Professional Documents
Culture Documents
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
M Rd =
M Rk
Wel f o
M1
M Rd
M Rk
f o = Rp0.2
M1 = 1,1
Wel
section modulus
For class 4 cross sections (slender sections, sections with large width/thickness
ratio) Wel is replaced by Weff for the effective cross section. However, if the
deflection at the serviceability limit state is decisive then a simplified method may
be used; see page 17.
EUROCODES
In a section with reduced strength due to welding (heat affected zone, HAZ)
M Rd =
Wel u,haz f u
M2
M Rd
fu
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
Material properties
4
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
Collapse load
tf,eff
For very slender sections there is a
post-buckling strength allowed for
by using an effective cross section.
f0,2
Buckling load
tw,eff
(4)
>
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
(3)
f0,2
<
<
EUROCODES
= 250/f o
A, without weld
A, with weld
B, without weld
B, with weld
Internal part
1/
2/
11
9
13
10
16
13
16,5
13,5
(Buckling class is
defined later)
3/
Outstand part
1/
2/
3/
22
18
18
15
3
2,5
3,5
3
6
5
5
4
4,5
4
4,5
3,5
internal
tw
mm
bf = 70
Loading
tf = 14
bw = 90
Axial compression
tw = 4
fo = 250 Bending
web
flange
flange
web
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
For outstand cross section parts, b is the width of the flat part outside the fillet. For internal parts b is the flat part between the fillets,
except for cold-formed sections and rounded outside corners.
EUROCODES
Stress gradient
z2
If the part is less highly stressed than the most severely stressed
fibres in the section, a modified expression may be used for
= (250 /f o ) ( z1 / z 2 )
bf
Example 2: Give cross section class
internal
tw
mm
bf = 140
tf = 10
bw = 180
tw = 6
fo = 250
Loading
Axial compression
Bending
EUROCODES
10
10
N Rd = Af o / M1
teff = c t
C1
C2
Buckling
class
Internal part
C2
C1
Outstand part
C1
C2
A, without weld
A, with weld
B, without weld
B, with weld
32
29
29
25
10
9
9
8
220
198
198
150
24
20
20
16
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
11
M Rd,2 = M pl = Wpl f o / M1
Wel = I / e
M Rd,3 = M el + ( M pl M el )
3
3 2
M Rd,4 = Weff f o / M1
EUROCODES
12
The effective cross section is different for axial force and bending moment.
No effective cross section is needed for the combined loading axial force and
bending moment. The combination is solved using interaction formulae.
bf
tf
t e,f
tw
bw
t e,f
bc
te,w
t e,w
te,f
y
tw
tw
t e,f
tf
Effective section
for axial compression
Effective section
for y- axis bending
Effective section
for z- axis bending
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
13
tf,eff
hw
bw
tf,eff
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
14
To find the effective cross section for bending moment is sometimes a tricky task
and is not presented here in detail. Just a few comments:
Local buckling may only occur on the compression side. For a member in
bending, even if the cross section is symmetric, the effective section is
asymmetric
The neutral axis of the effective cross section is shifted closer to the tension side
and the compressed part of the cross section is increased
In principle an iteration procedure should be used, however, only two steps are
necessary
E.g. for an I-section the first step is
to calculate the effective thickness of
the compression flange and calculate
the neutral axis for that section. The
second step is to calculate the
effective thickness of the web based
on this neutral axis. This is then the
effective cross section.
EUROCODES
bf
15
bw
tf
tw
mm
bf = 70
tf = 14
bw = 90
tw = 4
Compression, web c =
c =
Loading
Axial compression
Bending
C1
C2
( / ) ( / ) 2
web
C1 = 32,
32
220
= 0,988
2
22,5 22,5
Compression and
= 70 / 14 = 5
bending, flange
Which formula
to be used?
M Rd,3 = M el + ( M pl M el )
M Rd,4 = Weff f o / M1
flange
web
flange
C 2 = 220 = 90 / 4 = 22,5
= 1, 3 = 22
3 = 6, 2 = 4,5
M Rd,2 = Wpl f o / M1
3
3 2
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
Web slenderness
16
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
17
17
M Rd =
Wel f o
M1
W f
M Rd = c el o
M1
where c is the reduction factor for local buckling for the cross section part
with the largest value of / 3. This might be rather conservative but no
effective cross section need to be determined.
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
Buckling class
18
EUROCODES
19
fo
fo
t
b
beff
beff
teff
EUROCODES
20
Simple calculations
Easier to allow for
combination of local
buckling and HAZ
beff
CL
4
b0
b0
EUROCODES
21
6082
7020
Temper
0,2 % p.
strength
Ultimate
strength
T4
0,91
0,78
T5
0,54
0,69
T6
0,50
0,64
T6
0,71
0,80
o,haz
0,2 % p.
strength
Ultimate
strength
H14
0,37
0,64
H16
0,30
0,56
5754
H14
0,53
0,63
6082
T6
0,48
0,60
Alloy
u,haz
3005
o,haz
u,haz
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
22
bhaz mm
T1 < 60oC
40
TIG, t<6
30
bhaz
20
MIG
10
0
10
15
20
25
t mm
When 60 oC < T1 < 120oC
multiply with
1 + (T1 - 60) / 120
1 + (T1 - 60) / 80
6xxx alloy
7xxx alloy
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
23
2z + t w
b
b haz
o,haztf
tf
min(o,haztw; ctw)
proof stress.
If the cross section belong to class 4 the effective
thickness is the lesser of c t and o,haz t within bhaz and
c t besides HAZ.
Question 1: If a welded section is symmetric and
belong to class 3 is then the reduced cross section
due to HAZ asymmetric?
Question 2: If a welded section is symmetric and belong
to class 4 is then the reduced cross section usually
asymmetric?
teff = c tf
min(o,haztf; ctf)
bc
t haz = o,haz t
where o,haz is the reduction factor for the 0,2 %
b haz
c tw
tw
Bending moment
Qu.
yes
1
2
no
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
24
a)
N o,Rd = f o A / M1
b) N u,Rd = u,haz f u A / M2
c) N w,Rd = f w Aw / Mw
a)
b)
c)
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
25
a)
b)
f w = 210 N / mm 2
c)
a)
b)
EUROCODES
26
b1
b
Anet = min:
line 1
t (b - 2d)
2
line 2
t (b - 4d + 2s /(4p))
2
t (b1 + 20,65s1 4d + 2s /(4p)) line 3
s
1
s1
2
Note 0,9
The net area Anet shall be taken as the gross area less
appropriate deductions for holes, see figure.
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
27
(Flexural) buckling
Axial force
Torsional buckling
S
G N
Bending moment
Mz
My
Torsional-flexural buckling
Mz
My N
My
My
Lateral-torsional buckling
Flexural buckling
Lateral-torsional buckling
S
G
N
My
EUROCODES
Flexural buckling
28
EI
N cr =
2. Yield load
N y = Aeff f o
Ny
=
N cr
3. Slenderness parameter
2
lcr
N b,Rd = N y / M1
6. Resistance
1
0,9
1Class
2
A
Class B
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
EUROCODES
29
where
A1 = A Ahaz (1 o,haz )
=1
if
0,2
if
> 0,2
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
30
Utilization grade
30
NEd
Ny/ M1
u,haz f u / M2
o =
f o / M1
NEd
oNy/ M1
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
31
x =
+ (1 ) sin(xs / lcr )
Utilization grade
haz = o
(6.68a)
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
32
(1) For sections containing reinforced outstands such that mode 1 would
be critical in terms of local buckling, the member should be regarded as
"general" and Aeff determined allowing for either
or both local buckling and HAZ material.
2) For sections such as angles, tees and cruciforms, composed entirely
of radiating outstands, local and torsional buckling are closely related.
When determining Aeff allowance should be made, where appropriate,
for the presence of HAZ material but no reduction should be made for
local buckling i.e. c = 1.
1
Formulae for critical load
Ncr are given in Annex I
of Eurocode 9 part 1-1.
0,9
1
2
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
Aeff f o
N cr
0,2
0,1
0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
T
1 Cross section composed of radiating outstands,
2 General cross section
EUROCODES
33
lcr /2
lcr
lcr
L
lcr
lcr
lcr /2
The buckling length should be taken as lcr = kL. The figure gives guidance for k.
End conditions
1. Held in position and restrained in rotation at both ends
2. Held in position at both ends and restrained in rotation at one end
3. Held in position at both ends, but not restrained in rotation
4. Held in position at one end, and restrained in rotation at both ends
5. Held in position and restrained in rotation at one end, and partially
restrained in rotation but not held in position at the other end
6. Held in position and restrained in rotation at one end, but not held in
position or restrained at the other end
EUROCODES
34
Critical moment
My
Fz
EK w
M cr =
EI y GK v +
L
L2
My
Slenderness parameter
LT =
Wel,y f o
M cr
Reduction factor LT
LT
0,9
1
2
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
Resistance
M b,LT = LTWel,y f o / M 1
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0,5
1,0
1,5
LT
2,0
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
35
a)
h/b<2
b)
LT < 0,4
c)
d)
e)
EUROCODES
36
N Ed
x N Rd
y
yc
M y,Ed
0 M y,Rd
1,00
N Ed
N
z x Rd
c M z,Ed
+
0 M z,Rd
zc
1,00
2 A cross-section can belong to different classes for axial force, major axis bending
and minor axis bending. The combined state of stress is accounted for in the
interaction expressions. These interaction expressions can be used for all classes
of cross-section. The influence of local buckling and yielding on the resistance for
combined loading is accounted for by the resistances in the denominators and the
exponents, which are functions of the slenderness of the cross-section.
3 Section check is included in the check of flexural and lateral-torsional buckling
All exponents may conservatively be given the value 0,8. Alternative expressions
depend on shape factors y or z and reduction factors y or z.
EUROCODES
37
1,0
1,0
y = 0
N Ed
N Rd
Ec 3
Ec 9
y =1,0
y = 0,62
0,5
y = 0
NEd
NRd
y = 0,62
Klass 3
0,5
y = 1,23
Ec 3
Ec 9
y =1,0
Klass 2
y = 1,23
0,5
M y,Ed
M y,Rd
1,0
0
0
0,5
M y,Ed
M y,Rd
1,0
EUROCODES
Design section
emax
38
e1
M1 N
e +v
e1
M1
e
e +v
vmax
vmax
e2 M2 N
Max(e + v) occur in the
span if N is large and/or
the slenderness of the
member is large
e2
Max(e + v) occur at the
end if M1 is large and/or
the slenderness of the
member is small
EUROCODES
N Ed
x N Rd
y
yc
M y,Ed
0 M y,Rd
39
1,00
1
K
+
B
0 = 1
1
x =
x
+ (1 ) sin
lcr
1
varies according to a sine curve
x and so also the first term K in the
M1,Ed
My,Rd
N Ed
max
y x N Rd
is found for
yc
NEd
MEd
max
+
xNRd My,Rd
NEd
NRd
M2,Ed
My,Rd
interaction formula
In principal all sections along the member
need to be checked. However
NEd
NRd
NEd
NRd
M y ,Ed
+
0 M y,Rd
x
cos
lc
( M Ed,1 M Ed,2 ) N Rd
1
=
M Rd
N Ed (1/ 1)
but x 0
EUROCODES
40
Equivalent moment
40
M y, Ed
N Ed
+ k yy
1
y N Rk / M1
M y,Rk / M1
C my
Cmy
k yy =
N
1 y Ed
N cr, y
k yy =
M1
N Ed
Cmy = 0, 79 + 0, 21 + 0, 36( 0, 33)
N cr,y
1,6 2
C yy = 1 + wy 1 2
Cmy y 1 + y
wy
1 y N Ed C yy
N cr, y
wy =
Wpl, y
Wel, y
1,5
EUROCODES
N Ed
x N Rd
y
yc
M y,Ed
0 M y,Rd
B
41
NEd
NRd
1,00
max
x
NEd
MEd
+
xNRd My,Rd
NEd
NRd
0 = 1
1
x =
x
+ (1 ) sin
NEd
NRd
lcr
EUROCODES
42
For members with transverse (local) weld two checks should be made
1. As if there were no weld
Ny
N cr
N Ed
x N Rd
yc
M y,Ed
+
1,00
0 M y,Rd
x.haz =
o =
0 = 1
x =
+ (1 ) sin
x
lcr
haz
haz = o
+ (1 ) sin(xs / lcr )
u,haz f u / M2
f o / M1
xs
K
x
NEd
Ny /
M1
NEd
x,haz haz Ny/
B
MEd (x)
My / M1
M Ed (xs)
0 M y / M1
M1
for
= haz
EUROCODES
Lateral-torsional buckling
43
N Ed
z x N Rd
c
zc
M y,Ed
+ M z,Ed
+
1,00
LT
xLT M y,Rd
0 M z,Rd
As for flexural buckling all exponents may conservatively be given the value
0,8. Alternative expressions depend on shape factors y or z and reduction
factors y or z.
The shape factors are:
For class (1 and) 2 cross sections
= Wpl/Wel
= Weff/Wel
EUROCODES
Lateral-torsional buckling
44
N Ed
z x N Rd
M y , Ed
+
LT x, LT M y,Rd
My
c = 0,8 or 0 z where
0 = 1 or z2 y2 but 1 0 2
c = 0 where
0 = 1 or z2 but 1 0 1,56
x and x,LT are coefficients which allow for HAZ across the
member and/or of the moment distribution along the member. If
there are no cross welds and constant moment then both are = 1
else
x =
o
z + (1 z ) sin
x
lcr
x,LT =
o
LT + (1 LT ) sin
x
lcr
My
EUROCODES
Design of frames
45
qEd
MI
HEd
I0
(a)
+
(b)
a) Equivalent buckling
length method
(c)
c) Alternative method
+
(e)
A-A
(g)
(f)
(d)
Lcr
L cr
b) Equivalent sway
imperfection method
MII
MII
N Rk
N Rk
N Rk
N cr
EUROCODES
46
L
lcr
qEd
MI
HEd
I
(a)
+
(b)
I0
(c)
EUROCODES
47
A
MII
(d)
+
(e)
Lcr
Lcr
MII
(f)
A-A
(g)
EUROCODES
48
The effect of initial sway imperfection and bow imperfection may be replaced
by systems of equivalent horizontal forces introduced for each columns.
NEd
NEd
NEd
NEd
NEd
4NEde0d
L
8NEde0d
L
e0,d
L2
4NEde0d
L
NEd
NEd
NEd
NEd
NEd
qeqv L2
8
8 N Ed e0, d
L2
EUROCODES
Initial sway
0 =
1
200
49
= 0 h m
h =
2
h
but
2
h 1,0
3
m = 0,51 +
h = height in m meters
m = number of column in a row including only those columns which carry a vertical
load NEd > 50 % of the average value for the columns
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
EUROCODES
Alternative method
50
L
qEd
HEd
I0
I
N Rk
In principle
N cr
N Rk
N cr
e0,d
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
51
51
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
Torsion
52
The load also deflects laterally, in this case to the left because the
lateral deflection due to twist is larger than due to bending.
vy v
Fz
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
53
S.C
.
Cv
Cv
a. Add stiffeners
b. Change cross section so that the load
acts through the shear centre
c. Use hollow sections
Cv = torsion
stiffness (relative)
EUROCODES
54
For members subjected to torsion for which distortional deformations and warping
torsion may be disregarded (St Venants torsion) the design value of the torsional
moment at each cross-section shall satisfy
V
b1
t1
t2
t2
b2
St Venants torsion
Warping torsion
EUROCODES
55
x,Ed
z,Ed
x,Ed z,Ed Ed
+ 3
C
f /
f /
f /
f /
f /
o M1
o M1
o M1 o M1 o M1
where C = 1,2
If the resultant force is acting through the shear centre there is no torsional moment
due to that loading.
Formulae for the shear centre for some frequent cross-sections. see Annex J
EUROCODES
56
h0
NEd
h0
N
V
L/2
yst
e0
L/2
2a
z
Ach
NEd
Ach
Ach
Ach
y
b
d
e
EUROCODES
Plate girders
tf,ef
bc = bw /2
hf
hw
Bending
bw
tw,ef
References
tw,ef
bc
bf
57
tf
G1
G2
tw
BS 8118 [4]
Hglund [2, 8]
tw
t w,ef =
(a)
cw tw
tf,ef =
(b)
(c)
a
E
cf tf
bf t
f
MSd
Ed
Shear
tw
Vw
(a)
Vw
Hglund [5]
Vf
(b)
Vf
Others [6]
(c)
Lagerkvist [6j]
Tryland [6l]
Patch loading
2a
Corrugated web
a3
a0
tw
a2
a1
x
Hglund [5]
Benson [6a]
Ullman [12]
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
58
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
Main references
59
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
60
[a] Benson, P.G.(1992). Shear buckling and overall web buckling of welded aluminium girders. Royal Institute of
Technology, Division of Steel Structures, Stockholm, PhD thesis
[b] Brown, K.E.P.(1990). The post-buckling and collapse behaviour of aluminium girders. University of Wales
College of Cardiff, PhD thesis.
[c] Burt, C.A.(1987). The ultimate strength of aluminium plate girders. University of Wales College of Cardiff, PhD.
[d] Edlund, S., Jansson, R. and Hglund, T.(2001). Shear buckling of Welded Aluminium Girders. 9th Nordic Steel
Construction Conference, Helsinki.
[e] Evans, H.R. and Lee, A.Y.N.(1984). An appraisal, by comparison with experimental data, of new design
procedures for aluminium plate girders. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Structures & Buildings, Feb. 1984.
[f] Evans, H.R. and Hamoodi, M.J. (1987). The collapse of welded aluminium plate girders - an experimental study.
Thin-Walled Structures 5.
[g] Evans, H.R. and Burt, C.(1990). Ultimate load determination for welded aluminium plate girders. Aluminium
Structures: advances, design and construction. Elsevier Applied Science, London and New York.
[h] Hglund, T.(1972). Design of thin plate I girders in shear and bending with special reference to web buckling.
Royal Inst of Technology, Dept. of Building Statics and Structural Engineering, Stockholm.
[i] Hglund, T.(1995). Shear buckling of Steel and Aluminium Plate Girders. Royal Inst of Technology, Dept. of
Structural Engineering, Technical Report 1995:4, Stockholm
[j] Lagerqvist, O. (1994). Patch loading. Resistance of Steel Girders Subjected to Concentrated Forces. Ph.D. thesis,
Lule University of Technology, Division of Steel Structures, Lule, Sweden.
[k] Rockey, K.C. and Evans, H.R.(1970). An experimental study of the ultimate load capacity of welded aluminium
plate girders loaded in shear. Research Report, University of Wales College of Cardiff.
[l] Tryland, T. (1999). Aluminium and Steel Beams under Concentrated Loading. Dr.Ing. Thesis. Norwegian
University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
61
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
62
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
63
63
Mathcad formulations
The calculations in the following examples are set out in detail. In most
cases, the designer can make simplifications when he/she has learned by
experience which checks are not usually critical.
submatrix ( a , 0 , 1 , 1 , 2)
The examples are worked out in the mathematics program Mathcad, version 8.
Some of the operators and notations used in the examples are explained below.
x := 50.6 mm
Definition of value
y 2.5 mm
Global definition
x + y = 53.1mm
Calculation result
Boolean equality
augment ( f , g )
0.5
c := ( 1 3 2 )
( c d )
Row vector
g := 3 4 7
5 6 9
Example:
1 8 2
g = 3 4 7
5 6 9
submatrix ( g , 0 , 1 , 1 , 2) =
1 1 8 2
3 4 7
2 5 6 9
T
augment ( c , g ) = 3
Column
Example:
gives a = ( 2 12 6 )
Matrix
Example:
1
c = 3
2
T
1 3 5
g = 8 4 6
2 7 9
T
8 2
4 7
Augmentation of matrices
Example:
Example:
a := ( c d )
d := ( 2 4 3 )
1 8 2
8
= 4
6
Aef
Subscript i
Example:
1, 2
=7
Description
2.1
2.2
2.3
Axial tension
No.
Description
3.1
3.2
Bending moment
No.
Description
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Axial compression 1
No.
Description
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
Axial compression 2
No.
Description
5.5
5.6
a)
b)
c)
5.7
a)
b)
c)
Shear force 1
No.
Description
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
Shear force 2
No.
6.5
Description
Shear force resistance of orthotropic plate
with
a) open stiffeners
b) trapezoidal stiffeners
c) closed stiffeners
a)
b)
c)
6.6
a)
b)
c)
Description
7.1
7.2
7.3
Torsion
No.
Description
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
Description
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
10.1
Description
Trapezoidal sheeting
No.
Description
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
Cylindrical shells
No.
Description
12.1
Cylindrical shell in
a) Meridional (axial) compression and
bending
b) Meridional (axial) compression with
coexistent internal pressure
12.2
12.3
12.4
Description
12.5
12.6
12.7