

of a box-like

with a small projecting porch. Above the

by the presence of Sanskrit inscriptions in

cella rises a

western Java, although no architectural or sculp-

ing the form of the base in progressively de-

tural

monuments from

first

great period of Javanese art

this period survive.

The

comes with

pyramidal tower of terraces repeat-

creasing scale; on

some of the higher

levels are

projecting amalaka quoins recalling this form in

the establishment of religious pilgrimages in

Indo-Aryan temples. Presumably the structure

Middle Java in the seventh and eighth centuries.

was crowned with

The

the

great complexes of temples on the

Dieng

same amalaka

completely stylized lotus of

type.

The storeys of the tower

Plateau were not located within the precincts of

are also decorated with chaitya niches enframing

the Javanese capital, but were isolated religious

heads and busts of deities, ornaments that recall

centres inhabited exclusively by priests.

The

Pallava architecture of

Mamallapuram. The

majority of these temples are dedicated to Vish-

individual heads are carved with a primitive

nu, and in their resemblance to Gupta, Pallava,

vigour and fine plastic simplification [378].

377.

Candi Bhima, Dieng

JUs

V>

378.

Head from Candi Bhima.

Museum

Batavia,

The

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

446

mask-like character of these heads, seen especially in

the flatness of the definition of the planes

of the face,

is

quite un-Indian, and

is

perhaps to

tion of

is marked by the introducMahayana Buddhism, and one of the

earliest

temples at Kalasan was dedicated to

This period

origin.

The

be taken as an early indication of the Indonesian

Tara

genius in the fashioning of theatrical masks in

cubical cella of the early

the

modern

period.

The

principal architectural

in a.d.

into a

778 [379].

The temple

sidiary chapels.

the placing of the entire structure on a raised

tion of the box-like

base or podium, and in the construction of the

the

tar.

The

mor-

superstructure was always erected on

the corbel principle. Neither in this nor in later

Javanese temples are

pillars or

columns em-

ployed, and the entire structure has a completely

and closed appearance.

plastic

distinctive

tablatures.

This motif was

The

to reach in later architec-

enormous decorative complication.

great

period of building activity in

Middle Java came under the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty in the eighth and ninth centuries,

when

Java, Sumatra, Malaya, and Indo-China

were ruled by

a race

of kings of East Indian

in the

form

The sculpture is marked by a greater

mukha pediment and by

the

employment of

figure sculpture in shallow niches as a part of

the exterior ornamentation. Actually this temple

much closer to contemporary

Cambodia than

ture an

only an elabora-

elaboration of the characteristic Javanese kirti-

seems

lintel.

is

form of Candi Bhima with

same emphasis on the horizontal

Dieng temples

shape of a kirtimukha

that of the

of repeated string courses and projecting en-

Javanese form of ornament appears on the

in the

is

Greek cross by the addition of four sub-

and truly Javanese elements of the building are

walls in small blocks of local stone without

plan

Dieng types converted

to

any Indian

building in

originals, and,

together with eighth- and ninth-century buildings at Angkor, might be cited as the beginning

of a truly Indonesian

style.

somewhat different type of the temple

complex is represented by the ninth-century
shrine of Candi Sewu, in which a central temple
of roughly the same plan and elevation as at
379.

Candi Kalasan, temple

IA
.<'

ir.z

:emple

JU

aULlLJDDULJULJLIUGLlLlULJUUGOC
a ar nannnnnnnnnnnnnnnaD
ac
aa
a a
ac

\
a
ac
ac
aa
a a
ac
aODOOuQOOuuc
aa
ac
a
a
a a
aa
a aauuucjuc a
a
a
a
a
aa
a a
Tl
ac
ac
a a
a a
*ac 3 a a -Wn^^is a a a ao.
rjl_

a a a a"
c a
ac
D a
a
a a nnnnnnc
aa
a
a
aa

"ac - a a
a a
3D

ac

aa
aa

-.?LdgJH
~ t Jj

annanaananna
ac
ac
ac
aa
aa
ac
ac
aa
ac
aa
aauuuuuuuuuuuuuQuGOtjaa
an nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnna
t

448

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

Kalasan

is

dred and

surrounded by no

fifty

in smaller scale [380

that the

less

than two hun-

small chapels repeating

and 381].

It is

its

shape

highly likely

whole collection of buildings was de-

inscription of the Javanese Baladeva at

Nalanda

and the presence of Nalanda bronze images

Java,

confirmed again by

is

this very

in

obvious

Candi Sewu

architectural connexion between

signed as a kind of architectural mandala with

and the architecture of Buddhist India. As

the separate chapels dedicated to the deities

be revealed in greater detail presently, there

comprising the esoteric cosmic diagram or man-

every reason to believe that the

dala.

Java in the eighth and ninth centuries was the

The

individual shrines at Candi

Sewu

are

same

will
is

Buddhism of

known

esoteric phase of the religion

as

They appear to be
adaptations for Buddhist usage of the Dra vidian

Pala Period to Tibet and Nepal, and ultimately

temples, with a bell-shaped stupa crowning a

to the

small square cellas [382].

Vajrayana as spread from Gangetic India of the

the terminal

member on

the lower levels.

The

recessed cruciform plan of the main temple

of Candi

Sewu

is

extremely similar to the plan

of the Pala temple at Paharpur [195].

relations

between Java and Bengal

The

close

in the eighth

and ninth centuries, already suggested by the

382.

Candi Sewu, shrine

Far East.

The supreme monument of mystic Buddhism

terraced superstructure with small replicas of

which

in Java, a building

ography

in its style

religious art in Asia,

is

the stupa of Barabudur.

we

In this final chapter on Indian art

lyse this

of

and icon-

one of the great masterpieces of

is

shall

ana-

one monument as a supreme illustration

how

here, as in

religious art in the

all

the great examples of

Indian world, the icon-

ography or religious purpose of the temple

mately determined

particular

its

ulti-

shape and

form, from the conception of the whole to the

least detail.

Barabudur - the very name has a majestic

and mysterious sound - could well be described
as the

most important Buddhist monument

greater India, a

within

monument which

hidden

its

ment of Buddhist
is really a rounded
stone,

and

is

galleries the final

art in Asia.
hill,

in

holds locked

develop-

This sanctuary

terraced and clothed in

marvellously situated in the plain

of central Java, rising like a mountain to rival

the towering volcanic peaks that frame the

horizon [383].

The name

of this famous build-

ing has always been a source of dispute

among

the translation offered by Paul

Mus -

scholars

'the vihara of the secret aspect' -

describe the deep mysteries

ling as the

the temple

seems

to

it

meaning of its name

:

seems best to

holds.

As puzz-

are the origins of

the consensus of present opinion

be that

it

was raised during the reign

of the dynasty founded by Sailendra, the mysterious 'King of the

Mountain and Lord of the

java

who, setting out from southern India,

Isles'

made himself an Empire of

sula,

Malay Penin-

ninth storey

From the time of the decline

449

present, though unseen, in the

is

form of the hidden basement.

A great many scholars have busied themselves

Sumatra, and Java in the middle of the

eighth century a.d.

383.

the

trying to prove that the

Barabudur we

see to-day

Barabudur

of the Sailendra power in the ninth century,

until the rediscovery of

teenth, nothing

is

Barabudur

known of

in the nine-

the history of the

temple - beyond the usual story of decay and

neglect that has been the lot of so

sanctuaries of the Eastern world.

need

many

great

There

is

no

to linger over the details of the restorations

is

the result of innumerable alterations

architectural refinements,

and

and that we must

therefore assume the existence of a primitive

Barabudur, limited to three

One

galleries.

the proponents of this theory points out

among other

of

things - that the reliefs illustrating

scenes from the

life

of Buddha were deliberately

and depredations that went on during the nine-

terminated with the portrayal of Sakyamuni's

teenth century, following the excavation of the

First Preaching,

Thomas Raffles, except to mention

the discovery made in 1885 that the ground
immediately around the foot of the monument

builder arbitrarily decided to devote the sub-

shrine by Sir

had

at

some time been

filled in to

series of reliefs decorating

cover

whole

what was the original

basement storey of the building.

Let us

at this point

arrangement of the temple and then the reasons

for this

arrangement.

It

in galleries or terraces

to the sky,

verv

Buddha legend

First

at

Barabudur ends with the

Sermon, because the reliefs are illustrations

of the Lalita Vistara sutra which concludes with

event in the Buddha's career and not for

any architectural reason. If space allowed,

would be possible likewise

to

refute

all

it

the

other arguments on the remodelling of Bara-

on

budur. These arguments constitute

a rectangular plan

round platforms

on which are seventy-two

shaped stupas and

the

consists of five walled-

[384]; above these are three

open

master-

later

sequent gallery to a different legend: actually

this

examine the architectural

and that the

a sealed

bell-

terminal stupa at the

summit and centre of the monument:

to those

warning

who, with no knowledge of the

attempt to approach the Buddhist

details,

art of this

period only through the architectural technique,

forgetting that

we have here an art and a religion

450

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

of great complexity and based entirely on values

of religious symbolism and not technical expedients.

What would seem to be the one contra-

diction to this rule

confirmation.

It

the same time

at

is

its

has been suggested that the

basement storey was

later filled in to

make

buttress for the crushing weight of the superstructure, but there

is

good iconographical

necessity for such an expedient as well

budur

in its entirety

is

Bara-

magic replica of the

universe, with a regular and definite hierarchy

and progress symbolized

basement, with

its

in its galleries

so the

representations of hell scenes

and episodes from the world of desire - the first

stage which the mystic has to traverse - was
covered up - buried - to symbolize the suppres-

JAVA

The presence of that

world - even though unseen - was, however,

sion of the world of desire.

magically necessary for the symbolism of the

monument: its metaphysical mechanism

manded this basement as an integral part,
as the simplest

magic diagram,

'work', requires a certain

in

dejust

order to

number of fixed

lines

or circles.

The

opinions on the outward form of Bara-

budur have been most eloquently and conclusively set forth

is

dome

by Paul Mus. The

1

total

mass

cut by galleries - trenches open to the

sky [384 and 385] - which disappear from view

when

the

monument

outline then

have

is a

is

becomes

looked

The
What we

at in profile.

that of a stupa.

pyramid or prasada inside

a stupa, the

451

452

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

385. Barabudur, air view

familiar
is

form of the Indian

relic

mound;

this

an exact and accurate architectural represen-

tation of the concept of the sky as a solid vault

covering the world mountain, Meru.

The num-

ber of storeys - nine - corresponds to the levels

Meru and the number

subterranean Meru which was

The whole

plan and elevation of Barabudur as a

sealed world apart seems to state plainly that

its

secrets

were not to be grasped

lightly taken, but rather to

degrees. At

includes

pletely solid

the

believed

for the entrances

the world

underground to the foundations of

- here eloquently represented by the

hidden basement. Barabudur

is,

then,

once

again an architectural replica of the world structure

and the number of storeys was

and unavoidably fixed by

On

definitely

this conception.

entering Barabudur, the pilgrim pene-

world of Buddha to read

once nor

monument seems com-

and impenetrable - one has

of the Indian

to extend

the

first

at

be apprehended by

opening

to

like caves in a

hunt

magic

mountain.

The

heavily garnished and massively con-

structed balustrades cloak the galleries in a veil

of stone. At the bottom

cessible

is

the buried and inac-

basement gallery with

Kamadhatu. The
like these

its

relief of the

bas-reliefs of the galleries,

passages themselves, are completely

of birth and death to ultimate enlightenment

exterior. Even the Dhyani

Buddhas in their niches are only half-seen, so
masked are they in their deep architectural

with the culmination of the career of the Bo-

grottoes.

dhisattva in the realms of the mystic Buddhas.

two Buddhas under stupas which are

trates the

the story of man's journey

down

in its reliefs

the long night

invisible

from the

On the three upper terraces sit seventyreally

Java

stone grilles and which again veil them from

view [392]. Finally,

at the

very zenith,

is

to the

453

mysterious upper reaches of the sanctuary.

In walking around the

the

monument

in the rite

supreme Buddha, completely hid under the

of pradaksina - that

solid stone bell of the terminal stupa.

turn with the right shoulder to the wall - the

The
lows:

reliefs

On

of Barabudur are divided as

now

the

fol-

concealed basement, the

describing a sunwise

is,

pilgrim dynamically enacted a spiritual experience, following in the footsteps of him

who had

world of desire and the ceaseless action of karma.

already entered Nirvana. In stupas of the primi-

On the chief wall, top row, of the first gallery the

tive type, like the

who showed

way of escape
from karma. On the bottom row of the back
wall are illustrated Jatakas and Avaddnas - the
story of Buddha

acts of faith

the

by which the Bodhisattva prepared

famous tope

worshipper performed

through

mandala of

at

Sanchi, the

metaphysical journey

a very simple type; the

psycho-physical pilgrimage there was only on

one plane,

just as in

Hinayana Buddhism one

one step towards

At Barabudur

himself for his task. These continue around the

life is

inner wall of the balustrade and on the second

the architecture provides for a spiral ascension

gallery.

The

third gallery illustrates a text de-

voted to Maitreya, the

Buddha of

the Future.

to the very

release.

summit of the pyramid and

phase of Buddhism

which

men were

Less important Maitreya texts are pictured on

the balustrade of the third and fourth galleries.

believed to have the quality of Bodhic

The

could attain

wall of the fourth gallery deals with

antabhadra, the
is

last

Sam-

Buddha of the Future, and

based on a text evidently connected with the

Dhyani Buddhas and thereby

386. Barabudur,

first gallery,

Mriga or Ruru Jataka

directly related

to the

very zenith of life. 2 Barabudur was dedicated to

cal

in

all

mind and
Buddhahood in one life. The physi-

climb through the architecture magically

symbolizes and effects the escape from the

materialism and change of the world of the flesh

454

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

'

to the final

which

is

absorption in the Void or Absolute,

symbolized in that strange mirage

in

the 'real' world, carved with evident realism

and a wealth of circumstantial

when he emerges into the centre of the mandala in the empty

spaces of the upper terraces. Thus each floor of

art that

Barabudur could be

images of Buddha and the gods

stone that greets the worshipper

world or plane of

The

said to represent a separate

we

find in early India.

differences in style that exist

between

the reliefs on the levels of Barabudur are not due

None

of these

abstract canons of physical beauty reserved for

in these figures of

life.

detail reminis-

cent of that vigorous directness of true popular

The same
of the

first

style

is

here evident

men and demons.

is

evident in the Jataka reliefs

gallery [386]. In the scenes dealing

of various craftsmen nor

with the life of Buddha, however, the informality

the desire for 'decorative' variation these styles,

of arrangement and crowding of picturesque

to the 'aesthetic urge'

as will be

noted in further

detail, are

by the nature of the texts the

The

determined

reliefs illustrate.

carvings of the covered basement repre-

senting scenes from hell and the world of

are, as

was appropriate

for these episodes

387. Barabudur, first gallery.

Upper
Lower

register
register

The Bath

^r

of the Bodhisattva.

Hiru lands

in

Hiruka

details give
say,

more

way

to a

classic

more ordered, one might

composition [387]: we are

conscious that the figures are enacting a heroic

men

and universal truth and not participating

from

changeable and unreal actions of the world of

in the

Java

men. In these

reliefs the

Buddha appears ap-

with

movement and genre detail.

455

In comparison

propriately as an abstractly conceived form in

with the crowded more Indian panels of the

marked contrast

lower galleries, these

setting

and

The Maitreya
sists

to the persisting realism of the

figures that

surround him. 3

'classic'

story of the third gallery con-

of a seemingly endless repetition of a scene

representing the disciple Sudhana interviewing

one or another of his teachers

[388].

Sometimes the

human and divine

variations consist only of

reliefs

are even

more

and depopulated.

Finally, with the reliefs given over to the

Samantabhadra

on the fourth

text

level,

the

compositions assume a yet more abstract and

hieratic quality rigid
:

groups of numerous Bud-

dhas around a central figure -

composition

in setting

and

in the attributes of

seemingly endlessly repeated, arranged with

the personage involved.

The

regular stock set

the formality of a

slight

a rich

changes

canopy, under which the teacher

is

is

seated

mandala

[389]. Certainly the

very nature of the texts to be illustrated con-

with the pilgrim Sudhana kneeling in front of

ditioned the character of these reliefs; that

him. Here we find a curiously

empty

their generally

of the

not lend itself to anything approaching the

style in

comparison with the rich

Jatakas and the

static,

reliefs

Buddha story which

are so filled

388. Barabudur, third gallery,

illustration

from the Sudhana legend, Maitreya

text

is,

more metaphysical nature did

liveliness of narrative

treatment which we see

456

in

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

the lower galleries.

We

have a change from

exoteric to esoteric doctrine, suggesting the

Lotus Sutra

similar division in the text of the

(Saddharma Pundarika). The change coming

here at the

fifth level is significant, for it is

on

leaving the fourth and entering the fifth level of

yogin begins to become inte-

his trance that the

grated with the One. Moreover,

it

does seem

probable that what we describe as generally

more empty and

may be

in stone

compositions of

static in the

these final reliefs in the

Barabudur cyclorama

deliberate in another way: they

are preparing the pilgrim for the great emptiness

the upper terraces really implies the transition

from exoteric to

from the material

esoteric,

world to the spiritual world.

square

is

The

limited, fixed

expressive of the world of experience

and material phenomena. The

corners, no directions,

radiation from

circle has

no

implies an infinite

it

centre - without limit - the

its

realm of boundless

spirit,

With

the empyrean.

the pilgrims to Barabudur we, too, have emerged

from the long stone corridors girdling the pyramid, and are

now

face to face with the last great

mysteries.

The innermost

secrets

of Barabudur are

up with the

identity

and function of the

Buddhas of
the world beyond form and thought. These

linked

images on the

ment from top to bottom Aksobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, Amoghasiddhi [390]; these

of the upper terraces where

sky, are the

last

sit

the

platforms, isolated against the

most eloquent and dramatic repre-

sentation that art could devise of the great void

which

is

the Creator and the last

soul that has

home

of the

wandered down the worlds so long

and wearily.

The
of form

is

that cover the

monu-

are the mystic

directions,

Buddhas

who

characteristic

are

associated with the four

recognizable by their

all

mudras and

are placed in niches

on the exterior of the balustrades of the

idea of this final emptiness and absence

already prophesied in the austerity of

setting, the frozen

Dhyani Buddha images

and solemn formality of the

reliefs that illustrate the

the fourth gallery.

The

more

esoteric texts of

transition

from the

square terraces of the pyramid to the circles of

first

four galleries on the East, South, West, and

North

respectively.

On

the

teaching mudra,

who

is

to

on

all

Buddha

in

fifth gallery

four sides are images of another

be identified as a

form of Vairocana. There are also seventy-two

in dharmacakra mudra, half-hidden

Buddhas

389

Barabudur, fourth gallery

from Samantabhadra text

(opposite).

illustration

390. Barabudur,

first

gallery

<#

and balustrade

458

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

from view under

there

is

on

their lattice-work stupas

And

the upper terraces [391 and 392].

lastly

the image originally enshrined under

the closed stupa in the exact centre

and

at the

very zenith of this vast cosmological machine in

stone.

Before attacking this most complicated and

difficult
art,

problem

we may

seek a

in Oriental

iconography and

momentary

respite in analys-

ing the style of these images and

These Buddha statues

abstraction

may

derivation.

its

in the refinement of their

be compared with the great

masterpieces of Gupta art in India - as for

example the famous Buddha of Sarnath and

certain images found at Lalitagiri in Orissa
4
[390 and 39 1 ]. This resemblance

interesting since Orissa

to Kalinga,

is

particularly

immediately adjacent

which was the original home of the

Sailendra kings.
are

is

made with

The Buddhas

measurement from one of those regular systems

of proportion for sacred images

known and

followed in the Indian world.

The

of Barabudur

great mathematical nicety of

of them represent such a beautiful

39 j. B^nabudur, upper terrace, Buddha Vairocana

may rank among

Returning to the problem of the Dhyani

Buddhas and the meaning of the whole monument, it is evident first of all that we have to do
with a mandala - a solid mandala in stone - and

the greatest examples of the sculptural genius in

that these images represent a mystic hierarchy

finest

realization

breathing
clarity

of plastic mass and volume and

life

and such

transcendent spiritual

of expression that they

the world.

There

is

scarcely any longer the sug-

gestion of real flesh, but these figures

made of an imperishable and pure

seem

spiritual

to

be

sub-

clustered like a constellation around the

terious figure

sovereign.

which

is

their Pole

mys-

Star and

mandala, similar to that portrayed

stance - the incorruptible and radiant and

by the Buddha statues on the

adamantine nature of the Diamond, of the Bud-

is

dha's eternal body.

Vairocana in the centre surrounded by the four

The

curious perforated construction of the

stupas of the upper terraces

is

not a decorative

caprice on the part of the architect [392].

It

has

been proposed that the seventy-two Buddhas

are half-hidden in these latticed

domes

to sug-

shown

first five galleries,

in a relief of the fourth gallery with

other mystic Buddhas. In addition to this

may

we

think of a second mandala, separate and

yet inseparable, joined to this

consisting of the

Buddha

magic diagram,

in the terminal stupa

surrounded by the seventy-two Buddhas under

gest the fact that they are beings in a world

lattice-work domes.

The two mandalas

without form, the realm of the Dharmakaya

be said to be joined

two concentric

which may be apprehended but not seen by

mortals.

essentially the

like

could

shells of

Russian Easter egg. These two mandalas are

Ryobu mandara of Shingon Bud-

java

392. Barabudur, upper terraces

dhism
and

in

and terminal steoa

<C^--'

Japan - the mand^rfas of the material

spiritual world, each presided over

by

form of Mahavairooana the

creator. In other

words, the

express the

first five galleries

dala of the material world, and the

the upper terraces

is

459

man-

mandala of

the diagram of the spiritual

ancients,

marked

change of one degree

in the

precession of the equinoxes, and so the presence

of seventy-two Buddhas - the

number

in all the reckonings of the great cycles

present

- would

be a plastic-architectural representation of the

existence of the

Buddha Law throughout

all

world. Stating the solution of this problem in

the past and future kalpas of Time.

the briefest possible terms, the latter symbolize

no accident that the number seventy-two cor-

Dharmakaya - 'Law Body' or Logos - of

Vairocana, whereas the Buddhas of "the fifth
terrace stand for the Rupakaya or form body,
the manifested shape of the same supreme Bud-

the chief stupa?

dha, like the Mahavairocana of the Kongokai

controversy about the

the

mandara

in contrast

with the Vairocana of the

Why
mystic

are

there

Possibly this

number and

total

probably

of the principal deities in

the Kongokai mandara.

And what

in the ruins

of the

final riddle

- the Buddha of

There has been

Buddha

a great deal of

actually found

of the main stupa: whether

it

is

the original image intended for this place or not

Taizokai mandara.

stupas

responds to the

It is

seventy-two
is

Buddhas

a selection of the

in

famous

represents the building of

why
this
is

it is

in

such an unfinished condition;

why

image, which seems to represent Aksobhya,

placed in the holy of holies above Vairocana.

the quality of time into the

What would

seventy-two years, as

oneself what sort of image might appropriately

monument. Every
was well known to the

really be

more

to the point

is

to ask

460

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

have been installed in the central dome of the

monument and then

see if the actual statue

The

these requirements.

fits

interpretation of

and innermost point represents - like the highest

form in the two mandalas - the reduction of
multiplicity into essential unity, since in Vairo-

- and indeed the

interpretation of the whole monument - is

cana

intimately related to the cult of the Devaraja

cosmic wheel,

centring around such replicas of the world

unmoved

scheme

would represent

the idol of the terminal stupa

Thorn

in architecture as the

in

form of a lingam was worshipped

Having

as early

A later inscription reads

up with due devotion the

it

in

at

motion and

whereon he

is

himself

reigns.

It

once the universal rule and

atom

in every

world of the cosmic system and, as at Angkor,

the magic centre where was enthroned the

divine essence of kings.

consecrated in the shape of Mahaksobhya

humble servant have prepared this description
.

by order of the

King and

is

Buddha

actually the historical

statue of the king

who was
his

sets

as the Pole

Vairocana
set

the Universal

It is

the extension of that rule to every

evidence that the Devaraja

is

as the sixth century.

Angkor

at

Cambodia. 5

In Java, there
in the

Bayon

One.

all is

Perfect Sage who, placed at the centre of the

idealized in

Dharmakaya, the

body of

eternal

the

Law

The

or Logos.

Buddha legend carved

priest Vajrajnana. 6

Jataka tales and the

in the galleries of

budur are of course properly part of the

Bara-

esoteric

In other words, the great kings were regarded as

teaching, as they illustrate at once the

way

manifestations of the Buddhas, too.

Buddhahood and

as

the

material earthly appearance of Vairocana.

The

This leads us

to the conclusion that the statue

Cambodian preceof a divinized king -

of the chief stupa, following

would have been that

Devaraja or Buddharaja - the great Sailendra

dent,
a

or

King of

The seventy-two

the Mountain.

reveal

whole monument with

and statues

is

a vast

phase of existence
so

many

its

Sakyamuni
hundreds of

mandala

at all

that

to

reliefs

shows every

times and in

all

places as

corporeal manifestations of the divine

and indescribable and yet universal essence of

Buddhas, like the multiple heads of the Bayon

towers - in addition to their time symbolism -

Vairocana, with which the essence of the king

stood for the extension and emanation of the

has been

royal

and divine power

Sailendra Empire; that

to every part of the

is,

there are really not

detail

merged

in

supreme apotheosis. Every

of sculpture and every aspect of the

architectural form have been dedicated to the

we

seventy-two Buddhas, but one Buddha every-

expression of this hieratic scheme: what

where manifested. The whole shrine

generally refer to as the 'style' of both the

complete world and

its

is

then the

order, the succession of

points visited by the sun in

its

round, the cycle

architecture and the sculpture has been

pletely

of time materialized in space constituting the

conception that the

Law rendered visible in the geographic, political,

express.

and

chief statue

Vairocana.

What

statue there at

all,

it

may have been

was, or

if

another

there was any

does not matter materially.

This central highest point

monument was

destined to

Just as the general architectural form of Bara-

spiritual centre of the realm.

The

com-

determined by the nature of the magical

budur shows an obvious dependence on Indian

prototypes iconographic and architectural, so,
too,

its

sculptural ornamentation reveals an

important as the

ultimate dependence on the plastic tradition of

summit of the hierarchy, and the terminal stupa,

empty or with an image in it, would stand for
the Supreme Buddha and the apotheosis of the

of the building dedicated to the exposition of a

sovereign.

The image

is

or symbol at the highest

India proper. But, just as the plan and elevation

phase of esoteric Buddhism seem to mark an

entirely

new and

different

employment of the

JAVA

traditional Indian forms of the stupa

and pra-

of the

sada, so, too, the style of the sculpture

re-made

[174]-

in

is

Javanese terms to meet the requirements of

what was

essentially a

complete

plastic

embodi-

ment of a cosmic diagram. As has already been

suggested, there are not one, but many, styles
of relief carving.

The

piquant naturalism of the

Jataka and Avadana panels

is

in

some ways

reminiscent of the carvings of Sanchi.

relief has

The

an orderliness, both from the point of

view of composition of the main elements of

figures

and

tion in not
is

at

Gupta

reliefs

was not long

it

after its

the final
in Java.

completion that

became the

the worship of Siva

461

of the Sarnath workshops

The great temple of Barabudur is

monument of Mahayana Buddhism
Indeed,

official religion

One of the principal monuments of

of the realm.
this final

phase of art in eastern Java was the

temple

Loro Jongrang near Prambanan

at

was apparently intended

as a

Hindu

that

rival to

Barabudur [393 and

394].

are three

main

its

inevitable presenta-

shrines dedicated to

Brahma, Vishnu, and

Siva,

more than two

distinct planes, that

surrounded by no

settings

and

once very rich in

a decorative sense

architecturally appropriate. This

that perhaps

may

is

and

also

a quality

be recognized as distinctly

less

There

than one hundred and

individual chapels/all placed on an artificial

fifty

terrace.

The

principal shrines are repetitions of

some of the earlier temTemple at Loro Jongrang,

the cruciform plans of

The

Javanese, since the description could apply with

ples.

equal validity to the sculpture of many other

monuments of the Middle Javanese Period.
The reliefs of the upper galleries in their greater

datable a.d. 860-915, consists of a shrine with

simplicity and the isolation of forms against a

sides convert the plan into a cruciform shape.

plain

background seem

like a

development out

Siva

projecting porches placed at the

summit of

steep truncated pyramid; stairways at

The
393

(left)-

394.

JJ

elevation

is

all

immediately suggestive of the

Loro Jongrang, Siva temple

Loro Jongrang, Prambanan

Au
aDGDQGGQ GGGGGGGD
OGGGGGGQ GGGGGGGD
DDGGGGGG GGGGGGGD
DCD
<do a
aa
GCD

ODD
ana
DGC
aaa
OGD
aaa
DDD
aaa
GDC
DOG
aaa
DDD

*
DDD
ana
DDD
a aa
oau nann anann DDD
aonnpnna nuDananc
aanannna nnnnnGnn
r

four

1
1

462

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

Khmer

temple mountain and the plan appears

as an ultimate derivative

Paharpur

in

Bengal [195].

from the shrine

The most

The

style of carving

is

the

Rdmdyana on the

exterior of the balustrade of the

[395].

upper terrace

corresponds to that

of the panels devoted to the

life

of

Candi Mendut, Buddha and Bodhisattvas

notable

feature of the decoration of this sanctuary

frieze of reliefs illustrating the

396.

at

Buddha

at

form combined with

a reduction of the

volumes

of heads and bodies to interlocking spheroidal

and cylindrical shapes that imparts

a feeling of

almost architectural simplification and makes

them such moving symbols of the

serenity of

Barabudur. Owing perhaps to the nature of the

subject matter,

the actual compositions

are

The end

of the great period of art in central

more dramatically conceived and more dynamic

Java comes with the unexplained desertion of

in execution.

the

Belonging to the same period as Barabudur

is

the Buddhist shrine of Candi

for

Mendut, notable

Buddha with
Like the Buddhas

the magnificent trinity of

attendant Bodhisattvas [396].

of Barabudur these images reveal a marvellously

plastic translation of the Indian

into Indonesian terms.

statues particularly

395.

is

Gupta formula

What distinguishes these

the wonderful sense of

Loro Jongrang, Siva temple,

the Crocodile, scene from the Rdmdyana

Rama and

Dieng Plateau

in 915

and the removal of the

centre of government and religion to eastern

Java.

The next centuries marked

the emergence

of Java as a great commercial power and the

development of

maritime trade linking the

island with the entire Far Eastern world.

final

revival

The

or renaissance in Javanese art

begins in the thirteenth century with the Singasari

and Majapahit Dynasties. The monuments

,.,.
T

30
t

ti

464

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

of this final period belong to a post-classical,

picturesque style that

is

more Indonesian than

Indian and more ornamental than structural.

typical

example of

this

final

is

taram, completed in

1370 [397].

c.

phase of

the temple at Pana-

Javanese architecture

It consists

of

group of unrelated buildings originally erected

to enshrine the ashes of the princes of the ruling

house.

The

individual sanctuaries are erected

in a style purely

Javanese and only remotely

related to the Indian architecture of the

Javanese Period. These buildings

essentially cubic

still

Middle

retain the

form of the very earliest shrines,

but in every other respect the elevation has as-

sumed

a distinctive Indonesian character.

The

doorways are surmounted by immense and

weighty kirtimukha masks.

The

superstructure

consists of a heavy pyramidal tower,

its

stages

emphasized by massive string courses and sur-

mounted by

square box-like

member

that

i'iiJ'T.

'" mjijiji'iw

398. Panataram, Siva temple, Sita and attendant,

relief

from the Ramayana

replaced the kalasa motif of earlier sanctuaries.

The most
this late

characteristically Javanese feature of

temple

the relief sculpture on the

is

platform supporting the shrines:

Ramayana and
The technique of
the

slightest
styles

it

illustrates

the legend of Krishna [398].

these reliefs shows not the

resemblance to the

classic

Indian

of the Middle Javanese Period.

The

entirely flat figures in a setting of fantastically

patternized trees and clouds are only parts of a

decorative scheme. These carvings are closely
related in
later

form

to the

Javanese folk

most famous expression of

art:

the puppets of the

Wayang shadow play. This last phase of art in

Java, now entirely removed from Indian precedent, can be described as a true Indonesian
style,

characterized at once by

its

and ornamental expressiveness.

397. Panataram, Siva temple

savage vigour

JAVA

The decorative arts of Java, which comprised

many exotic native crafts, may be typified by
the Wayang images, the batik, and the supreme
creation of the armourer, the kris. 8 The history
of the Wayang show and its puppets goes back
to at least the year 1000. The performers are
flat leather puppets, which are made to cast
shadows on

their

a canvas screen to the

sound

of music and the narration of the puppet master

[399].

The

subjects of this theatre are the epic

Indian dramas.
fied a mystical
tified

The performances

need

in the

always satis-

audience which iden-

the shadow-actors as real apparitions from

the invisible world.

The

individual figures are

national craft [400].

sists

The

basic technique con-

reserved with beeswax, before plunging the

cloth into the dye vat.

The

designs include

both swastikas and varieties of chequered and

patchwork-quilt patterns [400].

developed

The

technique

from early one-colour batiks

The Javanese

national

weapon

the kris

is

[40 1 ]. This dagger, the armourer's final triumph,

was made

for both practical

and ceremonial

use. In the forging of the blade the craftsmen

performed

a ritual

ceremony, perpetuating the

ancient tradition of the gods' gift of weapons to

man. The blades, formed of meteoric

either straight or

wavy and

stylized representations of the

[398].

separately fashioned of

the infinite varieties of Indonesian

399.

Wayang puppet from

Java.

London, Victoria and Albert

Museum

wood

Naga. The

or ivory,

a simplification of a

demoniacal

designed to ward off

evil spirits.

400. Batik from Java.

London, Victoria and Albert

ore, are

invariably include

abstraction of the relief style of Panataram

all

to

barbarically splendid multi-colour patterns.

demoniacal forms and appear to be a further

Of

465

of covering the parts of the design to be

enormously stylized symbols of divine and

decorative arts batik has the character of a

Museum

is

hilt,

always

human form
The kris was

466

CEYLON AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA

not only the supreme example of the Eastern

armourer's art but

mystique of

also, as in the

weapons throughout

all

the ancient traditional

world, these blades, like Excalibur, were re-

garded as the very palladia of kingship and

imbued with

magic power.

baleful

We may very fittingly

end our account of art

in

Java and the Indian world with one of the finest

examples of Buddhist sculpture: the head of

monk

or a divinized king from Candi

[402].

Here

is

Sewu

the final perfect example of the

portrait in traditional art, a presentation of in-

ward

reality rather

than outward appearance.

As a wonderful abstract and

of the ghostly in

human

telling

form,

it

embodiment

takes

its

place

beside the great masterpieces not only of Indian

art,

but of those supreme personifications of

spirit that are the

In

its

finality

Buddhist portraits of Japan.

and

icon recalls the

crystalline simplicity, this

words of St Augustine on

Eloquence: 'The more genuine,

as

simple; the more terrible, as

unadorned

truly,

it is

an axe hewing the rock!'

401. Kris from Java.

London, British

Museum

so

it

is

so

402.

Head of a monk from Candi Se\vu

Museum

Bmtsvis,

NOTES
Bold numbers

CHAPTER

indicate page reference.

discovered a process which had for ages been the

property of Indian sages.

24.

1.

As an

illustration of the

probable influence of

on Indian culture and

climatic conditions

art,

it

has

29. 5. A.

K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and

(New York,

Indonesian Art

1927), 178.

been suggested that the shifting of the monsoons

leading to the desiccation of what

is

to-day the pro-

CHAPTER

vince of Sind was responsible for the disappearance of

For

the early civilization of the Indus Valley.

31.

Although in disrepute among anthropologists, the

terms Dravidian and Aryan are so generally used to
describe the two main divisions of Indian culture,
beyond the universally accepted linguistic grouping,
that it seems desirable and convenient to retain them,
even if from the ethnic point of view they may not

the reader

2.

accurately describe the character of the early races of

India.
25. 3.

Marco

Peaks and Lamas (London, 1939),

Pallis,

xvii.

could be said

first

of

all

that

it is

of the practitioner to clear his

it

an effort on the part

mind of

superficial

all

sensory preoccupation in order to concentrate his

upon

entire being

initiate in

a single crystallized object or idea.

yoga, through the practice of certain

and breathing exercises designed

callisthenics

to

con-

tion the practice of concentrational discipline lessens

and emotions and enables the

yogin to concentrate with tremendous and undisturbed intensity upon that single being or idea which
is the focus of his unencumbered mind. In this state
the mind is no longer distracted by any perceptions
or idle curiosities, but draws to itself as from a vasty
deep the final form of the icon to which the concenthe attachment to self

tration

was originally directed.

We

have, in other

words, a kind of identification of subject and object

that suggests a Western parallel in Dante's observation that 'he
it,

who would

cannot draw

it'.

paint a figure,

This

is

if

he cannot be

only one of

many

indi-

cations in the writings of the medieval period in the

West

that

European

artists

and mystics

intuitively

J.

H. Mackay,

ondsworth, 1950). A useful short account is E. J. H.

Mackay's The Indus Civilization (London, 1935 and
1948).

This

script consists of pictographic signs

some

386 in number. There are too many of these signs to

conclude that this script was phonetic, and too few to
suggest that

was an ideographic language

it

like

Chinese. Attempts have been made, largely uncon-

show

vincing, to

that certain letters in later Indian

alphabets are derived from these signs, and certain

romantically

Island.

to

the Indus Civil-

1937); M. S. Vats, Excavations at Harappd, 2 vols.

(Delhi, 1940); S. Piggott, Prehistoric India (Harm-

perform great feats of physical

endurance and to raise his mental efficiency to an
almost supernatural level. In advanced yoga meditaenabled

civilization,

referred to the following publications:

Further Excavations at Mohenjo-daro, 2 vols. (Delhi,

relate the

is

is

John Marshall, Mohenjo-daro and

(London, 193 1); E.

centrate stores of vitality in the nerve-centres of the

body,

complete report of the Indus

ization, 2 vols.

2.

27. 4. In further explanation of the practice of yoga,

The

Sir

i.

3.

minded

investigators have attempted to

Indus pictographs

For the

latest discussion

to the writing of Easter

of the date of the Indus

Mortimer Wheeler, The Indus Civilization (Cambridge, 1953). 84 ff. and Piggott, 207
culture, see Sir

ff".

32. 4.

The

allusions in the

Vedic

Hymns

to the

storm-

ing of cities under the leadership of the god Indra

might be regarded as references to the violent
subjugation of the Indus capitals by the Aryan
invaders. See Wheeler, op. at., 90-1.
5. A theory proposed by the French scholar, Charles
Autran {Mithra, Zoroastre, et le Christiantsme), identifying the peoples of the Indus culture with the

Phoenicians

is

suggestive rather than

convincing.

This proposition is based mainly on the resemblance

of certain Dravidian and Aegean place names, a
similarity

which, although striking,

is

insufficient

evidence for identifying the Indus people with the

great traders of the Mediterranean world.

470

NOTES

Percy Brown, History of Indian Architecture,

6.

(Bombay,
34. 7.

n.d.),

museums
Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. Some of

established at

8.

in the local archaeological

more important objects

Museums

National

One

of these

at

is

exhibited

are

New

Karachi and

reproduced

in

the

Journal of the

in the

arms which,

were separately attached

is

only

Renaissance, an analogy suggests

on

the heart

itself in the

a Valentine: all of us

of the

form of

can recognize as

emblem on
symbol of the site of tender feelings;
we would be horrified if on 14 February we received a
the Valentine as a

card with an anatomically

realistic heart,

complete

of the accepted symbol; the medically accurate heart

fair to state that

some authorities have

culture in the late third millennium B.C. Actually, there

is

real to the traditional

to the torso. (Illustration in

the period of the florescence of the Indus

in

is

real to the naturalistic artist

is

with auricles, ventricles, veins, and arteries, in place

questioned the date of this figure which has been

placed

and what

missing head,

like the

Vats, plate lxxx.)

37. 10. It

In speaking of what

15.

artist

appropriate and understand the bright red

Delhi.

Bihar and Orissa Research Society,Dec. 1937,0pp. 247.

35. 9. These holes may have had something to do with
the support of the

emblems suggesting

exists in the discoveries of phallic

the lingam of later Saivism.

Unless otherwise noted, the remains of the

Indus culture are

the

i.

nothing comparable to

it

of

in the art

period

this

either in India or in any other part of the ancient

would obviously distract the recipient from the

thought it was meant to express. Exactly the same
parallel can be drawn between non-representational
and naturalistic form in traditional or religious art.

Some scholars,

39. 16.

notably the

late

N. Majumdar,

have made a distinction between different types of

Indus potten* that

is

not without

its

importance for

The closest stylistic comparisons to the Harappa

our conclusions on the whole problem. In addition to

torso are to be found in the yaksha statues of the third

the 'black-figured' ware described above, character-

world.

which unmistakably exhibit the very

qualities revealed in the Harappa torso. As one would
expect in such a traditional and isolated civilization as
that of India, this similarity might well be explained as
a mere continuation in Indian sculptural tradition of
the ends and means that actuated the carver of the
Harappa torso. Vats (Excavations at Harappa, 76)
implicitly defends its prehistoric origin on the basis

century

B.C.

ware with a buff

a thin

is

found mainly

Amri on

is

considered to be

the Indus. This type

and shows very

earlier,

in

Iraq at a level datable

c.

2500

B.C.

finds in Baluchistan, but with the pottery of

in Iran

factors in these media of expression. Since the Mesopo-

(H. Frankfort, 'The Indus Civilization and the Near

tamian concepts

Annual Bibliography of Indian Archaeology for

ig^2 (Leyden, 1934), 1-12); imports from Sumer in
the shape of seals, vessels, and beads are known at
Mohenjo-daro (Mackay, 639).

found

East',

The motif bears

a curious

resemblance

to certain

bronze forms that have been discovered

numbers
Lurs, but

it

in

little

is

known about

appears that their religious

as the stylistic character of their art,

Luristan culture flourished from

The monf of

c.

were survivals of

2200

seals occurs frequently in the

from

forms

Luristan,

in

which

shown with animal heads

would be impossible

to

draw the

earliest

phase of the Indus culture. (For Majumdar's

account, see 'Prehistoric and Protohistoric Civilization',

Revealing India's Past (London, 1939), 106.)

G. Glotz, Aegean Civilization (London, 1925),

40. 17.

24541. 19. J.-M. Casal, Fouilles de

de

la delegation

Mundigak, Memoires

archeologique franc aise en Afghanistan,

xvii (Paris, 1961).

chapter

The

bronze

43.

bovine

Nirukta), written about 500 B.C., contains

or vegetable

springing from his fertile flanks.

Further evidence for the cult of a 'Proto-Siva'

literally

it

conclusion that the Sumerian types represent the

The

B.C. to as late

on the Indus

38. 14.

in the seals are present in objects

at all levels,

the polycephalic bull found

cheek-pieces
is

the

beliefs, as well

the great religious traditions of Mesopotamia.

B.C.

large

Luristan, the mountainous region of

in

south-western Iran. Very

creature

definite affinities not only with

'intrusive' or foreign in relation to the truly Indian

12. Seals

Tel Asmar

600

at

of Indus Valley origin have been found at

Civilization

as

painted with designs in

John Marshall, Mohenjo-daro and the Indus

(London, 193 1), plate xciv, 6-8.

of the circumstances of discovery, material, tech-

13.

slip

black and reddish-brown that

Susa I
and Al-Ubaid and Jemdet-Nasr in Mesopotamia. Majumdar describes this ware as an 'intrusive
element' in the Indus culture. It is interesting to
speculate whether this does not offer a parallel to the
Sumerian elements in the seals and sculpture of the
Indus civilization which again could be described as

nique, and style.

11. Sir

of finds at Mohenjo-daro and Chanhu-daro, there

istic
is

1.

earliest

commentary on

the Vedas (Yaska's

some specu-

on the anthropomorphic nature of the gods

'Some say they resemble human beings in form, for
their panegyrics and their appellations are like those of
lation

47i

Archaeological Survey of India, No. 30 (Calcutta,

by A. U. Pope (New York, 1938), iv, plates 74 a-d,

and 45B.
47. 17. For the finds at the Bhir mound, see Sir John

1927),

Marshall, Taxila,

sentient

beings'.

(See Ramaprasad Chanda,

Beginnings of Art

in

'The

Eastern India', Memoirs of the

1.)

This term describes the Buddhist relic mound

or tope pronounced stiipa, the word will be written in
its anglicized form - stupa - throughout.
44. 2.

Brown, History of Indian Architecture, 4.

E. B. Havell, The History of Aryan Rule in India

ed.

(Cambridge, 1951), 87-1

11.

van Lohuizen-de Leeuw, 'South-East

Asian Architecture and the Stupa of Nandangarh',
18. Cf. J. E.

Artibus Asiae, xix, 3/4, pp. 279-90.

45. 3. Percy
4.

(New York,

5. S. Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, II

(London, 1906), 165. (It is necessary also to point out
that even the great capital of the Maurya Period,
Pataliputra, had a rampart of teak logs joined by iron

dowels.)
6.

Beal,

49.

i.

(hereafter referred to as A.S.I.A.R.) (1906-7), 119

to describe the

In

ff.,

and xl. More recent excavations suggest

mounds were actually stupas, perhaps as

Pala Period.

The core and foundations, as in

may still be dated in the

the case of Nepalese stupas,

9.

era.

aspect of these masts

words of the Rig Veda

hold this

(x, 18):

is

'May

suggested
the

manes

pillar for thee'.

G. Jouveau-Dubreuil, Vedic Antiquities (London,

1922), figures 3-5; A.S.I.A.R. (1911-12), 159

The

10.

beginnings the Aryan or Vedic religion in

ff.

dating of these 'hollow stupas' in the Vedic

Period has been questioned by some scholars;

Hiranda Shastri in A.S.I.A.R. (1922-3), 133.
46. 11. Jouveau-Dubreuil, figure 1.

e.g.

A gradual transformation

that took place long

changed the Iranian religion into a cosmic dualism

Evil dominated by Ahura Mazda (the
Holy Wisdom), who is engaged in eternal conflict with
the powers of evil or Daevas. The rift between the two
branches of the Aryan religion must have taken place
at a relatively early period, for, already in the Brdhmanas, the word deva means 'god', and asura, 'demon'.
They are derived from the same original terms that in
Iran had come to signify the exact opposite: 'ahura'
for Holy Wisdom and 'daeva' for demon.
50. 3. The word Veda means 'knowledge'. It is the
general name given by European scholars to four
B.C.

in the

used here for convenience

before the time of Zoroaster in the seventh century

of

The symbolic

its

in Iran.

that these

8.

is

autochthonous, pre-Aryan religion of

India.

plates xxxix

pre-Maurya

The word 'Dravidian', regardless of its linguistic

or ethnic implications,

2.

late as the

India was, of course, identical with the Aryan religion

loc. cit.

Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report

7.

CHAPTER

n.d.), 23-4.

Good and

collections

of religious works, which* contain the

sacred knowledge necessary for the performance by

Jouveau-Dubreuil, figures 7 and 8.

James Fergusson, Rude Stone Monuments (Lon-

the priests of the rites of the Brahmanical religion.

don, 1872), 474, figure 215.

14. Indian sculpture of all periods may be described
as 'additive', in the sense that the body is not conceived

broader sense to include other collections of sacred

12.
13.

as a biologically functioning unit,

of so

many

but

is

composed

parts individually fashioned according to

The Hindus

themselves use the word Veda in a

writings such as the

inscriptions at Boghazkeui dating

51. 5. Earlier, Siva

shipped

are not copied

from

their counterparts of

human model, but are metaphorically made to

approximate certain shapes in nature which these
parts of the body resembled, so that the eyes are
shaped like lotus petals. It is as though the often extra-

any

vagant metaphorical descriptions in the Song of Songs

were

literally translated into a sculptural or pictorial

15.

A. K.

Coomaraswamy,

Bulletin

of the Museum of

Fine Arts, Boston, Dec. 1927.

16.

and

Compare,

for

example, the types found at Susa

A Survey of Persian Art,

in Luristan, illustrated in

and Vishnu were separately wor-

in the triune aspects

and Destroyer. The

of Creator, Preserver,

development of the Trinity

including Brahma was probably a compromise to
final

resolve sectarian disputes.

52. 6.

The word Brahmin, although a corruption of the

Sanskrit Brahman,

highest caste.

It

is

convenient one to designate the

should not be confused with the

words Brdhmana, an early

the

representation of the female body.

from the fourteenth

century B.C.

tion of a deity. In other words, the individual parts of

anatomy

Brahmanas and Sutras.

The names of all the principal gods of the Vedic

pantheon may be recognized in the 'Aryan' Hittite
4.

manuals of artistic procedure and mechanistically

joined to form a symbol and not a realistic representathe

much

first

member

of the

liturgical text, or

Hindu

trinity.

Brahma,

The word

Brahmanic is occasionally used as a synonym

Hindu, and Brahmanism for Hinduism.
53. 7.

being

for

By definition a Buddha (Enlightened One) is a

who has in countless earlier incarnations added

to his store of merit

by which

in his

ultimate

life

on

NOTES

472

The striking resemblance between the decoration

Lomas Rishi cave and certain

becomes enlightened, possessed of supreme

wisdom, and endowed with superhuman powers

65. 4.

enabling him to direct

ivories of the first century a.d.

earth he

all

creatures to the path of salva-

This definition does not apply to the 'Pratyeka

Buddhas' who seek salvation only for themselves.
54. 8. As an illustration of the survival or reworking of
far earlier concepts in Buddhism, it may be pointed out
that the 'Eightfold Path' is no more than an analogy
based on the Eightfold Path of circumambulation in
the plan of the Indo-Aryan village.
55. 9. The Tushita Heaven, lowest in the tier of paradises or devalokas rising above the sky, is the residence
tion.

Gods

of the Thirty-three
10.

presided over by Indra.

In a relief sculpture at Bhaja, the Vedic gods

Surya and Indra appear as symbols of the Buddha's

and temporal power.

spiritual
56. 11.

One

deification

factor that led to the

was

his

identification

Buddha's ultimate
with the ancient

Indian concept of the universal ruler or Cakravartin

his 'royal' character

was implicit

in the

cicumstances

of his birth, in his possession of the cosmic tree and the

Enlightenment and PreachAsoka conferred royal honours on his remains;

the umbrella, emblem of royalty and of the sky,

solar wheel, typifying his

ing.

crowned

his relic

mounds. The occasional representaSeven Jewels of his

tions of Cakravartin with the

power may be simply interpreted as alleof the Buddha, (See, for

example, the relief from Jaggayyapeta of the Early
Andhra Period reproduced in L. Bachhofer, Early

universal
gorical

representations

Indian Sculpture
57. 12.

The

(New York,

1929), plate 107.)

relative 'realism' or 'abstraction' of the

of the facade of the

found

Begram

at

in

Afghanistan has led Philippe Stern to date the Barabar

cave early in the Christian era. (Cf. P. Stern, 'Les
ivoires

de Begram

et l'art

de l'lnde',

in J.

Hackin,

Nouvelles recherches archeologiques a Begram, Paris,

1954, p. 38
5.

f.)

Examples with

their sculptured capitals

have been discovered

at Saiikisa,

still

intact

Basarh, Rampurva,

LauriyaNandangarh, Salempur, Sarnath, and Sanchi.

6. A relief of the Sunga Period in the Provincial
Museum, Lucknow, shows us a man and woman
circumambulating a free-standing column of the
Maurya type - a clear indication of the veneration
accorded such memorials. (Illustrated

in Indian

His-

torical Quarterly, 1935, opposite 136.)

67. 7.
it

This

was, as

site

was selected by Asoka possibly because

we have

seen, the site of a royal cemetery of

pre-Maurya date.
8. One is reminded of St Patrick's practice of carving
Christian sentiments on pagan monuments in Ireland.
9. Beal,
10.

11,

46.

We can form some idea of its original appearance

from

a relief at

Sanchi that portrays

a similar

stambha

with a lion capital supporting the Wheel of the Law.

(See Sir John Marshall, The Monuments of Sanchi, II,
plate xxvii.)

70. 11.

The

four beasts of the Evangelists and four

seasonal animals of China are only variants of this

geomantic symbolism.

The Siamese ceremony

described in Margaret Landon,

Anna and

the

is

King of

times have been interpreted as representations of the

Siam (New York, 1944), 299 fF.

12. We find them again as gargoyles attached to a
tank at Neak Pean in the ancient Khmer capital of
Angkor; here, they were associated with the worship

body of bliss.

of Lokesvara, the merciful Bodhisattva,

causes

the water of the sacred lake to flow

for the

multiple representations of Buddhas at Barabudur in

Java are so qualified in accordance with this concept.

The crowned and bejewelled Buddhas of Pala-Sena

Vajrayana Buddhism was introduced to Japan

early as the ninth century, and survives there in the

58. 13.
as

Shingon

relief

of souls in

hell.

In Ceylon, they are invariably

represented on the 'moon stones'

sect.

who
downward

at the

entrances of

sanctuaries; the excavation of actual metal effigies

chapter
60.

1.

of these beasts buried at the four quarters around a

Since, as the Buddhist texts inform us, the

superman designated by the thirty-two laksanas or

magic marks has before him at his birth the choice of
becoming a Cakravartin or adopting a career leading
to Buddhahood, the concept of the universal ruler is a
kind of temporal complement to the spiritual idea of
the Buddha.
2. Aelian, Nat. Anim., xxn, 19. The discovery of an
Asokan inscription in Greek and Aramaic near Kandahar makes the connexion with the Hellenistic

world appear even

3.

Beal, lv.

closer.

stupa lends further support to their identification

as directional symbols (See Vincent Smith, History

of Art
72. 13.
lion,

in

India and Ceylon (Oxford, 1930), 18, n.

The

bull,

sacred to his consort,

2.)

emblem of Siva; the

Durga. The epithet Sakya-

of course,

is

an

meaning 'bull, hero, eminent person', is

sometimes applied to Buddha.
14. W. Andrae, Die Ionische Sdule (Berlin, 1933).
15. D. S. Robertson, A Handbook ofGreek and Roman
Architecture (Cambridge, 1939), 60, suggests a theory
related to this problem: 'It may be that the classical
Ionic form is an adaptation of the Aeolic ... to a

pririgava,

special type of timber construction, the "bracket-

473

capital" so often found in

16.

M. Wheeler,

R. E.

modern wood

buildings.'

'Iran and India in Pre-Islamic

Times', Ancient India, No.

4,

1947-January

July

1948, plate xxix B.

In addition to the example from Parkham, the

17.

museum at Muttra also contains a fragment of a yaksha

from Baroda that originally must have been

statue

more than twelve

Female

cutta.

Two

feet high.

found near Patna are

in the

other yaksha figures

Indian

same

figures in the

Museum
style

Cal-

at

include a

from Didarganj in the Patna Museum

and another image of the same deity from Besnagar in
colossal yakshi

They

Calcutta.

are

illustrated in Bachhofer's Early

all

Indian Sculpture and in N. R. Ray's

Art (Calcutta,

The

1945).

Maurya and Sunga

latter

Maurya times

statues in

rests

on the somewhat

in-

polish found on the

Asokan columns.
73. 18. It has been suggested that possibly the yaksha
was worshipped as the protective deity of a guild.

The
i.e.

inscription

may

contain the

name

of the yaksha,

Manibhadra.

75. 19.

has, like the so-called

Maurya

yakshas, been a subject

was found near Patna, the Maurya

it

capital,

and

the fact that the stone has the same high polish of the
Asokan columns lend any conviction to a dating in the

Maurya

Period.

From

the point of view of stylistic

development, the statue

is

Sunga Period (185-27

reason

its

77.

1.

It

B.C.).

decades of the

analysis

is

first

postponed

century

B.C.

for this

to the chapter

on the

should be suggested as

a possibility that, just

customs of people in all parts of the

ancient world, the burial place was intended to simulate the surroundings of the deceased in life, the
domical forms of both the rock-cut Vedic tombs and
the earliest tumuli

may have been

exclude the possibility that over and beyond

its

first

He describes the crudity of this relief as

century A.D.

'un archaisme

et Part

de l'lnde', in

J.

Hackin, Xouvelles recherches

archeologiques a Begram, Paris, 1954, p. 45.)

6.

'Airavata' means, literally, 'lightning-cloud'.

90. 7.

Some

of the reliefs on the uprights, such as that

of a yakshi climbing into her

tree, are

modelled and suggestive of the

much more

fully

figure's existing in

space than anything found at Bharhut and Sanchi.

Indeed, the sensuous definition of the form and

articulation

8.

Kushan

seem but

a step

its

removed from the work of

Period. See Bachhofer, History, plate 34.

Certainly even in primitive Buddhism, Sakya-

muni had come

to be identified

with the sun-god, and

his nativity likened to the rising of another sun.

a full

discussion of this iconography see

my

For

article,

'Buddha and the Sun-god', Zalmoxis, (1938), 69-84.

its most practical explanation this symbolism
connotes the old gods doing homage to the Buddha.
I

91. 9. In

cal interpretation, in that

that such representations of Lakshmi as the present

example came to symbolize the birth of Buddha.
Lakshmi, who was the very personification of existence and maternity, was by association identified with
Maya, the mother of Buddha.
11. ML N. Deshpande, 'The Rock-Cut Caves of

Pitalkhora in the Deccan', Ancient India, xv (1959),

66-94.

also a symbolical or

CHAPTER

prac-

function the form of the original hut, the cave,

mound was

scholar Philippe Stern would date

conscious replicas

of the shape of the Vedic hut. This does not of course

and the burial

The French

the Jaggayyapeta relief as late as the

it offers a correspondence
between the spreading of the sacrificial straw on the
Vedic altar, to be kindled by the fire god, and the Bodhisattva's sitting on the grass to rise enlightened to
the skies, like the fiery column of Vedic sacrifice.
92. 10. Although there is some dispute about the
precise meaning of this iconography, it seems clear

as in the funeral

tical

88. 5.

Indra's bringing of the straws has a deeper metaphysi-

Early Andhra Period.

chapter

ancient Babylonian idea of the Universal King.

any

comparison is with the representations of yakshis on

the gateways of the stupa at Sanchi, which were carved
in the closing

things to birth.

Maurya but
The closest

actually in advance of

of the figure sculpture, not only of the

also of the

all

These yaksha guardians are the ancestors of the

Guardian Kings of Far Eastern art.
86. 4. The concept of the Cakravartin stems from the

82. 3.

the

The figure of a female divinity from Didarganj

of considerable controversy. Actually, only the fact

that

the world, brought

Eastern India. (Cf. P. Stern, 'Les ivoires de Begram

The dating of all these

Maurya

the earth.

Mahapurusa or Prajapati was that great being

whose body comprised the universe and who, by the
sacrifice and division of that body at the beginning of

Maurya

secure basis of their generally archaic quality and the

presence of the same

dome covering

79. 2.

de maladresse' and explains this style by the remoteness of the site and the lack of sculptural precedent in

questions the dating of these figures in the

ff.).

author seriously

Period and prefers to assign them to the Sunga Period

{Maurya and Sunga Art, 48

reconstruction of the imagined shape of the sky, like

magic

97.

i.

\. R. Ray, Maurya and Sunga Art, 73.

K. Coomaraswamy, Yaksas (Smithsonian

99. 2. A.

Institution,

Washington, D.C., 1928),

33.

A number

474

'

notes

of passages in the classic text are the literary equivalents to the conception at Sanchi.

Buddhacarita
their

bosoms

(in, 265)

'Who art
kadamba

35) describes

(iv,

mango bough

holding a

golden

like

in

women who

full

jars'.

Asvaghosa

in the

'leaned,

flower, displaying

In the Mahdbhdrata

one of the heroes challenges a tree spirit,

thou that bending down the branch of the
tree, shinest lonely in the

ling like a flame at night,

hermitage, spark-

shaken by the breeze,

2. It is

important to note, however, that the era of

58 B.C., established by the Saka ruler Azes, continued

method of dating by the Kushans and

as a

their suc-

cessors in the Peshawar region.

A.S.I.A.R. (1908^9), 48

3.

124. 4. R.

Ghirshman,

ff.

'Fouilles de

Begram (Afghani-

Journal Asiatique, Annees 1943-5, 59-7 1

Op. at., 63.

stan)',
5.

125. 6.

Both the position and the policy of the Kushans

India have a close parallel in the history of the T'o-

fair-browed one?'

in

101. 3. In the relief of the

Buddha's Return to Kapilajamb of this same gateway, the

Conception of Maya, an event that had taken place
many years before, is by this principle included in the

pa Tartars

vastu on the northern

These foreign invaders, excluded

from the national religions of China, became fervent
propagandists of Buddhism, and imported artisans

composition with perfect propriety (illustration

from the 'Western Countries' (Turkestan)

102. 4.

John Irwin

in Indian Art, ed.

15).

by Sir Richard

Winstedt (New York, 1948), 72.

5.

of the valley, was taken over by communities of Buddhist

monks

Buddhist

as early as the

settlers

second century

B.C.

These

began the work of hollowing out the

twenty-six cave-temples and assembly halls that was

not completed until the sixth century a.d.

paintings in Cave

are so darkened

The

early

and damaged

that the composition can be studied better in a tracing

than a photograph.

O.
(London,
107. 6.

M.

Dalton, The Treasure ofOxus, 3rd ed.

plate

1964),

xxviii,

199-200;

Sir

Cunningham, The Stupa ofBhdrhut (London,

plate xxxiii; Sir J. Marshall

A.

1879),

and A. Foucher, The

Monuments ofSahchi, in (London, n.d.), plate lxxvi, ii.

108. 7. Marshall

and Foucher,

op. at., in, plates lxxiv

to decorate

In many cases the closest comparisons for Gandhara

sculpture are to be found not in

Rome

itself,

but in

such centres as Palmyra, Antioch, and Seleucia, as

well as in the Classical forms in Iranian art of the

Parthian Period.

John Marshall, A Guide to Taxila (Calcutta,

and below. See also Marshall, Taxila,
1, 1 12-216, and 11, 517, 518, etc.
126. 9. D. Schlumberger, Comptes rendus de I'Academie des Inscriptions (1965), 36-46; D. Schlumberger
8.

Sir

1936), 78-100,

and P. Bernard, Bulletin de Correspondance hellenique,

lxxxix (1965), 590-657; P. Bernard, Comptes rendus
(1967), 306-2410. Following ancient Oriental custom, it was the
practice in India to date events in years reckoned

accession of a living ruler or from the

In Gandhara

dynasty.

first

from

year of a

remains an unanswered

it

question whether a Saka era of 150 B.C. or a dating

ff.

8.

in the

their religious foundations.

7.

The gorge at Ajanta, formerly sacred to a

Nagaraja who had his seat in the waterfall at the head
104.

who conquered northern China

fourth century a.d.

A. Maiuri, 'Statuetta eburnea di arte indiana

Pompei', Le Arti,

1,

1939,

in

ff.

in. 9. Other examples of ivory carving from the

Begram treasure are discussed under the Kushan
Period (pp.

6 i -2) It isapparent to me that this collec.

from 58

of Azes

B.C., the regnal date

the

to

be applied

classic

inscribed

examples of inscribed sculpture

tion of ivories, like the

period of Kushan power; that

objects,

invasion of a.d. 241.

accompanying Greco-Roman
represents work of several different periods.

I, is

Gandhara fragments. For many

reasons the former of these two systems is preferable,
because it serves to place some of the best or most

to

n. See,

for

is,

in the great

before the Sasanian

example, the Buddha images from

Loriyan Taiigai
Hashtnagar, dated

(Indian
in the

Museum,

Calcutta)

and

318th and 384th years of the

1958), 97-8-

and 234 (illustrated in

Presumably the finest
specimens from Charsada, Takht-i-Bahi, and Sahri

CHAPTER

character of the masonry at these sites corresponds to

1. Walter Spink, 'On the Development of Early

Buddhist Art in India', The Art Bulletin, XL, 2 (June

116.

era of 150 B.C., or a.d. 168

Bachhofer,

11,

plate

142).

Bahlol also belong to this period of florescence.

9

The

the type assigned to the second and third centuries

The most famous

Dynasty
was Gondophares or Gunduphar. He is known by an
inscription at Takht-i-Bahi datable in a.d. 45, and in
Christian legend as the ruler visited by St Thomas
the Apostle on his mission to India.
122.

i.

ruler of the Saka

a.d.

by

Sir

John Marshall on the

basis of his excava-

tions at Taxila.
12. For comparisons, see B. Rowland, 'Gandhara
and Late Antique Art', American Journal of Archaeology, xlvi (1942), No. 2, 223-36.

475

has been suggested that the raising of the

It

13.

Buddha
lels

Roman

the

way

Mahayana creed paralof the Emperor in the same

to divine status in the

deification

that the aspiration to a creed promising salvation

may be discerned in

Buddhism, Roman

later

literature

of the Imperial Period, and in Christianity.

Rowland, 'Gandhara and Early-Christian

Palliatus', American Journal of Archaeology, xlix (1945), No. 4, 445-8.
128. 15. Although Buddhism and its foundations in
Gandhara were not destroyed by the Sasanian conquest, with the end of the Great Kushan dynasty, its
royal patronage was at an end. It is very doubtful if
any new artistic enterprises were feasible in the period
127. 14. B.

Art:

Buddha

H. H. Wilson, Ariana Antiqua (London,

136. 23.

1841), 71.

John Marshall maintains that the early

came to an end with the
Sasanian invasion of Shapur I, when 'Buddhism was
deprived of the influential support extended to it by
the early Kushan Emperors, and for the next 140
24.

Sir

school of Gandhara sculpture

years

Buddhist

virtually to exist.'

art in this part

He

of India ceased

believes that only with the re-

establishment in Gandhara of the Kidara Kushans

from Bactria

in the late fourth

century did a

new

period of artistic activity begin. This final florescence,

he

us,

tells

was characterized entirely by work in

difficult, however, to conceive of such

seems

stucco. It

of confusion after the debacle of 241. Probably the

an

only work between this date and the invasion of the

inscribed stone statues appear to be datable in the

White Huns

in a.d.

450 was

in the nature

of repairs to

the earlier decorations in stone and stucco.

The

130. 16.

Chinese or Central Asian

is to be seen in some
the Buddhist temples at Yiin Kang

fact that a

of the figures in

460-94) should make

Begram prototype no

later

it

possible to date the

than a.d. 400.

has been argued by some authorities that the

17. It

representations of seated figures on the Indo-Parthian

or Saka coins of the

first

century B.C. (illustration 65D)

are representations of the

are no

more than

Buddha. However, these

portraits of the rulers themselves in

a seated position. Iconographically, of course, there

a

remote precedent

for the seated

Buddha

period after the Sasanian conquest, but also because

the stucco sculpture appears as a contemporary mani-

imitation of this type of drapery

(a.d.

interregnum, not only because few of the

artistic

is

type in the

festation in a different

medium of exactly the same

Some examples of stucco

style as the carving in slate.

at

may be

Taxila

dated to the

first

century a.d. (See

John Marshall, 'Greeks and Sakas in India',

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1947), 16-17.)
138. 25. Apollonius of Tyana, who visited Taxila in
a.d. 44, describes a temple which may well have been
the edifice at Jandial. 'And they saw a temple, they
say, in front of the wall which was not far short of 100
feet in size, made of porphyry; and there was constructed within it a shrine somewhat small as compared with the great size of the temple which is also
Sir

representations of Siva in yoga pose on seals of the

surrounded with columns, but deserving of

Indus Valley Period.

Apollonius goes on to describe some bronze tablets

133. 18.

The

be found

closest Classical parallel to our relief is to

in the silver

Turin, but since this

tion

hoop of the Marengo Treasure

is

in

a late second-century deriva-

from Augustan sculpture, the comparison

illus-

trates a parallel, not a true influence.

19.

The

curious variety of goblets depicted in one of

the carvings in this style corresponds to actual silver

under conditions suggestcentury a.d. (For an

see B. Rowland, 'A Revised

vessels excavated at Taxila

ing a date as early as the

illustration of the relief,

first

engraved with the exploits of Porus and Alexander,

adorning the walls of this chamber. Actually, no
figural sculpture of

dedication. (See Philostratus, Vita Apollonu,

This famous building must have exercised a

powerful influence on the development of the Far
Eastern pagoda type; see, for example, such early
as the Pei t'a at Fang-shan hsien
and the Sung-yiieh-ssu on Sung-shan

Chinese pagodas

A.S.I. A.R. (1926-7), plate xxxvii, 6.)

134. 20. It

pentine dragons at the top of the panel

is

almost a

duplication of a band of decoration on the

Roman

sarcophagus from Melfi, dated a.d. 170.

21.

Cf.

S.

Beal, Buddhist Records of the

Western

World, London, 1906.

135. 22. It

may

suggested above

Chinese Art,

be, of course, as has already

been

mixture of

the archaic technique of the Early Indian Schools

Classical sources.

iv,

in

O. Siren, History of Early

Architecture (London, 1930), plates

75 and 105.
144. 28. Daniel Schlumberger, 'Surkh Kotal, a Late
Hellenistic Temple in Bactria', Archaeology (Winter,

1953), 232
145. 29.

(p. 126) that the style is a

combined with borrowings from

li)

(Honan) reproduced

might be pointed out that the cornice of ser-

25.)

142. 27.

(Chih

for the drinking vessels

II,

141. 26. Beal, civ.

win

and

any kind was uncovered in the

ruins of the Jandial temple, a fact usually interpreted

as supporting the theory that it was a Zoroastrian

Chronology of Gandhara Sculpture', The Art Bulletin,

(1936), figure 12,

notice.'

ff.

K. V. Trever, Monuments ofGreco-Bactnan

Art (Academy of Science of U.S.S.R., MoscowLeningrad, 1949), plates i and ii. The elephant itself is
reminiscent of the representations of this beast on the

476

NOTES

coins of Antiochus III of Syria (222-187 B.C.),

who

invaded Bactria during the reign of Euthydemus

I.

30. Dalton, plate xxvi, 197.

Rowland, 'Gandhara, Rome, and Mathura,

31. B.

The

Early Relief Style', Archives of the Chinese Art

Society of America,

x,

1956, 12.

147. 32. F. Petrie, Arts

and Crafts

ruins. (See p. 475, n. 15.)

'Some Vessels of

plate xxxiv, nos. 23-31; J. Evans,

Steatite

Ancient Egypt,

in

founded by Kanishka in north-western India, there is

no indication that this military debacle produced a
complete interregnum in the development of art in
these territories. Some development and production
went on at least until the invasion of the White Huns
in the fifth century laid the monastery of Gandhara in

from Egypt', Soc. of Antiquaries Proc, xxn,

CHAPTER

II

1908, 89.
166. i.Beal,

CHAPTER

10

2.

Beal

The

3.

149.

The

i.

divine character of Kanishka

is

suggested

by the shoulder flames on his coins and his association

with the deities of sun and moon on the drum of the
Peshawar reliquary.
2. Groups at Karl! and Kanheri, near Amaravati,
have been identified as donors. Belonging

to the

same

period, they are entirely Indian in style.

150. 3. E. Herzfeld,

Am

Tor von Asien (Berlin, 1920),

plate xxv.

153.

4.

Another statue of the

identical type

and

is

now

in the

Museum

Indian

at Calcutta.

There are, of course, many examples of such

trinities in Gandhara art, and even the representation
of Kanishka between the sun and

moon on

his casket

might be regarded as a primitive form of the composition which is echoed in the group of three freestanding figures on loti that crown the reliquary.
162. 6. John Rosenfield has pointed out to me that both

ff.

Hadda are equally

Musee Guimet in Paris and the

surviving finds from

Kabul Museum

Darul-Aman. Before proper pro-

at

measures could be taken, vast quantities of

excavated sculpture were ruthlessly destroyed by the

tective

Moslem

iconoclastic

population of Jelalabad incited

by the hostile Mullahs.

4. Stucco had been employed

for achitectural orna-

ment

as early as the first century a.d., but

until

about the third century that

5.

Beal,

1,

it

was not

largely replaced

91.

This piece belongs

group of sculpture
been excavated at Tash

to a

originally advertised as having

Kurgan

it

medium.

stone as a

168. 6.

154. 5.

55

divided between the

dedicated by the same Friar Bala was found at Sravasti

and

1,

54.

1,

Central Asia. Actually, this claim

in

is

com-

and
market at

plete fabrication intended to lend greater interest

importance to objects acquired

in

the

Peshawar.

dividing the scenes resemble a relief in the Muttra

7. This asymmetry may be due to the fact that the

head was originally part of a relief, so that one side was
flattened against the back wall of the composition.
170. 8. One writer, Silvio Ferri (L 'Arte romana sul

Museum

Danubio (Milan, 1933),

the archaic style of the figures and the banana tree

(No.

3768),

dedicated

by

Sodasa,

the

Kushan satrap of Mathura in the first century a.d.

figure 62.
163. 7. Coomaraswamy, History
8. The Mahabodhi temple was very widely copied
.

not only in India but also in

in

Ming

Most of these

times.

.,

Burma and even China

replicas

show the shrine

after the addition of the four buttressing turrets.

Cunningham

9.

was an addition

argues, however, that this

at the

masonry

time of the Burmese recon-

struction of the thirteenth century. (See Sir Alexander

Cunningham, Mahabodhi (London,

lar

construction

temples

at

may been

1892), 85.) Simi-

U Architecture

comparee dans

I'lnde

et

The circular and square plaques forming the

on the portrait statues of Kanishka and Chashtana are perhaps an indication of the continuation of
164. 10.

belts

this
11.

A.D.

Kushan

craft in India.

Although the invasion of Shapur I of Iran in

241 brought to an end the first Kushan dynasty

sculptures

ill),

Berlin, 1927, 652-5.

G. Pougachenkova, 'La Sculpture de Khaltchayan', Iranica Antiqua, v, 2 (1965), 116-27; G. A.

10.

Pugachenkova, Khalchayan (Tashkent, 1966).

11. Shahibye Mustamandi, 'A Preliminary Report
on the Excavations of Tapa-i-Shotur in Hadda',

Afghanistan (Spring, 1968), 58-69.

12.

Shahibye

Mustamandi,

'The

Fish

Porch',

Afghanistan (Summer, 1968), 68-80.

I'Extreme-

Orient (Paris, 1944), plate xv.)

n. 1), describes the

as stylistically situated

Kunstgeschichte,

seen in the ruins of Burmese

Pagan and Prome. (See H. Marchal,

Hadda

between archaic
Greek and the Romanesque of Toulouse.
9. G. Rodenwaldt, Die Kunst der Ant ike (Propylden

of

13.
1

A.

M.

Belenitskii

and B. B. Piotrovskii, SkuPtura

Zhivopis drevnego Pyandzhikenta (Moscow, 1959),

tab. xxvii-xxxiv.

171. 14. Beal,

side,

and

its

'Its golden hues sparkle on every

1, 51
precious ornaments dazzle the eyes by

their brightness.'
15.

Idem.

477

172.

We

6.

have already seen

how

the dome, an

CHAPTER

12

ancient Near Eastern symbol of the sky covering the

was incorporated into the symbolism of the

dome by A. C.
Soper. "The Dome of Heaven" in Asia". The Art
Bulletin. Dec. 1947. 227 ff.).
174. 17. T. Wiegand. Baalbek, 11, plate 45, and Karl

McCrtndle's Ancient India as described by

earth,

185.

stupa (see the definitive article on the

Ptolemy, ed. S.

'

Lehmann. "The Dome of Heaven', The Art Bulletin.

March [945, figure 9. Not far from Bamiyan is
the Valley of Kakrak, where a number of domed

1.

M.

Sastri (Calcutta, 1927), 12

2.

\x\ii.

archeologique

rock-cut chapels were investigated by the French

(Tokyo, 1933), figures 27 and 34).

187. 3. For illustrations of the sculpture

Archaeological Mission.

The cupolas contained

paint-

ings of Buddhas in contiguous circles

around a central
Buddha. These painted mandalas are presumably a
later development from the architectural schemes at
Bamiyan.
176. 18. Other paintings of an entirely Sasanian character are to be found in the vestibule of Group D, a
complex immediately adjoining the smaller colossus.
There the entire ceiling was painted with a decoration
of medallions, exactly imitating designs from Sasanian
textiles like boars'

heads and birds holding necklaces

Hackin and

in their beaks. Illustrated in J.

Xouielles Recherches a

Bamiyan

J.

Carl,

(Paris. 1953), plate x.

ff.

Fragments of painting in a Late Antique style

have been found in Gandhara, notably at Hadda and
at Bamiyan, but none of these cycles is as complete as
that of Miran (see J. Hackin, L'CEiare de la Delegation
186.

M.

vihara, see

en

francaise

1922-32

Afghanistan,

at the

A. Stein, Ancient Khotan,

Rawak

(Oxford,

1907), figures 61-6.

Many moulds

for individual details of sculp-

ture were found by the

German expeditions to Central

188. 4.

Asia. (See A.

von Le Coq, Die Buddhistische Spatan-

tike in Mittelasien, v (Berlin, 1926), plate 6.)

189. 5.

Some

but not

all

of the hundreds of examples

of wall-paintings brought back by von

installed in the Ethnological

Museum

Le Coq and
were

in Berlin

destroyed during the Second World War.

Some

idea

of their brilliance can be gained from the colour plates

in his publications

and the small fragments of actual

mu-

wall-paintings preserved in various American

The earliest sculpture and painting in the

Thousand Buddha Caves (Ch'ien Fo-tung) at Tun-

seums. For coloured reproductions see the volumes

huang on the north-westem border of China

tische

179. 19.

reality

is

in

only an eastward extension of the styles of

Turkestan.

No publication of this site exists,

beyond

collection of illustrations published by Paul Pelliot

[La Grants

de Touen-Houang. Paris, 19 14

earliest caves

were dedicated

in a.d. 366.

At

ff.).

least

The
one

dated inscription of the year 538 in Cave 120N serves

to date the style of the wall-paintings closest to the
at Bamiyan and Kizil in Turkestan. Coloured
photographs of the sixth-century paintings at Tun-

murals

huang reveal that the same colour scheme with a

predominance of lapis-lazuli blue and malachite green,
employed at Kizil, was followed by Central Asian
artists at Tun-huang.
180. 20.

Most

mous ruined

published by von Le

194. 6.

Dome

wall-paintings in the Cave of the

Red

contain inscribed portraits of three kings of

in describing the style

Wei-ch'ih I-seng,

of the seven th-cen tun painter,

who came from

Khotan, speak of his

Tokhara or
and coiled iron

either

line as like 'bent

wire', a definition that could be very well applied to

the

KLzil

wall-paintings

analysed above.

(See T.

wall-painting of an enthroned king at

bv W. R. B. Acker and B. Rowland (Baltimore, 1943),

is

even

way

196
196.

that

is

in

(Paris, 1928), figure 25. It

seems inevitable

conclude that the Sasanian paintings

evidence we have for

at

Bamiyan

most positive
the extension of Sasanian power

and Dukhtar-i-Noshirwan

to the East after the invasion

are

the

of 241 a.d.

some Sasanian. others Indian

found at this site in the Ghorband

Wall-paintings,

in style

Die Buddhis-

are known to have reigned in the late sixth

and early seventh centuries a.d. Actually, most of the
paintings must date from c. 500-50, since they are in
exactly the same style as the frescoes at Tun-huang,
dated in the middle of the sixth century.
7. Chinese art historians of the late T'ang Dynasty,

memorials of the
Sasanian kings in Iran proper. Illustrated in J. Hackin,
A. and Y. Godard, Les Antiquites Bouddhiques de

were also

Valley. See J.

title

Naito, The Wall-paintings of Horyuji. trans, and ed.

period

pictorial equivalent of the rock-cut

21.

the

Kucha who

the

to

The

Coq under

Mittelasien.

in

the enor-

likely datable in this

Dukhtar-i-Noshirwan

Bamiyan

Spatanttke

Hackin and others. Diverse* Recherches

Archeologiques en Afghanistan (Paris, 1961).

ff.)

8.

See F. H. Andrews,

Ancient Shrines

in

If

Central Asia

all-paintings

(London,

from
1948),

plates xii-xxx.
9.

See A. von Le Coq, Die Mamchdischen Mmtaturen,

Buddhistische Spatanttke,
197. 10. E. Herzfeld,

Am

11

(Berlin, 1923).

Tor ion Asien (Berlin, 1920),

plate lxiv.
11.

J.

Hackin and

J.

Carl,

Xouvelles recherches

archeologiques a Bamiyan. Memotres de la delegation

archeologique francaise en Afghanistan.

and

Lxxxiv, figure 102.

IV,

plates x

47#

12.

NOTES

M.

A. Stein, Serindia, IV (Oxford, 192 1), plates

xviii, xix.

Monumenta

13.

Serindica, 5 (Kyoto, 1962),

No. 8

the Five Dhydm Buddhas, but the presence of the

Buddhist emblems suggests a Hinayana origin.
5.

Coomaraswamy

1)

identifies these subjects as

Buddha

of the

as Supernal Sun, the

columns themselves representing the Axis of the

figurations

chapter

(Elements of Buddhist Iconography

(Cambridge, 1935), plate

(colour plate).

13

Universe.

Ushkur is the ancient Huvishkapura, built by

the Kushan king Huvishka, Kanishka's successor. For
an account of the remains at Ushkur and Harwan,
see Ram Chandra Kak, Ancient Monuments of Kashmir
199.

1.

(London, 1933), 105-10, 152-4.

2. This plan with the sanctuary in the centre of a vast
open court has a haunting suggestion of the temple of
Baal at Palmyra and its Iranian counterpart at Kangawar. For the plan of Avantipur, see Kak, Ancient
Monuments of Kashmir, plate lxviii.
203.

3.

See, for example, the representations of pedi-

mented temple
headed Eagle

fronts

Chamba

modern carving of the wooden

State. Cf.

W.

See A.S.I.A.R., 1906-7, plates

19 1 4), plate
5.

Goetz, The Early

lxiii, lxiv,

Ixx,

and

resemblance to

may

be a borrowing direct from

Western techniques through cameos or gems brought
to Roman trading posts in Andhra.
it

7. Coomaraswamy, History, figure 342.

Annual Bibliography of Indian Archaeology, 1933

210.
8.

(Leiden, 1935), plate

9.

viii.

86 and illustration 34.

These figures are perhaps Indo-Scythian or

See above,

212. 10.

p.

and 106; Coomaraswamy, History,

xlv,

1;

71.

221.

11,

13. Legend has it that the Buddhist monuments

Amaravati were wrecked by Hindu fanatics.
14.

p. 180.

See Kak, plates

6.

sarighati has a certain

statues, so that

12. Beal,

1955).

vi.

See above,

any exact

hem of the
Roman draped

Buddhist Antiquities of Nagarjunakonda', A.S.I.

Memoirs, No. 54, plate x (c) and (d).
11. For the Begram ivories, see illustrations 56, 105,

A. H. Franke, Antiquities of Indian Tibet (Calcutta,

205.

difficult to point to

is

Taxila (illustration 76). The

Kashmir temples sur-

Wooden Temples of Chamba (Leiden,

4.

it

Yavana bodyguards of the royal house. See 'The

at Sirkap,

vives in the relatively

Although

6.

prototypes, this treatment of the lower

on the shrine of the Double-

style of relief decoration of the

shrines of

209.

T. N. Ramachandran, 'Buddhist sculpture from

a stupa near Goli Village', Bulletin

Coomaraswamy,

History,

figure 272.

at

Government Museum,
213. 15.

Compare

1,

part

of the Madras

(1929), 21-2.

the plan and section of the stupa at

Ghantasala (Alexander Rea, South Indian Buddhist

CHAPTER

Antiquities (Madras, 1894), plate xiv).

14

sometimes suggested that the cupola sym-

16. It is

207.

In this connexion, see the account

i.

by R. E. M.

bolizes the anda or cosmic egg containing

Wheeler of the discovery of a Roman trading post at

Arikamedu in Ancient India Quly 1946), 17-125. For

and from which

a discussion of the subject of Roman trade with India,

Barabudur,

Rome Beyond the Imperial

(London, 1954).

Brahma

all

all

elements

worlds were created by Vishnu and

the beginning of time. See Paul

at

Mus,

(Paris, 1935), 109.

consult the same author's

Frontiers (Pelican Books)

208.

2.

CHAPTER

15

Nagarjuna, one of the 'Church Fathers' of

Mahayana Buddhism, was active in the Andhra

Empire in the second century a.d. He is specifically
remembered as the founder of the esoteric Vajrayana

216.

i.

221.

2.

Coomaraswamy,
Coomaraswamy,

223.

3.

The absence of a

branch of the Great Vehicle.

simple 'cave-like' appearance almost suggest a deriva-

therefore, that

It is

natural to suppose,

the Later Andhra monuments were

Buddhism of the Great Vehicle. For

all

dedicated to the

Nagarjuna, see K. R. Subramanian, Buddhist Remains

in

Andhra (Madras,

3.

great

many

1932), 53-63.

reliefs

representing the stupa as a

whole have been found at all the Later Andhra sites.

Probably they were intended to stress that the monument, incorporating a relic of the Buddha, was itself an
icon as worthy of adoration as the images of the divinity.
4.

These

are referred to as

Ayaka pillars, and, since

may have symbolized

they are always in groups of five,

tion

from

History, 90, n.

History, 6, n.

5.

1.

sikhara and the rugged and

a cave prototype,

such as the vihara

at

Ajanta.
224. 4.

It is

perhaps possible to assume that the eight

surrounding squares were dedicated to the Regents of

the Eight Directions of Space, like planets grouped
around the central axis of Siva. The whole immensely
complicated subject of these magic temple plans, of

which there are literally hundreds of variants, has

been magisterially treated by Stella Kramrisch in her
book, The Hindu Temple (Calcutta, 1946).
230.

5.

Beal,

1,

145.

479

237-

In the

6.

how

life

of Hsiian-tsang (Beal,

I,

we

xx)

read

famous Chinese traveller brought back to

China from India a small collection of images, some
originals, some copies of famous Indian cult images.
His collection included examples in gold, silver, and
sandalwood. This passage is often cited as one of the
means whereby styles of Indian art were introduced to
the Far East. See also B. Rowland, 'Indian Images in
this

Chinese Sculpture', Artibus Asiae,

Note

particularly the 'copies' of

found

in China.

238.

x,

(1947), 5-20.

Gandhara

statues

incised in the surface

is

frequently found in stucco

Gandhara; it is natural that this method

would have been used in preparing the equally
malleable wax mould for the metal statuette.
239. 8. Another metal image of a somewhat different
type is in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. This is
said to have been found in Burma, but was almost
images

in

certainly

made

in India. It is

not difficult to see

how

many

quotations on the

17.

Coomaraswamy,

A. K.

in

T. Xaito,

History, 90.

250. 18. As an indication of the essential unity of the

arts in

Gupta

India,

may be mentioned

it

compositions of fantastic animals and

seen in these ceiling-paintings

may

sculptured decoration of Cave

XIX.

Badami

251. 19. For the

Coomaraswamy,

Themethodofindicatingdrapery folds bylines

7.

Period (a.d. 220-589). See the

Liang Period painter, Chang Seng-yu,

The Hall-Paintings ofHo'ryuji, 199 ff.

and

S.

same

forms as

be found in the

paintings, see

plate 23,

that the

floral

Rowland and

Kramrisch, 'Paint-

ings at Badami', Journal of the Indian Society of

Oriental Art,

IV,

The

(June 1936), 57.

Sittanavasal

decorations are discussed in A. B.I. A., 1930, 9. Coloured reproductions of details of the Bagh paintings
in

Rowland and Coomaraswamy,

M. Chandra,

'Ancient Indian Ivories', Bulletin

found

are to be

plates 21-2.

252. 20.

of the Prince of Hales Museum, Bombay, Xo.

closely this figure repeats the formula of the stone

253. 21. Sir

sculpture at Sarnath in such particulars as the smooth,

Pakistan, Sir L. Ashton, ed. (London, 1950), 201

rather attenuated proportion and limbs sheathed in a

254. 22. A. S. Altekar, The

robe that completely reveals the body beneath. With

Bayana Hoard (Bombay,

the figure from Sultanganj, which

it

resembles in

fifth

Irwin, 'Textiles', in The Art ofIndia and

J.

Gupta Gold Coins

ff.

in the

1954), 296, plate xxxvii.

its

general form, this statuette must be assigned to the

high point of Gupta sculpture in the

6,

1957-9-

CHAPTER

16

century.

See Coomaraswamy, History, figure 159.

240. 9. S. Kramrisch, Indian Sculpture (Calcutta,

255.

torian of

Buddhism, speaks of an 'Eastern school' of

1933), i7i-

Buddhist

art

Vishnudharmottaram, part in, chapter 43.

242. n. The term cetand (movement of life) seems

included two famous

10.

imply the necessity

a feeling

endowing

to

living things with

of vitalized existence with attention to their

growth and articulaion that is to be understood

of Hsieh Ho's Six Principles of Painting

specific

by the

for

first

(see S. Sakanishi,

The Spirit of the Brush,

Wisdom

of

Taranatha, a seventeenth-century Tibetan his-

i.

painters

under the Pala Dynasty, which, he states,

artists, Dhiman and Bitpalo,

and sculptors,

active in the ninth century

Vincent Smith, History of Fine Art

Ceylon (Oxford, 191 1), 304-7).
(see

2. S.

Beal, The Life of Htuen-tstang

256.

3. S.

Beal, Buddhist Records,

copies

at

243. 13. This appearance of the talented amateur

is

1),

II,

173-4. This

is

number of mentions by Hsiian-tsang of

of the great temple at Bodh Gaya; another

similar tower was described

Oriental Art (1933), 28.

(London, 191

only one of a

Ancient

Journal of the Indian Society of

India and

iu-12.

the East Series (London, 1929), 47 ff.).

12. A. K. Coomaraswamy, 'The Painter's Art in
India',

in

by the Master of the

Law

Sarnath (idem, 47-8).

259.

4.

See above,

p. 180.

paralleled in

China in the T'ang Period. In the Far

East the work of the non-professional 'gentleman
painter' comes to be preferred over the 'uninspired'

Bernet Kempers, The Bronzes of

Xdlandd and Hindu-Javanese Art (Leiden, 1933).
264. 6. Imbedded in the foundations of the Xepalese

traditional products of the professional artist.

stupas was a square stone chamber divided, like the

Coomaraswamy, History, 90-1.

244. 15. This method has its exact equivalent in the
church an of the Middle Ages in Europe: the twelfthcentury aesthetician Witelo remarked that almond

mandala of Hindu temple plans, into nine compartments in the centre of which was fixed the wooden
mast. In Xepal this axial member is known as the

14.

A. K.

eyes were preferable to the actual shape of any

human

eye for representations of the Virgin and saints.

16. It

was

this effect of relief in painting that

failed to surprise
this

never

and confound the Chinese, when

manner was introduced

in

the Six Dvnasties

262.

5.

See A.

J.

Hindu character of late

Buddhism.
7. Presumably all the chaityas in Xepal were dedicated to Adi-Buddha, the Creator and Preserver, and
the five mystic Buddhas of his creation.
266. 8. These manuscripts are discussed and illustrated
lingam, a clear indication of the

esoteric

480

NOTES

by A. Foucher

in L' Iconographie

bouddhique de I'Inde

accommodated
on

(Paris, 1900).

Researches conducted by

Dr

Stella

Kramrisch

in

the preparation of an exhibition of Nepalese art in

New

Asia

House

first

systematic chronological ordering of the sculp-

in

York

in

1964 have produced the

Himalayan kingdom. As

ture of this remote

early as

heaven, so are they accommodated

in

earth.

276.

'The temple resembling a mountain shines

by Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu

7.

white'

(quoted

Temple, 123, n. 78).

277. 8. H. Cousens, Chalukya Architecture (Calcutta,
1926), 61.

The view

taken from the porch

the fifth century Nepalese stone sculpture was a

280. 9.

provincial echo of Indian art of the pre-Gupta period.

roof and shows the opening to an upper shrine that

themselves in the

of many Jain sanctuaries.

The temple is sometimes referred to as the
'Black Pagoda', a title given the monument by the
skippers of the Indiamen who used it as a landmark in

Indigenous Nepalese

traits reveal

strangely cruel expression of the faces and in the

in metal and
and modified the
styles of Hindu reliefs of the seventh century and for
centuries perpetuated the canons of the Pala art of
Bengal (see Stella Kramrisch, The Art of Nepal, The

beauty of surface and

detail. Later,

both

stone, Nepalese craftsmen imported

268. 9.
iv,

(Rome, 1941),

iii

10.

New

York, 1964).
For an illustration, see G. Tucci, Indo-Tibetica,

Asia Society, Inc.,

The Tibetan Buddhists

by the

rite

believed to store

up

set great store

is

merit for the future, rather in the manner of the

granting of Indulgences from Purgatory.
that the separate tiers

is

a feature

282. 10.

steering for Calcutta.

285. 11. Cf. the panel from Stupa No. 2 at Sanchi

and the doorway of the Gupta temple

(illustration 33)
at

Deogarh
'A

12.

(illustration 163).

man embraced by

a beloved

woman knows

nothing more of a within or without.' (Brihaddranyaka

figures 119-20.

of circumambulation, which

was

illustrated

appears

It

were identified with Buddhist

Upanishad,

iv.

3.

21.)

M.

R. Anand,

Kama

The

13.

practice of sexual intercourse with a sakti

permitted certain classes of adepts in yoga.

It

suggested that an esoteric Magian phase of sun worship,

pilgrim with a kind of vicarious exposure to the chief

Multan, was followed at Konaraka.

290. 14. Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, 370.
292. 15. See A.S.I.A.R., 1908-9, plate xli.

powers of the Buddha.

These same subjects are to be seen in examples
of wall-paintings in Tibetan lamaseries. For illustrations, see the plates in G. Tucci's Indo-Tibetica,
269.

1 1

Rome, 1932-41.
270.
13.

12.

See above,

Catalogue of the Tibetan Collection

in the

N.J., 1950), 30 ff.

Kramrisch, 'Pala and Sena Sculpture', Riipam,

at

may

idea of their original appearance

Gwalior.

19.

Coomaraswamy,

299. 20.

The term

149.

History, 112.

rath

means

a chariot or a proces-

sional car used to transport the idols of the

festal days. Its

Hindu gods

use to designate a type of temple

probably stems from the concept that the sanctuary

Kramrisch, figure 43.

was a reproduction of the

CHAPTER

famous temple

296. 18. Percy Brown,- Indian Architecture (Buddhist

on

Oct. 1929, figure 21.

16.

Some

and Hindu) (Bombay, 1942),

.

Newark Museum (Newark,

15. S.

in the

Idem, plate xl(b).

294. 17.

at

p. 25.

ology at Sarnath (Calcutta, 19 14), plate xix.

14.

16.

perhaps originating

be gathered from the mandapa of the Sas-Bahu temple

D. R. Sahni, Catalogue of the Museum of Archae-

271.

is

has been

virtues so that the ascending pradaksind provided the

spiritual

Kdla,

Geneva, 1958.

celestial chariots

of the

deities.

17

K. Acharya, Mdndsara on Architecture and

Sculpture (London, 1933-4).
2. N. K. Bose, Canons of Orissan Architecture (Cal-

21. The famous Lohapasada at Anuradhapura in

Ceylon was a structure of nine storeys, in which the
accommodation of the priesthood was arranged on an
hieratic basis, so that the highest storeys were reserved

cutta, 1932).

for arhats or great sages,

274.

3.

P.

Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple (Calcutta,

Stella

proportion
5. Ibid.,

One

in

Hindu

architecture, see ibid., 207

ff.

and the lower

for novices

and

acquired higher grades of sanctity.

the leaf of the pipal tree

302. 23.

of the classical definitions of the nagara

and

nesses of the chariots

them on

their

Brahma

created for the gods to

heavenly ways. As the gods are

comes

to replace the ovoid

contour of the face in earlier periods.

208.

type of temple specifies that these shrines are likecarry

who had

301. 22. In the usual metaphorical way, the shape of

1946).

275. 4. For a complete account of the systems of

6.

those

H. Zimmer, Myths and Symbols

Civilization

(New York,

304. 24. This group

is

in

Indian Art

n.d.), 119.

a perfect illustration of the

words of the American sculptor, John Flannagan 'To

that instrument of the subconscious, the hand of the
:

4 8i

sculptor, there exists an

image within every rock. The

creative act of realization merely frees

Durga

25.

is

another manifestation of Devi or

Parvati, the sakti or wife of Siva. Like Siva himself,

'The Devi is the Absolute in action, manifestation,

and variety; Nature in all her multiplicity, violence,
and charm, dispersing impartially birth and death,
illusion and enlightenment.' (A. K. Coomaraswamy,

Museum of Fine Arts

Bulletin (Boston, April 1927),

23-4-)
306. 26.

As noted above (p.

277), there

is

evidence that

the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal was a 'copy' of

this

temple

307. 27.

It

at

should be stated that the Kailasa temple

is

only the most grandiose and impressive of a whole

series of rock-cut temples and cave sanctuaries,
Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain, that were carved at

many

centuries.

referred to Percy Brown's

is

(Buddhist and Hindu), 86

The

reader

Indian Architecture-

Zimmer,

Siva crushed beneath his

6.

The attributes

of the Nataraja include the

the upper right hand, which in

its

The

drum

left

hand

both destroys and cleanses the impurity of the

soul.

the god's creative activity.

The

lower right hand

and the lower

left

is

fire

on the

in the gesture

of reassurance,

points to the god's foot as the place

The dwarf
and the sense of the Ego which the devotee
must overcome. The flaming halo represents the
informing energy in all matter.
333. 7. C. Sivaramamurti, South Indian Bronzes (New
is

Illusion

Delhi, 1963), 114.

8..H.

Zimmer, The Art of Indian

Asia,

11

(New York,

M. R. Anand, Kama Kala (Geneva, 1958);

Auboyer and E. Zannas, Khajurdho ('S-Graven-

334. 9.

199.

J.

317. 30. See below, p. 330.

hage, i960).

319. 31. R. Sewell, The Story of a Forgotten Empire

335. 10. R. Pfister, Les toiles imprimees de Fostat

! Hindoustan (Paris, 1938).

(London, 1904), 240-1. Presumably for Domingo

Paes, the word 'Romanesque' meant work he had seen
in Rome
either Baroque or Antique
and not
the modern use of the term to designate the art of the
pre-Gothic period in western Europe.
32. Percy Brown, 113.
.

11.

et

A. K. Coomaraswamy, History, figure 185.

and our illustration 275.

12. Pfister, plate ia,

336. 13.

John Irwin, 'The Commercial Embroidery of

Gujarat in the Seventeenth Century', jf.I.S.O.A.,

xvii, 1949, 51
14.

CHAPTER

in

vibration symbolizes

i960), plate 241.

ff.

310. 28. Kramrisch, Indian Sculpture, 88.

314. 29.

emblem of evil

and proceeded with his dance, the performance of

which converted the heretics.
5. A. K. Coomaraswamy, Bronzes from Ceylon,
Chiefly in the Colombo Museum (Colombo, 1914), 10.
foot

of refuge and salvation for the worshipper.

Kancipuram.

Ellura over a period of

rushed upon the god as he began the measure of his

dance. This

it.'

ff.

John Irwin, 'Golconda Cotton Paintings of the

Early Seventeenth Century', Lalit Kala, 5 April 1959,

18

Our illustration 269 is an Andhra textile

from the Kalahasti region.
15. See the earlier hardback editions of this work,

plate xx.

These holy men recommended a personal faith

based on devotion, rather than on ritual and formula,

327.

1.

a doctrine that lent

and invited

faith,

an

air

of catholicity to the Saivite

CHAPTER

without distinction of caste.

19

wax model was prepared and over this was

fashioned a clay mould. When this mould had
hardened, the wax was melted out and the amalgam
2.

poured into the clay mould. When the metal had

cooled, the mould was broken and the image was
given

its final

chasing and burnishing.

Winifred Lamb, Greek and

(London, 1929), plate lxxvii(a).

330.

4.

plate 134A.

to its creed all classes of persons

3.

The

The

may be

Ellura frescoes are in

from the cycles

the earliest

at

many ways

so

Ajanta and Bagh that they

known specimens of what Tarana-

tha described as the 'Western school'. See above,

2.

1.

Karl Khandalavale, Indian Sculpture and Painting

(Bombay,
little

do with the metaphysical meaning of these images.

tale relates to Siva's dispute with a group of
heretical rishis who endeavoured to destroy the Lord
by their incantations and magical devices. They first
loosed against him a tiger which he caught and flayed
with the nail of his little finger. A monstrous serpent
of their production was placed around his throat as a
garland. A final monstrosity in the form of a dwarf

to

The

i.

different

p. 480, n.

Roman Bronzes

legend or story of the Dance of Siva has

342.

n.d.), plate viii.

343. 3. Douglas Barrett and Basil Gray. Painting of

India (Geneva, 1936), 42.
4.

See A. Foucher, Etude sur Ficonographie bouddhique

de Ilnde (Paris, 1900).

344.

5.

The

essential qualities of

Mogul and Rajput

painting are well summarized by J. V. S. Wilkinson

in Indian Art, ed. Winstedt, 140-1.
6.

A. K.

1916), 4.

Coomaraswamy, Rajput Painting (Oxford,

482

7.

NOTES

Sherman Lee, Rajput Painting (The Asia

New

Inc.,

York, n.d.),

Society,

association to

all

the various religious edifices in the

stupa precinct.

3.

350. 9.

12. Mahavamsa, Geiger, trans., 184-5. 'The pasada

was four-sided, on each side a hundred cubits, and
even so much in height. In this most beautiful of
palaces there were nine storeys .... Surrounded by a

50-

the pasada gleamed in

Rowland, Art

B.

8.

348.

in

East and West (Cambridge,

Mass., 1954), figure 12, and plate 134A in the earlier

hardback editions of the present volume.

W. G. Archer, Indian Painting in Bundi and

Kotah (Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 1959),
W. G.

354. 10.

Archer, Garwhal Painting (London,

beautiful enclosure

and provided with four gateways

magnificence

its

the thirty-three (gods).

The

like the hall

with plates of copper, and thence came

n.d.), 12.

of

pasada was covered over

name

its

"Brazen Palace".'

CHAPTER

20

Hsiian-tsang (Beal,

13.

community

yanist

359.

1.

360.

2.

See above,

p. 212.

his visit in

The word dagaba

combination of the
and garbha (womb,

is

Sanskrit words dhatu (relics)

chamber, or receptacle). The implication

relics,

that the

is

planted like a quickening seed in the

womb

of

the structure, exert an eternal animating influence on

seemingly dead mass of masonry, generating and

this

perpetuating for

all

time and

all

men

the spiritual

see

These

statues have been 'restored' with such

execrable taste and insensitivity that

364. 15. Another metal image of the

been found

II,

the oldest dagabas.

5.

See

S. Paranavitana,

Memoirs of
(1047), 81

'The Stupa

the Archaeological

in Ceylon',

Survey of Ceylon, v

It

has been conjectured that the

is

in

number of

bricks in the fabric of a single one of the larger

town the size of Coventry or to build a wall ten feet

from London to Edinburgh.
8.
The Mahavamsa, trans, by Wilhelm Geiger,
Oxford, The Pali Text Society, 1912, 203. For

hig/h

illustrations of actual metal objects, including a gold-

leaf lotus reliquary,

9.

See above,

10.

found

at the

London News,

Ruvanveli dagaba,

11 Jan. 1947, 52-3.

Singhalese stupas.

to light in Ceylon.

For these references

schrift,

New

17. All that

Series 10, 1/2 (1934), 36.

remains of early South Chinese sculpture

a few rather crude gilt bronze images of the fifth

Indian prototypes. See O. Siren, History of Chinese

Sculpture,
18.

Its

11

(London, 1925), plate

15.

resemblance to Pallava sculpture suggests

H. Zimmer,
The Art of Indian Asia, plates 281, 283, 289.
366. 19. A. K. Coomaraswamy, Medieval Singhalese
Art (Broad Campden, 1908), 152 fF.
370. 20. In the course of excavations around the early
a date as late as the eighth century. Cf.

stupas in Ceylon there have been found buried at

the cardinal points small bronze figures of the

same

directional animals, leading us to the inevitable con-

clusion that the

same geomantic magic

implicit in

Andhra

followed in Ceylon. Sometimes the animal statuettes,

together with the relics, were deposited in a nine-

It is

conjectured that these yupas,

compartmented receptacle or yantragara beneath the

foundation stone of the monument. (See Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, xn (1896), 16 and plates xii-

in the ruins

were set within

magic replicas of the Axis

sacrificial posts,

masonry of the dome as

Tree of the Universe.
363. 11. This world is derived from the Sanskrit
vihara, a monastery, and is applied indiscriminately by
or

Buddha

of some early

have been found

descended from Vedic

the

stone

the laying out of the Indian stupa was scrupulously

p. 208.

Single octagonal columns, similar to the

pillars,

from Amaravati has recently

century that have only a remote resemblance to

Singhalese dagabas would be sufficient to construct

see Illustrated

1923), plate x.

to relations between Ceylon

and China, see A. C. Soper, 'Literary Evidence for
Early Buddhist Art in China', Oriental Art, Summer,
1949, 3 fF. See also L. Bachhofer, 'Die Anfange der
16.

is

fF.

See Percy Brown, plate vi, 7.

362. 7. The largest of all, the Jetavana dagaba,
approximately three hundred and seventy feet
6.

diameter.

(The Hague,

buddhistischen Plastik in China', Ostasiatische Zeit-

4. Ibid., 101.

361.

Indes

same type has

See Choix de Sculptures des

in East Java.

come

of Oriental Art,

some question as to
whether this division is based on a relatively modern
system, only part reflecting the canon employed for

necessary to

original qualities.

ism', Journal of the Indian Society

is

it is

study them in old photographs to get an idea of their

statue actually imported

There

Maha-

Paranavitana, plate xx(a).

14.

power of the Buddha.

3. A. B. Govinda, 'Some Aspects of Stupa Symbol2 (Dec. 1934), 99-100.

247) mentions a

11,

Anuradhapura at the time of

the seventh century. For an illustration
at

xxv).

Many

passages in the

Mahavamsa confirm the

relic mounds

semi-magical nature of these Buddhist

and the hypothesis that they were literally reconcosmos in architecture. For some

structions of the

43

Singhalese scholars the

cosmic symbol
a

as

an

moon

stone

is

not so

emblem of Time and

much

the World,

reminder also of the miseries and dangers of the

world which the devotee steps over on

his

way

to the

Truth enshrined in the sanctuary. Cf. S. Paranavitana, 'The Significance of Sinhalese Moonstones',
Artibus Asme, xvn (1954), 197 ff.
21. S. Paranavitana, 'The Sculpture of Man and
Horse near Tisavava at Anuradhapura', Artibus Asiae,
xvi, 3 (1953), 167

ff.

These formulas of drawing reappear

372. 22.

in the

eighth-century wall-paintings of Horyuji

(lost)

Xara (Japan). See Xaito, Horyuji,

at

plates 50-3.

in

with the

for instance

Annam,

Roman

Han

A continuous hamsa frieze may be seen on the

basement of the Rajrajesvara temple at Tanjore and

so may the inscription used as rustication.
26. Culavamsa, 11, trans. Geiger, 39 ff.
378. 27. The presence of these four statues need not
be taken as an indication that this was a Mahayana
temple and the Buddhas representations of the
Dhyani Tathagatas: even in Hinayana Buddhism
the association of various events of the Buddha's life
with the points of the compass would explain the
duplication of images of Sakyamuni himself at the
four directions.

settlements have been

and, testifying to trade relations

world as well, a

Roman lamp

at

P'ong-tuk. See Annual Bibliography of Indian Archaeology, 1927 (Leyden, 1929), plate viii. See also the
Classical and Sasanian objects at
Cochin China {Annual Bibliography of
Indian Archaeology, 1940-7 (Leyden, 1950), li and
finds of Indian

Oc-Eo
plate

in

vii.)

These images could be described

4.

387.

24. This shrine (the Dala-da-ge) was built under

Parakrama Bahu I. Hata-da-ge (House of sixty relics)
and Ata-da-ge (House of eight relics) are modern
misnomers.

376. 25.

Thus

3.

found

statues' of the kings as Siva,

375. 23. Paranavitana, plate xxi.

magic

slept every night with a nagini, in a kind of

renewal of the power of kingship.

5.

'portrait
etc.

stone temple in the shape of a pyramidal

tower surmounted by

Asram Maha

been found

a kalasa finial has

Rosei. Its elevation

cent of such Pallava

at

as

Vishnu, Harihara,

monuments

is

at

vaguely reminis-

Shore Temple

as the

Mamallapuram. See Annual Bibliography of Indian

Archaeology, 1935 (Leyden, 1937), plate xi.

390. 6. Harihara is a combination of Siva and Vishnu, a
synthesis indicated in this statue by the differentiation

of the two halves of the head-dress.

image was found

Bayang.
7.

8.

in a vesara

The

present

temple of the type seen

Coomaraswamy, History, 183.

As may be seen in other examples preserved

Musee Albert Sarraut

at

Phnom

Penh,

it

at

in the

appears

both the Harihara and the Stoclet statue

were originally enclosed in a horse-shoe shaped frame,
which was at once a nimbus and a technical prelikely that

379. 28. The decor is strikingly suggestive of the

exterior ornamentation of such monuments as the

caution to prevent the breaking off of the arms of the

Rajrajesvara temple at Tanjore.

392. 9. Related to Chen-la

380. 29.
30.

Coomaraswamy,

The

Coomaraswamy,
383. 31. A. K.

Thuparama

a similar importation of

used here to decorate

motifs,

Op.

cit.,

its stability.
is the modern word, CamKambuja, 'born of Kambu',

the founder of the dynasty that originally reigned in

the northern portions of present-day Indo-China. It

was, in other words, the

overran

History, figure 303.

Crafts of

figures 120-9.

10.

Funan and gave

393.

H. Parmentier, 'The History of

1 1

Khmer

Archi-

ff.

The pyramidal terraced form of structures like

Chamkrong was intended as an architectural

replica of the

21

Kambujas or Khmers who

name to the country.

their

tecture', Eastern Art, in (1931), 147

Baksei

CHAPTER

ensure

at

India and Ceylon

32.

to

Chola

Buddhist shrine.

Coomaraswamy, Arts and

(New York, 1964).

and

bodia, which stems from

History, 167.

exterior decoration of the

Polonnaruwa shows

deity

Meru. The

supposed shape of the world mountain

installation in the centre of the capital of

The Dominican father, Gabriel Quiroga de San

who was engaged in preparing for a Spanish

such a facsimile of the mountain at the centre of the

world was designed magically to transfer the navel of

conquest of Cambodia, published an account of the

the world to the Khmer capital and to ensure the

dominance over all the Empire.
12. This concept was introduced by Jayavarman II
(802-53), wno came from Java. An inscription of 802
reads in part, 'The Brahman Hiranyadama having

385.

Antonio,

ruins in 1604.
2.

Most

likely this tale

similar legend

is

is

of Indian origin, where a

attributed to the founder of the

Pallava Dynasty. At

all

events, a cult of nagas appears

have been native to Cambodia before the intrusion

of Indian influences. It survived into the great days of
the Khmer civilization at Angkor when, it is related
to

carefully extracted the essence of the sastras, with full

by the Chinese historian, Chou Ta-kuan, the king

knowledge and experience of the mysteries, established for the increase of the prosperity of the world
the magic rites of the Devaraja. This Brahman,

484

NOTES

learned in magic lore, came from Janapada because

H. M. Paramesvara invited him to perform a ritual to
insure Cambodia's independence from Java and to the
end that there might be in this land a Cakravartin.'
13. See the excellent summary of this problem by

Remusat

Gilberte de Coral

L Art

her splendid book,

in

Khmer, Les Grandes Etapes de son Evolution

(Paris, 1940), 27-33.

It

14.

sometimes suggested that the building

is

known

Baphuon within the present walls of

Angkor was the centre of a capital in the tenth and
as the

eleventh centuries.
395.

describing this structure,

writes, 'In the palace there

is

golden tower, on the

top of which the king sleeps. In the tower there

spirit

is

the

of a nine-headed serpent, master of the earth and

of the whole kingdom.

form of

woman

the king

fails to

It

appears every night in the

whom

with

the king

must

sleep. If

be there on a single night some mis-

Angkor

Wat
name may
'city'

a corruption of the Sanskrit nagara,

is

any Buddhist building. The

be translated, then, as 'city temple', or Siamese

is

At

for

architectural features of the

L' Architecture

Khmer

style,

r Extreme-Orient (Paris, 1944).

There is evidence at Angkor

Wat and

a thousand fringes.

darkness shed by the

like big

shadowy

the nearest entrance, a

who

had been squatting in a circle, as though holding a

council, scamper off in a leisurely fashion and without
their usual chattering:

it is

as though, in a place like

must not be broken.'

the silence

this,

Before the discovery of the central Buddha

image in a well under the main tower, it used to be

thought that these faces were representations of Siva.
Lokesvara is an esoteric form of Avalokitesvara, who
himself creates or radiates the

from

five

Dhyani Buddhas

his person.

With the exception of the human or Buddha

415. 25.

head, these are the same creatures found on the

moon

stones of Ceylon.

Khmeres du
Musee Albert Sarraut', Ars Asiatica, xvi (Paris, 193 1).
420. 27. The present work omits any consideration of
418. 26. See G. Groslier, 'Les Collections

art.

This culture, located

in

the region of

flourished for nearly 1000 years until

The

architecture and sculpture

all

the

the ninth century a.d.

H.

Cambodian forms with

some borrowings from Chinese sources. The brick
tower sanctuaries of Mi-son are a prolongation of the
isolated sikharas of pre-Khmer times. The sculpture,
although cast in Indian and Cambodian mould, is

in

et

many

buildings of a practice of introducing

masonry

You

see

Comparee dans FInde

403. 19.

wooden beams

By

pedestal.

troop of monkeys gathered there for shelter and

Cham

Khmer

them with

holes that give you pause.

its

ancient locks of hair,

and the cloudy sky, they are

trees

modern Annam,

- 'Temple of the Capital'.

Brown, 220.
For an admirably detailed treatment of

other

many

this rather late hour, in the

better

Marchal,

like so

countless roots drape

402. 17. Percy

18.

Sarnath column and on the

fortune takes place.'

399. 16.

to the gates

24.

Chou Ta-kuan,

15.

the top of the towers that serve as

come

are a provincial reflection of

purposes of

characterized by a floridity and barbaric vigour of

further reinforcement. Obviously the disintegration

decoration, such as often distinguishes the best in folk

the

into

for

of these has wrought havoc on the stability of the

structures. Occasionally
tail'

one finds attempts

20. Gilberte

406. 21.

which used
as

it

now

to

be accepted as the date of the

stands.

The

site

of Banteai Srei

is

about twenty-five kilometres north-east of Angkor

interesting to note in relation to the concept

is

of the temple-mountain that the Kailasa in this relief

is

in the

shape of

Orient,

11

Coutumes du

(1902), 141

ff.

Pierre Loti has left us an

(190 1) to Angkor Thorn 'To reach

the Bayon, you have to cut your way with a stick

through
all

Chames au Musee de Tourane', Ars

28.

H. Th. Bossert,

ed., Geschichte des

Kunstgewerbes

(Berlin, 1930), 309-10.

29. S. E.

30.

Thiounn, 'L'epee sacree du Cambodge',

Archeologie

et

T. Bowie,

ed.,

Khmers,

192 1-3, 59

ff.

The Arts of Thailand (Blooming-

ton, Indiana, i960), figures 133-6.

CHAPTER

22

Bulletin de I'Ecole Francaise d' Extreme-

account of his

On

Sculptures

stepped pyramid.

411. 23. P. Pelliot, 'Memoires sur les

Cambodge',

subject

Asiatica, iv, Paris, 1922.

Arts

Thorn.
22. It

this

Toulouse, 1942; Henri Parmentier, Les Monuments

Cams de /' Annam, Paris, 1909; Parmentier, 'Les

de Coral Remusat, plate xxiv, 87-8.

is built on an earlier foundation of

complex

in

method

wood.

The temple

a.d. 969,

Readers especially interested

should turn to Philippe Stern, L'Art du Champa,

adjacent blocks of stone in imitation of a

suitable only for building in

art.

to 'dove-

visit

jumble of brambles and

sides, the forest

hems

it

in

trailing creepers.

narrowly, smothers

and crushes it; huge fig-trees, completing the destruction, have gained a foothold everywhere, right up to

423.

Possibly the statue in the Seattle Art

discussed under

image
427.

pre-Khmer

sculpture,

is

Museum,

a Dvaravati

(illustration 319).

2.

The

infallible

as well as

by no means an
Cambodia,
Siam, such terraced top-knots were special
conical ushnisha

is

means of identification,

emblems of Lokesvara.

since in

45

3- H. G. Quaritch Wales, Towards Angkor

(London, 1937), 100.
433. 4. The Lamp'un temple might be described as a

correspond so closely to the fragments of

return to the Dravidian form of prasada, like the

construction

Dharmaraja rath at Mamallapuram, in which the

terraced pyramid itself is the shrine and not merely its

to believe that the vaulted construction of the original

43i-

used in the interior of the Mahabodhi temple at Pagan

and other Burmese sanctuaries of the Classic Period
existing

at

Bodh Gaya

nineteenth-century restoration that

it

this type

before

of

the

seems possible

oriented to overlook the capital of Loyang, just as the

Mahabodhi temple was introduced into the fabric by

the Burmese craftsmen who went to repair the shrine
in the fourteenth century. In this method of vaulting
the voussoirs of the arch are composed of courses of

Vulture Peak, sacred to Buddha's preaching the Lotus

bricks mortared one

sutra, overlooked ancient Rajagriha.

it

base.

In accordance with

5.

Buddhist cave temples

6. It

434.

tecture

at

the

same

Lung Men

should be noted that even

is,

late

principle,
in

the

China were

Siamese archi-

like all the religious architecture

of the East,

on top of the

should be emphasized, are not

edge to edge. The method

strated

other.

These

bricks,

but

laid face to face,

particularly well illu-

is

by photographs of ruined structures

at

Pagan,

based on the principle of pratibimba - the reflexion of

published by Henri Marchal, plate xv.

the image of the great world in

man-made buildings.
Even in the nineteenth century, the German architectscholar Dohring tells us, King Chulalongkorn was so

441.

unwilling to depart from the traditions governing the

cave at Udayagiri in Orissa. (See Charles Duroiselle,

laying out of buildings that the whole orientation of

'The Stone Sculpture

the palace being built for

him had

to be altered, al-

though the foundations were already laid.

Palaces, as well as temples and stupas, were geomantically laid out according to the concept of the

Meru.
much from Brahmanic as

four directions around the world mountain

These

ideas

spring as

Buddhist influences. The

Meru

idea of course

is

Brahmanism; Siamese Buddhism - like

Cambodian Buddhism - has at various times in its
history been tinged with Brahmanic ideas.
435- 7- Coomaraswamy, History, 178.

5. It has been suggested that the name of the

temple - Ananda - is a corruption of the name,
Nandamula, or that the name derives from the Ananta

in

the

Ananda Temple

at

Pagan,' A.S.I.A.R. (1913-14), 66.)

442. 6. For illustrations, see A.S.I.A.R. (1912-13),
plate
7.

lvi.

Coomaraswamy,

History,

172, figures 311

and

312.

443.

8.

crafts

useful account of these

appears

in

Coomaraswamy,

and other native

History, 174.

original to

Bowie, No. 138, figure 114.

Bowie, No. 149, figure 133.

436.
9.

10.

8.

Bowie, No. 186, figure 70.

CHAPTER

23

chapter

Paul Mus, Barabudur (Hanoi, 1935).

This extension of the processional path to more
than one level as well as the indented ground plan of
Barabudur is perhaps ultimately derived from the

451.

1.

453.

2.

1.

silver relic casket discovered in a

They

stupa at Prome.

from India
proper and are dated in the sixth century a.d. (Annual
Bibliography of Indian Archaeology, 1928 (Ley den,
1930), plate x.) A number of unpublished stupas from
this period also exist at Prome.
2. Coomaraswamy, History, figure 305. There are
other early Hindu temples at Pagan, such as the
Nanpaya, dedicated to Brahma.
are almost certainly importations

Coomaraswamy, History, figure 306.

440. 4. The Burmese copy of the Mahabodhi temple
3.

is

valuable in showing the appearance of the original

in the thirteenth

century. This replica agrees with the

various small models of the shrine at

the
its

Gaya

in

showing

main tower surrounded by smaller duplications of

at the four corners. The vaults and arches

shape

Paharpur

temple

at

455-

The

in

The earliest examples of Buddhist art found in

Burma are a number of metal objects, including a
439.

24

3-

showing

in Bengal.

See above,

panel in illustration 387

a detailed

is

p. 257.

also of interest

view of a Javanese ship under

full sail.

458. 4. Devaprasad Ghose, 'Relation between the

Buddha images of Orissa and

Java',

Modern Review,

For the recent excavations of another Orissan

Buddhist foundation with statuary related to the
Barabudur style, see William Willetts, 'An Eighth
Century Buddhist monastic foundation (Ratnagiri)',

Liv, 500.

Oriental Art,
460.
6.

5.

ix,

(1963), 15.

See above,

p. 410.

See B. R. Chatterjee, 'India and Java', Greater

India Society Bulletin, 3 (Calcutta, 1933), 78.

7. Generally speaking, it is this last phase of East

464.

Javanese art that

painting,

is

perpetuated in the architecture,

and sculpture of the mixed Hindu and

Buddhist culture of the island of

465.

8.

F. A.

Bali.

Wagner, Indonesia, The Art of an Island

Group (New York, 1959), 119-62.

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493

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
The

location of a

photographer's
grapher's

work of

name

name

is

art is given in italic, the

Where no photo-

in brackets.

quoted, the location

is

also the

source of the photograph.

i.

2.

Mohenjo-daro, town plan

Limestone bust from Mohenjo-daro, H. 17-5011:

New

6f in.

Delhi, National

Museum

(B. Baer)

New

Delhi, National

Museum

Delhi,

National

Museum (Courtesy

Sir

R.

Mortimer Wheeler)

3-4x3-40^ ifxifin. New

Museum (Frances Mortimer)
daro.

7.

Mohenjo-

Delhi, National

x 3'5cm: if x if in. New Delhi, National

(Archaeological Survey of India)
3'5

Seal with representation of bull from

3-8x3-8011: ijXi^in.

daro.

Museum
9.

(British

Storage

New

Museum

Mohenjo-

Delhi, National

Museum, London)
from Chanhu-daro. H.553cm:

jar

ift

Museum of Fine Arts

Terracotta mother goddess from Mohenjo-daro.

8|in. Boston,
10.

Karachi, National Museum ofPakistan (Archaeological

Survey of India)
11.

13.

14.

15.

3^in.

Gold plaque from Lauriya Nandangarh. H.32

Survey of India)
Terracotta statuette from Mathura. H.io-6cm:
Sanchi,

Museum of Fine Arts

east gate, The Return

17.

to

Kapilavastu

18.

Maurya

Lomas

Rishi

Survey of India)
19. Lauriya Nandangarh,
logical Survey of India)
20.

cave

lion

(Archaeological

column (Archaeo-

Lion capital from Sarnath. Sdrndth, ArchaeoMuseum (Archaeological Survey of India)

logical

found at Pataliputra
Yaksha from Parkham. Grey sandstone. H.262

8ft 72UI.

Muttra, Archaeological Museum (Archaeo-

Survey of India)
Yaksha from Patna. Sandstone. H.i-62m:
Calcutta, Indian Museum (Larkin Bros Ltd)

25.

3|in.

Ear pendant from Taxila. H.44cm:

Archaeological

5ft

i|in. Taxila,

Museum

27. Sanchi,

Great Stupa, plan and elevation

28. Railing

and gateway from Bharhut. H.2i4m:

7ft

|in.

Calcutta,

Indian

Museum

(Professor

S.

Amanuma)
29. Yakshi (Chulakoka Devata) from Bharhut.
H.2-i4m: 7ft |in. Calcutta, Indian Museum (B. Baer)
30. Kuvera, King of the Yakshas, from Bharhut.

H.2i4m:

7ft in. Calcutta, Indian

Museum (Archaeo-

Survey of India)
Medallion with Ruru Jataka from Bharhut.

logical

H.49cm:

ift

7^in. Calcutta, Indian

Museum (Archaeo-

Survey of India)
Sanchi, Stupa 2, medallion with Yakshi Assa-

32.

mukhi (Author's photo)

33. Sanchi,

Stupa

2, railing pillar

(The

late

Dr

A. K.

Coomaraswamy)
from Jaggayyapeta Stupa. H.i-3om:
Madras, Government Museum (Archaeological

34. Cakravartin

Survey of India)

The Paradise of Indra from Bharhut. Calcutta,

Museum (Archaeological Survey of India)

Indian

36. Bhaja, vihara, relief of

Surya (Author's photo)

(The late Dr A. K.

37. Bhaja, vihara, relief of Indra

Survey of India)

Barabar,

35.

Palace, plan

Pataliputra, excavations of palisade (Archaeo-

logical

24.

4ft 3in.

(Archaeological Survey of India)

16. Pataliputra,

8ft

logical

i^in. (Archaeological

7|in. Boston,

Sdrndth,

Survey of

23. Capital

31.

Goblet from Mundigak. H. 137cm: 5fin. Kabul,

Museum
12. Head of a man from Mundigak. H.Qcm:
Kabul, Museum
cm:

detail.

(Archaeological

from Rampurva. Chunar sandstone.

9m. New Delhi, Presidential Palace
(Archaeological Survey of India)

26.

Seal with three-headed god from Mohenjo-daro.

8.

from Sarnath,

Museum

logical

Seal with three-headed animal from

6.

capital

22. Bull capital

H.2-66m:

(B. Baer)

4. Limestone statuette of a dancer from Harappa.

H.iocm: 3gin. New Delhi, National Museum (B. Baer)
5. Copper statuette of a dancer from Mohenjo-daro.

New

Lion

India)

Limestone torso from Harappa. H.gcm: 32m.

3.

21.

Archaeological

Coomaraswamy)
38. Bodh Gaya,

railing pillar with Surya. H.i-7om:

7m. (Archaeological Survey of India)
39. Bodh Gaya, railing pillar with Indra. H.i-7im:
5ft 7gin. (Archaeological Survey of India)

5ft

494

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

'

Relief with

40.

46 x 44cm

(JohnM.

Pitalkhora.

Museum

Great

from

Stupa.

north-east

the

Sanchi, Great Stupa. east gate (Johnston

&;

Hoffman)
east

Rawlings.

(Walter

yakshi

gate,

London)
Yakshi from south gate, Sanchi. H.yicm:

44.

4in. Boston.

45.

Museum of Fine

H.room:
Baen

Yakshi from Didargahj (Patna).

Sanchi.

east

The

gate.

2ft

Arts

3m. Patna. Archaeological Museum

46.

(B.

5ft

Departure

Great

(Archaeological Survey of India)

47.

Sanchi.

east

The Conversion

gate.

of the

Kasyapas (Johnston & Hoffman)

48. Ajanta. Cave X, Saddanta Jataka
49. Sanchi. west gate, Saddanta Jataka (ArchaeoSurvey of India)

logical

50.

Copper

14-6x12*4011:

Museum

Kanishka. coin with

(j)

Kanishka, coin

Roma, second century a.d. AY.

Huvishka, coin with Ardoksho, second century

AY. (British Museum. London, except (G).

American Numismatic Society. New York)
66. Standing Buddha from Hoti-Mardan. HotiMardan, Guides' Mess (formerly) (Archaeological
Survey of India)
67. Head ofBuddha. London. Spink (5 Son (formerly)
68. Buddha of the Great Miracle from Paitava.
Dar-ul-Aman. Kabul. Museum (Author's photo)
69. Seated Buddha from Takht-i-Bahi. H.52cm:
ft
S*in. Berlm-Dahlem, Staatltche Museen (from
a.d.

photo of an object formerly

Museum.

from Sonari. D.181: H.i6-8cm:

and Albert Museum
mirror handle from Pompeii (front).

Relic bowl

Ethnological

3ft

The Nirvana

logical

ift

Row 'and (Author's

i

Survey of India)

Reliquary of King Kanishka from Shah-ji-ki-

Dheri.

H. 196cm:

Ivon
H.25cm: o^in. Naples, Museo Naziamak

Museum

(Archaeological Survey of India)

74.

from

Pompeii (back).
H.25cm: o^in. Xaples. Museo Xazionale
Ivor}
plaque from Begram.
41x24cm:
56.
55.

Ivon-

mirror

Museum

i6i x 9* in. Kabul.

57. Terracotta

handle

plaque from Patna. D. 8-9011: 3jin.

from Kausambi. H. 10-5011:

4tin. Xevr Delhi. Xational

59. Bhaja, chaitya-hall

Museum

Karli,

facade

chaitya-hall.

62. Karli. chaitya-haLL elevation

Orissa.

Gumpha

Rani

(Author's

photo)
65.

Saka.

Kushan

and

Euthydemus. King of Bactria, late

second century B.C. AR. Tetradrachm.

King of
(c)

Bactria,

c.

190-167

B.C.

Euoatides, King of Bactria,

20-stater piece. (D)

B.C.

76.

Sirkap, Taxila. Shrine of the Double-headed

77. Jandial. Taxila, temple, plan

y

Jandial. Taxila, temple. Ionic capital

Takht-i-Bahi. monastery (Archaeological Survey

of India)
Si. Ali Masjid stupa. Khyber Pass (Archaeological
Survey of India)

53.

Corinthian capital from Jamalgarhi. London,

AE.

(E)

Kanishka,

coin

Takht-i-Bahi. stupa court (Author's photo)

early

85.

Surkh Kotal.

Demetrius.

86.

Kushan

to

AR. Tetradrachm.
167-159 B.C. AY.

with

Nanaia, second century a.d. AE.

54.

third

Maues, Saka King,

(F)

Museum

(a)

coins,

(b)

and base

(Josephine Powell)

British

Bactrian.

Museum

82. Model stupa from Jaulian. Taxila. Archaeological

Museum (Archaeological Survey of India)

and plan

63. Karli. chaitya-hall, interior (Author's photo)

Udayagiri,

Archaeological

80. Takht-i-Bahi, monastery, plan

(Archaeological

Survey of India)

64.

75. Sirkap. Taxila. palace, plan

79.

and vihara, section and plan

60. Bhaja. chaitya-hall. facade (Author's photo)

61.

Peshawar

Reliquary from Bimaran. H.7CTT1: 24in. London.

British

rracotta plaque

7|in.

Eagle (Author's photo)

Museum

Patna.

photo)

Buddha from Loriyan Tarigai.

4m. Calcutta, Indian Museum (Archaeoof

-%: 6fin. London. Victoria

54.

7m. Boston.

Arts

Dionysian scene from the Buner region. H.i6cm:

H.4icm:
73.

the

Standing Bodhisattva. H. 1-09111:

6^in. Cambridge. Mass., B.

72.

in

Berlin)

Museum of Fine
71.

plaque from the Oxus Treasure. D.7 ;cm

3m. London. British Museum

52. Silver plaque from the Oxus Treasure. D. 7-2011
2|in. London. British Museum
53.

(1)

coin with goddess

70.

from Kundlah.

lota

53 x 5m. London. British

51. Silver

AY.

a.d.

Mithra. second century a.d. AY.

(L)

Sanchi.

43.

first

with Siva, second century a.d. AY. (k) Huvishka.

(Author's photo)
42.

Kujula Kadphises, coin with head of Augustus,

century a.d. AE. (H) Kanishka. coin with Buddha,

second century

Roscnfield)

Sanchi.

41.

from

couple

royal

i8| x iy^in. .Wzr Delhi. Xational

first

century

moon goddess
Kanishka, coin

with wind god Yado, second centurv a.d. AE. (G)

4ft 4jin.

Kabul.

87. Plate

fire

temple, plan

prince from Surkh Kotal.

H. 1 -336m:

Museum

with war elephant from Bactria. D. 247cm

9|in. Leningrad. Hermitage

88.

Silver

goblet

from Taxila. H. 133cm

Archaeological

Museum

5^in.

:)

Gold amulet boxes from

89.

L.2a

Taxila.

from Hadda. H_f8cm:

90. Gold plaque with Cupid and Psyche from Taxila.

H-4 5cm: if in. T
n pendant from Taxila. L.i2icrr. _

rad of Brahmin ascetic from Hadda.

6|in.

ift

H. 1 icm

..

from Taxila. D. 15-90011: 6in.

useum
93. Steatite dish with Diana and Actaeon from
Gandhara. La wd m, B r :::sh Museum
Silver anklets

92.

13m - ::
Ashmolean Museum. Department of Eastern
lift of Major P. C. H
\Yima Kadphises from Mathura. H.2 oSm: 6ft
Muttra. Archaeological Museum (Comti
Pineika and Hariri.

04

15

ioin.

JCsnkhfa from Mathura

Muttra. Archaeological

+in.

;:t

Museum

(Courre>y

Mi

V. S

1 1 6.

Bodhisatrva

Mathura. H.:

dedicated

by

Friar

Bala

from

19.

3jin.

122

Head of Buddha from Mathura. H.fycm: ift

haeological Museum (Author's

Bamiyan. painting of Bodhisattva on vault of

4ft

(Professor S.

yin.

(Author's

(Author's photo)
painting on vault (Author's

from Fondukistan. Kabul, Museum

Buddha from

::;

Pans,

Fondulristan.

Musee

Gmmet

The yaksha Kuvera and

ift

his court

from Pal

from Mathura.

Indian Museum (Archaeo-

life

of Buddha from

Mathura. Lmtkmam, Pnvimcial Museum (John

M.

plaque with harem beauties from Begram.

:>ry

; -

K1

- _ -

5 hahr, stucco reliefs

Dandan L

I2g

Buddhist

rel

iitin

Psr:s.

Sir Aurel Stein

wall-painting of female figure

relief

from Tumshuq. Paris. Musee

Stein)

130. Kizik Cave of the Painter, wall-painting.

Berlm-Dahlem. Staathche Museen

-painting of female

Kizik Treasu:

photo of an object formerly in the

figure (from

Ethnological Muset
132, Arha: :rom KiriL H
Dahlem. Staathche Museen
133. Two divinities from Kizil.

Hz

object formerly in the Ethnological

Buddha from

Musee Gutmet (Josephine

Powell)
on.
plaque with
Begram. H. of figure 1 1 cm _

harem

beauties

from

photo of an object formerly

m,

Guimet

(Josephine Powell)

5m. Berlin-

.:

textile

Bodh Gaya. Mahabodi temple,

(

Archaeological

Suney

vaults before

of India)

in

Berlin)

10ft

8m.

(formerly) (from
the

Ethnological

Astana.

Museum

375 x

31 -2cm:

for Central Asian

AntKu

Vbutmm

PoweU)

from

. Delhi.

Bodh Gay a, Mahabodhi temple (Josephine

Museum,

H.3 25m:

Berlin)

^:lk

von comb from Mathura or Uttar ft

51 x 64cm: 2x25m. London, Victoria and Albert

Bezeklik.

Museum fur lolkerkunde

Berlin .

restoration

iliq.

Berlm-Dahlem, Staathche Museen (from photo of an

Rosenfield)

20cm:

128.

131
lion*

caef with scenes from the

Museum

9xin. Muttra, Archaeological

2ft 5*in. Calcutta,

Survey of

logical

_rel Stein)

Gmimel

tmm{ Josephine Powell)

H^rikles and the Nemean

109.

Buddha
Group E,

dhisattva

from Jaisinghpura.
haeological

pit

Khera. H.55-Scm:

H.75cm

Museum

Muttra. Archaeological

:'*

108.

miyan.

photo)

from Bhutesar.

Amanuma)

10 1. Railing pillar with yakshi

::-

Buddha (Author's photo)

Bamiyan. painting of female figure on vault of

Iran, sanctuary, detail of painting on dado

H.i 4cm:

of

:rnet, Paris)

(Frances Mortimer)

100. Railing pillars with yakshis

diriniries in niche

Buddha (Court e>

175-foot
E2i.

3 uimet, Paris

Bamiyan. painting of dying

photo)

XI. reconstruction of dome

BamiyiiL painting of sun god on vault of niche

V. 5

iojin.

103

Caw

of 1 20-foot Buddha ( Cour

Agrawala)

102.

dome (Author's photo)

118. Bamiyar..

niche of 1 75-foot

Museum (The late Dr A. K. Coomaraswamy)

98. Seated Buddha from Katra. H.69cm: 2ft
Muttra, Archaeological Museum (Courtesy Mr

i uimeu

Bamiyan. lantern roof(Cou

Pi::>

niche of 175-foot

ila)

go.

urn of Fine A
Bamiyan, 120-foot Buddha (Author's photo)
--3 jddha (Josephine Powell)

115. Bamiylr.. C.

120.

97.

>

amphora from KJiotir _Berlm-Dahlem. Staathche Museen

Vooden chair from N:
L.68-6,
4.5-3
uttery

i^jin.

H.55 pan:

18, 2-. 22in.

Lyndon. British

Museum

4()6

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

from Kucha or

Relic casket

138.

Kizil.

H.312,

H.i 04m:
(B. Baer)

Powell)

i|in. Calcutta, Indian

140.

Martand, Kashmir, sun temple, plan

141.

Pandrenthan, Kashmir, Siva temple (Josephine

roof

144.

Lahore, Central

View of the Great Stupa on casing

Amaravati stupa. H. 1-90111:

slab

from the

Madras, Government Museum (Archaeological Survey of India)

145. Standing Buddha from Nagarjunakonda. New

Museum

Delhi, National

6ft 2|in.

(Archaeological Survey of

India)

from" Amaravati. Paris, Musee

Museum

H.iom:

W.i 455m:

Buddha preaching

172.

Museum

New

149. Figure holding a

Nagarjunakonda.

Delhi, National

Museum

rhyton from the palace area,

Nagarjunakonda,

Archaeological

Museum
150.

Nagarjunakonda, stupa, plan

151.

Cave XIX,

Ajanta,

interior

(Archaeological

Survey of India)
152. Ajanta, Cave XIX, exterior (Archaeological
Survey of India)
153. Chezarla, chaitya-hall (Archaeological

Survey

of India)
154. Ter,

the

First

155. Sanchi,

Temple

17 (Archaeological Survey of

174.

Museum

H.i-372m:

156. Aihole,

Durga temple (Archaeological Survey

of India)
157. Aihole,

Aihole,

Durga temple, plan

Haccappya's temple, Vishnu on Naga

(Archaeological Survey of India)

159. Aihole,
160.

Ladh Khan temple,

Sarnath,

Dhamekh

section and plan

stupa, detail of carving

(Josephine Powell)

Deogarh, Vishnu temple, plan

Deogarh, Vishnu temple, Vishnu on Sesha
(Archaeological Survey of India)
163. Deogarh, Vishnu temple, doorway (Archaeological Survey of India)
161.

162.

164. Bhitargaori, brick temple, elevation

165.
166.

175.

4ft 6in.

Calcutta,

(Sheila Weiner)

Scenes from the Life of Buddha from Sarnath.

3ft 4|in.

Sarnath, Archaeological

Museum

Copper Buddha from Sultanganj. H.2 25m:

Birmingham Museum (B. Baer)
Bronze standing Buddha from Sahri Bahlol.

7ft 4;jin.

H. 307cm:

ift

iin.

Radlett, Herts, Pierre Jeannerat

(B. Baer)

177. Bronze standing Buddha from Dhanesar Khera.

H.37-5cm: ift 2|in. Kansas City, Nelson Art Gallery
(Courtesy Mr Laurence Sickman)
178. Udayagiri, Bhopal, boar avatar of Vishnu (Lent
from the Asiatic Research Bureau, Fogg Art Museum,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts)
179. Ajanta, Cave XIX, Nagaraja (Author's photo)

180.

Gandharvas and apsaras from Sondani. H.82cm

2ft 8in.

Gwalior, Archaeological

Museum

(B. Baer)

(The

late

Dr

A. K.

Buddha

Coomaraswamy)

Cave I, plan
Cave I, wall-painting of Great Bodhisattva (The late Dr A. K. Coomaraswamy)
184. Ajanta, Cave I, detail of wall-painting of Great
Bodhisattva (The late Dr A. K. Coomaraswamy)
185. Ajanta, Cave I, painting of Kuvera on ceiling
(The late Dr A. K. Coomaraswamy)
182. Ajanta,

183. Ajanta,

India)

158.

Sermon from

181. Karli, chaitya-hall, Transfiguration of

Trivikrama temple, plan

i^in.

(Archaeological Survey of India)

173. Avalokitesvara.

176.

4ft Qjin.

2ft

Sarnath. H.i-575m: 5ft 2in. Sarnath, Archaeological

(Archaeological Survey of India)

and mithuna from Nagarjunakonda.

Muttra,

Museum of Fine Arts

170. The god Vishnu. H. 1-09111: 3ft 7m. New Delhi,
National Museum (Archaeological Survey of India)
171. Standing Buddha from Sarnath. New Delhi,
National Museum

Submission of the Elephant Nalagiri, railing

medallion from the Amaravati stupa. H.85cm: 2ft
Qfin. Madras, Government Museum (Archaeological
148. Battle scene

3ft 7^in.

Vishnu from Mathura. H.65cm:

H. 1 -04111:

Survey of India)

7ft

(Author's photo)

Guimet
147.

H.2i7m:

(B. Baer)

Boston,

Indian

Head of Buddha

146.

Archaeological
169.

Pandrenthan, Kashmir, Siva temple, lantern

143. Head of a girl from Ushkur.

Museum (Frances Mortimer)

Museum

168. Jain Tirtharhkara.

Powell)
142.

Standing Buddha from Mathura.

167.

Museum

4gin. Allahabad, Municipal

3ft

D. 375cm: 12^, \^\m. Japan, private collection

139. Martand, Kashmir, sun temple (Josephine

Bhumara, shrine of Siva, plan

Door jamb with floral scroll from Bhumara

Cave XVII, wall-painting of Indra in

& Hoffman)
187. Ajanta, Cave XVII, wall-painting of Visvantara
Jataka in porch (Walter Rawlings, London)
188. Ivory Buddhist Trinity. H.i4cm: 5^in. Boston,
186. Ajanta,

porch (Johnston

Museum of Fine Arts

189. Ajanta,

Cave XVII, apsaras

190. Architect's

Bengal. H. 27-9011: 11 in.

191.

Coin of Chandragupta

hoard. Muttra, Archaeological

V. S. Agrawala)

(Stella

Kramrisch)

Surma River,
London, British Museum

plummet from
II

the

from the Bayhana

Museum (Courtesy Mr

&

"

xrnaragupta

-W*

hoard.

D-:. r.:

V_;;

from the Bayhana

:_.

'':..,";

?::e

No.

iq;. Nalanda
Survey of India)

Ill

Archaeological

dhGayl.

::^zz

\[xr.l'^:cr- :z~?'.z. Iz'x:.

vonaraka, Surya temple, Surya (Johnston

221

Mahadeo

Kandariya

khaiuraho,

:::

223. Khajuraho.

ddha from Bengal. H.45cm: [ft f^in. Boston,

Museum of Fine Arts
Torso of a Bodhisattva from Sanchi. London,
Victoria and Albert Museum (Courtesy Victoria and

Museum, London)
198- Bronze Buddha in abhaya mudra from N a Ian da.
Jlanda. Museum (Archaeological

Albert

temple

Vamana temple, apsaras (Lent from

Fogg Art Museum,

Harvard University. Cambridge, Massachnsi

tea, Surya temple (Archaeological Survey of
224
I-_:_

Delhi Qutb mosque, pillars from Hindu

225
temples (Johnston
Hoffman)
226. Sunak, Nilakantha temple, elevation

&

A -dhera. Surya temple (Archaeological Survey

Sz?i..

;.::!'..

B-:i--..r_-

of India)

>:_-_

M ::::-=:

Modhera, Surya temple, plans

runt Abo, Teipal temple- dome (Johnston

228.

zzc PI :--. Nepal. Buddhist temple (E. A. Waters)

Ncril.

D_:-ir

Sc_--.

Hoffinan)

Fr

idmapani from Nepal. H.30-5cm

ift.

230- Gwalior
fiwnaiaswaun]

Gwalior,

23 1-

a j>. i i 36.

rr. :::

Western Tibet (Lent from the

-.-.::.

p i lese manuscript dated

:;_
in

U".

;
.

ih

'.

Teli-ka-Mandir,

v_r-v_: V I-

late

relief

E
(Author's

B_r._ :-;~r.: L tr. ::::. :h=

Fogg Ait Museum, Harvard

_rch Bureau,

?v

(The

andir

Cambridge, Massachusetts)
Dharmaraja rath

Mamallapuram,
.::

Ehsofon, T.L

Gvan-tse,

::-

Bir.-iT

ara.

H.+2-5cm:

if:

__

20*. Ivory Buc

51cm: 3^

fon,TLP A C Time
.-_."-_:
limallapuram.

detail

Museum. Harv<
acm: 2c4in- Xewark.

The Descent of

:-.

e_-

.-

.limallapuram.
I von.

Dr

A.

Yirupak

'.trr.f.z

T'r-.z

-.

_:-

family

-\ rr

Durga

the Ganges,

from The

slaving

the

demon

K. Coomara>

2 14. Pattadakal. Galaganatha temple (Archaeological

late

240. Ellura, Kauasanath temple (AYalter Rawlings,

L:r.i

:-?'.r.

- J:r.

Kindpuram. Kailasanath temple (The

Coomaraswamy

Li:-,

irtadakat Yirupaksha temple, section and

-.1

limallapuram. Shore temple (AV alter

:-;>.

Pattadakal,

plaque m

from Tibet. London

-

(Eli

Inc. 1076)

(Josephine Powell)
limallapuram, monkey

F'r^r-.:

-_r:V

team

(Eliot

Inc. 1076)

Rawlings, London)

ter

on (Courtesy Fogg Art

ci

me

\tamalbpuram, Sahadeva rath

from Tun-huang.

;vara

::

"J (Author's photo)

211.

&

the Asiatic Research Bureau,

Survey of India)

PI:--.

erotic

(Josephine Powell

Paharpur. temple, plan

;::

temple,

Hoffman)

(Author's photo)

Surya

Ronaraka,

220.

(Author's photo)

:~.

241.

Ellura,

kailasanath temple, plan of upper

Survey of India)
215. Pattadakal, Jain temple (Archaeological Survey

Bhu vanes var.

216.

Parasuramesvara

temple

(Archaeological Survey of India)

.:- Bh_.ir c -.ir. Lingaraj temple (Johnston

'-..llura,

Mount

&

Hoffman)
2ifl

242. Ellura,

Kauasanath temple, Ravana and Jatayu

(Author's photo)

of India)

244. Elephanta, Siva temple, plan

145

konaraka.

Surya

Deul temple (Josephine

llephanta,
cphanta, S:

219. konaraka, Surya temple, detail of basement

&

Hoffman)

Siva

temple.

Siva

Mahadeva

(Archaeological Survey of India)

Powell)
storey (Johnston

Kailasanath temple, Ravana shaking:

kailasa (Archaeological Survey of India)

Pan an

>,rrothal of Siva

(Archaeological Survey of India)

and

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

498

247. Tanjore, Rajrajesvara temple (Author's photo)

Tanjore,

248.

Rajrajesvara

temple,

gateway,

doorkeeper (Author's photo)

249. Srirangam, Trichinopoly,

Survey of India)
250. Madura, Great Temple (Nelson Wu)
251. Madura, Great Temple, plan
252. Tanjore, Subrahmaniya temple (R. Moor-

logical

Thompson,

Ellura,

274.

mandapa (Archaeo-

276. Suppliant

255. Bronze Siva from Tanjore. Kansas City, Nelson

Mr Laurence Sickman)
Bronze Siva saint, perhaps Sundaramurtiswami, from South India. Kansas City, James Baldwin
257. Bronze Parvati from South India. H. 10 15m:
3ft 4m. Washington, D.C., Freer Gallery of Art
256.

Bronze Kali from Tanjore. H.4 1-3011: ift

5in. Kansas City, Nelson Gallery of Art (Courtesy
Mr Laurence Sickman)
259. Bronze Nataraja from South India. H.84cm:
2ft 9|in. Madras, Government Museum
260. Bronze Nataraja from Polonnaruwa. H. 64-5011:
258.

2ft i^in.

Colombo,

Museum

sword from South India. L.94cm: 3ft iin.

London, Victoria and Albert Museum
262. Bronze temple lamp and chain from the
Jogesvari caves, Bombay. L. 1-22111: 4ft. Bombay,
Prince of Wales Museum
263. Bronze basin from the Kistna region. H. i6-8cm
6f in. London, Victoria and Albert Museum
South India.
Ivor>jewel
casket from
264.
W-3i-8x L. 54-6 xH. 33cm: i2^x 2i^x 13m. London,
261. Steel

British

Museum
Radha from

South India. 13-3x7011: 5^X2fin. London, Victoria

and Albert Museum
266. Cotton textile from Fostat. Cairo,

Museum

Embroidered cotton bed-hanging from Gujarat.

8ft 9jin x 2ft 9m. Ashburnham, Sussex,
Lady Ashburnham
268.
Embroidered knuckle-pad from Jaipur.
14-9 x 14-9011: 5|x 5|in. London, Victoria and Albert
267.

268 x 83-8011:

Museum
269.

Andhra

270.

Turban

Jr)

95x7cm:

Gujarat.

in the

21 -3x16-2011:
8f
Albert Museum

The

277.

Bhairavi Rdgini from

x 6fin. London,

Victoria

Sultan refreshed with a Sherbet in the

from

Mandu.

12

x13cm: 4X5|in.

London, India Office Library

278. Kama Deva in the Vibhdsa Rdgini from Malwa.

Museum of Fine Arts

Hmdola Rdga
from Ahmadnagar. 238 x 183cm: 9! x 7^. New
Delhi, National Museum
280. Lady arranging her Hair from Jaipur.
14-7

x 19-8011: 53 x

7^in. Boston,

279. Krishna and his Beloved in the

14 x io-8cm:

55X4^.

London, Victoria and Albert

Museum
281. Krishna and

Radha from Kishangarh. Cam-

bridge, Mass., private collection

Rajah

282.

Guman

shooting Tigers from Kotah.

33 x40cm: ift iinxift 3|in. London, Victoria and

Albert Museum
283. Radha awaiting Krishna in the Rasamanjart
from Basohli. 235x33cm: 9|inxift iin. London,
Victoria and Albert Museum
284. Lady with a Hawk from Guler. 20-6 x nicm:
85 x 4in. London, Victoria and Albert Museum
285. The Hour of Cowdust from Kangra. Boston,

Museum of Fine Arts

286. The Night of Storm from Garwhal. 15-2 x 229
cm 6 x 9m. London, British Museum
287. Anuradhapura, Thuparama dagaba (Archaeo:

logical

288.

Survey of Ceylon)
Anuradhapura, Thuparama dagaba, plan and

elevation

265. Ivory plaque with Krishna and

Japan, private

Lady

Mandu.

Nimatndma

Gallery of Art (Courtesy

from

3! x 2|in. Washington, D.C., Freer Gallery of Art

Somnathpur, temple (Lent from the Asiatic

Bureau, Fogg An Museum, Harvard
University, Cambridge, Massachusetts)

254. Halebid, Hoysalesvara temple, detail (Lent

from the Asiatic Research Bureau, Fogg Art Museum,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts)

wall-painting

Kailasanath temple, wall-painting of

manuscript

Jain

275.

and

253.

temple,

Jr)

Lakshmi (Daniel V. Thompson,

thyvasan)

Research

Kailasanath

Ellura,

273.

(Daniel V.

textile

from the Kalahasti region.

collection (formerly)

pins.

L.165, 174, 79, 203cm:

and Albert Museum

6^, 6f,

3^, 8in. London, Victoria

271. Ear-pendants. L. 15-2011: 6in. London, Victoria

and Albert Museum

272. Sittanavasal, Jain temple, ceiling painting

289. Anuradhapura, Ruvanveli dagaba, dedicatory

stupa (The

late

Dr

A. K.

Coomaraswamy)

290. Anuradhapura, vihara near

Thuparama dagaba,

plan
291.

Anuradhapura, Ruvanveli dagaba, Buddha

(Author's photo)
292.

Bronze Buddha from Dong Duong. Hanoi,

Museum

(Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient)

Anuradhapura, Ruvanveli dagaba, 'Duttha

Gamani' (Author's photo)
294. Anuradhapura, seated Buddha (The late Dr
A. K. Coomaraswamy)
295. Diagram of Buddha image and 'pointing frame'
293.

296. Anuradhapura, dvarapala

297.

Anuradhapura, 'Queen's

(Walter Rawlings, London)

Pavilion',

moon

stone

499

298. Anuradhapura, Isurumuniya Vihara, Parjanya

and Agni (Author's photo)
299. Sigiriya, wall-painting of apsaras (Archaeological Survey of Ceylon)
300. Polonnaruwa, Gal Vihara, Parinirvana image
(Courtesy Ceylon Tea Centre)

Bahu

Parakrama

Polonnaruwa,

301.

(Author's

photo)

Angkor Thorn, Phimeanakas, plan

Angkor Thorn, Takeo, plan
329. Angkor Wat (Frances Mortimer)
330. Angkor Wat, air view (Ecole
328.

Polonnaruwa, Sat Mahal Pasada (Courtesy

Angkor Wat, plan

Angkor Wat, central shrine (Ecole Francaise

d'Extreme-Orient)

Angkor Thorn, Baphuon, scenes from the

of Vishnu (Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-

333.

304. Polonnaruwa, 'Hata-da-ge' (Author's photo)

legend

305. Polonnaruwa,

Orient)

Wata-da-ge (Author's photo)

306. Polonnaruwa, Wata-da-ge, plan

Polonnaruwa,

307.

Nissaiika

Temple,

Northern

Polonnaruwa,

detail

309. Brass Pattini

Devi from north-eastern Ceylon.

Museum
1

(Archaeo-

Survey of Ceylon)
Bronze Sundaramurtiswami from Polonnaruwa.

logical
1.

Colombo,

Museum

seal from the Yatthala

H.7-8cm: 3^in. Manchester, Museum

312.

dagaba.

Carnelian

313. Ivory plaque with Rati from Ceylon.

chusetts)

lamp

Dedigama.

from

Dedigama,

Museum
Sambor,

316.

Phnom

Bayang, elevation
cella (Ecole

Prei Krabas.

H.95cm:

3ft

Hin.

Albert Sarraut (Ecole Francaise

d'Extreme-Orient)
Seattle,

Art

Harihara from Prasat Andet. H. 1-94111: 6ft

Phnom Penh, Musee

Sarraut

Albert

(Ecole

Angkor Thorn, the Bayon, head of Lokesvara

Dr A. K. Coomaraswamy)
344. Angkor Thorn, the Bayon, Buddha (Ecole

343.

(The

late

Francaise d'Extreme-Orient)

Angkor Thorn, the Bayon, outer wall, scene of

campaign (Author's photo)
Angkor Thorn, Neak Pean (Ecole Francaise

military

Angkor Thorn, Neak Pean, plan

Angkor,

348.

Phnom Bakheng,

Siva

(Ecole

(?)

321. Lokesvara from

Cambodia. H. 1-19111: 3ft iOgin.

H. F. E. Visser)

Brussels, Stoclet Collection (Courtesy

Lolei

(Roluos),

towers

(Ecole

Francaise

323. Angkor, Yasodharapura and

Angkor Thorn,

plan

Chamkrong

(Ecole Francaise

d'Extreme-Orient)

Angkor,

Phnom Bakheng

d'Extreme-Orient)

Head of Vishnu from Koh Ker. H.4i-6cm: ift

Museum of Fine Arts
Head of Buddha, Angkor style. Philadelphia,

Museum

(Cleveland

Museum

of Art)

351. Bronze apsaras from the Bayon, Angkor Thorn.

H. 39-3011: 1 ft 32in. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts

352.

Potten- amphora.

H.54cm:

ift

Hanoi,

gin.

353. Sacred sword.

Sword L.im:

3ft 3|in.

Phnom

Penh, Royal Palace

354.

Scabbard.

L.8ocm:

2ft

73m. Phnom Penh,

Royal Palace

d'Extreme-Orient)

324. Angkor, Baksei

349.

4f in. Boston,

Musee Finot

Francaise d'Extreme-Orient)

325.

Angkor Thorn, the Bayon (Author's photo)

Angkor Thorn, the Bayon, plan
341. Angkor Thorn, plan
342. Angkor Thorn, Gate of Victory (Ecole Francaise

350.

Buddha from northern Siam.

Museum
319.

322.

hamsa

Francaise d'Extreme-Orient)

318. Buddha from

Phnom Penh, Musee

320.

340.

347.

Francaise d 'Extreme-

Orient)

4^in.

Brahma on

d'Extreme-Orient)

shrine, elevation

Kuk,

with Ravana shaking

339.

346.

315.

tympanum

Kailasa (Josephine Powell)

(Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient)

345.

Bronze

317. Prei

Mount

d'Extreme-Orient)

314X 121

cm: i2| x 4|in. Cambridge, Mass., Fogg Art Museum

(Lent from the Asiatic Research Bureau, Fogg Art
Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa314.

336. Banteai Srei, tower (Author's photo)

338. Banteai Srei, lintel with

No.

310. Polonnaruwa, Siva Devale

31

335.

337. Banteai Srei,

(Author's photo)

London, British

Angkor Wat, apsaras (L. Warner)

Angkor Wat, gallery, Vishnu: The Churning of
the Sea of Milk (Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient)
334.

Mandapaya

Lata

(Author's photo)
308.

Francaise

d'Extreme-Orient)

332.

Ceylon Tourist Board)

Angkor Thorn, Phimeanakas (Ecole Francaise

327.

331.

302. Polonnaruwa, great quadrangle, plan

303.

326.

d'Extreme-Orient)

(Ecole

Francaise

355. Buddha from Ayudhya. Hi 75m: 5ft 9m.

Bangkok, Xattonal Museum
356. Head of Buddha from Siam. H.i7cm: 6|in.
Schiedam, Holland, C. S. Lechner (Courtesy H. F. E.

Visser)
357. Vishnu from Siam. Bangkok, National

Museum

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

500

Torso of Bodhisattva from

358.

3^in. Bangkok, National

Jaiya.

Hjocm:

2ft

Museum

384. Barabudur, plan and section

385. Barabudur, air view (Oudheidkundige Dienst,

Buddha from Wat Mahadhatu, Lopburi. H.im:

Bangkok, National Museum
360. Head of Buddha from Chiengmai. H.i-8om:
5ft
in. Bangkok, National Museum
361. Head of Buddha from Siam. H. 337cm: ift
i\m. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts
362. Head of Buddha from Ayudhya. Bangkok,
National Museum
363. Siva from Ayudhya. Bangkok, National Museum
364. Lopburi, Wat Mahadhatu (The late Dr A. K.
Coomaraswamy)
365. Lamp'un, Wat Kukut (Lent from the Asiatic
Research Bureau, Fogg Art Museum, Harvard
359.

3ft 3in.

1 1

Java, courtesy H. F. E. Visser)

Barabudur,

386.

first

Mriga

gallery,

(Oudheidkundige

Jataka

Dienst,

Java,

or

Ruru

courtesy

H. F. E. Visser)
387. Barabudur,

first gallery.

Upper

register:

The

Bath of the Bodhisattva. Lower register Hiru lands

in Hiruka. H.im: 3ft 3in. (Oudheidkundige Dienst,
:

Java, courtesy

H.

388. Barabudur,
the

F. E. Visser)

third

gallery,

Sudhana legend, Maitreya

text

illustration

from

(Oudheidkundige

Dienst, Java, courtesy H. F. E. Visser)

Asiatic Research Bureau,

389. Barabudur, fourth gallery, illustration from

Samantabhadra text (Oudheidkundige Dienst, Java,
courtesy H. F. E. Visser)
Barabudur, first gallery and balustrade
390.
(Oudheidkundige Dienst, Java, courtesy H. F. E.

University, Cambridge, Massachusetts)

Visser)

University, Cambridge, Massachusetts)

366.

367.

Chiengmai,

Wat Chet Yot (Lent from the

Fogg Art Museum, Harvard

Pagan, Mahabodhi temple (Lent from the

Asiatic Research Bureau,

Fogg Art Museum, Harvard

391. Barabudur, upper terrace, Buddha Vairocana

(Oudheidkundige Dienst, Java, courtesy H. F. E.

University, Cambridge, Massachusetts)

Visser)

Ruins of Ayudhya (Lent from the Asiatic

Research Bureau, Fogg Art Museum, Harvard
University, Cambridge, Massachusetts)
369. Gold crown from Chiengmai. H.i3cm: if in.

392. Barabudur, upper terraces and terminal stupa

(Oudheidkundige Dienst, Java, courtesy H. F. E.

368.

Wat

Cetiya Luang,

370.

Gold plaque from Ayudhya. H.5-8cm:

2^in.

amphora from Lopburi. H.53cm:

8f in. Bangkok, National Museum

yjz. Pagan, Mingalazedi (The

late

Dr

A.

ift

K.

Coomaraswamy)
373. Pagan, Ananda temple (Paul Popper Ltd)
374. Pagan, Ananda temple, plan
375. Gold stupa from Burma. H.343, D^iicm:
13^,

I2^in.

London,

Victoria

Loro Jongrang, Siva temple (Courtesy Rijksvoor Volkenkunde, Leiden)

394. Loro Jongrang, Prambanan, plan
395. Loro Jongrang, Siva temple, Rama and the
Crocodile, scene from the Ramayana (Courtesy
H. F. E. Visser)
396. Candi Mendut, Buddha and Bodhisattvas
(Koninklijk Instituut voor de Taal-, Land- en
Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie)
397. Panataram, Siva temple (Oudheidkundige
393.

museum

Siam

Bangkok, National Museum

371. Pottery

Visser.

and Albert Museum

Dienst, Java)
398. Panataram, Siva temple, Sita and attendant,

(formerly)

relief

Amber duck from Burma. H.38icm: 15m.

London, Victoria and Albert Museum (formerly)

Java)

376.

Candi Bhima, Dieng (Oudheidkundige Dienst,

Java, courtesy H. F. E. Visser)
378. Head from Candi Bhima. Batavia, Museum
(Oudheidkundige Dienst, Java, courtesy H. F. E.
377.

Visser)

379. Candi Kalasan, temple (Oudheidkundige

Dienst, Java, courtesy H. F. E. Visser)

Sewu, temple (Oudheidkundige Dienst,

H. F. E. Visser)
381. Candi Sewu, temple, plan
382. Candi Sewu, shrine (Oudheidkundige Dienst,
Java, courtesy H. F. E. Visser)
383. Barabudur (Oudheidkundige Dienst, Java,
courtesy H. F. E. Visser)
380. Candi

Java, courtesy

from the Ramayana (Oudheidkundige Dienst,

Java. H.7i7cm: 2ft 4m.

Museum
400. Batik from Java. Whole L. 64 x106m: 8ft
8in x 3ft 6in. London, Victoria and Albert Museum
401. Kris from Java. L. 457cm: i7|in. London,
British Museum
402. Head of a monk from Candi Sewu. H.2icm:
8iin. Batavia, Museum

399.

Wayang puppet from

London, Victoria and Albert

INDEX
Names and

other matters in the notes are indexed

only where some matter

importance or

is

referred to that

is

of special

not evident from the main text: in

is

such cases the page on which the note appears,

chapter, and the

47i(3) 14

number of the

its

note, are given thus

Abhaya Mudra, 1 54
Abu, Mount, 296 (ill. 229)
Achaemenid empire, 59, 64,

Andhra

Additive sculpture, 46-7, 47i(3) 14

Adi-Buddha, 57, 255, 479(i6) 7

period, 77, 95 ff., 207 ff.

Angkor, 392 ff. (ills. 323-5, 348, 350), 472(5) 12
Angkor Thorn, 393-7 (ills. 323, 326-8), 403 (ill. 333),
408 ff. (ills. 339-47), 418, 419 (iU- 35i)
Angkor Wat, 398 ff. (ills. 329-32, 334~5), 417-18, 420

Aelian, 60

A-ni-ko, 267

65, 113, 121, 165

Aeolic order, 72, 472(5) 15

Afghanistan, 41-2, 124, 165

Agamic

religions,

Animals, addorsed, 44, 67, 72, 80

Annam, 483(2 1) 3 485(21)"
Antinous, 166, 167 (ill. no)

ff.

49

Antioch, 474(9)'

Agesilas, 135
Aghora-Bhairava, 313
Agni, 50, 54, 370

Antiochus III, 475(9) 29

Anuradhapura, 359, 360

Agnidhriya, 45

Ahmadnagar, 347 (ill. 279), 348

Ahura Mazda, 50, 471(4)2
Aihole, 220-3 (ilk- I 5 0_9), 254
Airavata, 88, 473(6) 6
Ajanta, 104-5 (iU- 48), 216-17
Jill. 179),

242-51

ff.

(ills.

287-91, 293-4,-

296-8), 480(17)^

(ills.

Apadana, 63
Apalala, 170

Apollo, 50, 126-7

(ills.

182-7), 252

151-2), 239-40

(ill.

189),

253

Ajivikas, 64

Alexander the Great, 32, 59, 65, 121, 165, 475(9)"

Alexandrian objects, 125, 166
Allahabad, Municipal Museum, 228 (ill. 166)
Ali Masjid stupa, 140 (ill. 81), 141, 165
Al-Ubaid, 470(2) 16
Amalaka, 282, 289

Amanullah, 136
Amaravati, 77, 207-14 (ills. 144, 146-7), 363
Amiens, 167-8
Amitabha, 56, 57, 235, 456
Amoghasiddi, 456
Amri, 470(2)^

Amulet boxes, 146

Ananda, 372, 485(23)*
Ananda temple (Pagan), 440-2
Anau, 42

Apollonius of Tyana, 475(9)"

Applique technique, 41
Apsaras, 177, 253, 289-90, 404

Arch, 33
Arhat, 56

Arikamedu, 478(1 4)
Arjuna rath, 300 (ill. 233)
1

Arrian, 32
Arthasastra, 75

Arunas, 50
Aryans, 24, 43
Asahga, 58

Ashburnham, Sussex, Lady Ashburnham, 336

267)
Asoka, 54, 56, 59 ff, 77, 121, 162, 263, 472(4)"
Asoka's Visit to Bodhi Tree (Sanchi), 97

Asram Maha

Rosei, 483(2 1) 5

Assamukhi, 85
(ills.

373-4)

ff.

(ill.

32),

Astana, 197 (ill. 135)

Asura, 47i(4) 2

Anavatapta, 70
Anawrata, 439

Atisa, 267

Anda, 79, 478(i4) 16

Augustus, 122, 124, 127

Atlantids, 126

89

(ill.

502

INDEX

Besnagar, 239, 473(5) 17

Betrothal of Siva and Parvati (Elephanta), 314

Autran, Charles, 469(2)*

Avadanas, 453
Avalokitesvara,

235

134,

56,

268-9 (ill- 206), 427

Avantipur, 199
Avatars, Vishnu's, 51, 55, 239

Ayaka

(ill.

261,

242,

173),

Bezeklik, 194-6 (ill. 134)

Bhadapugarin Gomitaka, 73
Bhadra, 280

178)

Bhagavad

126, 165

Bhaja, 88-90

Ayudhya, 420, 423-5 (ill. 355), 428-30

434 (ill. 368), 436 (ill- 370)
Azes, 136, 474(9)

362-3),

(ills.

210

Gitd, 51
(ills.

in, 114-15

36-7),

Datta, 352
Bharhut, 27, 44, 77, 79-84

(ills.

28-31), 87

Bhatgaon, 263-4

Badakshan, 180

Bhilsa, 102,

Badami, 243, 251

Bagh, 243,251
Bahavani temple (Bhatgaon), 264

Bhir mound, 47, 75

Bhitargaoh, 227 (ill. 164), 257
Bhumara, 228 (ills. 165-6), 312

Baksei Chamkrong, 393-5

Bhiimis, 276
Bhupatindra, 265
Bhutesar, 157 (ill. 100)
Bhuvanesvar, 280-2 (ills. 216, 217), 300
Bhuvanipradipa, 274

Bala, Friar, 152

(ill.

324)

97), 153, 154, 156, 476(10)*

(ill.

Baladeva, 255, 448

Balalik Tepe, 176
Bali, 485(24)'

Bamiyan, 170-80

(ills.

113-23), 182, 186

47 7 (i2)
Bangala Motta Paramba, 46
Bangkok, 70, 434-5; National
357-6o), 430

197,

(ill.

355),

Baphuon, 403

(ills.

362-3), 436

Bitpalo, 479(16)*

(ill.

370),

Black Pagoda,

Bodh Gaya,

(ill.

see

53,

(ills.

336-8)

Bodhnath
ff. (ills.

383-92), 47 2 U)

12

shrine, 263

(ill.

194), 433, 485(23)

(ill.

(ills.

183-4)

Boghazkeui, 471(4)*
(ill.

262)

Bonpo, 266

Museum

Boston,
(ill.

402)

99

(ill.

44),

(ill.

169), 239,

266

(ill.

(ill.

316)

Bayhana hoard, 254 (ills. 191, 192)

Bayon temple, 393, 410-15 (ills. 339-40, 343-5), 418,

70),

(ill.

252

202), 267

(ill.

285), 417

(ill.

361),

(ill.
(ill.

Bead-and-reel pattern, 161

56), 111, 125,

160-2

105, 106),

(ills.

188),

(ill.

169

168,

47

9),
(ill.

259

(ill.

(ill.

(ill.

Bots, 434-5

Brahmins, 52-3, 471U)

338)

Brick, use of, 276; in Ceylon, 386

166
'Bejewelled Buddha', 180-2

Brihatsamhitd, 162
British

Bell capitals, 67

Berlin, Ethnological

Museum,

196, 477(1 2)

Berlin-Dahlem, Staatliche Museen, 130

(ill.

132), 193

(ill.

(ill.

133), 197

Museum,

see

London

Brussels, Stoclet Collection, 390, 391

69), 190

(ill.

136)

(ill.

265,
278),

351), 428,

(ill.

14),

112), 231
196),

(ill.

203), 269, 346

349), 418, 419

(ill.

479(1 5)

Brahma, 51, 55, 270, 408

Brahmana, 47i(4) 6

350,420
(ill.

355
429

of Fine Arts, 39

131

Batik, 465

130), 192

(lk.

199)

Bombay, Prince of Wales Museum, 333

Baths, 33

(ill.

175)

Bodhisattvas, 56, 58, 130-2, 179-80, 235

Basohli, 345, 350-2 (ill. 283)

Batavia, Museum, 445 (ill. 378), 467

Begram, 110

74)

(ill.

Bodhisattvas (Ajanta), 244-8

333), 483(21)^

Basarh, 472(5)*

4i9(ill.

(ill.

Surya Deul
59, 90-2 (ills. 38-9), 162-3

108-9), 174-6, 256-7

Barabar Hills, 64 (ill. 18)

Barabudur, 199, 268, 448
Baroda, 473(5) 17

Bayang, 386-7

99)

Bisutun inscription, 65, 121

Museum, 423

370

Bangles, 37
Banteai Srei, 406-8

(iH-

Birmingham Museum, 237

Birth of Brahma, 345

ff.,

(ill-

35),

in

Bijapur, 348
Bimaran reliquary, 135-6

Balkh, 122
Baluchistan, 31, 32, 41, 42

437

(ill.

88,113

Bactria, 59, 122, 126, 165

(ills.

59-60),

(ills.

10

472(4)
Bhakti, 49, 50, 126

Bhanu

Baalbek, 174

425-7

(ill.

246)

362, 478(14)*

pillars,

Ay Khanum,

(ill.

321)

503

Buddha, 53

ff.,

7
77-9, 88-9, 47i(4)

Buddha of the Great Miracle

et

passim

(Paitava), 128, 129

(ill.

68)

Buddha images (Ceylon), 364-6

Buddha images (Gandhara), 126 ff.
Buddha images (Mathura), 153 ff.
Buddha's headdress, Veneration

of,

Channavira, 82
Charsada, 474(9)"
88

Chashtana, 149

Buddhas of the Past (Sanchi), 97

Buddhism, 52, 53-8, 70
Buddhism, development, 56-7, 113
Buddhism, and Hinduism, 55, 57-8
Buddhism, Kushans and, 124-5
Buddhism, decline, 212, 255
Bull, as symbol, 38-9,

Bundi, 350
Buner, 132

(ill.

Burma, 439

ff.

Byzantine

Chattras, 79
Chen-la, 392
Chezarla, 218-19

(HI-

53)

Chiaroscuro, 178

Ch'ien Fo-tung, 476(H) 15

Chiengmai, 427

71-2

(ill.

Chorasmia, 144
Chorten, 267-8

(ills.

Museum, 335

(ill.

Chulakoka Devata, 81

266)

270, 472( 4 )

60, 71, 79, 86-8

(ill.

34), 153, 259,

472(5)\ 473(6)
Calcutta, Indian Museum, 74 (ill. 25), 80 (ill. 28), 81
(ills. 29-30), 83 (ill. 31), 87 (ill. 35), 133 (ill- 72), 159
(ill. 103), 229 (ill. 167), 235 (ill. 173), 236 (ill. 174),
473(5)

17
,

474(9)

n 476(io) 4
(ill.

313)

71),

269

207)

Cambodia, 130, 383, 385 ff.

Candi Bhima, 445-6 (ills. 377-8)
Candi Kalasan, 446 (ill. 379)
Candi Mendut, 462, 463 (ill. 396)
Candi Sewu, 257, 446-8 (ills. 380-2), 466, 467
402)
Carl, J., 165

Caryatids, 141
Caste, 52

Cave of the Painter (Kizil), 190 (ill.

Cave of the Red Dome, 477(1 2) 6
Cave temples, see Rock-cut temples

Chunam

13

483(21)2

(ill.

29)

plaster,

363

Chunar sandstone, 67, 234

Churning of the Sea of Milk,

345, 405

(ill.

335), 412

Circumambulation, 79, 114

Cire perdue casting, 327, 333

130), 191

Coins, Bactrian, 122, 123

(ill. 65)
Coins, Gupta, 254 (ills. 19 1-2)
Coins, Kushan, 123 (ill. 65), 124, 126

Coins from Afghanistan, 165

Colombo, Museum, 330, 331

(ill.

Colossi, Buddhist, 172

(ill.

Columns, see Pillars

Composite order, 142
Conjeeveram, see Kancipuram
Contrapposto, 158
Conversion of Kasyapas, 97, 102
Corinthian order, 141, 142
Cross, cosmic, 52

Ctesiphon, 163, 164

Culavamsa, 359

Centaur, 126

Cyrus, 32

Ceramics, Khmer, 420; Siamese, 436

Cetana, 479(1 5) 11
Ceylon, 210, 359

ff.

Chaitya-hall, 44, 65, 88, 104,

13-15, 218-19

Daevas, 471(4)*
Dagabas, 360 ff., 482(20)2

Dandan

Uiliq, 187-8

(ill.

128)

Chaitya window, 65, 1 14-15, 119

Chalukyas, 215, 277, 333

Darius, 65, 121, 165

Cham

Dasyus, 24
Dating, Gandhara, 474(9)^

484(2 1)

210, 364
Chandellas, 287

27

(ill.

311)

Celebes, 210

Champa,

'

Climate, 23-4

Cambridge, Mass., Fogg Art Museum, 382

Cambridge, Mass., B. Rowland, 132 (ill.

art,

435-6

Citra, 233

Calicut, 45

(ill.

366),

Chulalongkorn, 70, 485(22^

Cakravala, 213, 411

Cakravartin, 54,

(ill.

204-5)

Chou Ta-kuan, 410-11,

Cairo,

433-4

360), 428,

(ill.

369)

China, 185, 196, 218, 252, 364, 435, 436, 479(i5) 6

Chola dynasty, 25, 37, 3i4- J 7, 379, 3 8 o

71)

170

art,

Chandragupta I (Gupta), 215

Chandragupta II, 254
Chandragupta Maurya, 59, 121
Chanhu-daro, 39 (ill. 9), 47o(2) 16

Darul-Aman, 136

Dedigama, 383

(ill.

314)

260), 294, 380, 381

504

INDEX

Dehanchement, 91,

Enlightenment of Buddha, 97, 160

127, 159

Deity, representation of, 27-8, 50

Delhi,

Museum

Delhi,

Qutb mosque, 290-2, 293

for Central

Asian Antiquities, 196

(ill.

Eras, chronological, 474(g) 2,

Erotes, 126

Eucratides, 122, 145

225)

Euthydemus

Demetrius, 122
-Beogarh, Vishnu temple, 224-7

('" s

I,

475(9)

29

!6i~3)

Departure of Bimbisara (Sanchi), 97

Descent of the Ganges, 301-3 (ills. 234-5), 34

Fa Hsien,
(iU-

60, 124, 162, 185, 215

Fertility goddess, 39-41,

First Preaching of

236)

46-7
Buddha, 160, 234, 449

Devanam-Piyatissa, 359, 360

Devaraja, 393, 460

Flag, Indian, 28, 357

Fondukistan, 136, 180-1

Devas, 50, 471U) 2

Devata, 108, 168, 169

Fostat, 335 (ill. 266)

Foucher, Alfred, 165

Dhamekh

(ill.

112)

stupa (Sarnath), 223-4

(iU-

10

124-5), 188, 205, 235

(ills.

Funan, 385, 390-2

160)

Dhammapada, 253
Dhanesar Khera, 238

(ill.

177),

Gajasimha, 287
Gal Vihara, 372-3

239

Dharanis, 58

(ill.

300)

Dharmacakra, 270 (ill. 209)

Dharmakaya, 57
Dharmaraja rath, 299-300 (ill. 233A), 306

Galaganatha temple, 278-80 (ill. 214)

Gandhara, 121 ff., 147 (ill. 93), 165, 186-7

Dhiman, 479(1 6)

Gariga, 239

Gandharvas, 240, 241

(ill.

180)

Dieng Plateau, 445-6

Garbha Griha, 200, 276

Garhwal, 344-5, 354-7 (ill. 286)
Gautama, see Buddha
Gavaksha, 227, 300
Gaya, see Bodh Gaya

Dilwara, 296

Gedrosia, 32

Diodotus, 122

Genghis Khan, 170, 196

Geography, 23

Dhoti, 73, 132, 153, 154, 253

Dhvaja stambhas, 71

Dhyani Buddhas,
Didarganj, 100

57, 255, 453,

(ill.

458

17 ' 19

45), 473(5)

Dionysius, 125
Dittaraja, 433

Geomancy,

Dohada, 80
Dome, 476(H) 12

Ghantasala, 208, 478(14)^

79,

274

Ghiyas-ud-din-Khilji, 345-6

Dong-duong, 210, 364, 365 (ill. 292)

Double-headed Eagle, Shrine of (Sirkap), 137-8

Ghumli, 294
(ill.

Gilgamesh, 37
Gilgit, 150

76)

Drama, 215-16

Giotto, 105, 107

Draupadi's rath, 300-1

(ill.

Golconda, 336, 348

Goli, 208, 212

233)

Dravida temples, 276

Dravidians, 24, 43, 49, 471(4)'
Dryads, 107
16

Dukhtar-i-N6shirwan, 176, 477(H)

Durga, 52, 304-5 (ill. 237), 481(17)"
Durga temple (Aihole), 220-1 (ills. 156-7), 280, 300

Duttha Gamani, 359, 363, 364, 365

Dvarapalas, 227, 369, 383
Dvaravati, 423-5

(ill.

Gondophares, 138, 474(9^

Gopuras, 300
Great Departure, 97, 100-2
Greco, El, 301
'Greco-Buddhist'

art,

125

Gryphon, 44, 126

Gudea, 34

293)

Guilds, 44, 275, 293

Gujarat, 41, 292-6, 335-6

Edict

pillars,

Eightfold Path, 54, 472(4)"

Elephanta, 312-14 (ills. 244-6)

Elephants, 104-5,

4 8i(i 7 )

27

Gummadidirru, 208
Gunavarman, 199

"9,

333, 335
Ellura, 276, 307-12 (ills. 240-3), 342-3

(ill.

267), 343

Guler, 345, 352-3 (ill. 284), 354

Guman, Rajah, 351 (ill. 282)

Asoka's, 65-7

(ills.

273-4),

Guntupalla, 46

Gupta Period, 215

fF.

(ill.

275)

505

Guru, 52
Gwalior, 227, 239, 240, 296-9 (ills. 230-2), 48o(i7) 17
Archaeological Museum, 241 (ill. 180)
Gyan-tse, 268

Intoxication, 159
;

Isurumuniya Vihara, 370

Isvarapura, 406

Haccappya's temple (Aihole), 222 (ill. 158)

Hackin, J., 165
Hadda, 134, 166-70 (ills. 110-11), 477(12^
Halebid, 324

Hamsa,

(ill.

Jaggayyapeta, 86-7

254), 325

Jainism, 53
Jaipur, 336

Harpocrates, 125

Jaiya,

Harwan, 199

Jammu, 345

Hashtnagar, 474(9)"

Jandial, Fire

302), 375-6

(ill.

304), 483(20)^

Hayagriva, 271

(ill.

Helios, 91

386),

Temple, 138
(ill.

Jayavarman

103), 191

77-8), 142, 475(9)"

31), 92, 102, 160, 442,

II,

ff.

483(21)^

Jayavarman VII, 393, 406, 410, 413

Jelalabad, 136, 165

Jemdet-Nasr, 42, 47o(2)

Jhukar period, 31

Hoysalesvara temple, 324

Jogesvari caves, 333

(ill.

(ill.

262)

Kabul, 165; Museum, 42

285)

129
(ill.

lf>

Jetavana dagaba, 482(20^

Jewellery, 75, 108-11, 252-3, 336-9, 383
Jewels, Seven, 86, 472(4)"
Jinas, 53

(ill.

68), 144

(ills.

86), 181

(ill.

11, 12),
(ill.

Mount, 275, 307, 393

Kailasanath temple (Ellura), 276, 307-12
333, 342

(ills.

Hut, Vedic, 473(6)*

Kalahasti, 337
Kalasa, 276

Huvishka, 124, 478(1 3) 1

Huvishkapura, see Ushkur

(ill.

269), 481(18)"

Kalasan, 446
Kali, 40, 52,

328-30

(ill.

258)

Kalidasa, 216

'Illusionism', 132-4
cult, early,

Kalpa, 51, 55

44

Kalpa

Indikatusaya dagaba, 363

37), 90,

270
Indra Sabha cave, 342-3
186), 250,

Indra's Paradise (Bharhut), 113

91-2

(ill.

39),

249

Kama
Kama

(ills.

273-4); (Kancipuram), 306

Kakrak, 476(H) 13

263-4

(ill.

(ill.

56),

Kailasa,

Hsiian-tsang, 45, 67, 124, 136, 162, 166, 170-1, 185,

6
187, 199, 215, 229, 230, 237, 255, 256, 479(i5)

Indra, 50, 55, 88, 89

no

124)

Kach, 292

254), 325

Hsieh Ho, 242, 479(15)"

453

82)

(ill.

Java, 224, 251-2, 257, 262, 445

91, 122, 125, 147

Horseshoe arch, 45
Horyuji, 180,483(20)^
Hoti-Mardan, 127 (ill. 66)
Hour o/Cowdust, 354, 355
Hoysala dynasty, 323

(ill.

(ills.

1?

83-4

Horse, 70, 90-1

Images, 27, 28

280)

454

Jaulian, 142
ff.,

Hinayana Buddhism, 56, 134

Hinduism, 50 ff.
Hinduism, and Buddhism, 57-8
Hippocamp, 126
Hiranyadama, 483(2i) 12

Htl,

(ill.

101)

(ill.

Japan, 252, 472(4)

Jatakas, 44, 55,

Heaven of Brahma (Sanchi), 97

(ill.

472(4)"

426 (ill. 358)

Jamalgarhi, 143 (ill. 83)

Harsha, 199, 215, 216, 239

Herakles, 125, 159

Hermaeus, 122

34), 207, 210, 383,

268), 348, 349

(ill.

Jaisinghpura, 157

Hellenistic influences, 65

(ill.

Jain temples and viharas, 119, 296

Harmika, 46, 79, 141

(ill.

298)

Jain paintings, 342-3

94)

'Hata-da-ge', 374

(ill.

Jain images, 230

Hanoi, Musee Finot, 366 (ill. 292), 420 (ill. 352)

Harappa, 31 ff. (ills. 3-4), 41, 42
Harihara, 292, 388-90 (ill. 320), 399, 483(2 i) b
(ill.

346

Ivories, 108-11, 161-2, 252, 270, 271, 333-4, 383

25
135, 325, 335, 483(2o)

Hariti, 148

Iran, 24, 41, 63, 65, 75, 197,

Iranian religion, 47i(4) 2

205)

(ill.

Ionic order, 72, 142, 472(5) 15

sutra, 343
Deva, 346
sutra, 242,

(ill.

278)

285

Kamadhatu, 452
Kancipuram, 277, 306

(ill.

239), 387

240-3),

(ill.

239)

INDEX

506

Kandariya Mahadeo, temple

of, 287,

288

(ill.

222)

Kandy, 360, 381-2

Kangawar, 478(13)2

279)>348, 350

Kangra, 345, 353-4, 355

Kanheri, 207, 476(1 o) 2

(ill.

(ill.

96),

Kanjur stone, 138

Kansas City, James Baldwin, 328 (ill. 256)
Kansas City, Nelson Gallery, 238 (ill. 177), 239, 326
255),

328^

(ill.

(ill.

Ksetras, 57
Kshatriyas, 53

Kubera, 148
Kucha, 188-9, 196, 197-8 (ill. 138)
Kujula Kadphises, 122, 124

Ku

K'ai-chih, 161

Kullu, 42

258)

Kansu, 122
Kanthaka, 102

Kumaragupta, 233
Kundlah, 106 (ill. 50), 107

Kapilavastu, 215

Kurdistan, 72

Kapilavastu, Buddha's return

to, 60,

474(7)

Begram

Kapisa, see

265), 347

(ill.

281), 354

(ill-

Krishna I, 307
Krobylos, 127, 156

285)

Kanishka, 122-6, 135, 141, 144, 149, 150, 151

160, 176, 185; see also Reliquary

(ill.

Krishna, 51, 215, 243, 334, 335

Karachi, National

Museum, 40

(ill.

10),

47o(2) 7

Kara-Shahr (Shorchuq), 187 (ill. 127)

1 15-19 (ills. 61-3), 240-2 (ill. 181), 476(10)2
Karma, 50, 53
Kashmir, 199 ff., 252

Kushan

rulers, 56, 121

Kuvera,

8i(ill. 30),

Kuvera, Paradise

of,

149

ff.,

82, 158

ff.

102), 159,

(ill.

248

(ill.

185)

159

Kyanzittha, 440

Karli,

Kassapa, 370
Kathiawad, 41, 292, 294
Katra, 154, 155 (ill. 98), 157, 366

Lacquer, 166, 435

Ladh Khan temple (Aihole), 222-3 C 111 159), 312

Lahore, Museum, 125, 204 (ill. 143), 205
-

Laksana, 127, 153, 154, 157, 230, 472(5)*

Lakshmi, 92, 97, 342

(ill.

Kaundinya, 385
Kausambi, 1 1 1 (ill. 58)

Lalitagiri,

Kautilya, 75
Kesava temple, 323

Lalita Vistara, 449

Lamba tatuwa, 366

Ketas, 271

Lamp'un, 375, 431-3

Khafaje, 41

Landscape, 105-7
Lankavatdra sutra, 242
Lantern roof, 173, 194

274), 473(6)

Khajuraho, 282, 287-90

Khalchayan, 170

(ill.

222), 291

(ill.

223), 292

458

365)

(ill.

Khasarpana Avalokitesvara, 261

Khmers, 390 ff.

Lapakshi temple, 336

Khodjagan, 165
Khorsabad, 33
Khotan, 185, 187, 196, 197

Lauriya Nandangarh, 45, 46

Khusrau
Khusrau

Lats, 65, 71, 116

(ill.

13),

65-7

(ill.

19),

7i, 77, 257, 472(5) 5

(ill.

Le Coq, Albert von,

Lehmbruck, 182

136)

163

I,

10

Lalitaditya, 199, 200, 205

185, 189, 196

Leningrad, Hermitage, 145

II, 248
Kidara Kushans, 475(9) 24

(ill.

87)

Lhasa, 268

Kipling, R., 125, 165, 443

Kirtimukha, 316, 420, 446

Licchavis, 263

Kish, 31

Lingam, 49, 51-2, 307, 345, 393, 47(2) 14 479(i6) 6

Kistna, 333

(ill.

(ill.

Lohapasada, 363, 480(17)2'

189-94

(ilk-

3~3)j

9, 197-8

Lokattara,

Buddha

as,

Lokesvara, 390, 391

203

Koh Ker, 416, 417 (ill.

Kompong Thorn, 386

Diji, 41

Kotah, 350, 351 (ill. 282)

Kris, 465, 465-6

172

(ill.

321), 393, 412-13

(ill-

343),

415, 418,472(5)^

349)

Konaraka, 282-5 (Hk- 218-20), 286

Kongokai mandara, 459
Kosmokrator, 172

Kot

217)

Lion, 67-9, 86

281)

263)

Kizil, 179, 180, 185,

138),

(ill.

Kishangarh, 350

(ill.

Lihgaraj temple, 282

Lolei,
(ill.

221)

392-3

Lomas

(ill. 322)
Rishi cave, 64-5

London,
(ill.

British

65), 125, 135

161, 198

271

(ill.

309),

(ill.

(ill.

137),

210), 334

466

(ill.

(ill.

18)

Museum, 106-7

401)

74), 143

(ills.

(ill.

209

(ill.

(ill.

264), 356

190), 253,
(ill.

123

50-2),

83), 147

269

(ill.

(ill.

93),

206),

286), 379

(ill.

507

Mathura, 46-7

London, India Office Library, 346 (ill. 277)

London, Victoria and Albert Museum, 108
162

(ill.

(ill.

261), 333

338

(ill.

107),

260
(ill.

(ill.

197), 261, 271

263), 335

270), 339

(ill.

(ill.

271), 345

(ill.

53),

211), 332

265), 336
(ill.

(ill.

(ill.

268),

276), 348, 349

(ill. 280), 351 (ill. 382), 352 (ill. 283),

353 (ill. 284),
443-4, 465 (ills. 399-400)
Lopburi, 427 (ill. 359), 431 (ill. 364), 436, 437 (ill. 371)

Loriyan Tarigai, 133 (ill. 72), 474(9)

Loro Jongrang, 257, 461-2 (ills. 393-5)
Lota, 106 (ill. 50), 107, 116
23

(ill.

104), 472(5)

97, 172

Magadha, 59, 77, 215

Mahdbhdrata, 44, 50, 51, 52, 216, 345
Mahabodhi temple (Gaya), 90, 162-4

34),

95-7,

of the Buddha), 473(6)"

302

Megasthenes, 59, 60
Melfi, 4 75(9) 20
Meng Rai, 433

483(21)"
Mesopotamia, 31, 32, 33, 34, 37, 38, 40, 41, 44, 65, 70
Metalwork, 107-8, 134-6, 145-7, 237-9, 253-4, 262,
ff.,

379-8o, 383, 418, 420, 435-6

208

(ill.

Mihintale, 363
Mihiragula, 124
Oi, 189
(ill.

372)

126), 187

(ill.

Mi-son, 484(21)"
(iU s

IQ 8-9),
(ill.

367)

Mithra, 50, 176

Mithuna,

85, 159, 227, 285, 289,

334

Mitra, 50

Modhera, 294-6 (ills. 227-8)

Moga, see Maues

Mohammedan

Mahavira, 53, 343

170, 215, 363

-Mahinda, 359
of Ghazni, 292

Maitreya, 55, 130, 134, 160, 242, 453, 455

Majapahit dynasty, 462

Majumdar, N. G., 470(2)"

conquest, 196, 199, 317

Mohenjo-daro, 32
Moksha, 285
Mongoloids, 24
Mongols, 196

Mons, 423
Monsoons,

ff. (ills.

1-2, 5-8, 10), 253, 470(2)"

469(1)'

Monsters, 44
(ill.

Moon

278), 352

Mamalla dynasty, 299

Mamallapuram, 299-306

(ills.

233-8)

Mdnasara, 274
Manasollasa, 333

Museum, 382 (ill. 312)

Mandala, 57, 173-4, 213, 274, 276, 448, 458
Mandalay, 443
Manchester,

203, 220, 276, 290

Mandu, 345-6

(ills.

Medallions, 83-4, 90, 107

Miran, 186

359, 363, 370

Mahayana Buddhism, 56-8,

Mandapa,

50, 90,

Mingalazedi, 439-40

Mahavairocana, 459

Maya,

Ming

256-7 (ill. 194), 440, 485(23)*; (Pagan), 433

Mahapurusa, 50, 79, 153, 172, 473(6) 2

Makara, 153
Malwa, 77, 346

ff.

Maues, 122

Maya (Mother

265, 270-1, 327

Madras, Government Museum, 86 (ill.

144), 210 (ill. 147), 253, 330 (ill. 259)
Madura, 319-22 (ills. 250-1), 334

Mahmud

149

167-9)

Mewar, 352

Luristan, 470(2)"

Mahdvamsa,

(ills.

Merlon crenellation, 126

Meru, Mount, 70, 213, 275, 289, 411-12, 452,

Loti, Pierre, 399, 484(2 1)

Lotus Sutra, see Saddharma Pundarika

Lung Men,

229-32

Mennapuram, 45

Lothal, 41

Lucknow, Provincial Museum, 160

14), 121, 135,

(ill.

99, 104, 107), 215,

(ills.

276-7)

Muslin, 253
Muttra, Archaeological
95), 151

(ill.

Museum, 72-3

96), 154

ff.

(ills.

Nadanta, 330

Marshall, Sir John, 142

I

39 4)

Nadaun, 354
Nagara temples, 276, 280, 480(1 jf
Nagarahara,

see

Nagaraja, 240

Hadda

(ill.

179)

Nagarjuna, 208, 478(14^

(ill.

24), 150

98-102), 230

6
254 (ill. 191), 473(5)", 476(io)
Mysore, 322-5, 334

168),

Mardan, see Hoti-Mardan

Marengo treasure, 475(9)"

Masts, 45, 79, 471 (3) 8

Mat, 145

Mouhot, H., 385

Mounds, see Tumuli
Mudras, 154, 327
Mundigak, 41-2 (ills. 11-12)

(ill.

Manichaeanism, 196

Martand, 199, 200-3 (iUsMasons' marks, 82

Masson, Charles, 136

stones, 369-70, 472(5)"

Mother, Great, 40, 46, 49
Mother Goddess, 40-1, 42, 46

(ill.

508

INDEX

Nagarjunakonda, 208, 209

211-13

145),

(ill.

(ills.

Otani, Count, 185

Museum,

Oxford, Ashmolean

148-50), 359

Nagas, 49, 55, 107, 222 (ill. 158), 465, 483(2i) 2

Nalanda, 215, 255-7 (ill. 193), 262 (ill. 198), 448

Oxus Treasure, 107-8

Nandamula hill, 441

Nandi bull, 38, 52, 277, 307
Nanpaya temple (Pagan), 485(23^

Padmapani, 265-6 (ill. 202)

Padmasarhbhava, 267

Museo

Naples,

Nazionale, 109

(ills.

Pagan, 433 (ill. 367), 439-42

Pagodas, 141, 264

54, 55)

148

(ill.

94)

51-2)

(ills.

(ills.

372-4), 476O0)

Xaqsh-i-Rustam, 113, 174

Nara, 172, 180, 483(20)"

Pahari painting, 344-5, 352-7

Paharpur, 257, 258 (ill. 195), 442, 462, 485(24)2

Narasirhha, 178, 299, 305

Narasirhhadeva, 282

Pal Khera, 158

Paitava, 128

166

68),

(ill.

102)

(ill.

Nasik, 207
Nasir-ud-Din, 346

Pala dynasty, 343-4

Nat Hlaung Gyaung, 433, 442

Nitaraja, 317, 330-2 (ills. 259-60), 380
Nativity of Buddha, 97, 160, 237

Palampores, 335-6

Naturalism, 26, 27
Nature, and Indian

Pallium, 127
Palmyra, 126, 132, 150, 166, 474(9)% 478(13)2
Panataram, 464 (ills. 397-8)

Pala-Sena period, 232, 255

art, 26,

Pallavas, 215, 277, 299

Pallis,

102-4

Navagraha, 292
Navalakha, 294

Pancika, 148
346), 415

347), 47 2 (5)

(ill.

12

(ill.

Nepal, 58, 180, 262-6, 269, 270, 479(16)"

Pantokrator, 179-80

Parakrama Bahu

(ill.
(ill.

for Central Asian Antiquities,

(ill-

135)
Delhi, National

40),

1 1 1

170),

4 7 o(2)

New
New

Museum

209)

(ill.

58),

(ill.

233

(ill.

Museum, 34
209

171),

(ill.

254

ff.

(ills.

145), 211
(ill.

192),

(ill.

347

2-8), 93
148), 232
(ill.

279),

141), 203

(ill.

Neumagen Memorial, 170

Newark, New Jersey Museum, 270

New

ff.

94)

Pandrenthan, 202
Panini, 252

Delhi,

472(4)^

ML, quoted, 25

Negritos, 24

197

ff.,

Pahca ayatana, 290

Nayak dynasty, 319

Neak Pean, 414 (ill.

New

I,

372, 373

483(20)^
Parakrama Bahu II, 380
Parasuramesvara temple, 281-2

(ill.

142)

(ill.

301), 376, 382,

(ill.

216), 290

Parihasapura, 199-200, 257

Paris, Musee Guimet, 161 (ills. 105-6), 167 (ill. no),
168 (ill. in), 183 (ill. 125), 189 (ill. 129), 210 (ill.

146)

Delhi, Presidential Palace, 71

Museum

York, Metropolitan

(ill.

22)

Parjanya, 370

of Art, 336, 348

Parkham, 72-3

(ill.

Ngakye Nadaun, 433

Parthians, 122, 150

Nigrai, 125

Parvati, 52, 314

Nihal Chand, 350

Nilakantha temple, 294

Pasada, 44
(ill.

226)

(ill.

Pataliputra, 60-4

Ximatndma, 346 (ill. 277)

Nirmanakaya, 57

75, 100

(ill.

24), 75, 100

246), 329-30

(ill.

257)

16-17), 7 2

(HI-

2 3)> 74

(ills.

in

45),
-

Patna, see Pataliputra

Nisa, 165

Pattadakal, 277

Nissarika Malla, 374

Niya, 197, 198

(ill.

(ill.

Patrick, St, 472(5)*

(ill.

307)

302), 375

Northern Temple, Polonnaruwa, 378-9

Orders,

classical,

72

Orissa, 280-7

Osia, 290-2

(ill.

ff. (ills.

Patttnapalat, 253
Pattini Devi, 379

(ill.

212-15), 48i(i7) 26

309)

Peacock, 97

137)

Oanindo, 144
Oc-Eo, 483(2 1) 3
Oldenburg, Baron, 185

(ill.

308)

Pei

t'a, 475(9)
Peking, 268

27

Peoples of India, 24
Persepolis, 64, 69, 72, 86,

13

Persepolitan capital, 44, 69, 72, 80, 125

Persepolitan order, 69, 72

Peshawar, 121, 122, 124, 141, 168, 169

224)

(H- 2 5)>

5
17
57), 215, 47i(3) , 473(5)

Patan, 264-5 (iU s 200-1)

Xirukta, 50, 470(3)'

Nirvana, 51, 54, 56, 133-4

Nissanka Lata Mandapaya, 378

(ill.

476(10)!

(ill.

112),

509

Peshawar, Archaeological

Museum,

135

(ill.

Radlett, Herts., Pierre Jeannerat, 238

73)

Petrigala, see Pitalkhora

Ragas and Raginis, 345

Philadelphia, Museum, 417 (ill. 350)

Phimeanakas, 393, 396-7 (ills. 326-7)
Phnom Bakheng, 393-6 (ill. 325), 416 (ill. 348)
Phnom Penh, Musee Albert Sarraut, 388 (ill. 318),
8
390 (ill. 320), 483(2 1 )

Railing, 79 ; see also vedika

Rajagriha, 45, 47, 485(22^

Phnom
Phnom

Phoenicians, 4og(2) 5

Rajasthan painting, 344 ff.

Rajput painting, 336-9, 343
Rajputana, 290-2

Phurbus, 271

Rajrajesvara temple, 314-17

Penh, Royal Palace, 420, 421 (ills. 353-4)

Penh, sword from, 420, 421 (ills. 353-4)
210)

(ill.

Phyllite, 134
Pillars,

176)

Rajaraja, 314, 316

Rajasirhha, 305

Rajasirhha dynasty, 299

ff.

(ills.

247-8), 322, 343,

483(20)"

Maurya, 67;

Rdmdyana,

chaitya-hall, 115

Piprawa, 65

44, 216, 224, 310, 345, 405, 462, 464

(ill.

398)

Pitalkhora, 92, 93

(ill.

40),

Rampurva, 71-2

1 1

Polonnaruwa, 330-2 (ill. 260), 359, 372

3io-ii),483(2o) 30
Pompeii, 108^11 (ills. 54-5)

ff. (ills.

300-8,

22), 472(5)*

64)

(ill.

Rasamanjari, 352 (ill. 283)

Rashtrakutas, 277, 307

Portrait sculpture, 149-53

Portraiture, attitude to,

(ill.

Rani Gumpha, 119

Rasa, 28

P'ong-tuk, 483(2 1 ) 3

Raths, 299

26-7

ff.,

480(1 7)

20

Potala, 268

382 (ill. 313), 383

Ratnasambhava, 456
Ravana, 310, 312, 406
Rati,

Porus, 475(9)"
Pottery, Indus Valley, 39-41

Rawak, 187

Prachedis, 434
Pradaksina, 453

Reincarnation, 55

Prah Khan, 420

Religion, 24-5, 26

Rekha, 280-1

Prajapati, 263, 281, 473(6) 2

Prambanam,

(ill.

ff.

270, 461-2

(ill.

Reliquaries, Buddhist, 135-6

Reliquary, Kanishka's, 126, 135

Repetition, 29

394)

Prana, 35, 73, 82, 153, 154

Praset Andet, 388-90 (ill. 320)

Rig Veda, see Vedas

Pratibimba, 70, 393, 485(22)*

Rilievo schiacciato, 161

Pratyeka Buddhas, 471(4)'

Ritual, 43, 52-3

Preaching of Buddha

at

Rock-cut temples, 44-5, 113

Prei Krabas, 388

318)

Sarnath, 97

Rock

Roll cornice, 119

'Presentation of Bride to Siddhartha', 132-3

Roluos, 392

Prithvi,

Roman

46

Prome, 476O0) 9 485(23^

Proportion, canons of, 126, 154, 233, 244, 301, 327,
,

36M

ff.,

172

ff.,

194, 218, 307

edicts, 65

PreiKuk, 386, 387011.317)

influences, 122

ff.,

141-2, 149, 168-70, 207,

6
383, 478(i4)

Rome, Museo Nazionale, 127

Romlok, 423
Rudras, 51
Rupakaya, 459
Ruvanveli dagaba, 361-3

Ptolemy, 196, 207

Puja, 43

Puranas, 52
Purusa, 263, 274, 285
Pushyamitra, 77

Ryobu mandara, 458-9

Pyandhzikent, 170, 176

Pyus, 439

Sacrifice,

365

(ill.

290, 293

Radha, 334, 335

(ill.

(ill.

Sahadeva

(ill.

281), 352

363-4

(ills.

48-9)

56, 218,

456

300 (ill. 233B)

Sahri Bahlol, 134, 237-8 (ill. 176), 474(9)"
^ailendra, 448-9, 460

225)

265), 350

289),

50

Saddharma Pundarika,

Quetta, 42
Quiroga de San Antonio, Gabriel, 483(21)'

(ill.

293)

Saddanta Jdtaka, 104-5

Qutb mosque,

73), 186

Repousse work, 46, 108, 135

Prasenajit, 60

(ill.

(ill.

(ill.

283)

rath,

(ill.

291),

510

INDEX

Shingon, 458-9, 472(4)

Sailendra dynasty, 255, 262, 446, 460

Saisunaga-Nunda period, 43

Shorchuq,

Sakas, 122

Shore Temple, 305-6

Sakti, 40, 52, 58, 179,

246
Sakuntala, 216, 285, 292
Sakyamuni, see Buddha

Shotorak, 166

Sakyaprihgava, 472(5)

Siam, 29, 235, 423 ff.

Sidamara, 136
Siddhartha, 53, 130; see also Buddha

see

Kara-Shahr
238)

(ill.

299), 380

Sakyas, 53

Sigiriya,

Salempur, 472(5) 5

Sikhara, 221, 274, 275, 276, 294, 402

Saloniki, 194

Sikri,

Samantabhadra, 453, 455

Sambhogakaya, 57

Silenus, 159, 197

370

ff. (ill.

149

Silk Roads, 196

Sambhunath, 263-4
Sambor, 385 ff. (ill. 315), 403, 431
Samsar Chand, Rajah, 353

Silkworms, 187
Silpins,

274

Sind, 32

Sarhsara, 50, 287

Singasari dynasty, 462

Samudragupta, 215
San Mahapon, 375

Sirkap, 125, 137-8

Sanchi, 60, 61

(ill.

15), 65, 77,

78

(ill.

27),

84-6

(ills.

41-4, 46-7, 49), 107, 108, in,

5
155), 239, 261 (ill. 197), 472(s)

32-3), 92, 95

ff. (ills.

218, 219-20

(ill.

473(5)

19
(ill.

Sarighati, 34, 127, 160, 209

Sahkisa, 472(5^

479(i6)

(ills.

(ills.

iM,

20-1), 72, 152

232

ff.

(ills.

(ill.

97), 153, 157,

7 1-2, 174), 472(5) 5

Museum,

67, 68

(ill.

20),

234 (ill. 172)

17
Sas Bahu temples, 298-9 (ill. 232), 48i(i7)
(ill.

97),

Mahal Pasada, 374

Schiedam, C.

S.

246),
(ill.

317,

326

348), 430

(ill-

313-M

327-8, 329,

255),

(ill.

345,

363)

(ills.

(ills.

244-6); (Loro

393, 395); (Panataram), 464

397-8)

(ill.

302), 375

Lechner, 424

69

Solanki dynasty, 293, 296

Somanatha-Patan, 293-4
Somesvara, 333
Somnath, 293

Somnathpur, 323
Sonari, 108

(ill.

(ill.

(ill.

303)

356)

(ill.

253),

324

53)

Sondani, 240, 241

Sdstras, 26, 216, 274, 275, 277

Sat

>

21), 152

272)

Sodasa, 476(1 o) 6

Sarnath, Archaeological
(ill.

(ill.

Jongrang), 461-2

Sannyasin, 52
Santhaghara, 223
Sarnath, 67-71

(ill.

Siva, 25, 37, 38, 51, 51-2, 124, 275, 307, 310,

Siva Devales, 380 (ill. 310)

Siva Mahadeva, 313 (ill. 245)
Siva temples (Elephanta), 312-14

197)

Sandstone, red, 149

223-4 (^-

Sittana vasal, 243, 251, 341-2

416

Sanchi torso, 261

75-6), 145, 218

(ills.

Sistan, 122

180)

(ill.

Sphinxes, 80, 126

Sravasti, 215, 476(10)*

Deva, 431

Schist, 134, 323-5

Sri

Script, Indus valley, 469(2)*

Srinagar, 354

Scythians, 122

Srindravarman, 406

Seals,

Indus Valley, 37-9, 41, 65

Seattle, Art Museum, 388 (ill. 319), 425

Sriiigara,

Sejakpur, 294

Srivijaya,

Seleucia, 474(9)'

Srivijaya dynasty, 262

Seleucus Nicator, 59, 64, 121, 122

Semiramis, 32

Stein, Sir Aurel, 185, 186, 196

Sempaga, 210
Seven Pagodas, 299
Shading, abstract, 180
Shahbazgarhi, 121

345
Srirangam, 319

(ill.

249)

427

Stambhas,
Stone, use

1516, 472(5)*

of, 45,

277

Stone-carving, introduction, 65, 75

Stucco sculpture, 134, 166, 168

Stupa, 44, 45, 46, 77

47i(3) 2

ff.,

141-2, 157, 212-13, 267-8,

Shah-ji-ki-Dheri, 122, 126, 135 (ill. 73), 141-2

Shapur I, 124, 161, 475(9)^, 476(io) n

Submission of Nalagiri, 21

Shapur, 174, 187

Subrahmaniya temple, 322

(ill.

252)

5ii

Thuparama, 360-1

Sudhana, 455
Sukhodaya, 436

287-8), 363, 374

(ills.

(ill.

302),

376, 483(20)*
Tibet, 25, 58, 262, 263, 266-71

Suk'ot'ai period, 428

Sultanganj, 237 (ill. 175), 479(i5) 8

Sumeria, 31, 32, 470(2)^
Sunak, 294 (ill. 226)

Tirtharhkaras, 53, 230

(ill.

168)

Tiruvannamalai, 319
Tita, 186

Sundaramurtiswami, 327-8, 343, 380-1

(ill.

T'o-pa Tartars, 474(9) 6

311)

Sung Yiin, 124, 141

Sunga period, 77 fF.

Todas, 43
Toga, 127

Sung-yiieh-ssu, 475(9) 26

Toilet-boxes, 161

Surkh Kotal, 144 (ills. 85-6), 145

Surma River, 253-4 (iU- I 9)
Surya, 50, 88-9 (ill. 36), 90-1 (ill.

Toilet trays, 147

Topawewa, Lake,
38),

11,

286

(ill.

221), 287
Surya Deul, 282 flf. (ills. 218-21)
Surya temple (Modhera), 294-6 (ills. 227-8)
Surya temple (Osia), 290, 292 (ill. 224)
Suryavarman II, 401, 405

372, 373

Tope, see Stupa

Torana, 44, 60, 80, 95, 296
Tower, Kanishka's (Taxila), 141-2
Toy Cart, The, 216
Tradition, in art, 25-6

Susa, 31, 42, 47o(2) 16

Transmigration, 50-1, 54-5, 57

Travancore, 334

Swankalok, 436

Treasure Cave

Swastika, 79, 465

Syria, glass from, 125, 161, 166

Tree-spirits, 38, 97

(Kizil), 191

(ill.

131)

Tree-worship, 80-2

*f-

Tribhanga, 162, 427

T'ai Tsung, 266

Takeo, 388, 397

(ill.

Takht-i-Bahi, 130
143

(i". 84),

(ill.

474(9)

Trikaya, 57
Trimurti, 5 1

328), 399
69), 134,

138-41

(ills.

79-80),

255),

328-9

ff.

(ills.

(HI-

see also

Trinity

247-8), 322

(ill.

252), 326

(ill.

Trivikrama temple (Ter), 219

Tumshuq,

258), 332, 343, 38o, 483(20)"

188, 189

(ill.

Tumuli, 45
Tun-huang,

Tapas, 53
Taq-i-Bustan, 164
Tara, 266, 267 (ill. 203), 268, 269
Taranatha, 343, 479(16)!

47 8(I2)
Turfan, 185-6, 196, 197
Turkestan, 176, 179, 185

(ill.

(ill.

207),

26), 122, 125, 134,

446

137-44

(ills-

82), 145-7 (ills- 88-92)

Tejpal temple, 296, 297

(ill.

154)

174, 179, 188, 194, 267, 268-9 (iH- 206),

(ills-

ff.

Turkish elements, 194-6

Tushita Heaven, 55, 154, 250, 270, 472(4^
Tz'u Chou, 436

Udaya, 70
(ill.

Udayagiri, 119

229)

Tel Asmar, 31, 41, 470(2)^

Teli-ka-Mandir, 298 (ills. 230-1)

Temple

Trimurti

15

88-92), 165, 168, 218, 475(9) 19,24

Taxila, Archaeological Museum, 75 (ill. 26), 142 (ill.
75-8), 145-7

see also

129)

Tantra, 25, 52, 58, 255, 267

Tapa-i-Shotur, 170

Taxila, 33, 47, 75

Trisula, 38, 97
Triton, 126

Takings, 439
Tanjore, 314

Trinity, 51, 154, 471(4)^ 476(10^

building, principles, 273

(ill.

64),

239

(ill.

178), 485(23)*

Uighurs, 194, 196

Ultramarine, 180
fF.,

289

Uma, 313

Temples, classification, 275-6

Temptation of Mara, 208

Umbrella, 45, 79,. 141

Umed Singh, 350

Teppe Marandjan, 166, 182

Ter, 219 (ill. 154)
Terracotta figurines, 42, 46-7, 147

Upanishads, 50, 285

Textiles, 197, 253, 271, 335-6, 443

Ushkur, 199, 203-5 (ill. 143)

Ushnisha, 92, 127, 154, 156, 230, 484(22)2

Uma,

127, 154
Urusringas, 282, 289

Thalam, 154
Theatre, 216

Thousand Buddha Caves,

Thiipa gharas, 361

174, 194,

476(H) 15

Vairocana, 57, 172, 177, 187, 264, 458-9, 460

Vaital Deul, 300

512

INDEX

Wat Cetiya Luang, 435 (ill. 369)

Wat Chet Yot, 433-4 (ill. 366)
Wat Kukut, 431-3 (ill. 365)
Wat Mahadhatu, 427 (ill. 359), 431

Vajrayana Buddhism, 57, 255, 472(4)", 478(14)2

Vamana temple, 289-90, 291 (ill. 223)
Varahamihira, 162
Varaksha, 176
Varuna, 50

Wata-da-ge, 374 (ill. 302), 376-8

Wayang play, 465 (ill. 399)
Wei-ch'ih I-seng, 477(1 2) 1

Vasudeva, 124
Vedas, 43, 44, 46, 50
Vedic Period, 43 ff.
Vedic religion, 49 ff.

ff.,

332, 47 1 (4)

Westmacott, Prof., 21

Wheel, 28, 71
White Huns, 124, 136, 215, 476(10)"
Wima Kadphises, 149-50 (ill. 95)

Vedika, 44, 46, 79-82, 95

Verathragna, 197

Witelo, 479(1 5) 15
buildings, 44, 264

Vertumnus, 166

Wooden

Vesara temples, 276

Vibhasa Ragini, 346-8

Viharas, 88,

Worship, 49-50

278)

(ill.

19, 138, 255,

363
Yajna, 43
Yaksha-dvarapala, 218

Vihares, 363
Vijaya, 359

Yakshas, 49, 72 (ill. 24), 73-5 (ill. 25), 80, 86, 132, 153,
17, 19
10
158 (ill. 102), 159, 253, 47o(2) , 4 73(5)
Yakshis, 27, 38, 46, 49, 55, 80-2 (ill. 29), 88, 89,

Vijayanagar, 253, 317-19, 348

Vikramaditya

277
Village, Indo-Aryan, 45
Vimana, 274, 276
Viriipaksha

481O7)

II,

temple,

97-100

277-8,

(ill.

279

(ills.

212,

213),

26

(ill.

473(5)
Yalis,

Vishnu, 51-2, 55, 215, 222

231

169),

335), 417

232
(ill.

(ill.

(ill.

170),

349), 425

158),

239

(ill.

(ill.

225

(ill.

162),

178), 344,

405

357)

Vishnu, Mathura, 232

Vishnu temple (Deogarh), 224-7 (3k- 161-3)
Vishnudharmottaram, 216, 242

Visvakarman, 274, 275

Visvantara jfdtaka, 250-1

(ill.

187)

Vitthala temple, 317-19

(ills.

43-5), 107, 157-9

(ills.

234

Yantragara, 482 (20) 20

Yaska, 50, 47i(3)
!

Yasodhara, 242
Yasodharapura, 393-6

Yasovarman

I,

(ill.

323)

392, 393, 395, 396

Yasti, 79

Yatthala dagaba, 382 (ill. 312)

Yoga, 27, 29, 51, 54, 130, 153,
Yueh-chih, 122

4M1) 4

Yiin Kang, 97, 172, 188, 475(9)

Wall-painting, early, 104-5

Washington, D.C., Freer Gallery of Art, 328, 329

257), 343

(ill.

275)

100-1), 162,253,

17,19

Wahalkadas, 362

(ill.

364)
305-6)

(ill.

(ills.

Ziggurat, 79
Zimmer, H., 301-2
Zoroaster, 471(4)2

16

The

Pelican History of Art

14 0561.021

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For scholarship, readability, and the range of its illustrations The Pelican History
has come to be recognized as a unique enterprise in the field of art history.
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of Art

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The

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Harappa and MohenjoRowland traces the artistic story of the civilizations that followed through
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