Professional Documents
Culture Documents
THE ARTICLE
The definition of the article in English is very general and does not go beyond the following:
articles are determinatives which serve to give precision to the nouns/noun equivalents to which
they are attached. On the other hand, the definite article the is by far the commonest word in
English, and with a and an makes up 8.5% of all text (Berry, 1993: V).
As articles in English can only function as determinatives of nouns/noun equivalents and are never
used alone, some linguists argue that they should not even be considered an independent part of
speech and never be treated as such but, for practical purposes, it is far easier and simpler to accept
the old tradition of the article as a separate part of speech
At the present stage of language development, the article in English is an invariable part of
speech. As far as its position is concerned, be it definite or indefinite, it is proclitic, i.e. it is placed
before the noun/noun equivalent it determines.
In certain approaches (Levichi, 1970: 61-66) the authors identify 3 kinds, the definite article, the
indefinite article and the zero article and within each class other subclasses, e.g. anaphoric,
generic, anticipatory, numerical, non-significant etc. For practical reasons we prefer to disregard
these classifications and go only for definite and indefinite articles and within each type of article
to describe the uses of the article or where it is not used.
It is the sound, not the spelling of the next word that matters, e.g. o is a vowel, but it is
pronounced as a semivowel, [w], in words like:
one [wn],
once [wns]
(to give smb. the `[] once-over, just the [] one, the [] one/s, the [] one-horse, the []
one-man band, the [] one way, the [] one-sided);
He was driving slowly on the [] one-way street, trying to find her house;
The [] one you gave me was blue;
U is also a vowel, but it is pronounced as a semivowel, [j], in the following words:
ubiquity [ju:bikwiti]
ubiquitous [ju:bikwits]
udometer [ju:dmit]
UFO [ju:fu]
The correct pronunciation of the definite article in front of these words is [] and not otherwise.
The mispronunciation of the definite article in this position is very common with non-native
speakers, e.g. in the following examples, some beginners pronounce the definite article as [i]
instead of [] as they should, misled by the fact that the noun following the definite article begins
in a vowel, u, never considering its pronunciation. So, the next examples are meant to prove the
point:
She goes to the [] university every day;
The [] United States of America fight terrorism;
The letter w in initial position is pronounced as a semivowel, [w], and, the definite article is
pronounced [], e.g.
waistband [weistbnd]
waffle [wfl]
wagon [wgn]
There are 4 words and their derivatives in English beginning in h, which is never pronounced;
consequently, in front of these words the definite article is pronounced [i]. These words are:
heir [e]
honest [nst]
honour [n]
hour [au]
However, if these terms consisting of more than one word are pronounced in extenso, i.e.
pronouncing all the words they consist of, the definite article is pronounced according to the general
rules.
The pronunciation of the definite article the is usually weak, [], but it also has a stressed
pronunciation, [i], that is used in certain instances, e.g.
the definite article becomes a noun by conversion and is used as a subject, for instance, in a
sentence: THE [i] is the definite article in English;
it acquires an emphatic form because the speaker wants to contrast it with another element: I
want THE [i] book I lent you not just any English book (= I want a special book, not just any
book);
it may get the force of a superlative: Shakespeare is THE [i] poet (= Shakespeare este poetul
prin excelen);
when an orator needs to make a pause for effect, and, accidentally, this is done on the definite
article, he/she may choose to pronounce it [i] in order to avoid [];
the emphatic pronunciation also draws the audiences attention that something important may
follow or, simply, draw their straying away attention to the orator.
1.1.2. Position
The definite article usually stands
before a noun, e.g. the student, the university, the food, the stadium, the attention, the
development etc.
before modifiers, e.g. the nice book, the best book, the first competitor, the second interview
etc. or
other determinatives or pronouns, e.g. the other delegate, the same interest, the others etc.
in George the Fifth, Jude the Obscure, Richard the Lion-Hearted, Alfred the Great, Stephen
the Great, Canto the Third the position of the definite article is justified by the fact that the
adjective or ordinal numeral is used postpositionally for emphasis and then the definite article
precedes them in a very logical way.
but it can also stand after nouns like in: night errant, major general, lieutenant general,
secretary general, poet laureate etc.
1.1.3. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE IS USED:
1) The definite article is used to show that the noun/noun equivalent has already been mentioned
previously, either in the same sentence or earlier in the course of communication, (what in some
books is referred to as anaphoric) e.g.
They have a son and two daughters, but the son is an adult person and already has a family
of his own;
My mother bought a new dress yesterday, but the dress was so expensive that she changed
her mind and took it back today;
There are also set phrases in which the definite article refers back to something which was not
mentioned previously but which the speaker knows about or can identify easily, e.g. at the (that)
time, under the (these/those) circumstances, nothing of the (this) kind, to rise to (this/that)
occasion etc.
The speaker/reader may sometimes refer to an object already known to the former, to current
notions known to the interlocutors, or to objects that are singularly identifiable under the
circumstances, e.g.
Have you read the newspaper? (=the newspaper that our family usually buys and reads);
Have you locked the door? (=the door to our home);
Turn on the radio! (=the radio we have in the house/on the table etc.);
The telephone is ringing. (=probably the phone in the house);
2) There is a special class of objects or groups of objects of which there is or we assume there is
only one in the context, e.g. the sun, the moon, the earth, the sea, the ocean, the North Pole, the
South Pole, the equator, the Renaissance, the human race etc. or the kitchen, the city hall, the
Queen, the last president etc. All could be made more definite, e.g. the sun belonging to the Earth,
the North Pole of the Earth, the kitchen of this house, the queen of the country etc.
3) When a noun comes after a preposition, the definite article is almost always necessary, the
sequence preposition + definite article + noun is a very common structure, e.g. under the table,
on the wall, in the street, in the sky, in the field, after the lesson, behind the door, beyond the
river, near the village, for the children, through the gates, at the museum, from the park, on the
floor, into the drawer, on the way, by the way etc.
4) The definite article appears in certain set phrases. Usage is not infrequently the only logical
explanation! E.g. to get the upper hand, to break the ice, to take the trouble, all the time, to tell the
time, what s the time?, to paint the devil blacker than he is, to join the colours, to have the time of
one s life etc.
5) The definite article can also display a generic function; it shows that the noun/noun equivalent is
used in its most general sense. The general sense of a noun/noun equivalent can be rendered in
various ways, the definite article being one of them along with the indefinite article (see under
indefinite article) and the non-use of article or zero article (see under the definite article is no
used); it can be used with individual nouns in the singular, e.g.
The dog is a friendly animal;
The article is a part of speech;
The tiger is one of the big cats;
The Siberian tiger is in danger of becoming extinct;
Doctors advise that fat/sugar should not be used in large quantities (uncountable);
Sometimes all three forms can be used alternatively, e.g. The dog is a friendly animal = A dog is a
friendly animal = Dogs are friendly animals, while in other situations the meaning prevents the use
of all 3 forms, e.g. The Siberian tiger is in danger of becoming extinct has an alternative form in
Siberian tigers are in danger of becoming extinct. The indefinite article may discharge a generic
function, e.g. *A Siberian tiger is in danger of becoming extinct but it is unacceptable because of
the illogical meaning of such a construction: the death of one animal cannot endanger the whole
species. To conclude, countable nouns can take any of the forms, i.e. with a definite article, an
indefinite article and the plural form (with zero article; uncountable nouns can only function
without any article (or, as it is specified in other grammars, with the zero article).
6) The definite article is also used before nouns made definite by the addition of a clause or a
phrase, e.g. the girl in red dress, the man with the suitcase, the dog with the short tail, the boy
who came yesterday, the man (that) I saw, the book (which) Mary bought 2 days ago. The
indefinite article is not forbidden in front of such nouns, but the meaning is different and the
speaker should be able to distinguish between the two, e.g.
I saw a girl in blue crossing the street (= unidentified) and
I saw the girl in blue crossing the street (= previously identified and now reference being
made to her).
7) The definite article is used before superlatives, e.g.
The nicest girl in our school is Johns friend;
Mary is the most beautiful girl I have ever seen;
This dictionary is the most expensive I have ever had;
English grammar seems the easiest in the world;
8) The definite article is used before ordinal numerals, e.g. the first, the second, the third, the fifth,
the hundredth, the fifty-seventh etc.
9) The definite article realizes the substantivisation of adjectives (see under Adjectives)
10) The definite article and the proper names of persons: proper nouns are understood to have
unique reference, e.g. Jane, Peter, Mike, and in a given conversation refer to one particular person.
Here no the comes before the proper noun because the definite meaning is built into the noun
itself. However, if we need to distinguish two or more persons having the same name the definite
article is used, e.g.
or
Sometimes a whole family can be referred to by the + family name in the plural, e.g.
The Browns have just come (=all the members of the Brown family: mother, father and the
son/s daughter/s);
The Kennedys (the spelling rule does not apply here) (father, mother and the two
sons/daughters) have called to tell us they were not coming to the party;
11) The definite article with titles and ranks: all military ranks (sergeant, lieutenant, major,
captain, colonel, general, commander), academic titles (professor, doctor), doctor (=physician),
counsellor, president judge, governor etc. are preceded by the definite article when used alone, i.e.
without the surname, e.g.
The sergeant was very furious;
The general was invited to the party;
I went to see the doctor;
The professor was never late;
The president detains the highest authority in state;
However, when a person is called by his/her title or rank, the definite article is dropped, e.g.
Could I talk to you for a minute, professor (= A putea s v rein un minut, domnule
profesor?)
May I ask you something, doctor? (= Pot s v ntreb ceva, domnule doctor?)
Someone is looking for you, general (= V caut cineva, domnule general)
NOTE: in other languages the equivalent constructions often take a Mr/Mrs e.g. Domnul/Doamna
in Romanian.
The definite article is also dropped when the title or rank precedes the surname of the respective
person, e.g.
Professor Johnson was invited to a Congress in Italy (= Profesorul Johnson a fost invitat la un
Congres n Italia);
Doctor Brown is the best neurologist in our city (= Doctorul Brown este cel mai bun neurolog
din ora);
General Hamilton has taken over the command of the army (= Generalul Hamilton a preluat
comanda armatei).
The definite article is also used before titles containing the preposition OF, e.g. the Duke of York,
the Earl of Southampton, the Duke of Edinburgh, the Marquis of Bath etc.
12) The definite article is used:
before geographical (/or other) proper names of seas, rivers, groups of islands, chains of
mountains, deserts, regions, e.g. the Black Sea, the Red Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, the Dead
Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Danube, the Mississippi,
the Thames, the Nile, the Bermudes, the Azores, the Bahamas, the Bismark Islands, the
Carpathians, the Rocky Mountains, the Alps, the Hymalaya, the Caucasus, the Sahara, the
Arabian Desert, the Gobi Desert, the Kalahari Desert, the Great Australian Desert, the
Riviera, the Suez Canal etc.
before names consisting of adjective + noun (provided the adjective is not one of the cardinal
points), e.g. the New Forest, the High Street, the Great Britain, the United Kingdom, the
English Channel, the British Museum, the White House etc.
before names consisting of a noun + OF + noun, e.g. the Cape of Good Hope, the Gulf of
Mexico, the United States of America, the USA, the Bay of Biscay, the University of Berlin,
the Commonwealth of Australian States and Territories, the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Northern Ireland, the People s Republic of China, the Tower of London etc.
before names of newspapers, e.g. the Times, the Guardian, the Washington Post, the
Independent, the Wall Street Journal etc.
before simple geographical names of places, countries etc., e.g. the City, the Mall, the Strand,
the Hague etc.
sometimes there are alternatives in use, the tendency being to use the form without the definite
article (Berry, 1993: 56-57), e.g. (the) Sudan, (the) Yemen, the Argentine or Argentina, the
Cameroon or Cameroun, (the) Ukraine, (the) Ivory Coast etc.
names of organisations, usually abbreviations, fall under two categories: if the name is
pronounced letter for letter, the definite article is obligatory, e.g. the UN, the BBC, the FBI, the
CIA, the MI5, the EC etc.; if an abbreviation is pronounced as a word, it takes no article, e.g.
OPEC, although the expanded name does take a definite article, the Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries; NATO, but the North Atlantic Treaty Organization; UNICEF, but the
United Nation Children s Fund etc.
13) In principle, neither the definite nor the indefinite article is used with names of meals, e.g.
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but
or
but
The honesty of the competitors made the contest a triumph (= Cinstea concurenilor a fcut ca
ntrecerea s fie un triumf) etc.
5) The definite article is not normally used before names of meals except in the cases shown under
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE IS USED
6) The definite article is not used before countable nouns in the plural when they are used in the
general sense, see under THE DEFINITE ARTICLE IS USED
7) The definite article is not normally used before parts of the body, articles of clothing, objects
belonging to a specific person, its place being taken by the possessive adjective, e.g.
My head aches;
Put up your right hand;
Take off your coat and put it on the chair;
Where have I put my glasses?;
8) The definite article is not used in certain set phrases consisting of preposition + noun, in which
the definite article is usually compulsory, e.g. by hand, at hand, on foot, from head to toe, from top
to toe, by chance, by mistake, at present, at first sight, hand in hand, arm in arm, from cover to
cover, from corner to corner, face to face, from dawn to dusk, from beginning to end, from right
to left, from north to south, day by day, day after day, from end to end, from place to place, from
time to time, to be in danger, in general, to be on duty, piece by piece, to learn by heart, to keep in
mind, good for food, just in time, to look for help/aid, to put in order etc. These set phrases should
be learned by heart.
9) The word nature, when referring to the physical world including all living things as well as
the land and the seas is used without a definite article, e.g.
Everybody likes nature;
If we do not take care of nature, human life on Earth may be in danger;
This is an opportunity to enjoy the beauties of nature in Alaska;
No article is required when the meaning of the word is the basic characteristic of a person or an
animal, e.g.
The pony has a very gentle nature;
It is not in my nature to be pushy or aggressive;
The word nature has still another meaning, that of basic quality and feature of something + OF,
when it is preceded by the definite article, e.g.
It is the nature of plastic to melt under high temperatures;
They must understand the nature of our opposition to nuclear testing;
10) The word home if not preceded or followed by a descriptive word or phrase is used alone,
without the definite article, e.g. to go home, to be home, to stay home, to run home, to send
someone home, to arrive home etc.,
I was sick on the plane home;
I went home to France;
How was your journey home?
10
When preceded or followed by a descriptive phrase, home is used with the definite article (or the
possessive adjective), e.g.
John and Mary invited us to their new home;
They arrived at the brides home;
11) There are several nouns denoting places; when these places are visited or used for their primary
purpose, the structure is motion verb + preposition (TO/FROM/AT) + noun, e.g. bed, church,
court, hospital, prison, sea, town, school, college, jail, camp, exchange, harbour, port, hall,
university, work (place of work) etc., e.g.
to go/run/hurry + TO + noun
to be/stay/remain + AT + noun
to come/return/come back + FROM + noun
Mary goes to school every day (= she is a schoolgirl and this is her programme);
Paul ran to church to get there before the Mass was over (= he is a church-goer)
Her mother did not feel well and Mary insisted on taking her to hospital (= to be cured)
His parents are very sad because their only son has been in prison for over two years (= he
has been doing time)
She went to bed early last night (= one sleeps in bed)
They are at sea as far as I know (= they are either sailors or taking a cruise)
She never goes to work by bus (= to the place where she works)
They go to town sometimes to buy food (= the speakers own town)
Where have you been? - We were in town.
But, if the place is not used or visited for its primary purpose, then the definite article is used in
front of the noun, e.g.
They went to the church to see the carvings (= they are tourists)
Mother went to the school last week to talk to the principal (= she was afraid her son might
have missed some classes)
He went to the prison to deliver some lectures on social matters (= he was invited to deliver
the speech)
NOTE: the words office (place of work), cathedral, cinema and theatre always take the definite
article, e.g.
I think he is at the office (= the place where he works)
He never goes to the office on foot (= to the place where he works)
This Sunday they decided to go to the cathedral (= presumably the Mass was more impressive
there)
They never go to the cinema after 10 p.m.
You could not find us at home because we were at the theatre last night.
To be in office = to hold an official position (= a deine o funcie oficial)
To be out of office = to be no longer in power (= a nu mai deine o funcie oficial)
11
1) The indefinite article is used before a singular countable noun when it is mentioned for the first
time and represents no particular person or thing, e.g.
Mary needs a passport;
My friends bought a house;
2) It is used in expressions of price, speed, ratio, e.g., 50 a meter, 10p a dozen etc.: here the
indefinite article is replaceable by the Latin PER, but never by the numeral ONE, e.g.
The car was running a wild 90 miles an/per hour;
She had to take the antibiotics 3 times a/per day;
3) The indefinite article is used as an alternative to the numeral ONE, but the numeral ONE
cannot replace the indefinite article in all cases (see above), e.g.
but
In other types of statement a/an and one are not normally interchangeable, because ONE + noun
normally mean one only/not more than one (Thomson and Martinet, 1997: 17):
A shotgun is no good (= it is the wrong sort of thing)
One shotgun is no good (= one is not enough, I need 50)
4) The indefinite article is used with a noun complement; names of professions, e.g.
It was a rebellion;
It is going to be a success;
She is a teacher (= e profesoar)
He is an actor while his wife is a painter (= El e actor iar soia lui e pictori)
No article is needed when the profession is unique, e.g. headmaster, principal, manager, director,
spokesman, spokesperson, etc., e.g.
John Williams is headmaster;
Our friend is sales manager;
NOTE: Notice the difference between the two structures: while the indefinite article in English is
compulsory, in Romanian its presence in this construction is a mistake.
5) The indefinite article is placed before a singular countable noun which is used as an example of
a class of things), e.g.
A dog is a friendly animal (All dogs are friendly animals);
A dog likes to eat far more than a human being (Any dog likes that more than any human
being);
6) The indefinite article is used before proper names of people, usually placed before
Mr/Mrs/Miss/Ms + surname to show that the respective person is a stranger to the speaker or the
speaker does not know of him/her. Imagine the chairmans secretary entering her boss office and
13
saying: - A Mr Brown would like to talk to you, Sir. It is obvious that the secretary does not know
Mr Brown or of him.
7) The indefinite article is also used in set phrases; the use of the indefinite article in them can only
be accounted for by tradition: not a word, not a trace, not a thought, at a draught, once a month,
once upon a time, once in a while, for a time, to pay a call on somebody, just a moment, to catch
a cold, as a matter of fact, as a rule, many a + noun in the singular (many a students etc.) etc.
8) The indefinite article, a, is used with little and few to distinguish them from the meanings of the
forms without the indefinite article. Little and few are adjectives or pronouns, while little can be an
adverb, too.
Little shows a small quantity and can be used before uncountable nouns (adjective) or instead of the
same kind of nouns (pronouns), while few shows a small number of things and can be used before
countable nouns (adjective) in the plural or to replace similar nouns (pronouns) in the plural. Used
without an indefinite article they mean a small quantity or number or what the speaker considers to
be a small quantity or number. The additional meaning is that the respective quantity or number is
also insufficient under the circumstances (in Romanian: puin/ or puini/-e), e.g.
I have little coffee left and I must buy some before the guests come. (= Am cafea puin i
trebuie s cumpr pn nu-mi vin musafirii)
I have only recently moved to this town and I have few friends here (= M-am mutat doar de
curnd n oraul acesta i am puini prieteni aici).
NOTE:
a) This meaning is generally confined to written English;
b) Particularly in spoken English the use of little or few is avoided in such contexts because of the
possible confusion with the other forms (a little and a few), so alternative constructions are
preferred, e.g.
I dont have enough coffee and I must buy some before the guests come
I have only recently moved to this town and I dont have too many friends here.
c) Little and few can be used more freely when they are qualified by SO, VERY, TOO,
EXTREMELY, COMPARATIVELY, RELATIVELY etc., e.g.
She was reluctant to going to that place because she knew so little about it and its
inhabitants;
Some of the students have too many dictionaries while others have too few! etc.
Used with the indefinite article, the two adjectives preserve the meaning referring to the small
quantity or number, but either of them is considered enough under the circumstances (in Romanian:
un pic/puin or civa/cteva), e.g.
or
If you want we can go to my place. I have a little coffee left and we can chat over a cup of
coffee (= Dac vrei, putem s mergem la noi. Mai am un pic de /puin cafea i putem s
tragem o brf la o cecu de cafea)
I have a few grammar books and if you want I can lend you one (= Am cteva cri de
gramatic, i dac vrei pot s-i mprumut i ie una.)
14
or
or
but
15
2. THE NOUN
Along with the verb, the noun is the most important part of speech in English. The noun is defined
as the part of speech that denotes things* (=beings, objects, ideas, feelings, actions, states,
qualities etc.). Unlike the article, it has a meaning of its own and in the morphological system of the
English language it is a principal part of speech. Some examples: dog, man, Peter, Mary, Johnson,
Brown, table, fidelity, love, hatred, reading, doctor, redness, intention, bread, England, America,
New York, London, the Danube, the Mississippi, the Rocky Mountains etc.
NOTE* (Palmer, 1971: 39) argues that the term thing used so frequently to define the noun is far
from being clear and his demonstration starts from Nesfields definition of a noun as a word used
for naming anything and that thing in the definition stands for person, place, quality, action,
feeling, collection etc. And Palmer goes on to say that: This is clearly a notional definition at its
worst!. For how do we know what a thing is? Is fire a thing? Is peace? Is hope or intention?
Moreover, can we say that red is the name of a colour and is not red then a noun? And Palmer
offers a practical solution but recognizes that a definition of nouns in terms of things is
completely circular. How can we identify thing? There is an easy answer, he says. We do so by
using an article or such words as his, this, in front of the nouns the fire, the suffering, the place
- and by making them the subject of the sentence.
2.1. Classification
According to form, nouns can be:
simple
derivatives
compounds
obtained by other means
simple: a very large number of nouns in English consist of one root, and frequently have only a
single syllable, e.g. boy, girl, table, chair, man, woman, France, John, Williams, America etc.
derivatives/nouns obtained by derivation, i. e. nouns obtained by affixation from other words
(adjectives, verbs, other nouns or, to a smaller extent, other parts of speech);
- IST [noun + (ist)] attached to other nouns, this suffix produces nouns denoting professions; it is
very productive in Modern English and usually attaches to Latin and Greek bases, e.g.
anatomy/anatomist, alchemy/ alchimist, archeology/archeologist, botany/botanist, caricature/
caricaturist, cartoon/cartoonist, economy/economist, physics/physicist, psychiatry/psychiatrist,
piano/pianist, parachute/parachutist etc.
- ATION (and its allomorphs: - ITION, -UTION, - TION, -ION) attaches to verb bases producing
deverbal abstract nouns. The attachment of this suffix, and its allomorphs, requires a lot of
adjustments of the nouns, which are of no concern here, e.g. edify/edification, certify/certification,
pacify/pacification, simplify/simplification, organise/organisation, authorise/authorisation,
civilise/civilisation, contemplate/contemplation, modulate/modulation, translate/translation,
situate/situation, saturate/saturation, educate/education accuse/accusation, inform/information,
derive/derivation,
consume/consumption,
presume/presumption,
assume/assumption,
deduce/deduction,
seduce/seduction,
introduce/
introduction,,
conceive/conception,
perceive/perception, deceive/deception, receive/reception, describe/description, prescribe/
prescription, redeem/redemption, absorb/absorption, destroy/ destruction, add/addition,
compete/competition, define/definition, imbibe/imbibition, revolve/revolution, dissolve/ dissolution,
resolve/resolution, solve/solution; concede/ concession, prevent/prevention, revise/revision,
percuss/percussion, etc.
- MENT, closely rivals -ATION. It usually attaches to Romance or native verb bases to make up
abstract nouns meaning: act of X- ing, concrete place connected with X, e.g. achieve/achievement,
advance/advancement, appoint/appointment, commence/commencement, assess/assessment,
manage/management, treat/treatment, amuse/amusement, assort/assortment, engage/ engagement,
amaze/amazement, settle/settlement etc.
NOTE: not all words ending in -MENT are derivatives, e.g. element, monument, garment regiment,
ferment, torment, sediment, segment; some of these words can be both nouns and verbs.
- AL attaches to Romance and native verb bases, producing abstract nouns, e.g. arrive/arrival,
acquit/acquittal, deny/denial, remove/removal, try/trial, dispose/disposal, revive/revival, refuse/
refusal, recite/recital, survive/survival, approve/approval, propose/ proposal, betray/betrayal etc.
- NESS is very productive in Mod. English and usually attaches to:
[adj. + (-ness)], e.g. bitter/bitterness, bright/brightness, clean/ness, cool/coolness,
good/goodness, greedy/greediness, hard/hardness, idle/idleness, thick/thickness, big/bigness,
dull/ dullness, common/commonness, kind/kindness etc.
[complex adj. + (ness)] e.g. wrongheaded/wrongheadedness, levelheaded/levelheadedness,
kindhearted/kindheartedness, shortsighted/shortsightedness, straightforward/straightforwardness etc.
[participial adj. + (-ness)], e.g. drunken/drunkenness, ashamed/ashamedness, devoted/
devotedness, unexpected/unexpectedness, loving/lovingness, knowing/knowingness, etc.
- ITY [adjective + (-ity)] generates nouns meaning: state or quality characterized by X; because
this suffix frequently modifies the base stress pattern it is less productive than NESS. The suffix ITY attaches to adjectives ending in -able, -ic, -al, -ous as well as to a large variety of others, e.g.
implacable/implaccability, capable/capability, respectable/respectability, agreeable/agreeability,
invincible/invincibility, compatible/compatibility, accountable/ accountability, eccentric
/eccentricity, authentic/authenticity, electric/electricity, elastic/elasticity, public/publicity,
fatal/fatality, brutal/brutality, casual/casualty, technical/technicality, formal/formality original/
originality etc.
The attachment of the suffix triggers stress and pronunciation changes in the following words,
e.g. curious/curiosity, fabulous/fabulosity, various/variety, simultaneous/ simultaneity,
atrocious/atrocity, credulous/credulity; profane/profanity, verbose/verbosity, sterile/ sterility,
obese/obesity, serene/serenity, profound/profundity etc.
- DOM [common nouns + (-dom)] makes up abstract nouns starting from concrete ones, e.g.
king/kingdom, sheriff/sheriffdom, rebel/rebeldom, spinster/spinsterdom, savage/savagedom,
beggar/ beggardom, duke/dukedom, saint/saintdom, scholar/scholardom etc.
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- HOOD [common nouns + (-hood)], with the meaning state characterized by X; e.g.
child/childhood, priest/priesthood (preoie), man/manhood, boy/boyhood, baby babyhood,
maiden/maidenhood, widow/widowhood, neighbour/ neighbourhood, monk/monkhood, woman/
womanhood etc. while some of the - HOOD nouns have developed a second meaning, group of
people characterized by X, brother/brotherhood, priest/priesthood (preoime), maiden/maidenhood,
sister/sisterhood etc.
- SHIP [common nouns + (-ship)] produces abstract nouns denoting status or condition
characterized by X, e.g. friend/friendship, champion/championship, kin/kinship, lord/lordship,
companion/companionship, member/membership, doctor/doctorship, craftsman/craftsmanship etc.
-ERY, and its allomorphs -ry, -y, triggered by the final consonant (t/d/n) apply to nominal bases,
generating a variety of meanings, e.g. place of activity, behaviour characteristic of X, group of
people of X, e.g. swan/swannery, hen/hennery, rabbit/rabbitry, pigeon/pigeonry, nun/nunnery,
baker/ bakery, grocer/grocery, brewer/brewery; bigot/bigotry, snob/snobbery, slave/slavery,
devil/devilry,
savage/savagery,
pedant/pedantry;
weapon/weaponry,
jewel/jewellry,
machine/machinery, pot/ pottery, peasant/peasantry etc.
- ANCE and its allomorph, -ence, attaches to verbs, producing nouns denoting processes, e.g.
continue/continuance, appear/appearance, clear/clearance, assist/assistance, inherit/inheritance,
accept/ acceptance; prefer/preference, confer/conference etc.
The above mentioned suffixes are by no means the only noun-forming suffixes in English, but are,
most assuredly, the most important through their productivity in Modern English.
END OF THE OPTIONAL PART
3. Compounds
Compound nouns play an important role in English today because of their large number in the
contemporary language; they can be divided into several classes, according to various criteria, e.g.
Transparency of meaning (transparent, non-transparent)
Constituting elements (structure, i.e. noun + noun, verb + an adverbial particle or
preposition, adjective + noun, pronoun + noun etc.)
Spelling (one word, two words, hyphenated); this criterion is not identically observed in all
varieties of English;
Direct compounds or conversions of already compound verbs or adjectives etc.
Examples: armchair, blackboard, butterfly, blackmail, drive-in, blackout, passer-by, man servant,
woman servant, self-confidence, mother-in-law, father-in-law etc., step-mother, editor-in-chief, hewolf, she-wolf, tomcat, pussycat, boy friend, girl friend etc.
4. Nouns obtained by other means of word-formation, e.g. UNO (unidentified flying objects), VIP
(very important person), exam (<examination), Jap (< Japanese), strength (< strong), length (<
long) etc.
According to other criteria, nouns can be:
proper and common, e.g. John, Thomas, William, England, Romania, the Alps, the Danube, or
mountain, boy, electricity, development, reading, pronunciation, x-rays, book, carry-on etc.
concrete and abstract, e.g. book, girl, car, engine, airport, soup, radio, elephant, or beauty,
development, sincerity, poverty, tolerance, arrival, neighbourhood, relationship etc.
countable and uncountable/mass, e.g. table/s, chair/s, woman/ women, work/s, wife/wives, or
bread, advice, information, coffee, sugar, luggage, knowledge, hair etc.
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2.5. Number
Definition - the form which a noun takes in order to show that we refer to ONE or MORE
representatives of a class of notions is called number of nouns; the two forms are called singular
when the noun renders a single noun and plural when the noun assumes a form that shows more
than one element (this interpretation is not always perfect, but seems to be the most acceptable for
now).
Number in English is closely associated with the concept of countability. Nouns fall, mainly, under
two classes commonly referred to as countable and uncountable, or count nouns/mass nouns. The
chief grammatical differences are that the uncountable ones generally have no plural form (*butters,
*oils, *breads, *informations ) and they cannot take the indefinite article a/an (*a butter, *an oil,
*a bread, *an information), while countable can (a cat, a dog, an egg). The uncountable nouns can
take some/any/etc. or phrases denoting quantity, e.g. Would you like some bread? It is, however,
possible to 'switch' countable nouns into uncountable and vice versa. We can say Would you like
some giraffe? to people who eat giraffe, or A petrol I like very much is Brand X. Countable nouns
may be treated as uncountable if they are regarded as food, and uncountable as countable when the
meaning is 'a kind of...' But the semantics alone is not enough; some words belong to both classes,
e.g. cake: Would you like a cake? Would you like some cake?
According to the category of number Leon Levitchi found that nouns can be classified as:
Individual nouns: a) individual nouns proper; b) defective individual nouns.
Unique nouns: a) proper noun equivalents; b) nouns of material; c) abstract nouns considered as
'unique'.
Collective nouns: a) collective nouns proper; b) nouns of multitude; c) individual nouns of
multitude.
2.5.1. Individual nouns proper
The nouns in this class have both a singular and a plural form; the plural form is mostly regular
although there is a large range of irregular forms as well (*all these forms will be given below);
they agree in number with the verb, i.e. the singular form takes a verb in the singular while the
plural noun takes a plural verb; they can be modified by adjectives or other nouns, and can take
determiners like: the indefinite article, indefinite adjectives etc., e.g.
The boy is hungry/Boys are hungry;
The book shelves are empty;
2.5.1.1. Regular plurals
The plural of regular nouns is made up by adding the inflectional suffix -s to the singular:
book/books, bag/bags, chin/chins, dog/dogs door/doors, reporter/reporters experience/
experiences, example/ examples, waiter/waiters, discussion/discussions, house/houses etc.
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Nouns ending in a sibilant, i.e. -s, -ss, -z, -zz, -sh, (t)ch, -x form the plural by adding -es
[iz]: bus/buses, glass/glasses, buzz/ buzzes, bush/bushes, church/churches, box/boxes;
A number of nouns ending in -o form the plural by adding -es, e.g. tomato/tomatoes,
potato/potatoes, hero/heroes, mosquito/ mosquitoes, negro/negroes, volcano/volcanoes etc.,
but piano/ pianos, radio/radios, photo/photos, kilo/kilos, soprano/sopranos casino/casinos,
cuckoo/cuckoos, embryo/embryos, kangaroo/ kangaroos, studio/studios etc. add only an -s.
Actually, nouns ending in -o have become regular in American English and there is a similar
tendency in British English, although this fact has not been formally accepted yet.
Nouns ending in -y preceded by a vowel [vowel + (-y)] form the plural by adding -s, e.g.
boy /boys, day/days, guy/guys, donkey/ donkeys, play/plays, toy/toys etc.
Several nouns ending in -f or -fe drop the final -f or -fe and add -ves. These nouns are:
calf/calves, half/halves, knife/knives, leaf/leaves, life/lives, loaf/loaves, self/selves,
sheaf/sheaves, shelf/shelves, thief/thieves, wife/wives, wolf/wolves, elf/elves. Exception:
still life still lifes.
other nouns ending in -f or -fe add -s in the ordinary way: cliff/cliffs, roof/roofs, safe/
safes, handkerchief/handkerchiefs, etc.
The word house/s has an irregular pronunciation in the plural, i.e. [hauziz].
2.5.1.2. Irregular plurals
:
There are nouns that form their plural by vowel change, e.g. man/men; woman/women, foot/feet,
tooth/teeth, goose/geese, louse/lice, mouse/mice; child/children, ox/oxen, titmouse/titmice,
dormouse/dormice, but mongoose/ mongooses
The plural of some words which retain their original Greek or Latin forms preserve the original
forms (according to the rules of Greek or Latin) e.g.
-sis > -ses, pronounced [sis/si:z] e.g. analysis/analyses, axis/axes, crisis/crises, basis/bases,
diagnosis/diagnoses, oasis/oases, paranthesis/parantheses, synthesis/syntheses, thesis/theses,
ellipsis/ellipses etc.
-um > -a, e.g. agendum/agenda, erratum/errata, memorandum/memoranda, sanatorium/
sanatoria/sanatoriums, symposium/symposia, aquarium/aquaria, bacterium/ bacteria, datum/
data, mausoleum/mausolea/mausoleums, spectrum/spectra/spectrums, stadium/stadia/ stadiums,
stratum/ strata etc.
-us > -i, e.g. terminus/termini, bronchus/bronchi, focus/foci, radius/radii, cactus/cacti, fungus/
fungi, bacillus/bacilli, nucleus/nuclei etc.
a > -ae, e.g. formula/formulae, alga/algae, larva/larvae etc.
-non > a, e.g. phenomenon/phenomena, criterion/criteria;
Some Latin nouns may observe both the Latin and the English rules, the Latin forms being
preferred by scientists and educated people in general while the English ones are used in current
speech: dogma/dogmae/dogmas, formula/formulae/formulas, gymnasium/gymnasia/gymnasiums,
stadium/stadiums etc.
21
Nouns can have two different plurals with different meanings, e.g. appendix/appendixes/
appendices (medical term), index/indexes (in books)/indices (in mathematics) etc.
There is quite a large number of nouns (not necessarily of Latin origin) which have double plural
forms implying change of meaning (Levichi, 1970: 30)), e.g.
Singular
Plural
ashes - cenu
brothers - frai (n familie)
brethren - frai (n comunitate)
casualty - rnit
casualties - pierderi (rnii, mori)
cloth
stof, material
cloths - stofe, materiale
clothes - haine, mbrcminte
colour - culoare
colours - culori
- vopsele, culori
- drapel
compass - busol
compasses - busole
- compas
content - coninut/cuprins
contents - coninuturi/cuprinsuri
- coninut/capacitate
- coninuturi/capaciti
- (no pl.) coninut (nu form)
custom - obicei, datin
customs - obiceiuri, datini
- vam; taxe vamale
direction - direcie
directions - direcii;
- directive
due - (no pl.) cele cuvenite
dues - taxe, impozite
- cotizaii
element- element
elements - elemente
- elemente = stihii
- rudimente, baze
facility- (no pl.) uurin, facilitate facilities - faciliti = condiii favorabile
faciliti = aparatur, echipament
genius - geniu
geniuses - genii (acelai sens)
(persoan superdotat)
genii - genii (= duhuri)
ground - (no pl.) pmnt, sol; teren grounds - grdin, parc (n jurul casei)
- za, drojdii, sedimente
- motive = cauze; temei
honour - onoare, cinste (no pl.) honours - onoruri
minute - minut
minutes - minute
- proces verbal
moral - moral (a unei fabule etc.) morals - moravuri, moralitate
regard - (no pl.) consideraie, stim regards - complimente
respect - (no pl.) stim, respect, respects - salutri, omagii, consideraie
ash - (no pl.) scrum
brother - frate
and more.
2.5.1.3. The plural of compound nouns
There is a general rule according to which the last word in a compound is made plural if it is a noun
and carrying the main idea, e.g.
22
noun + noun, e.g. boy - friend/boy - friends, travel - agent/travel - agents, cow-elephant/
cow-elephants, bookstore/bookstores etc.
the first noun is made plural in compounds consisting of noun + preposition + noun, e.g.
lady-in-waiting/ladies-in-waiting, editor-in-chief/editors-in-chief, sister-in-law/sisters-inlaw, brother-in-law/ brothers-in-law, ward-of-court/wards-of-court etc.
the first word is made plural in compounds made up of verb + (- er) nouns + adverbial
particles, e.g. passer-by/passers-by, hanger-on/hangers-on, looker-on/lookers-on, runnerup/runners-up etc.
a verb (without nominal ending ) + adverbial particle nouns get the inflectional suffix at
the very end, e.g. take-off/take-offs, break-in/break-ins etc.
compound nouns that have no nouns in their structure get the - s at the very end, e.g.
merry-go-round/merry-go-rounds, forget-me-not/forget-me-nots etc.
in compounds consisting of man/woman + noun both elements are made plural, e.g. man
servant/men servants, woman servant/women servants, man driver/men drivers, woman
driver/ women drivers etc.
24
Certain nouns of material have two different meanings of which one can have a plural form, e.g.
glass (material) - uncountable, but glass (= pahar)/glasses, paper (material - uncountable, but
paper/papers (= newspaper)/newspapers, steel (= material) - uncountable, but steel/steels
(varieties of ~), iron (= material )/irons (= fieruri de clcat) etc.
A few nouns of materials have only the plural form and take a plural verb, e.g.victuals, dregs,
sweepings, spirits etc.
2.5.5. Abstract nouns considered as unique
Nouns in this category only have the singular form, although there are situations when they are
used in the plural, but then their abstract character is less obvious, e.g. ...his comings and goings,
Shakespeare's writings etc. The nouns in this class can be grouped as follows, e.g.
actions and states, e.g. reading, expectation, course, writing etc. that can be used in the plural,
e.g.
Our expectations have been met etc.
philosophical and aesthetical categories, e.g. philosophy, history, music, literature, the new,
the old, the beautiful, the infinite, the sublime, the fantastic, the grotesque; these nouns are
always used in the singular and take a verb in the singular, e.g.
The beautiful is one of the most important aesthetic categories;
The infinite is difficult to understand etc.
feelings, e.g. love, hatred, pity, desire, mercy, courage, death, fear, hope, relief, suspicion;
they are always used in the singular and take a singular verb, e.g.
Love is the noblest feeling in the world etc.
doctrines, schools, currents, games, e.g. chess, tennis, football, basketball, rugby, handball,
cricket, backgammon, illuminism, classicism, socialism, capitalism, nationalism,
Renaissance, Romaticism, etc. One should not forget that -ism is pronounced [-izm]. E.g..
Football is an interesting game but rugby requires more strength;
Nationalism is not always good;
other categories, e.g. wealth, poverty, childhood, age, philosophy, history, music, literature,
art, white, read, yellow, chess, tennis, football etc., e.g.
Yellow is my favourite colour;
Old age is never pleasant;
Football is the most widespread team game in the world;
The following abstract nouns are considered uncountable in English, e.g. advice, news,
information, knowledge, baggage, luggage, furniture, hair; they take a verb in the singular
and cannot be used with an indefinite article, though with some/any can; if the speaker wants to
show very specifically that he means only one item of the respective nouns, he can use one
piece of, one item of, etc., e.g.
25
Hair (all the hair on ones head) is considered uncountable, but if we consider each hair separately,
we can say one hair, two hairs etc., e.g.
Her hair is black; whenever she finds a grey hair she pulls it out;
Certain nouns can be countable when used in a particular sense, e.g.
experience meaning something which happened to someone is countable, e.g. He had an
exciting experience/some exciting experiences;
work meaning - occupation/employment/a job/jobs is uncountable, e.g. He is looking for
work, while
works can mean factory, moving parts of a machine, or can refer to literary or musical
compositions, e.g. Shakespeares complete works were published by one of the most
famous publishing houses in England.
help can be countable in: My children are a great help to me; A good map would be a great
help.
relief is also countable in: It was a relief to sit down.
knowledge in: He had a good knowledge of mathematics.
Similarly, a mercy/pity/shame/wonder introduced by it can be used with that-clauses/an
infinitive, e.g.
It is a pity (that) you were not here;
Its a shame (that) he was not paid,
It would be a pity to cut down these trees;
A fear/fears, a hope/hopes, a suspicion/suspicions introduced by there can be used with a thatclause, e.g.
There is a fear/There are fears that he has been murdered;
We can also have a suspicion that etc.
names of sciences - a number of words ending in -ics and denoting names of sciences are plural
in form and usually take a plural verb, but a singular verb is also possible, e.g.
His mathematics is/are weak;
In our country physics is/are taught only in middle and high school;
names of diseases and games - in spite of the plural form, these nouns take only a verb in the
singular, e.g. measles, mumps, rickets; billiards, marbles, draughts, skittles etc., e.g.
Measles is a contagious disease;
Mumps is more dangerous in adults than in children;
27
Names of peoples as the English, the French, the Swiss, the Japanese, the Chinese, the Spanish,
the Dutch and any such names ending in -ss, -(t)ch, -ese take a plural verb e.g.
The English have won the match;
The French like red wine and cheese etc.
2.5.8. Individual nouns of multitude
Individual nouns of multitude are, in fact, nouns denoting various creatures, e.g.
Deer, sheep never change and take either a singular or a plural verb.
They saw three deer in the Nottingham forest.
A sheep was grazing on the meadow.
They bought ten sheep and a cow.
Fish, carp, cod, mackerel, pike, plaice, salmon, squid, trout etc. normally take a singular verb.
These nouns do not change in the plural but if used in a plural sense they would take a plural verb;
they can take numerals and the verb form is dictated by the determiners, if there are any, e.g.
Mary has bought three trout;
My friend has sold ten sheep;
John caught ten salmon yesterday;
There are some nouns denoting varieties of fish that can be used in the plural form and would
take a plural verb, e.g. crabs, eels, herrings, lobsters, sardines, sharks.
The noun game, used by sportsmen to mean an animal/animals hunted, is always in the singular,
takes a singular verb and indefinite pre-determiners. Nouns like duck, partridge, pheasant etc.
have a dual functioning, sportsmen use them in the singular form, meaning both a singular and a
plural, while other people would normally add an -s for the plural and use either a singular or a
plural verb, depending on the form chosen.
2.6. Gender
In an inflected language, GENDER is a grammatical category of nouns; usually masculine,
feminine and neuter they are declined in accordance with the corresponding declension patterns of
the respective language (see any of the Romance languages, German, Slavic languages etc.). In such
a language articles and adjectives are also inflected and agree in number, gender and case with the
noun they modify. Therefore, in an inflected language it is important to know whether a noun
belongs to any of the grammatical genders in order to attach to it the modifiers in the corresponding
form (see Romanian, e.g. cas frumoas, biat frumos, scaun frumos etc.)
English is an analytical language, i.e. one in which the relations among words are mainly based on
the use of prepositions, auxiliary verbs, word order etc. and very little on changing the basic form of
the words. If the category of number is strongly represented in nouns, that of gender is
grammatically absent because nouns in English cannot be classified in terms of agreement with
articles, adjectives or even verbs (Palmer, F. idem) - articles and adjectives are invariable as far as
gender is concerned. According to Frank Palmer, treating English nouns in terms characteristic of
Latin only because that is the type of grammar mostly accepted in European linguistics is a mistake,
on the one hand, and a grave distortion of the English.
28
In conclusion, when discussing English gender (another term is needed, but sex is not acceptable
and another one has not yet been invented), readers should be warned that the term is used to mean
reference to biological sex and not to the abstract grammatical category. Modern linguists suggest
that English nouns should be divided into two large classes:
animate - within this class, according to their natural sex, nouns can denote males and females,
usually referred to as he or she (though it is sometimes possible);
inanimate - i.e. nouns denoting things, abstractions, natural phenomena, feelings, actions, states,
qualities etc.
Within the class of animate nouns male and female are rendered by a variety of means, e.g.
pairs of distinct words (not instances of derivation), e.g. bachelor/spinster, boy/girl,
brother/sister, bull/cow, cock/hen, daddy/mammy, dog/bitch, drake/duck, earl/countess,
father/ mother, gander/goose, fox/vixen, stallion/mare, king/queen, husband/wife, lord/lady,
man/woman, master/mistress, monk/nun, nephew/niece, ox/cow, ram/ewe, son/daughter,
uncle/aunt, wizard/witch etc.
suffixation, from nouns denoting male creatures, e.g. actor/ actress, baron/baroness,
emperor/empress, heir/heiress, tiger/ tigress, host/hostess, lion/lioness, prince/princess,
steward/
stewardess,
waiter/waitress,
hero/heroine,
administrator/administratrix,
sultan/sultana etc.
using different words that clearly state the sex of the key noun, e.g. man/woman, preceding
or following the key noun, man/maid, lord/lady, boy/girl, cock/hen, bull/cow etc. can be used
to make up compounds whose gender is clearly stated; male and female are very general in use
and can be chosen whenever we do not know what other word to choose to distinguish a female
creature from the male one, e.g. man servant/woman servant, man character/woman
character, (man) teacher/woman teacher. Man/ woman/lady in front position, however, are
not very common in distinguishing the sexes of the nouns denoting professions because this
distinction is either irrelevant in the context or, if necessary, it can be done by using the personal
pronoun, possessive adjectives or pronouns or various other lexical means, e.g. My English
teacher is a very special person - the sex is not stated, but the speaker might continue: She is a
real professional - this time the sex has been stated, or It is a she who etc.
There are lots of nouns denoting professions and various other notions which have only one form
for both sexes, the distinction being made in the context, e.g. architect, artist, associate, author,
beginner, buyer, child, client, companion, owner, painter, photographer, physician, physicist,
manager, passenger, philosopher, physiologist, pilot, player, worker, writer etc. In final position,
however, man/woman/person are usually interchangeable and necessary to state the profession and
the sex of the person performing it. Such nouns denoted initially male persons, but, in the course of
time the term for the other sex appeared necessary, e.g. gentleman/gentlewoman, policeman/
policewoman,
salesman/
saleswoman,
milkman/milkwoman,
chairman/chairwoman/
chairperson, barman/barmaid, landlord/landlady, boyfriend/girlfriend (=lover/sweetheart),
schoolboy/schoolgirl etc.
Birds and animals can be distinguished, by specific words (cock/hen, bull/cow etc.) e.g. cocksparrow/hen-sparrow, cock-bird/hen-bird, bull camel/cow camel, bull elephant/cow elephant, and
also male or female bird or animal.
proper nouns and the personal pronoun he/she are sometimes used to distinguish sex in
animals, e.g. tomcat, Tomcat/pussycat, Pussycat, Billy goat/Nanny goat etc., he wolf/she wolf,
he parrot/she parrot, he bear/she bear, he eagle/she eagle; the terms male and female can also
do the trick.
29
For animals and birds there is a common gender noun that is used as the name of the species and
also two distinct names for the two biological sexes, e.g.
Common gender
male animal
female
bear
cat
cattle
deer
dog
duck
elephant
fox
fowl
goat
goose
horse
lion
pig
sheep
tiger
he-bear
tomcat
bull
buck
dog
drake
bull-elephant
fox
cock
he-goat
Billy-goat
gander
stallion
lion
boar
ram
tiger
she-bear
pussycat
cow
doe
bitch
duck
cow-elephant
vixen
hen
she-goat
Nanny-goat
goose
mare
lioness
sow
ewe
tigress
or
Soon a little folk of sparrows and other small birds assembled to feed as usual. One of them
sat on the edge of the tray and was just going to hop in, when she spied the caterpillar.
(John Lubbock, The Beauties of Nature).
The brave little insect never remained there, she came out in the search of her friends (ibid.);
The fox had only thin soup to eat, and he put it in a flat soup-plate.
The crane was a tall bird. She had a long neck and a long bill, so she could not eat from a
soup-plate (Stories about Insects and Birds);
Such examples point to the importance of context in order to establish both the gender of the noun
and the speakers attitude towards the animal etc. which it denotes. In their dictionary state, these
nouns resemble nouns in the inanimate class; it is important to notice that sometimes the gender of
nouns is determined by subjective criteria, such as the speakers attitude of love, depreciation,
indifference etc. not only by objective ones (real sex).
Personification can affect a large variety of inanimate nouns, and, consequently, these nouns take
sex-marked determiners (his/her, him/her) and the Saxon genitive, e.g. ships (vessels of any kind)
and cars are generally feminine and take feminine determiners; train and plane are occasionally
feminine etc.
30
2.7. Case
Like in all languages the case expresses a relation between certain parts of speech but the
category of the case has acquired specific characteristics in English.
2.7.1. The nominative
The nominative is the basic form of the noun, and syntactically, may discharge the function of:
a subject, e.g.
John/The student has been asked to repeat the question;
The doctors were very busy;
Tom and Jerry are famous cartoon characters etc.
a predicative, e.g.
His son was an extremely good student;
Michaela is a very good teacher etc.;
an apposition, e.g.
Mr Brown, the English teacher, invited all his students to a party;
The adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain s masterpiece, was written in the second
half of the 19th century etc.;
the nominative of address replaces in certain grammars the vocative, e.g. Come in, John!
In meaning this construction is very similar with the Nominative with the Accusative; the
nominative with the present participle is frequent with verbs that can take the Accusative with the
present participle (see, hear, notice, watch, feel, observe, find, leave, set, catch, send etc.). It
consists of subject + verb in the passive + present participle, e.g.
The girl was seen leaving the house;
The man was found dying;
The boy was caught stealing apples;
She was left crying.
The Absolute Nominative Construction (Gleanu, Comiel, 1992: 199). The absolute
nominative is used when the subject of the construction with the infinitive or participle (present
or past) is different from the subject of the clause containing a predicative verb. The absolute
nominative construction contains in its structure a noun in the nominative and an
infinitive/present or past participle which is in predicative relation with the noun, e.g.
They forwarded the heavy equipment by sea, the perishables to be sent by air;
The original text being too difficult, he asked for a translation;
His hopes attained, he was perfectly happy.
NOTE: the subject of the Absolute Nominative Construction with the present participle may be
anticipated by IT or THERE, e.g.
There being nothing to say, they sat looking at each other.
This construction is used to contract adverbial clauses of time, cause, condition and they are
infrequent in spoken language, but rather frequent in written English.
2.7.2. The genitive or the possessive case
The genitive, or more frequently called the case of possession, or the possessive case expresses a
multitude of relations in English. There are two types of genitive in English, i.e. the synthetic
genitive or Saxon genitive and the analytical one or prepositional as it is usually called. The uses
of the two forms of the genitive are not exclusive; they are sometimes interchangeable although
there are instances when only one can be used, the other form being, normally, unacceptable.
2.7.2.1. Form
The synthetic genitive is marked by an s or only by a () which is attached to the noun/noun
equivalent representing the possessor and is followed by the object possessed; depending on the
form of the noun it is attached to, one or the other of the specific endings is used, e.g.
32
possessor + the (s) inflection + object possessed is used when there is:
common nouns in the singular e.g. the childs book, my mothers watch; his sons name etc.;
irregular plural nouns, e.g. the mens coats; the womens hairstyle; the childrens parents etc.;
names consisting of several words, e.g. Henry the Eighths wife, the Prince of Waless
helicopter etc.
with compounds, the mark of the genitive being added after the last word, e.g. my brother-inlaws car, the editor-in-chiefs authority etc.;
with abbreviations, e.g. the PMs secretary, the VIPs escort etc.
An apostrophe () is added after:
` nouns in the regular plural, e.g. the boys book, his parents arrival, the wolves habits etc.
classical names ending in -s usually add only an apostrophe (), e.g. Archimedes law,
Sophocles plays, Hercules works, Pythagoras theorem etc.
other names ending in -s can take either an s or only an apostrophe (), e.g. Mr Jones house
or Mr Joness house; Yeats poems or Yeatss poems etc.
NOTES:
attributes of nouns in the genitive are not inflected, e.g. my sister Marys new dress, his friend
Peters contribution to the paper.
the genitive of a group is marked only at the end, e.g.
John and Marys apartment = John and Mary own the same apartment;
Mother and fathers decision = mother and father made the same decision, while
if the object is own separately, the sign of the genitive is added to each of them, e.g.
Johns and Georges cousins = Johns cousins + Georges cousins;
The boys and the girls suits = the boys suits + the girls suits etc.
2.7.2.2. Uses of the synthetic/Saxon genitive
The synthetic genitive is used:
preferentially with several classes of nouns, although the prepositional construction can be
sometimes used alternatively e.g. with common nouns denoting persons; it is not normal,
however, to say *the son of the man when the man s son is easier and clearly renders the
essence of the construction, i.e. the man has a son or that the son belongs to a man; so, we say
the woman s daughter, the aunt s refusal, the teacher s trip to London, a rich man s car etc.
The prepositional construction is preferred when the possessor is followed by a post determiner
(an of-phrase, a relative clause etc.), e.g.
John is the son of the man who came to our house yesterday.
with proper nouns, names of persons, e.g. Jack s son, Henry s brother, Shakespeare s poems,
Washingtons fame, dr. Browns surgery, my daughters new dress etc.
with common or proper nouns denoting animals, e.g. the cats bowl, the horse s shoe, Spot s tail
etc.
with names of countries, especially when the speaker attaches importance/affection to them (=
personification), e.g.
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Englands sons have always fought for her freedom and welfare etc.
Europes future depends on all its inhabitants.
Taiwans economic development has been astonishing lately.
with nouns denoting chronological divisions, measurements, distances, prices, weight, and the
word worth, e.g. a ten minutes talk, a day s work, yesterday s newspaper, a ten minutes talk,
at ten miles distance, ten pounds worth of ice cream etc.
personification of the nouns denoting vehicles and mechanical things, e.g. ships, trains, cars,
airplanes: the ship s mast, the glider s wings, the train s heating system etc.
in phrases and idioms, e.g. a foot s difference, at a stone s throw, for heaven s sake, for
goodness s sake,
to ones hearts content
to my minds eye
to a hairs breadth
to get ones moneys worth
an old wifes tale
in double genitives (a prepositional genitive and a synthetic one); the original sense of such
structures was selectively used but in Modern English the meaning has extended considerably,
e.g.
He was a friend of Smiths;
Have you read that book of Johns? (slight derogatory attitude) etc.
The double genitive is important because it enables the speaker to make a difference in meaning
between, e.g.
a picture of my mother (= the picture showing my mother) and
a picture of my mothers (= the picture belongs to my mother)
a painting of Rembrantd (= a painting showing Rembrandt) and
a painting of Rembrantds (= one painted by him)
in the implicit genitive: initially, this type of constructions contained a standard synthetic
genitive which, for the sake of simplicity and in order to make the construction shorter
(particularly in written media) has agglutinated to the word preceding it and the apostrophe ()
marking the genitive has been dropped, e.g. the United Nations Organization < the United
Nations Organization, the Students Organization < the Students Organization etc.
names of the owners of some businesses can take a synthetic genitive form, e.g. Sotheby s,
Claridge s etc.; some very well-known shops call themselves by the possessive form and some
drop the apostrophe (), e.g. Foyles, Harrods, Carmens etc.
or
Is it your bicycle? No, it is my brothers. (the object was mentioned before, so there is no need
to repeat it);
to go to the bakers (shop), to go to the doctors (surgery), the entrance to Saint James
(church);
They are going to their uncles (house);
Lets go to Anns (house);
We bought it at the greengrocers (shop) etc.
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I gave it to him.
*I gave the man it (unacceptable).
I gave it to the man.
When the direct object is expressed by a pronoun form, the direct object must come immediately
after the verb and the indirect object is introduced on the second position by the preposition
TO/FOR. According to the place of the direct and indirect objects, verbs fall into 3 main classes:
1) of the type GIVE: deny, hand, lend, offer, pay, read, tell, throw, write, that can be followed by
the direct and indirect objects in either order, depending only on other constraints, e.g.
or
2) of the type ASK (some are double transitive verbs): cost, save, charge, wish etc. that require the
person object (if there is one) on the first position, immediately after the verb, e.g.
I asked (John/them) a lot of questions;
*I asked a question to John (unacceptable)
They charged (us) a lot;
It cost (them/my parents) a fortune.
3) of the type EXPLAIN: address, announce, communicate, describe, introduce mention, relate,
repeat etc. that require the indirect object to be introduced by a preposition, whether it comes after
the direct object or not, e.g.
The teacher explained (the lesson/it) to his students;
*The teacher explained his students the lesson (unacceptable)
She introduced him to her parents;
She addressed the letter/it to her mother.
37
after transitive verbs: drink, eat, meet, need, plant, seek etc., e.g.
She drinks a coffee every day;
We ate the cake with pleasure;
We met them at the station;
He needs love;
They planted some fruit trees;
the accusative of content is an accusative akin to the verb which the former accompanies;
usually an intransitive verb is used as a transitive one in these combinations, e.g. to dream a nice
dream, to smile a broad smile, to live a miserable life, to laugh a loud laugh, to die a heroic
death, to fight a just fight, to weep bitter tears, to smell sweet smell etc.
They lived a miserable life in spite of their hard work.
My parents died in WW 2 but they were strongly convinced that they were fighting a just
fight for the liberation of their country.
The child was smiling in his sleep and the mother was convinced that he was dreaming a
beautiful dream.
According to (Gleanu Frnoag, Comiel, 1992: 185) the direct object can also be expressed by:
to go (V2)
both verbs refer to the same subject; if a noun/pronoun/noun equivalent in the accusative is
introduced between V1 and V2, the meaning changes, i.e. the predicate refers to its subject while
V2 refers to the accusative form
I want (V1)
you/John/ (accusative)
to go (V2)
means that I want that somebody else (i.e. you or John) to do the second action, i.e. to go.
A detailed classification of the most frequently used verbs as V1 in this construction is possible
(Gleanu Frnoag, Comiel, 1992: 195-196).
Verbs (V1) that take the accusative with a LONG infinitive:
verbs expressing mental activities: think, know, consider, expect, suppose, believe,
imagine, fancy, understand etc, e.g.
They know him to be very good at maths;
We expected them to come yesterday;
Mary supposed her brother to be married;
verbs expressing desire or intention: want, wish, desire, intend, mean etc., e.g.
We wanted them to stay overnight;
They wished Paul to leave immediately;
Do you mean him to leave or stay?
verbs expressing feelings: like, dislike, love, hate, prefer etc., e.g.
Id like him/John to come at once;
Hed love his son to become an artist;
39
verbs expressing an order or permission: command, order, request, allow, compel, force
etc. e.g.
The mother allowed her son/him to go to the disco with friends;
They requested us to fill in the forms;
The police forced the thief to surrender;
with declarative verbs: declare, pronounce, report (with an animate subject), e.g.
They declared him/John to be good for the job;
The president reported them to be fit to do the work;
some prepositional verbs: count on, depend on, wait for, hope for etc., e.g.
They waited for the weather to change;
She depended on him/her former husband to pay the taxes for their children;
verbs of the senses: see, hear, watch, feel, notice, perceive, observe etc. e.g.
Has any of you seen John take the book?
Did you watch the children play tennis yesterday?
Last night I heard him come home late, unlock the door and enter the hall.
causative verbs: cause, make, have, get, induce and let, e.g.
What made you think he was wrong?
They did not let him come before noon;
I had him repair his bicycle on the terrace;
The passive form of the accusative with the infinitive construction ALWAYS requires a long
infinitive as V2, with all types of V1, except LET which takes a V2 in the short infinitive, e.g.
They were reported to be in London already;
The students were allowed to leave sooner than usual;
They were seen to take the plane;
Let cannot normally be used in passive sentences. Instead be allowed (with a to-infinitive), or
another verb or phrase with the same meaning is used, e.g.
They were allowed to go;
Nobody had permission to park their car next to the presidents residence
Another use of the accusative with the infinitive is after adjectives and nouns. The two prepositions
used are TO and FOR + adjective (see under constructions with the adjectives ); it + be +
adjective/noun + FOR/TO + object + Infinitive.
Adjectives frequently used in this construction: unusual, lovely, interesting, marvellous, nice,
wonderful, ridiculous etc., e.g.
40
verbs of the senses: see, hear, feel, notice, watch, observe etc., e.g.
the causative verbs HAVE and GET (= to have/get something done). The meaning is to
employ someone to do something for the subject, e.g.
41
She had her hair cut (= she employed someone to cut her hair);
We have our house cleaned/done every week (= we employ someone to clean/to do the house
for us every week);
HAVE/GET + object + past participle construction can also be used colloquially to replace a
passive verb, usually one concerning some accident or misfortune (Thomson, Martinet, 1997: 122
B), e.g.
He had/got his fruit stolen before he had a chance to pick it (= His fruit was stolen before he
had a chance to pick it).
He had/got two of his teeth knocked out in the fight (= Two of his teeth were knocked out in
the fight).
3. THE ADJECTIVE
The adjective denotes some characteristic of an object, interpreted either as a quality (positive
or negative, objective or subjective), or as a space, time, quantity etc. coordinate. There are
several kinds of adjectives, e.g.
Demonstrative: this, these, that, those
Indefinite: some, any
Negative: no
Distributive: each, every, either, neither
Quantitative: some, any, no, little, few, many, much
Interrogative: which, what, whose
Possessive: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their
Of quality: good, red, simple, political, medical, remarkable, easy, beautiful etc.
simple, e.g. good, red, simple, nice, early, positive, negative, sombre, sober, modern,
ready, wide, fat, far, fresh, new, soft, old, late, dark etc.
compound, e.g.
adjective + adjective: light blue, dark brown, Anglo-Saxon, red-hot, deaf-mute, politicoeconomic, icy-cold, lukewarm etc.
adjective + present participle: good-looking, easy-going, early-rising, dark-looking, hardworking, high-flying etc.
derivatives, e.g. mechanical, customary, profitable, chgildish, economic, moneyless, shortsighted, inspiration, exploitation, unpronounceable, reflective, womanhood, sufficient etc.
adjective + past participle: clean-cut, clean-shaven, deep-seated, far-fetched, far-gone, freshoiled, high-strung, modern-built, ready-made, true-born, widespread, newfound, softspoken, short-lived, long-lived etc.
42
43
44
- minded - attaches to adjectives that refer to potential qualities of the human mind, e.g. absentminded, broadminded, dirty-minded, evil-minded, generous-minded, liberal-minded, meanminded, narrow-minded, open-minded, practical-minded, serious-minded, single-minded, strongminded, tough-minded etc.
- most - attaches to adjectives (as an equivalent of the superlative relative form), e.g. easternmost,
hindmost, innermost, lowermost, nethermost, northernmost, outermost, rearmost, southernmost,
topmost, uppermost, westernmost etc.
- ous - attaches to nouns, e.g. adventurous, ambiguous, ambitious, anonymous, cautious,
contemptuous, continuous, courageous, courteous, curious, dangerous, enormous, famous,
furious, gracious, mysterious, nervous, obvious, previous, religious, serious, spontaneous,
various etc.
- proof - attaches to nouns, e.g. accident-proof, bullet-proof, burglar-proof, child-proof, dustproof, fire-proof, flameproof, frost-proof, greaseproof, heatproof, inflation-proof, leak-proof,
rainproof etc.
- related - attaches to nouns, e.g. age-related, career-related, city-related, disaster-related, drinkrelated, drug-related, income-related, injury-related, job-related, oil-related, race-related, schoolrelated, smoking-related, stress-related, tobacco-related, work-related etc.
- rich - attaches to nouns, e.g. carbon-rich, cash-rich, energy-rich, fat-rich, fiber-rich,
information-rich, mineral-rich, nitrate-rich, nutrient-rich, oil-rich, oxygen-rich, protein-rich,
resource-rich, sugar-rich etc.
- ridden - attaches to nouns, e.g. bullet-ridden, class-ridden, clich-ridden, debt-ridden, draughtridden, fear-ridden, flood-ridden, guilt-ridden, mouse-ridden, penalty-ridden, plague-ridden,
rumour-ridden, scandal-ridden, storm-ridden, tension-ridden, terror-ridden etc.
- side - attaches to nouns, e.g. bedside, desk-side, dockside, fireside, graveside, hearthside, hillside,
kerb-side, lakeside, mountainside, Oceanside, park-side, poolside, ringside, riverside, roadside
etc.
- size/sized - attaches to nouns, e.g. apple-sized, button-sized, cat-sized, city-size, coin-sized,
cottage-size, envelope-sized, finger-size, fist-sized, mansion-size, man-sized, page-size, pea-size,
pin-size, postcard-sized etc.
- some - attaches to nouns and verbs, e.g. adventuresome, bothersome, burdensome, flavoursome,
loathsome, lonesome, meddlesome, quarrelsome, venturesome, awesome, fearsome, irksome,
tiresome, troublesome, wearisome, worrisome etc.
- stricken - attaches to nouns, e.g. awe-stricken, famine-stricken, fear-stricken, grief-stricken,
guilt-stricken, horror-stricken, panic-stricken, plague-stricken, poverty-stricken, terror-stricken
etc.
- style - attaches to nouns and adjectives, e.g. American-style, antique-style, baroque-style, Britishstyle, buffet-style, bungalow-style, commando-style, English-style, European-style, military-style,
modern-style, new-style, Tudor-style, Victorian-style etc.
- type - attaches to common/proper nouns and adjectives, e.g. academic-type, Burmese-type,
church-type, European-type, executive-type, gothic-type, hormone-type, hospital-type, militarytype, police-type, schoolboy-type, snack-type, war-type, Western-type etc.
45
Adjectives that have one meaning when used attributively and another when (if) used
predicatively. They belong to various subclasses, e.g.
NOTE: some of the adjectives listed below can have the same meaning when used attributively and
predicatively. The reader should be aware that no classification can be perfectly delimited and this
fact is true not only here but for all classifications in any grammar book.
Intensifiers (in the positive or negative sense): certain, pure, clear, mere, outright, sure,
simple, true, real, definite, sheer, utter, complete, perfect, extreme, absolute, close, very,
entire, firm total, great, strong etc; slight, feeble
Examples: A certain fact was not taken into consideration at all
You are a complete fool if you think that religious intolerance has been eradicated
He has donated his entire salary to the charity organisation helping the orphans
He did not make the slightest effort to help his family
A close friend of mine from France has recently visited Romania and found it extremely
interesting
46
In a good detective story the reader discovers the criminal at the very end of the book
Restrictive adjectives: they restrict the reference of the noun, e.g. certain, precise, exact,
former, old, present, occasional, small, late, hard, big, good, bad, excellent etc.
My former English teacher has just got married
We visited Ann yesterday and we met an old friend who had recently come back from China
John is a very bad swimmer
Small farmers should get more financial help from the government
Although very young and inexperienced, Tom is a hard worker
Little + old + noun is possible: a little old lady, but little + young is not. When used to give
information, old and young occupy position c), e.g. a young coloured man, an old Welsh harp etc.
Adjectives of personality/emotion can precede or follow young/old, e.g. a young ambitious
man/an ambitious young man, depending on what the speaker wants to emphasize, as the first
adjective counting from left to right carries a stronger stress; the adjective little can be used
similarly in position c), e.g. a handy little calculator, an expensive little hotel, a little sandy beach,
a little grey foal; but small is usually better than little if size is emphasized.
2. There are, however, cases in which adjectives follow the nouns they modify, forming a sort of
compounds, e.g. knight errant, attorney general, secretary general, court martial, those
present/absent, poet laureate, literature proper etc.
b) in predicative position adjectives of quality follow a verb such as: be, become, seem, or verbs
like appear, get/grow (= become), feel, keep, look (=appear), make, smell, sound, taste, turn,
e.g.
Tom became rich;
Ann seems happy/nice;
Your mother has become impossible;
Tom felt cold;
He made her happy;
He got/grew impatient.
The idea sounds interesting;
They feel tired;
Adjectives in this position are called predicative adjectives while the verbs used in this way are
called link verbs or copulas.
The verbs appear, get/grow (=become), feel, keep, look (=appear), make smell, sound, taste,
turn when not used as link verbs can be modified by adverbs in the usual way, e.g.
He looked calm (adjective) =he had a calm expression
He looked calmly (adverb) at the angry crowd (looked =a deliberate action)
She turned pale (adjective) =she became pale
He turned angrily (adverb) to the man behind him (turned =a deliberate action)
According to this criterion, adjectives fall, mainly, into 4 different classes; the delimitation of the
four classes is not perfect.
I.
Adjectives that can function as both attributes and predicatives and the meaning remains
the same (Tom is a good student or The teacher is good)
47
II. Adjectives that can function as both attributes and predicatives but whose meaning changes
depending on the position (He is a little farmer compared to *The farmer is little)
III. Adjectives (denominal adjectives) that can function as attributes and very rarely, if ever, as
predicatives (medical, instrumental, historical etc.)
IV. Adjectives that can function only as predicatives; all the adverbial adjectives, beginning in a- ,
e.g. afloat, adeck, ajar, alone etc. plus well or ill.
3.1.2. Substantivisation of adjectives
Quite a large number of adjectives referring to the human character or to the human condition can
get a definite article (the) in order to represent a class of persons having the respective quality.
These nouns have a plural meaning and take only a plural verb, e.g. blind, deaf, disabled,
healthy, sick, living, dead, rich, poor, unemployed, wounded, quick, mute etc, e.g.
The poor are people who have a difficult life.
The mute and deaf are usually instructed in special schools;
The unemployed were put on a list with the view of finding jobs for them;
Adjectives denoting groups of people belonging to various nationalities (adjectives ending in -sh, ch, -se, -ss) take a definite article and generate collective nouns denoting those groups of people.
They are always written with a capital letter and take a plural verb, e.g. the French, the Dutch, the
English, the Swiss, the Welsh, the Irish, the Burmese, the Siamese, the Chinese, the Japanese
etc., e.g.
The French have a very good wine;
The Swiss make famous watches;
The Chinese are very good at cooking;
Other nationality adjectives take a definite article and a plural form, e.g. the Spaniards, the
Italians, the Romanians, the Americans, the Russians, the Germans etc.
Certain colours that refer to the skin colour of the people take a definite article and a plural form to
denote: the whites, the blacks, the red-skinned etc.
There are occasional adjectives with a singular meaning, e.g. the accused, the unexpected etc.
3.1.3. Degrees of comparison
The forms assumed by an adjective to show that a quality may exist in various degrees with
two objects or with one and the same object at different times are called degrees of
comparison. There are three degrees of comparison in English, i.e. a) the positive degree, b) the
comparative degree, and c) the superlative degree.
The positive degree is the basic form of the adjective, e.g.
That book is interesting;
She has a nice dress;
The weather is dry;
The comparative expresses a comparison between two or more objects; when we compare things
we may find that the quality exists in equal amount in two objects, and this is the comparative of
equality; the form is as + an adjective in the positive degree + as, e.g.
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by negating the comparative of equality: not as/so + an adjective in the positive degree + as,
e.g.
My book is not as/so interesting as yours,
Your sister is not as/so beautiful as Mary,
This ring is not as big as that one;
If the comparison is viewed from the upper end the form is called comparative of superiority*, and
this can be done with a suffix (adjective in the positive degree + -er), or with an adverb (more + an
adjective in the positive degree) + than, e.g.
Her dress is nicer than Mary's;
That book is more interesting than I thought;
The superlative shows that the quality of an object is in its highest degree; this can be seen as
relative* - when the object is chosen from a limited number of elements or a restricted area; the
superlative relative is constructed either with a suffix (an adjective in the positive degree + est) or with the adverb most + an adjective in the positive degree; in both cases the
construction is preceded by the definite article the, e.g.
She is the nicest person in our class;
Mary is the most beautiful girl in our town;
This is the most interesting book on grammar of all the books you lent me;
The only two prepositions that can be used with the superlative relative are in (to select from a
limited area) and of (to select from a group or a certain number of things);
absolute when the quality exists in an object in the highest degree possible; the absolute
superlative is made up of the adverb very + an adjective in the positive degree, e.g.
She is the most beautiful woman I have ever seen;
This is the most expensive dress you could have bought;
You have a very interesting profession.
*SPELLING NOTE on the comparative of superiority and the superlative relative:
-
*Monosyllabic adjectives take the suffixes -er or -est to form the comparative of superiority
and the superlative relative, e.g. nice/nicer/nicest, dry/drier/driest, big/bigger/biggest etc.,
except right, wrong, real, just which do not normally have degrees of comparison;
49
Plurisyllabic adjectives take only the adverbs more and the most, e.g. beautiful more
beautiful, the most beautiful/interesting, more interesting, the most interesting etc;etc.
- Bisyllabic adjectives take either one or the other of the two forms, depending on their ending,
so
- bisyllabic adjectives ending in -er, -y, -ly, ow, -ble/ple, e.g. clever/cleverer/cleverest,
pretty/prettier/prettiest,
holy/holier/
holiest,
narrow/narrower/narrowest,
noble/nobler/noblest, happy/ happier/ the happiest (but unhappy takes more and the
most) etc; while
bisyllabic adjectives ending in -re and -ful take the adverbs more and the most, e.g.
obscure/more obscure/the most obscure, careful/more careful/the most careful etc; certain
adjectives ending in ful can also take er and est, e.g. cheerful,cheerful(l)er, the
cheerful(l)est or cheerful, more cheerful, the most cheerful etc.
Adjectives that can used in the comparative of superiority and the superlative relative by employing
both formation patterns, i.e. by suffixation and with more and the most, e.g.
- monosyllabic adjectives: free, calm, sound, vague, frank
- disyllabic adjectives: angry, likely, healthy, friendly, happy, bitter, humble, noble
narrow, handsome, pleasant, quiet, common etc
- adjectives made negative by prefixes: unhappy, insincere, unpleasant, impolite etc.
The degrees of comparison of compound adjectives
To make it easier for the learners the comparative of superiority and the relative superlative of
compound adjectives can be summarized as follows:
- compound adjectives generally take more and the most, with a few exceptions that are
better not mentioned here, e.g. intelligent-looking/more intelligent-looking/the most
intelligent-looking, bad-looking/more bad-looking/ or worse-looking/the most badlooking or the worst-looking, ill-advised/more ill-advised/the most ill-advised, illmannered/more ill-mannered/the most ill-mannered,, short-sighted/more shortsighted/the most short-sighted, strong-headed/more strong-headed/the most strongheaded, heart-broken/more heart-broken/the most heart-broken etc.
There are several adjectives that have irregular comparisons, e.g.
good, well
bad(ly), ill
little
many, much
far
near
old
late
hind
fore
better
worse
less
more
farther
further
nearer
older
elder
later
latter
hinder
former
the best
the worst
the least
the most
the farthest (of distance only)
the furthest (used more widely)
the nearest / the next
the oldest (of people and things)
the eldest (of people only)
the latest
the last
the hindmost/the hindermost
the foremost
elder and eldest imply seniority rather than age. They are chiefly used for comparisons within
family, i.e. brothers and sisters; elder refers to two elements while eldest implies more than two,
e.g. my elder brother(=I only have one brother who is older than me), her eldest son/daughter
(=there are more than two brothers or sisters in the family) etc; but elder is not used with than, so
older is necessary here, e.g.
50
1) used with a word or phrase which expresses the idea of completeness and which cannot be
associated with the adverb very, e.g. all right, certain, determined, empty, finished, full, ready,
right, sure, wrong etc., e.g.
I'm quite ready;
That bottle is quite empty;
She was quite certain about it;
You are quite right;
You are quite wrong about that.
2) with very strong adjectives/adverbs which cannot be associated with the adverb very, e.g.
amazing(ly), extraordinary/ extraordinarily, horrible/horribly, perfect(ly), fantastic(ally), e.g.
It was quite extraordinary to hear it from him;
Don' be impatient, I'm quite ready etc.
d) most (without the) in front of adjectives (or adverbs) is not used to express a relative superlative
but an absolute superlative equivalent with extremely, etc.
The doctor was most unhappy to tell the woman about her husbands accident (=
extremely/very unhappy)
His fiance is most beautiful (= very beautiful)
e) prefixes are often used to make up a form that is very close to the standard absolute superlative,
e.g. ultra-, extra-, over-, super-, hyper- etc.: ultracentral, ultramodern, ultramarine, ultrashort,
superabundant, superfine, overactive, overambitious, overgenerous, oversensitive, hypersensitive,
hyperactive, e.g.
She has an ultracentral apartment (very centrally placed);
They got everything from an overgenerous sponsor (very generous);
f) an apparently analytical genitive is sometimes used to express the existence of a quality in the
highest degree; the construction is not meant to be taken literally; it sometimes has an equivalent in
Romanian and sometimes does not, e.g. a mountain of a wave (= un munte de val)
g) the genitive of gradation which is a synonym of the absolute superlative, e.g. the book of books,
the beauty of all beauties, the king of kings, the prince of princes etc.
h) combinations of prepositions and nouns, e.g. beyond/past/without compare (=dincolo de orice
comparaie/fr termen de comparaie); without equal (=fr egal) etc., e.g.
That girl is beautiful beyond compare;
Our childhood with our grandparents was happy beyond compare/without equal;
i) the repetition of the same adjective/adverb suggests that the quality exists in the highest
degree; this synonym of absolute superlative is sometimes used in poetry as a poetic device, e.g. My
love's like a red, red rose (Robert Burns); again, children who do not master the standard absolute
superlative very frequently express the same idea by repeating the adjective/adverb, e.g. and
then we saw a big, big house ... (= very big house); ... the green, green grass of home...;
j) the synonymic substitution for an absolute superlative; the two terms of the construction are
synonyms and their association is meant to enhance the idea that the quality exists in the highest
degree; these constructions are fixed forms, generally (but not always) having an equivalent in other
53
languages, Romanian included, e.g. null and void (= nul i neavenit); safe and sound (= teafr si
nevtmat); hard and fast (= very rigid, about a rule); each and every (= absolut fiecare); far and
away (= categoric, fr ndoial); lord and master (= domn i stpn) etc.
k) the hyperbole this is an exaggerated statement made for effect and not intended to be taken
literally, e.g. scared to death (= speriat de moarte); immensely obliged (= approx. din cale afar de
obligai); full to the brim (= plin pn la buz).
l) a superlative + adjective ending in able/-ible (possible, imaginable etc.) construction enhances
the idea of superlative, e.g.
That was the best movie possible;
This is the sweetest child imaginable
m) the simile another class of synonyms of the absolute superlative is a comparison of equality
comparing elements belonging to different spheres of notions and is meant to emphasize a certain
characteristic of one of the elements:
1. Comparisons implying beings:
as agile as a monkey
as blind as a bat
as brave as a lion
as busy as a bee
as cunning as a fox
as drunk as a lord
as fast as a deer
as fat as a pig
sprinten ca o maimu
orb ca o crti
curajos ca un leu
harnic ca o furnic/albin
viclean ca o vulpe
beat cri etc.
iute ca o cprioar
gras ca un porc
amar ca fierea
negru ca tciunele
curat ca cristalul
l) the metaphor (or implicit comparison) is defined as a series of words meant to indicate
something different from the literal meaning, e.g. He has the heart of a stone (=he is not easily
moved); a bookworm is un soarece de biblioteca; an oyster is a person who does not talk; He
is a fox; ... blowing hot and cold...; a naughty child is a monkey etc.
m) litotes is the use of negative to express the contrary, e.g.
It is not bad! Actually means that something is very good;
He is not a coward (=somebody is very brave).
3.2. Relative adjectives
Another modifier of the noun/noun equivalent is the relative adjective, so called because it shows
qualities characterizing an object by referring it to another object. Generally, relative adjectives are
used attributively and do not have degrees of comparison, e.g. a brick house, a wooden hut, a silk
dress, a stone wall, a gold mine; the general meaning is that of made of or containing ....
54
For practical reasons adjectives and pronouns of the same kind will be considered together; the
main difference between an adjective and a pronoun of the same kind lies in the fact that the
adjective goes with the noun/noun equivalent while the corresponding pronoun expresses the same
thing and also replaces the noun/noun equivalent, e.g. a demonstrative adjective is a word that
determines a noun/noun equivalent while a demonstrative pronoun expresses the same meaning as
the demonstrative adjective, but unlike the latter it also replaces the noun/noun equivalent: this
book is mine (adjective), this is mine (pronoun).
Adjectives
1. Demonstrative
2. Indefinite + negative
3. Possessive
4. Interrogative
5. Relative whose
6. Adverbial
7. -----------8. -----------9. ------------
Pronouns
Demonstrative
Indefinite + negative
Possessive
Interrogative
Relative
-----------Personal
Reflexive/emphatic
Reciprocal
Pronouns
this/these
that/those
the same
another
the other(s)
others
such
This/these, that/those used as adjectives, agree in number with the nouns/noun equivalents they
determine and are the only adjectives to do so, e.g.
This beach was quite empty last year;
These children only came yesterday;
That exhibition closed a month ago;
Those pencils are not mine;
When used as pronouns the idea of number is still there, referring either to one object or to more
than one (= plural), e.g.
This is my book and that is Ann's;
These are longer than those (ones).
55
but
The same (acelai, aceeai, aceiai, aceleai); as an adjective the same can be used with all kinds of
nouns, countable or mass, singular or plural, e.g.
The same person(s) I saw yesterday told me to buy that book;
Nothing has changed, the same old books on the same old shelves;
As a pronoun the same can represent a previously mentioned noun, phrase or any longer unit e.g.
The same was said about his parents, the same here can stand for a word, a sentence or a
whole story.
Another (un alt, o alt) is singular in meaning and as an adjective takes a singular noun while as a
pronoun it replaces a singular countable noun, e.g.
Give me another book, I don't like this (one);
Then another young man showed up and told me to go back at once;
I saw a man shooting, then another and another etc.
There are exceptional cases when another can be associated with a plural noun because this plural
noun can be taken as a unit, e.g.
I had a five-day vacation and the whole family went for a trip into the mountains; a winter
storm came and we couldn't leave, so I called my boss and asked for another three days
off.
Another is sometimes opposed to one, e.g. One says yes, another says no.
Other (an adjective) (ali, alte) can take plural countable nouns, e.g.
She does not know what to say, other things are more important now;
Don't show yourself, other people may come soon etc.
The other (cellalt, cealalt, ceilali, celelalte) as an adjective takes singular or plural countable
nouns, e.g.
56
One man came yesterday, while the other person has just arrived; ... because other women
never came etc.
The other(s) (cellalt, cealalt, ceilali, celelalte) as a pronoun can replace any countable noun in
the singular or in the plural, e.g.
One said yes, the other said no;
Most of the people came this way, the others took another road etc.
Such (an adjective and a pronoun) can be a determiner referring back to something that has
already been mentioned; it can take a plural or replace a plural noun, e.g.
Such good students are rarely met, or
Such were the participants that everybody felt happy etc.
In the singular, an indefinite article follows such, e.g.
She is such a nice girl!
It was such an interesting book that I could not put it down.
Pronouns
a) numerical
several
several
many/more/most
many/more/most
(a) few
(a) few
each
each
every/all
- /all
both
both
either
either
neither
neither
b) numerical and quantitative
some
some
any
any
no
none
lots of
a lot
enough
enough
c) quantitative
(a) little
(a) little
much/more/most
much/more/most
d) only pronouns
some/any/no + body/thing/one;
the same as above + else
57
Several, which is both an adjective and a pronoun, is not followed by ones, unless there is a
qualitative adjective after it, e.g.
Several persons told me the same thing;
I know several people who do not like fish;
Did you buy any books? Yes, I bought several; and also
There are several new ones on the table.
Many/more/most more and most can be used quite freely, and so can many with negative verbs,
e.g.
They didn't buy many books;
He gets a lot of books, but she doesn't get many;
They make more mistakes than admitted;
Most people are not familiar with these notions. But many with affirmative and interrogative verbs
has a restricted use, i.e. many is possible with affirmative verbs when preceded by a good/a great,
or when modified by so/as/too and very, e.g.
I made a good many friends there;
He has had so many jobs that he doesn't even remember their number.
When not modified, many is usually replaced by a lot/lots of (+ noun) or by a lot/lots (pronouns),
e.g.
I saw a lot/lots of seabirds;
I expect you saw a lot, too.
Compare the following: He hasn't won many races; but you've won a lot/lots of races or You've won
a lot/a great many races. The same restrictions of use are applied to much/more/most, i.e. the
quantitative indefinite adjective and pronoun that is mentioned under c) above. Examples:
but
compare with
or
Little and few (adjectives and pronouns) denote scarcity or lack and have almost the force of a
negative, e.g.
There was little time for consultation;
Little is known about the side-effects of this drug;
Few towns have such splendid trees etc.
This use of little and few is mainly confined to written English, probably because in conversation
little and few might easily be confused with a little and a few. In conversation, therefore, little and
few are normally replaced by hardly any or a negative verb + much/many, e.g.
58
59
I want it all;
They wanted us all etc;
The teacher wanted to see us all.
Both (an adjective and a pronoun) means one and the other and takes a plural verb, e.g.
Both (doors) were open;
Both (students) handed in the applications in time;
Both (kids) were fond of playing football
A personal pronoun in the nominative/accusative + both is also possible, e.g.
We both knew him or Both of us knew him;
They called us both or They called both of us.
When one of these pronoun + all/both combinations is the subject of a compound tense the
auxiliary verb usually precedes all/both, e.g.
We are all waiting and not *We all are waiting
You must both help me;
We are all ready;
We are both ready etc.
Either/neither are both adjectives and pronouns. Either means any one of the two and takes a
singular verb, e.g.
I have two English books; you can take either (of them);
Either of you come here and help me.
Either + a negative verb can be replaced by neither + a positive verb, e.g.
I havent read either of these (books) = I have read neither of these (books).
When neither is the subject of a verb it cannot be replaced by either + a negative verb, e.g. only
Neither of them knew the way is possible. Neither means not one and not the other of the two. It
takes a singular verb and can sometimes replace either + a negative verb, except when it is the
subject of a construction (see above). Either/neither can take a prepositional phrase: of +
the/these/personal pronoun/possessives, e.g.
I tried both keys but neither of them worked;
Neither of them knew the way;
Neither boy knew the way;
Ive read neither of these books.
Personal pronouns and possessive adjectives associated with either/neither (singular adjectives or
pronouns) used of people should technically be he/him, she/her, and his/her, but in colloquial
English the plural forms of the personal adjectives or pronouns are generally used, e.g.
Neither of them knows the way, do they?
Neither of them had brought their passports, hadnt they?
Either ..or/
in interrogative constructions when they refer to a part of the whole or of a quantity, e.g.
Could I take some apples, please?
Do you have some change about you?
in interrogative sentences if the question does not refer to some (Levichi), e.g.
Why are there so many mistakes in some exercises?
Do you want to suggest that some people dont like fish? etc.
As pronouns some and any follow the same rules as those mentioned above, e.g.
Did you buy any stamps? Yes, I bought some/No I did not buy any etc.
61
ANY, e.g.
As already mentioned, any is used with countable or mass nouns mainly in negative and
interrogative constructions, as an equivalent of some, e.g.,
I havent seen any books on the table;
Did you buy any apples yesterday?
There isnt any coffee left.
Any is also used:
No (an adjective) and none (a pronoun) can be used with an affirmative verb to express a negative
(as an alternative to any + a negative verb); it can be used with countable or mass nouns, e.g.
I have no apples = I dont have any apples;
I had some last year, but I have none this year/but I dont have any this year;
No work was done;
None of the tourists wanted to climb the mountain etc.
A lot of/a lot(see under many/more/most, section 4/5.2)
Enough is both an adjective and a pronoun on the one hand, and an adverb on the other. As an
adjective enough precedes the noun/noun equivalent it determines, e.g.
She has enough money to buy whatever she wants to;
You have enough time to get there on foot;
I could not tell whether it was enough or not etc.
As an adverb enough follows the adjective/adverb/verb it modifies, e.g.
She is tall enough to be a basketball player;
62
Person
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
Adjectives
my
your
his
her
its
our
your
their
Pronouns
mine
yours
his
hers
---ours
yours
theirs
63
Possessive adjectives and pronouns in English have only one form which refers to the possessor
and not to the thing(s) possessed, and do not agree in number, gender or case with the object(s)
possessed, e.g.
This is our room and that is yours;
This is their car; that is theirs too;
Ive got your pen. You are using mine etc.
In Romanian, however, things are a little more complicated and for the benefit of the Romanian
learners all the pronominal or adjectival forms will be given in order to make it clear that there is
only one form in English for the four Romanian ones (which must agree in number, gender and case
with the object/s possessed), i.e.
PERS. Possessive Adjective
1 (eu) meu, mea, mei, mele
2 (tu) tu, ta, ti, tale
3 (ea) ei
(el) lui
(el, ea)su, sa, si, sale
4 (noi)
Possessive pronoun
al meu, a mea, ai mei, ale mele
al tu, a ta, ai ti, ale tale
al, a, ai, ale ei
al, a, ai, ale lui
al su, a sa, ai si, ale sale
There are also other means of expressing possession, i.e. object(s) possessed + of + possessive
pronoun, e.g. friends of mine/yours/his (prieteni de-ai mei/ti/lui).
Own (propriu/proprie/proprii) can be used after possessive adjectives to emphasize the idea of
possession, e.g.
He couldnt trust his own friends;
She didnt want to see me, her own mother! etc.
Parts of ones body, pieces of clothing or personal belongings are most frequently preceded by a
possessive adjective, e.g.
Put on your coat !
Where are my glasses?
Wash your hands!
My head aches;
4/5.4. Interrogative adjectives and pronouns
For persons: Nominative case: who (pronoun), dative/accusative cases: whom/who (pronoun), of
which whom is the technically correct one, but who is used, especially in spoken English;
possessive case: whose (adjective and pronoun); what can also be used for persons and its form is
invariable.
For things: what (adjective and pronoun) has an invariable form.
For persons and things when the choice is restricted: which has an invariable form.
Who, whose, which, what, when used as subjects are usually followed by an affirmative verb, e.g.
64
what + do/does/did + they/he/she/it + look like? is a request for description only, e.g.
What does she look like? (possible answer: She is tall and slender);
What does it/the car look like? (possible answer: It is brand new and as quick as one could
imagine).
what (and how) are used in questions about age and measurements, i.e.
depth/height/length/width, although in conversation it would be more usual to say how
old/deep/high/ tall/long/wide?
Formal English
Conversation
Ever can be placed after who/what (as well as after the adverbs where, why, when, how) although
it
is
not
necessary;
when
added,
it
emphasizes
the
speakers
surprise/astonishment/anger/irritation/dismay. It has the same meaning as on earth/in the world
and it is not polite, e.g.
Who ever are you? (it expresses the speakers irritation, the other person is probably an
intruder);
Who ever told you about it? =Who on earth told you about it?
65
What ever are you doing in my room? =What on earth are you doing in my room?
Who ever and what ever (two words) are different from whoever (pronoun only) or whatever
(pronoun and adjective); whoever means the one who, he/she who (whoever, whichever and
whatever are relative adjectives/pronouns, but it seems logical to mention them here as well), e.g.
Whoever gains the most points wins the competition;
Whoever gets home first stars cooking the dinner;
Whoever cleans the windows doesnt make a good job of it;
You can eat whatever you like;
You can watch whatever programme you like.
In order to emphasize the importance of a request or command whatever you do is often placed
before or after it, e.g.
Whatever you do, dont mention my name;
Whatever you do, dont spend that money.
66
the noun, e.g. The man who came yesterday refused to give me his name - who came yesterday is
the relative clause; if we omit it, it is not clear what man we are talking about.
Relative pronouns used in defining/restrictive relative clauses:
Examples:
-
for persons, nominative: The man who robbed you has been arrested: that is a possible
alternative after all, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody and those; if in doubt, use who, e.g.
Everyone who/that knew him liked him;
for persons, accusative: the pronoun changes from the formally correct, whom, to the more usual
one, who, then to that or it is left out altogether, e.g. The man whom/who/that/-----I saw told me
to come back yesterday;
-
for persons, genitive: People whose rents have been raised can appeal;
for things, nominative: This is the picture which/that caused such a sensation; that is a
possible alternative to which, but when in doubt, use which;
for things, accusative: the pronoun changes from which to that or is left out completely, e.g.
The car which/that/----- I hired broke down;
for things, genitive: A house whose walls were made of glass cost a fortune;
Examples:
-
for persons, nominative: My friend, who doesnt like fishing at all, went fishing yesterday;
for persons, accusative: Peter, who(m) everyone suspected, turned out to be innocent; --for
persons, genitive: Ann, whose children are at school today, is trying to get a job;
for objects, nominative: That block, which cost $2 million to build, has been empty for years;
67
for objects, accusative: These books, which you can get at any bookshop, will give you all the
information you need;
for objects, genitive: This house, whose windows were all broken, was a depressive sight.
Which (ceea ce) can also modify a whole main clause, or a longer unit that was reported before,
e.g.
or
Apart from his talent, he was tall and handsome, which made the jury select him for the main
part in the movie;
(a longer unit), which left him poor and broke.
Both in defining and non-defining relative clauses the preposition, if there is one, should be kept
after the verb it belongs to. The preposition may precede the relative pronoun sometimes, but this
construction is rather formal and is never used in spoken English, although it may appear in written
form: so, it is more usual to say The man I was travelling with was from San Francisco than The
man with whom I was travelling was from S.F, in which the preposition precedes the relative
pronoun; the same is true for all instances of relative pronouns associated with prepositions.
The importance of commas in relative clauses
A defining relative clause is written without commas, while a non-defining relative one is always
put between commas, or comes after a comma, at the end of the sentence. The presence of commas
is very important as the meaning changes when commas are inserted, e.g.
The students who wanted to go on a trip were disappointed when it started to rain (=not all
were disappointed, only those who wanted to go on a trip) and
The students, who wanted to go on a trip, were disappointed (all wanted to go on a trip and all
were disappointed).
I plural
II plural
III plural
Nominative
I
you
Thou*
he
she
it
we
you
they
Dative/ Accusative
(for/to) me
(for/to) you
(for/to) thee*
(for/to) him
(for/to) her
(for/to) it
(for/to) us
(for/to) you
(for/to) them
68
*Thou and *thee are old forms that can be found in literature or in extremely formal speech; very
infrequently encountered in contemporary English.
For the position of the pronoun objects see under noun, the category of the case (section 2.7)
Synonyms of personal pronouns:
-
we can stand for I as the so-called modest we or royal we, e.g. an author writing an article
may choose to write: We experimented all the, instead of : I experimented all the;
the undersigned can be used instead of the first person singular in applications;
The pronoun IT has been explained under noun, the category of gender; it has other functions as
well, e.g.
Demonstrative IT- very much like the demonstrative adjective, when the pronoun could be
replaced by a demonstrative, e.g.
Who is it?
Have you ever drunk wine? It is very tasty.
Its all right.
Impersonal IT- used with time, weather, distance etc., e.g.
It is late;
It is early;
What time is it?
It is cold;
Introductory-anticipatory IT - it introduces the sentence and anticipates the logical subject/object,
being itself a formal grammatical subject or object; it also introduces passive constructions (for
other introductory functions see under adjective of quality), e.g.
69
Reflexive/Emphatic/Emphasizing pronoun
I singular
II singular
III singular
I plural
II plural
III plural
myself
yourself
himself
herself
itself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
2) as emphatic pronouns, they have a different place, i.e. subject + emphatic pronoun + verb +
object OR subject +verb + object + emphatic pronoun, e.g.
Ann herself opened the door =Ann opened the door herself;
The king himself gave her the medal;
She made the cake herself =She herself made the cake etc.
4/5.9. Reciprocal pronouns
They are one another and each other; both can be used for two or more, but each other is
preferred when there are no more than two, e.g.
Tom and Ann looked at each other;
The reciprocal pronoun can be used in the genitive, e.g.
The boys whispered in each others ears;
It was a general fight, people tearing each others clothes etc.
In contemporary usage each other is frequently preferred over one another, even when there are
more than two people present.
6. THE NUMERAL
The numeral is a word that denotes an abstract number or the abstract numerical order of
objects; it can be a noun, an adjective or a pronoun.
The question they answer are: how many? how much? which?
Irrespective of their morphological status, numerals are invariable, e.g.
Ten multiplied by two is twenty (noun);
Ten students left by bus (adjective);
Not all the students were present, ten had left earlier (pronoun);
The first (student) asked whether to stay or to leave (pronoun/ noun)
Numerals can be classed according to various criteria, e.g.
1) according to form:
a) simple: one, two, three, nine, ten, eleven etc.
b) compound: twenty two, fifty one etc.
c) by derivation: thirteen, fourteen, thirty, sixty and all the ordinal numeral etc.
2) according to content:
a) cardinal numerals
b) ordinal numerals
c) fractional numerals
d) multiplicative numerals
e) distributive numerals
f) adverbial numerals of recurrence
6.1. Cardinal numerals
a) cardinal numerals show the number of objects:
1
one
10 ten
2
two
20 twenty
3
three
30 thirty
4
four
40
forty
5
five
50 fifty
6
six
60 sixty
71
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
seven
eight
nine
ten
eleven
twelve
thirteen
fourteen
fifteen
sixteen
seventeen
eighteen
nineteen
70 seventy
80 eighty
90 ninety
100 one hundred
1,000 one thousand
1,000,000 one million
1,000,000,000 one billion
numerals hundred, thousand, million, billion do not get a plural suffix when used with
numbers, e.g. 3,000 = three thousand, 5,000,000 = five million; however when used to show an
indefinite number, they are used in the plural , e.g. thousands and thousands of people, tens of
millions of books etc.
use and before the tens, e.g. 1,157 is read one thousand one hundred and fifty seven; 3,004
reads three thousand and four etc.
a comma (,) is used instead of a full stop (.) to separate millions from hundreds of thousands,
thousands from hundreds, e.g. 3,457,908 etc. and a full stop (.) instead of a comma (,) in
decimal fractions, e.g. 5.7; 234.987 etc.
years are read as follows: the first two figures together and the last two together, e.g. 1991 =
nineteen ninety one; 1809 = eighteen oh nine; starting with 2000 the years are read as follows:
2000 = two thousand; normally for the first nine years of each century oh[ou] is used to express
0 (zero), but exceptionally for the first decade of the 21 st century and is used to express 0
(zero) so 2001 is read two thousand and one etc.
the cardinal numeral is also used instead of the ordinal numeral to show the number of a house,
bus, flat, chapter, section, volume etc, e.g. book ten; section nine; volume three; flat twenty
seven etc.
telephone numbers: there are several ways of reading the telephone numbers; they are usually
read figure by figure if the figures are different, e.g. 41 72 45 = four one seven two four five; if
there is a kind of symmetry in the number, it may be read by twos, e.g. 41 56 41 = forty one
fifty six forty one; if a figure is repeated, it is read double; e.g. 45 33 22 = four five (or
forty five) double three double two; or 55 77 08 double five double seven 0 (oh OR zero) eight
etc.
telling the time: the traditional way of telling the time uses prepositions (past and to) and
cardinal numerals for hours and minutes etc., e.g. it is twenty to five or it is twenty past five;
there is a newer form that has been forced upon users by international use (flights, train etc.) and
which consists in the juxtaposition of two cardinal numbers, the first telling the hour and the
second telling the minutes, e.g. five twenty five (am or pm); four fifty (am or pm) etc, 1002
becomes ten oh[ou] two; the military have a special way of telling the time, when it is a whole
number, e.g. for two oclock sharp = two hundred hours etc.
the second
the fourth
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Except the first three ordinal numerals whose form is different, the others are formed from the
cardinal numeral, and all are preceded by the.
Uses:
telling the date: the date may be written in various ways, but it is read as follows: the + the
numeral + of + name of the month and then the year, e.g. June, 4th , 2000 = the fourth of June,
two thousand etc.
to show regular intervals, e.g. every third week = o dat la trei sptmni, twice every second week
etc.
6.3. Fractional numerals
- common fractions: 2/3 = two thirds; =one fourth; 4/6 = four sixths; half; 3 = three
and a half etc.
- decimal fractions: special attention should be paid to the fact that instead of comma in the
European system, a full stop/a period is used in the Anglo-Saxon system, e.g. 5.6; 3.56; 2.8765;
1.2 etc.
6.4. Multiplicative numerals
Show how many times a quantity or number increases, e.g.
- adjectival use:
double - dublu
threefold - ntreit
fourfold - mptrit
The form is an ordinal numeral + fold.
adverbial use:
twice - dublu, ndoit, de dou ori
three times, threefold - ntreit, de trei ori
four times, fourfold - mptrit, de patru ori
a hundred times - de o sut de ori
6.5. Distributive numerals
These numerals show the distribution and grouping of objects:
(one) by one - (unul) cte unul
by twos - cte doi
by threes - cte trei
6.6. Adverbial numeral of recurrence
Shows how many times an action is repeated or how many times a quantity or number is
larger/smaller than another quantity or number, e.g.
once - o dat
twice, two times - de dou ori
three times, thrice - de trei ori
four times - de patru ori
once and a half - o dat i jumtate
three times a year - de trei ori pe an
many times - de multe ori
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7. THE ADVERB
The adverb is defined as the part of speech showing the characteristic of an action, of a state,
or of a quality; it has degrees of comparison and syntactically it is an adverbial (of manner, time,
place etc).
Adverbs proper fall under 8 classes, e.g.
of manner: well, badly, quickly, slowly, fast, bravely, happily, hard, beautifully etc.
of place: here, there, somewhere, by, up, down, here, there, near, backward, right, left, far, etc.
of time: now, nowadays, today, then, before, afterwards, eventually, formerly, previously, soon,
just, early, immediately etc.
of frequency: always, seldom, scarcely, hardly, ever, never, occasionally, often, sometimes,
usually, frequently, once, twice, weekly, daily, lately, recently, since, still, yet.
sentence adverbs: certainly, definitely, luckily, surely, apparently, evidently, obviously,
presumably, undoubtedly, perhaps, possibly etc.
of degree: fairly, hardly, rather, quite, too, very, absolutely, almost, barely, completely, enough,
entirely, extremely, far, just, much, nearly, only, really, scarcely, so etc.
interrogative adverbs: when?, where?, why?, how?
relative adverbs: when, where, why, how etc.
The classification above is just one of the several possible. Within the same class, several
subclasses can be identified, but an exhaustive classification is not necessarily helpful to the user of
the book.
Form:
According to form, adverbs can be unmarked or marked by the ending ly (some adverbs of
manner, of frequency, of degree and some sentence adverbs).
NOTE learners should be aware of the fact that there are two kinds of words ending in ly:
a) noun + ly, the resulting word being an adjective, e.g. friend/ly, leisure/ly, kind/ly, like/ly,
lone/ly, day/daily, week/ly, month/ly, year/ly etc, With the exceptions underlined in the above
enumeration the other adjectives can be used as adverbs as a result of conversion.
The words friendly, likely, lonely have no adverbial form; in order to supply this deficiency a
similar adverb or adverb phrase is used, e.g.
friendly (adjective) in a friendly way (adverb phrase)
likely (adjective) probably (adverb)
lonely (adjective) no adverbial form
b) adjective + ly, the resulting word being invariably an adverb; certain spelling notes should be
observed.
7.1. The formation of the adverbs with the suffix ly
Adjective + (-ly) adverb of manner etc.
ly is added to a large number of adjectives, without any changes, e.g.
Adjective
Adverb
clear
clearly
clean
cleanly
slow
slowly
fair
fairly
ly with the exception of adjectives ending in ple, -tle, -ble all other adjectives ending in e
retain the final vowel before the adverbial ending, e.g.
Adjective
Adverb
immediate
immediately
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approximate
approximately
definite
definitely
sure
surely
exceptions:
true
truly
due
duly
whole
wholly
The adjectives in -ple, -ble, -tle drop the final e and add a y and NOT -ly, e.g.
simple
simply
probable
probably
capable
capably
sensible
sensibly
gentle
gently
ly adjectives ending in a final l produce adverbs like (- lly, one l belongs to the word proper,
while the second is part of the suffix ly).
beautiful
beautifully
final
finally
careful
carefully
hopeful
hopefully
helpful
helpfully
ly irrespective of the preceding letter, adjectives ending in y, change the final y into i,
before adding the adverbial ending e.g.
happy
happily
ready
readily
creepy
creepily
stealthy
stealthily
ally adjectives ending in ic add ally in order to form the corresponding adverb, e.g.
enthusiastic
enthusiastically
automatic
automatically
theologic(al)
theologically
dramatic
dramatically
Pronunciation note the ending is pronounced [kli], e.g.
Exception: public publicly.
7.2. Classification of the adverb of manner
Adverbs and adjectives with the same form (fast adj = fast adv)
Adverbs ending in ly, whose meaning is restricted or different from the corresponding
adjective=adverb form (hard adj, adv, hardly adv. etc.)
Standard adverbs ending in ly, whose adjectives get a final ly to make up the adverb, (clear adj
clearly adv. etc)
7.3. Adverbs and adjectives with the same form
back, close*, deep*, direct*, early, easy*, early, enough, far, fair*, fast, free*, hard*, high*, ill, just*,
kindly, late*, light*, left, little, long, low, much/more/most*, near*, pretty*, quick*, right* (with
several meanings), short*, still, straight, well, wide*, wrong*, cheap*, dear*, dear*, last*, sharp*,
tight*, loud*, clean*, clear* ; e.g.
Constructions with adverbs
They came in through the back door.
Write back immediately.
She did not come back.
She came close to me.
They are close friends.
He dived deep in the clear water.
relatives.
You can travel to Paris direct. They took the most direct route to
London.
Starred verbs in the list also have a ly form.
7.4. Degrees of comparison
Adverbs have degrees of comparison and constructions with the comparative very much like
adjectives of the same type, e.g.
adverbs and adjectives with the same form take suffixes (see section 3.4).
adverbs ending in ly, irrespective of the number of syllables take more and the most like
plurisyllabic and other types of adjectives (see section 3.4)
For constructions with comparisons, see section 3.4.
7.5. The place/position of adverbs
In an non-emphatic structure, the adverbs of manner, place, and time come in this very order. There
are, however, instances in which this order is only partly observed.
7.6. Adverbs of manner
They come immediately after an intransitive verb or after the object of a transitive one when the
object is short, e.g.
Mary dresses fashionably.
They danced gracefully.
We work hard.
She speaks English well and never
*She speaks well English (unacceptable)
With object sentence, the length of the object affects the place of the adverb, the latter preceding
such objects, e.g.
They gracefully followed the directions of their dance teacher.
John, Marys step brother, suspiciously considered the will of their deceased father.
With prepositional objects, the adverb of manner can be placed after the object or before the
preposition, e.g.
My parents looked after their grandson/him.
My parents looked carefully after their grandson/him.
The teacher looked after the kids very anxiously
The teacher looked very anxiously after the kids.
If the adverb of manner is placed after a clause or phrase, it is considered to modify that clause or
phrase, e.g. (Thomson & Martinet, 1997: 52).
They secretly decided to leave the town (their decision was to be secret)
They decided to leave the town secretly (their departure was to be secret).
John generously accepted to accommodate the two strangers (his acceptance was generous)
John accepted to accommodate them generously (the accommodation he offered was
generous).
Most of the adverbs used as above are concerned with character and intelligence, i.e. foolishly,
generously, kindly, stupidly etc.
Badly and well can be used as adverbs of manner or degree, their function depending on their
position.
Adverbs of manner
He speaks English badly.
He speaks French well.
Adverbs of degree
The school badly wants repair.
She was badly injured in the car
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Emphatic
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Some adverbs of degree need special attention: only, fairly, rather, quite, hardly,
scarcely, barely.
ONLY
In theory only is placed next to the word it applies. In written English this place is
compulsory, but in spoken English in which intonation is also relevant it is usually
placed immediately after the subject. Both only and the intended word are stressed, e.g.
Written English:
Mary borrowed only three books. (not five).
Mary only made that cake (but someone else bought the ingredients)
Tom asked Marys address for himself only (he was not to give it to someone else)
Tom asked Marys address only (not her age, employment etc.)
Spoken English:
Mary 'only borrowed three books.
Mary 'only made that cake.
Tom 'only asked Marys address for himself.
Tom 'only asked Marys address.
FAIRLY AND RATHER
Fairly means moderately;
Rather means moderately or is the equivalent of very;
Fairly is used with favourable adjectives or adverbs, i.e. which express a desirable,
positive quality.
Mary is fairly beautiful.
Tom is a fairly good driver.
He was fairly interested in history.
Rather means moderately when used with unfavourable/ undesirable/negative
adjectives or adverbs, e.g.
Mary is rather stupid.
This book was rather expensive.
Tom is a rather/rather a bad swimmer.
Rather means very when used with favourable adjectives or adverbs, e.g.
Tom is rather intelligent is much more complimentary than
Tom is fairly intelligent.
This book is rather interesting.
Mary is rather beautiful.
The largest part of adjectives and adverbs are neither favourable nor unfavourable,
their meaning depending on the larger context. In such instances the use of fairly or
rather depends on the speaker or on logic, e.g. temperatures/various tastes are a good
example:
This wine is fairly sweet (I like sweet wines)
This wine is rather sweet (I like dry wines)
Rather can be used before alike, like, similar, different, dissimilar, and before
comparatives, with the meaning a little or slightly (see Thomson & Martinet, 1997:
61); rather a can be used with certain nouns that show a negative concept:
disappointment, disadvantage, nuisance, pity, shame etc.
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8.1. Prepositions
Introduction
Prepositions are words normally placed before nouns or pronouns. Prepositions can
also be followed by verbs but, except after but and except, the verb must be in the
gerund form:
She is talking of buying a new house.
They succeeded in getting away with it..
Users have two main problems with prepositions. They have to know (a) whether in any
construction a preposition is required or not, and (b) which preposition to use when one is
required.
8.1.1. Alternative position of prepositions
A. Prepositions normally precede nouns or pronouns. In two constructions, however, it
is possible, in informal English, to move the preposition to the end of the sentence;
this place of the preposition is thought to be more frequently used than the formal
structure, when the preposition is put at the beginning of the structure, e.g.
In questions beginning with a preposition + whom/which/what/ whose/where:
To whom were you listening? (formal)
Who were you listening to? (informal)
In which room does he keep the money? (formal)
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8.2. Conjunctions
Conjunctions are words expressing coordinating or subordinating relations between pairs
of nouns/adjectives/adverbs/verbs/phrases/clauses. They do not change their form and do
not have a syntactic function in the sentence but establish relations of coordination or
subordination between the clauses of a sentence.
8.2.1. Coordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions connect pairs of words of the same type, having the same
function in the sentence, or pairs of the same type of clauses within a sentence; they fall
under three main groups, e.g.
Copulative: and, as well, both and, not only but also
They play football and tennis as a pastime.
I make the payments and keep the accounts.
Both men and women were accepted to work in the company.
John was there as well as his friend, Tom;
Disjunctive: or, either or, neither nor, e.g.
You either work or leave;
I am not very sure, she lives either in San Francisco or in London;
She can neither read nor write Chinese but she speaks it fluently;
Adversative: but, e.g.
She was beautiful but very whimsical;
I bought her a new dress but she did not like it;
8.2.2. Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions connect a subordinating clause to a main clause, and they
fall under several subclasses, e.g.
General subordinating conjunctions: that; if, whether, which can introduse several types
of subordinate clauses;
Special subordinating conjunctions which introduce subordinate clauses:
of manner: (exactly) as, (just) as;
of place: where, wherever;
of time: when, since, till/until, while/as, before, after, as, as soon as, hardly when, no
sooner than, immediately, the sooner, whenever, while
of reason: as, since, because;
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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