How do children acquire a second language?

This is one of those one-million dollar questions. This question has long intrigued
linguists, biologists, psychologists and educators alike. It seems that second
language acquisition theories were developed along the lines of first language
acquisition theories. In the past it was a common assumption that exposure to
more that one language would confuse young children and could lead to
developmental delays such as speech delay, and/or reading or writing problems
(Espinosa, 2008; Tabors, 2008). However, research on dual language
development has grown substantially since the 1970s. Not only do children have
a natural ability to learn more than one language, research also proves that
bilingualism has numerous benefits.

The best time for a child to learn another language is in the first three to four
years of their life. Young children, especially under age 6-7, appear to learn two
languages as one “For these children, then, second-language acquisition is not
a process of discovering what language is, but rather of discovering what this
language is” (Tabors, 1997, p. 12).

Language Learning Is a Natural Process When Children Are Young

Adults often try to learn languages in a contrived way. Yet when people immerse
themselves in a language like children, through play and exploration, they can
learn a language quickly and easily. So the more we become child-like in
language learning, the easier it becomes. Children growing up in a well-rounded
environment learn to speak at least 2,000 basic words by the time they are four
years old. Simply observing how babies learn to talk proves that they are natural
learners. During the first six months of life, babies babble using 70 sounds that
make up all the languages in the world. They will then learn to talk using only the
sounds and words they pick up from their environment, most importantly from
their parents and caregivers. A baby's brain will then discard the ability to speak
in languages he or she does not hear (Kotulak, 1996).

In general, there are two ways in which children may learn a second language:
simultaneously or sequentially (McLaughlin et al., 1995; Tabors, 2008).

Simultaneous Second Language Learning

Simultaneous learners include children under the age of 3 who are exposed to
two languages at the same time. These children may include those who are
exposed to one language by parents at home and another language by providers
in their early childhood program. Simultaneous learners are also young children
whose parents each speak separate languages to them at home (e.g., mother
speaks English to child, father speaks Afrikaans to child).
Before 6 months of age, simultaneous learners learn both languages at similar
rates and do not prefer one language over the other. This is because they build
separate but equally strong language systems in their brains for each of the
languages they hear. These separate systems allow children to learn more than
one language without becoming confused. In fact, the pathways infants develop
in their brains for each of the languages they hear are similar to the single
pathway developed by children who are only exposed to English.

When children start learning languages at birth, they have the capacity to learn
many languages at once without getting confused - because, as the brain
develops, so too does the ability to seperate one language from another.
At 6 months, children begin to notice differences between languages and may
begin to prefer the language they hear more. This means that parents must be
careful to provide similar amounts of exposure to both languages; otherwise,
children may begin to drop vocabulary of the language to which they are less
exposed (Espinosa, 2008; Kuhl, 2004; Kuhl et al., 2006; Tabors, 2008).

Cognitive Benefits of Simultaneous Language Development

There are many cognitive benefits for young children who are simultaneously
exposed to more than one language. For example, they have greater neural
activity and denser tissue in the areas of the brain related to memory, attention,
and language than monolingual learners. These indicators are associated with
long-term positive cognitive outcomes for children (Bialystok 2001, Mechelli et
al., 2004; Kovelman, Baker, & Petitto, 2006).

Sequential Second Language Learning

Sequential learners include children who have become familiar with one
language, but are then introduced or required to learn a second language. The
classic example of sequential learning is when a non-English speaking child
enters an English-dominant classroom.

Unlike simultaneous language learning, sequential learning of languages can

occur at any age and can be influenced by factors like the child’s temperament or
motivation.

The Four Stages of Sequential Second Language Learning

Stage I: Home Language Use

For the first few days, children may persist in using their first or native language
even if others do not understand them.

Stage II: Silent Period

After children realize their first language is not working, they enter a silent period
in which they barely speak and rely heavily on nonverbal means to communicate
with others. The younger the child, the longer the silent period may last.

Stage III: Telegraphic & Formulaic Speech

Children will start to speak in the new or second language. In this stage, they will
only speak in small utterances (e.g., Me Down) or by repeating the words of
others.

Stage IV: Productive Language

Children are now ready to express their own thoughts and construct their own
sentences. In the beginning, these sentences may be very basic or
grammatically incorrect; however, this improves over time.

Parents of dual language learners should not be alarmed if their children exhibit
any of the above behaviors (e.g., silent period). These behaviors are common for
children who are learning a second language. Also, research has found that
children who begin to learn a second language before the age of 6 or 7 are more
able to speak the new language like a native speaker than children who didn’t
start until after ages 6 or 7 (Bongaerts, 2005).

The elements of a new language, such as vocabulary, negating phrases,

phonological components, and grammatical structures, are developed similar to
the learning stages that babies go through when acquiring the first language:
babbling (bababa), vocabulary (milk then later milk drink), negation (no play), and
question forming (where she go). Compared to first language acquisition, the
process of second language acquisition is not linear: it is more like a zigzag path.

For these children, second languages are rather learned than acquired. In most
cases, second languages are taught via formal instruction and are learned via a
conscious process which results into “knowing about language” (Krashen,
1982:10). Therefore, to achieve acquisition, children have to be consistently
exposed to the correct use of second languages in many different linguistic
contexts that are meaningful to them. Besides, this kind of acquisition occurs
gradually over time.

As to how second language acquisition actually takes place, researcher Stephen

Krashen explains that children acquire a second language by receiving input in
the target language that is just slightly above their current level of acquired
understanding. Similar to first language acquisition, positive variables, such as
high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety,
play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in children’s second language acquisition.

Preschool Years Are Vital Years

"During this period and especially the first three years of life, the foundations for
thinking, language, vision, attitudes, aptitudes, and other characteristics are laid
down," says Ronald Kotulak, author of Inside the Brain. Consequently, it would
be a waste not to use a child's natural ability to learn during his or her most vital
years, when learning a second language is as easy as learning the first. Since 50
percent of the ability to learn is developed in the first years of life and another 30
percent by age eight, early childhood development programs have the
opportunity to encourage early learning and development. This does not mean,
however, that 50 to 80 percent of one's intelligence, wisdom, or knowledge is
formed during early childhood. It simply means that during the first few years of
life, children form their main learning pathways in the brain (Bloom, 1964). There
are six main pathways to the brain. They include learning by sight, sound, taste,
touch, smell, and doing (Dryden & Vos, 1997). Later in life, everything an
individual learns will grow from the information gained during these early years.

The Brain's Developmental Stages (Dryden & Vos, 1997)

The First Month - As a baby's senses react to his or her environment, he or she
develops new synaptic connections at the phenomenal rate of up to three billion
a second (Kotulak, 1996). Everything that a baby experiences is absorbed by the
brain and stored in its memory cells.

The First Six Months - Babies will babble using the sounds in all of the
languages in the world. A child, however, will learn to talk using only the sounds
and words he or she picks up from his or her environment. A child will discard the
ability to speak in languages he or she does not hear.

Eight Months - A baby's brain has about 1,000 trillion connections. After that,
the number of connections begins to decline-unless the child is exposed to
stimulation through all his or her senses.

Around Age 10 - About half the connections have died off in the average child.
Five hundred trillion will last throughout an individual's lifetime.

Up to Age 12 - The brain is now a super-sponge. It is during this period that the
foundations for thinking, language, vision, attitudes, aptitudes, and other
characteristics are laid down. After this stage of development, the windows close;
the fundamental architecture of the brain is complete (Kotulak, 1996). Therefore,
it is easier to learn a foreign language in these vital years.

There is an ebb and flow to children's bilingualism; it is rare for both

languages to be perfectly balanced.

The false argument is sometimes made that encouraging the native language at
home prevents children from developing either language well. It is important to
realize, rather, that as a child is learning a second language, one language may
predominate because the child is using that language more than the other at a
given time. Children showing a lack of proficiency in both languages are most
likely undergoing a developmental phase in which limited use causes proficiency
in the home language to decline, while the second language has not yet reached
an age-appropriate level. Teachers should view this as a period of temporary
language imbalance during which the child may not perform as well as native
speakers in either language. This should be considered healthy and normal. It is
rare for bilinguals to have both languages in balance. Yet, most bilingual children
will reach age-level proficiency in their dominant language given adequate
exposure and opportunities for use.

There are different use cultural patterns in language use.

Language minority children from different cultural backgrounds may experience

culture conflict in school because their ways of learning and communicating are
different from the routines of the classroom. Teachers can identify these
differences through classroom communication patterns. For example, some
children may not participate verbally in classroom activities because in their
home culture calling attention to oneself and showing one's knowledge are
regarded as overly assertive and even arrogant forms of behavior (Philips, 1972).
Likewise, some children might be embarrassed by a teacher saying, "You should
be proud of yourself"; more effective praise for them might be, "Your family will
be proud of you." By validating the students' cultures and using communication
patterns familiar to them, teachers provide a much richer and more effective
approach to culturally sensitive instruction than by focusing on occasional
celebrations of the history and traditions of different ethnic groups. Children will
feel validated in the classroom if they are encouraged to acclimate gradually
through daily affirmation of their learning styles and communication patterns.

For some bilingual children, code-switching is a normal language

phenomenon.

While some children acquiring a second language appear at first to confuse the
two languages, code-switching is, in fact, a normal aspect of second language
acquisition. Young bilingual children tend to insert single items from one
language into the other (McClure, 1977), primarily to resolve ambiguities and
clarify statements. Children over nine and adults, however, tend to switch
languages at the phrase or sentence level, typically to convey social meanings.
Studies of code-switching in adults show it to be a sophisticated, rule-governed
communicative device used to achieve goals such as conveying emphasis or
establishing cultural identity. Children acquiring a second language are learning
to switch languages in the sophisticated manner they hear in their homes and
communities. Teachers should not hesitate to switch languages to accommodate
the language and culture of their students. The goal must always be to
communicate, rather than adhere to rigid rules about which language can be
used in a given circumstance or at a given time.
Children come to learn second languages in many different ways.

There are 2 main ways in which language is learnt namely simultaneous

acquisition of two languages and sequential acquisition of a second language. A
child under the age of three who is exposed to two languages usually
experiences simultaneous acquisition. If the child is exposed to the second
language at an older age, sequential acquisition usually occurs. The rate of
acquisition varies depending on the amount of exposure and support the child
receives as well as on individual differences. Four types of bilingualism that fall
into the two ways of learning languages have been identified.
For types 1 and 2, children have had high exposure to both languages at an early
age.

• Type 1, Simultaneous Bilingualism, refers to children who have early

exposure to both languages and are given ample opportunities to use both.
• Type 2, Receptive Bilingualism, refers to children who have high exposure
to a second language but have little opportunity to use or practice it.

For types sequentially, after they have learned their first language.

• Type 3, Rapid Sequential Bilingualism, refers to children who have had

little exposure to a second language before entering school but have ample
opportunity to use it once they enter.
• Type 4, Slow Sequential Bilingualism, refers to children who have had
little exposure to a second language and who have or avail themselves of few
opportunities and have low motivation to use it.
• While these four generally describe the second language acquisition
process, the complexity of bilingualism can produce other variances.

Language is used to communicate meaning.

Children will internalize a second language more readily if they are asked to
engage in meaningful activities that require using the language. For children who
are learning English as a second language, it is important that the teacher gauge
which aspects of the language the child has acquired and which ones are still to
be mastered. Wong Fillmore (1985) recommends a number of steps that
teachers can use to engage their students:

• Use demonstrations, modeling, role-playing.

• Present new information in the context of known information.
• Paraphrase often.
• Use simple structures, avoid complex structures.
• Repeat the same sentence patterns and routines.
• Tailor questions for different levels of language competence and
participation.
Language flourishes best in a language-rich environment.

Teachers of children with limited English proficiency need to be good models of

language use. In particular, they should encourage children to practice English
as much as possible and provide reinforcement by expanding on the children's
vocabulary repertoire and by speaking coherently. It is important for children
learning English to interact with others in the classroom as much as possible.
Speaking with their peers will give them a stronger reason for communicating.
Second language learners also need to be exposed to meaningful literacy
activities. This is especially important for children from homes where literacy
activities may be rare. It is vital for teachers to make reading and writing
appealing and significant to the children. They should encourage students to
write about people, places, or activities that are important to them. Such topics
will motivate students to take risks with the language that they might not take with
artificial or meaningless subjects.

Children should be encouraged to experiment with language.

Learning a second language is similar to learning a first language in that a child

needs to experiment and produce utterances that may be inaccurate yet reflect
normal language development. In this way, the child is attempting to figure out
the patterns and rules that govern the language. To correct the child's speech,
teachers should rephrase or expand on what the child has already said.
Feedback from peers will also help the children determine which phrases are
right and wrong. While children may appear to be making more mistakes during
experimentation, they are actually learning to internalize chunks of appropriate
speech. They test these chunks of language by using them in situations that may
or may not be appropriate. The feedback they receive helps them determine
whether they have guessed correctly.

How Can Parents Support Dual Language Development?

• Ensure that the environments in which you introduce languages to

children are nurturing—whether it is a school, early childhood program, or
home (Tabors, 2008).
• Choose an education program that is accepting and supportive of dual
language learning.
• If your child is learning a second language sequentially, select a program
that allows children to continue to learn academic concepts in their native
language as they gradually learn the second or new language (Copple &
Bredekamp, 2008).
 • Volunteer your time and/or skills in your child’s classroom. This would
allow dual language learners the opportunity to communicate in their
home language during the day.
• Teach vocabulary or nursery rhymes in your native language to the class
or teachers, extending opportunities to practice a second language to all
children (Espinosa, 2008).
• Be prepared for the possibility that your children will express disinterest in
their native language. Support your children’s interest in maintaining their
native language by talking to them about the importance of dual language
development.
• Create fun family-oriented activities that will provide opportunities to
converse in the home language, such as reading books, singing songs, or
playing games together.
• Bring children to activities in which the demand to speak the home
language is high, such as in extended family or community gatherings
(Tabors, 2008).

Parents play a crucial role in supporting their children’s dual language

development. It is a misconception that children are just “natural” learners who
effortlessly store and maintain knowledge of languages. Dual language
development requires the conscious effort, reinforcement, and support of
parents, teachers, and family members (Tabors, 2008)

The Multiple Benefits of Learning More Than One Language

Research strongly supports the benefits of bilingualism in language, literacy,

social, and cognitive development. For example, bilingual children have
performed better than monolingual speakers on measures of analytical
ability, concept formation, cognitive flexibility, and metalinguistic skills
(Espinosa, 2008; Hakuta, Ferdman, & Diaz, 1987; Roseberry-McKibbin &
Brice, 2005). Researchers have found that children were actually more
attentive in the face of distraction when compared to children who could
only speak one language.

Bilingualism has been linked to a variety of positive cognitive benefits, including

early reading, improved problem-solving skills, and higher scores on the SATs,
including the math section. Bilingual children have been shown to demonstrate
"better listening perception" and that they "recognize earlier than monolingual
children do that language is symbolic… and…are more skilled at interpreting and
manipulating grammar to communicate clearly. Bilingualism can strengthen
family ties by allowing relatives to communicate comfortably in the native
language of older family members like grandparents. Children who master two
languages also have increased opportunities for employment once they leave
school.
Conclusion

Young children who have regular and rich exposure to two languages during
early childhood years can successfully become bilingual. Most research
concludes that there are no negative effects of bilingualism on the linguistic,
cognitive or social development of children, and there may even be some general
advantages in these areas of development. Simultaneous bilingualism follows a
path similar to monolingual development. Sequential language acquisition occurs
in a predictable series of stages or waves. Typically, at any given time, one
language may dominate depending on the amount of time spent in each
language. Parents play a vital role in ensuring that children have the correct
motivation and low anxiety in order to learn a new language. As early childhood
programs become increasingly diverse, teachers will need to understand the
process of second language acquisition and how to adapt their expectations and
instruction.

References

http://www.education.com 5 May 2010

http://www.usataday.com 5 May 2010

http://behavioural-psychology.suite101.com 5 May 2010

http://www.best4future.com 5 May 2010

http://www.scielo.cl 18 May 2010

http://sccac.lacoe.edu 18 May 2010

http://www.babyzone.com 18 May 2010