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BMT ARGOSS
Overview of the service and validation of the database
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Reference
RP_A870
Issue
11
Date
Author(s)
Peter Groenewoud
Reviewed by
Revision history:
Issue
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Date
June 2011
April 2010
June 2009
May 2008
June 2007
May 2006
June 2005
April 2004
October 2003
April 2002
October 2001
Comment
Updated model data validation 1992-2009. Re-organised this report.
Included satellite data 2009 in the validation
Included satellite data 2008 in the validation
Included satellite data 2007 in the validation
Included satellite data 2006 in the validation
Included satellite data 2005 and model data 1992-2004 in the validation
Included satellite data 2004 in the validation
Included satellite data 2003 in the validation; model data 1998-2002
Introduced model hindcast data 1998-1999
Included satellite data 2001 in the validation
Validation of the initial version of the satellite database
More information on versions can be found online at the history page of waveclimate.com.
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Contents
1.
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
2.
3.
ERROR STATISTICS OF RAW SATELLITE DATA PER MISSION AND PER YEAR ...................................... 9
CALIBRATION OF SATELLITE DATA WITH BUOYS ........................................................................... 13
CALIBRATION COEFFICIENTS FOUND FOR SATELLITE DATA ........................................................... 15
ERROR STATISTICS OF SATELLITE DATA AFTER CALIBRATION WITH BUOYS .................................... 16
5.
4.
APPENDICES ....................................................................................................................................... 41
APPENDIX A- BUOYS USED FOR VALIDATION .............................................................................. 42
APPENDIX B- PARAMETERS USED FOR ERROR STATISTICS ..................................................... 44
APPENDIX C- GLOBAL AND REGIONAL WAVE MODELS ............................................................. 46
APPENDIX D- THE SHALLOW WATER WAVE RAY MODEL........................................................... 48
APPENDIX E- FRAME OF REFERENCE ............................................................................................ 49
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List of tables
Table 1 Wind and sea state data contained in the global data base at BMT ARGOSS. ........................ 6
Table 2 Accuracy of satellite and wave model wave height provided by the online service. ................. 7
Table 3 Accuracy of satellite and wave model wind speed provided by the online service. .................. 7
Table 4 Available statistics and corresponding data sources. ............................................................... 8
Table 5 Error statistics of raw wave height from altimeter based on all buoys. ...................................... 9
Table 6 Error statistics of raw wind speed from altimeter based on all buoys. ..................................... 10
Table 7 Error statistics of raw wind speed from scatterometer based on all buoys. ............................. 10
Table 8 Error statistics of raw wave height from Topex altimeter based on all buoys. ......................... 11
Table 9 Error statistics of raw wind speed from Topex altimeter based on all buoys. .......................... 11
Table 10 Calibration coefficients found for wave height from altimeter based on all buoys. ................ 15
Table 11 Calibration coefficients found for wind speed from altimeter based on all buoys. ................. 15
Table 12 Calibration coefficients found for wind speed from scatterometer based on all buoys. ......... 15
Table 13 Error statistics of calibrated wave height from altimeter based on all buoys. ........................ 16
Table 14 Error statistics of calibrated wind speed from altimeter based on all buoys. ......................... 16
Table 15 Error statistics of calibrated wind speed from scatterometer based on all buoys. ................. 16
Table 16 Statistics of raw wave height based on SAR/ECMWF spectra per region. ........................... 20
Table 17 Statistics of raw mean period based on SAR/ECMWF spectra per region............................ 20
Table 18 Statistics of raw zero-crossing period based on SAR/ECMWF spectra period per region. ... 21
Table 19 Statistics of raw height of long waves based on SAR/ECMWF spectra per region. .............. 21
Table 20 Altimeter-buoy error statistics for wave height per processing level ..................................... 26
Table 21 Altimeter-buoy error statistics for wind speed per processing level ...................................... 26
Table 22 Scatterometer-buoy error statistics for wind speed per processing level ............................. 29
Table 23 Relative model-buoy error per region before and after calibration with satellites ................. 30
Table 24 Bias model-buoy per region before and after calibration with satellites ............................... 30
Table 25 List of NOAA buoys used for validation. ............................................................................... 43
Table 26 BMT ARGOSS hindcast models, grid resolutions and wind data sources. ........................... 46
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List of figures
Figure 1 Global and regional hindcast models........................................................................................ 1
Figure 2 Location and average significant wave height of NOAA buoys. ............................................... 2
Figure 3 Bias and STD of error of raw wave height per year of Topex altimeter and all buoys. .......... 11
Figure 4 Bias and STD of error of raw wind speed per year of GFO altimeter and all buoys. ............. 12
Figure 5 Bias and STD of error of raw wave height per year of GFO altimeter and all buoys. ............ 13
Figure 6 Least squares fit of raw wave height for Topex altimeter and all buoys. ................................ 14
Figure 7 Bias and STD of error of raw wave height per year of GFO altimeter and all buoys. ............ 17
Figure 8 Bias and STD of error of corrected wave height per year of GFO altimeter and all buoys. ... 17
Figure 9 Least squares fit of raw wave height for Ers-1 altimeter and all buoys. ................................. 18
Figure 10 Least squares fit of corrected wave height for Ers-1 altimeter and all buoys. ...................... 18
Figure 11 Least squares fit of raw wind speed for Jason-2 altimeter and all buoys. ............................ 19
Figure 12 Least squares fit of corrected wind speed for Jason-2 altimeter and all buoys. ................... 19
Figure 13 Error in original altimeter wave height over the years .......................................................... 27
Figure 14 Error in calibrated altimeter wave height over the years ...................................................... 27
Figure 15 Prob. of exceedance of raw altimeter and buoy wave height ............................................... 28
Figure 16 Prob. of exceedance of calibrated altimeter and buoy wave height ..................................... 28
Figure 17 Prob. of exceedance of raw model and buoy wave height for Atlantic ................................. 32
Figure 18 Prob. of exceedance of altimeter-calibrated model and buoy wave height for Atlantic ........ 32
Figure 19 Prob. of exceedance of raw model and buoy wave height for NFL ...................................... 33
Figure 20 Prob. of exceedance of altimeter-calibrated model and buoy wave height for NFL ............. 33
Figure 21 Prob. of exceedance of raw model and buoy wave height for GOM .................................... 34
Figure 22 Prob. of exceedance of altimeter-calibrated model and buoy wind speed for GOM ............ 34
Figure 23 Prob. of exceedance of satellite-calibrated model and buoy wind speed for GOM .............. 35
Figure 24 Prob. of exceedance of altimeter and buoy wave height for GOM ....................................... 35
Figure 25 Prob. of exceedance of raw model and buoy wave height for PAC ..................................... 36
Figure 26 Prob. of exceedance of altimeter-calibrated model and buoy wave height for PAC ............ 36
Figure 27 Prob. of exceedance of raw model and buoy wave height for HAW .................................... 37
Figure 28 Prob. of exceedance of altimeter-calibrated model and buoy wave height for HAW ........... 37
Figure 29 Bias in global model wave height after calibration with satellites ......................................... 38
Figure 30 Bias in global model wind speed after calibration with satellites .......................................... 38
Figure 31 Bias in model wave height in the Mediterranean after calibration with satellites ................. 39
Figure 32 Bias in model wind speed in the Mediterranean after calibration with satellites .................. 39
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1.
Introduction
1.1.
1.2.
Executive summary
At BMT ARGOSS metocean consultancy products and related web services are primarily
based on hindcast data from our in-house database, currently covering the years 1992-2010.
BMT ARGOSS runs a global wave hindcast model in all major ocean basins as well as local
models in semi-closed basins such as the Mediterranean (see Figure 1 below).
Wave model data are calibrated with satellite data to remove any systematic error. The
satellite data are calibrated with buoy data. The positive effect of this calibration is
substantiated by comparing the model data to true buoy measurements before and after the
calibration with satellite data.
With reference to buoys, it is demonstrated that the quality of satellite data has increased
after each step of the processing chain: the relative error in wave height is reduced from 15%
to 11%. The resulting best satellite wave height and wind speed observations are practically
un-biased. Proof is given that, with reference to buoys, calibration with these best satellite
observations does indeed improve the quality of our wave model. The systematic error in
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model wave height is reduced by 50% or more. The final bias in model wave height relative to
buoys is at most 5cm while wind speed is off by less than 20cm/s.
Basic processing of satellite data is performed under the responsibility of the space agencies
that supply the data. Sensors are altimeter (measuring significant wave height and wind
speed), scatterometer (measuring the wind vector) and SAR Wave Mode (providing spectral
wave information such as periods and directions). Satellites include GeoSat, ERS-1/2,
Topex/Poseidon, GFO, Jason-1/2, Envisat, Quikscat and MetOp-A.
Buoy observations come from deep-water NOAA buoys around North America and Hawaii
shown below in Figure 2.
Validation and, if necessary, calibration of wind and wave data in the database is done by
BMT ARGOSS after each update of the database, usually once a year.
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1.3.
The online service provides information about the normal climate only and use of
the online data for extreme value analysis is not advised, particularly if no additional
site specific calibration is carried out. BMT ARGOSS metocean experts routinely
undertake this work in consultancy projects, and can provide advice and assistance.
Information on tropical storms is not provided in waveclimate.com. Satellite sampling
of tropical storms is sporadic and very high wind speeds and wave heights in affected
areas (e.g. Central America and the USA, the western Pacific) are unreliable. These
events are also not well represented in model hindcast data (other than dedicated
storm hindcasts). Waveclimate.com issues a warning when an area has been
selected where tropical storms occur; in such cases the user should contact BMT
ARGOSS for a more detailed analysis based on storm track data not available via the
online service.
Waveclimate.com provides model data for the global grid ( 1x5/4), the
Mediterranean, the Black Sea, the Red Sea, the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf
(1/4x1/4). High resolution EU shelf data (1/6 x 1/6) is available for use outwith the
online service. See Figure 1 or Appendix C- Global and regional wave models.
The online service uses a traditional method to distinguish wind-sea and swell
components of a sea state. The wind-sea part of the wave spectrum is represented
by a Donnellan-Pierson spectrum and thus related to the corresponding wind. For
consultancy, wave steepness is used to separate wind-sea and swell: a distinct peak
of the wave spectrum with steepness above 0.03 will be classified as wind-sea.
Normally, at most two distinct spectral peaks are taken into consideration and
classified as either swell or wind-sea; additional swell peaks can be resolved if
required, for example off West Africa.
Altimeter and scatterometer data available through the online service are calibrated
separately for each mission, resulting in relative errors of 12% for altimeter wave
height and 15% for scatterometer wind speed after calibration with buoys (Table 2
and Table 3 in section 2.3). Recently, we created an improved set of satellite data
that we use to calibrate the wave model data available online; we also use this new
set of satellite data for consultancy. This improvement involves more advanced
processing of altimeter data (section 5.1) such as spike removal and the creation of
one set of altimeter data consistent over time. Altimeter data from all missions are
calibrated with a master satellite, merged and then calibrated with buoys. The
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relative error in the resulting best altimeter wave height now reduces to 11% (Table
20 in section 5.2).
As noted above, consultancy projects provide BMT ARGOSS metocean specialists
with the opportunity to undertake more detailed analyses than are carried out for the
Waveclimate.com service. These projects are planned in consultation with the client
and may include, for example, additional calibration using site specific, in-situ
measurements, extreme value analysis and the derivation of metocean conditions
(particularly waves) in sheltered or shallow water locations.
The use of the shallow water models available through the online service also
requires a certain level of expertise, for instance the choice of the offshore boundary
for the wave ray model and pragmatic interpretation of the results.
1.4.
Calibrates integrated wave model parameters (significant wave height and wave
period as explained in section 5.1), whereas in a typical project the wave spectra are
calibrated and hence all wave parameters, including direction are adjusted.
Retrieves encoded and compressed wave spectra from binary files; one file contains
the complete time series for one grid point. Compression introduces minor loss of
accuracy.
Does not append a high-frequency tail to the wave spectrum. As a consequence,
zero-crossing wave period in waveclimate.com is up to 10% higher in wind-sea
dominated areas.
Uses 25 spectral frequencies and 12 spectral directions, whereas 30 frequency and
24 direction bins are routinely analysed in consultancy projects.
The offshore climate data represent the average climate over the selected area or at the
selected location, so they are suitable for fully exposed sites in deep water. The
nearshore climate option, preferably the wave ray model (see Appendix D- The shallow
water wave ray model), should be used wherever sheltering occurs and on shallow water.
The shallow water models are meant to be applied in coastal areas of limited size, say of
up 200 kilometres wide. Translating offshore wave conditions over greater distances
might frustrate (better) wave propagation of the global model.
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1.5.
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2.
Overview of waveclimate.com
The content of the database, data processing, data accuracy and the products offered by the
online service are explained in the next sections.
2.1.
Variable
Significant wave height
Significant wave height and wind
speed
Sensor
Radar altimeter
Radar altimeter
Scatterometer
Grid
1 x 1 degrees
all major ocean
basins
Period covered
1992-2010
x degrees
- Mediterranean
- Red Sea
- Black Sea
- Caspian Sea
- Arabian Gulf
Satellite
Geosat
ERS-1/2
Topex/Poseidon
Jason-1/2,GFO,
Envisat
ERS-1/2,
Quikscat,
Metop-A
ERS-1/2
1992-2010
Period covered
Mar 1985 - Dec 1989
Aug 1991 - Dec 2010
Table 1 Wind and sea state data contained in the global data base at BMT ARGOSS.
2.2.
Data processing
Data processing concerns quality control, correction and calibration as explained in chapter 35 in this report. In summary:
Ambiguity in scatterometer wind direction has been removed at the supplying agency
by applying constraints on the spatial characteristics of the output wind field, such as
on rotation and divergence. At BMT ARGOSS, initial quality control of altimeter
(significant wave height and wind speed) and scatterometer (wind speed and
direction) data from our suppliers involves various automated procedures such as
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2.3.
range checks, checks for error flags, detection of outliers, check for consistency
between wind speed and wave height and for consistency in space. Next, significant
wave height (altimeter) and wind speed (altimeter and scatterometer) are corrected
for bias for each mission separately using in-situ data from buoys obtained from
NOAA and Environment Canada. See chapter 3.
SAR spectra with very low signal-to-noise levels and spectral features related to
surface slicks are removed. Some information on short waves, short swells in
particular, is missing in wave spectra retrieved from SAR spectra. This information is
obtained from ECMWF global wave model spectra. In the wave climate data
products, significant wave heights and wave periods derived from SAR data are
calibrated on-the-fly using altimeter wave height observations obtained over the same
area. See chapter 4.
Calibration coefficients for the wave model are determined offline for each model
point using the improved set of altimeter and scatterometer data (based on but
different from the dataset presented by the online service- mentioned in section 1.3
and described in 5.1). Calibration coefficients for wind speed are applied offline by the
wave model to the driving winds fields. The online service applies the calibration
coefficients determined for wave height, thus removing the systematic error from
wave height and wave period generated by the wave model. The creation of the set
of satellite data used for model calibration and the effect of this calibration are
explained in chapter 5.
Data accuracy
The accuracy of significant wave height and 1-hourly wind speed (at 10m above sea level)
obtained from the data sources in the database (listed in Table 1) is summarised below in
Table 2 and Table 3. Statistics are based on comparisons against buoy data (buoys are
depicted in Figure 2 and listed in Appendix A- Buoys used for validation).
The quality of the data is summarised in terms of the (relative) root-mean-square (RMS) error
explained in Appendix B- Parameters used for error statistics.
The two tables below list averages over the specified period. Apart from SAR wave height,
the figures reported relate to calibrated wave height and wind speed: altimeter and
scatterometer data were calibrated with buoy data before being used for model calibration.
Source
Altimeter
SAR
Wave model
Period
1985-2009
1993-2003
1992-2009
#Samples
34412
1317
1166792
Error (%)
12
17
17
Table 2 Accuracy of satellite and wave model wave height provided by the online service.
Source
Altimeter
Scatterometer
Wave model
Period
1992-2009
1992-2009
1992-2009
#Samples
31651
82901
1134695
Error (%)
18
15
21
Table 3 Accuracy of satellite and wave model wind speed provided by the online service.
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2.4.
Source of data
Offshore
Nearshore
Monthly distribution
Wave height (total sea state only)
Wind speed
Hindcast/altimeter
Hindcast/altimeter
Hindcast
Hindcast
Histogram
Wave height
Wave period
Wind speed
Hindcast/altimeter
Hindcast/altimeter
Hindcast/SAR
Hindcast
Hindcast
Hindcast
Scatter diagram 2D
Wave height vs. wave direction
Wave height vs. wave period
Wave height vs. wind speed
Wind speed vs. wind direction
Hindcast/scatterometer
Hindcast/altimeter
Hindcast/SAR
Hindcast/SAR
Hindcast
Hindcast
Hindcast
Hindcast
Scatter diagram 3D
Wave height vs. wave period per wave direction sector
Wave height vs. wind speed per wind direction sector
Wave height vs. wave period per wind speed class
Hindcast
Hindcast
Hindcast
Hindcast
Hindcast
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3.
3.1.
Error statistics of raw satellite data per mission and per year
Error statistics per mission
Below, the quality of the raw significant wave height obtained by the altimeters of the various
satellites is summarised. The Topex/Poseidon and the Geosat satellites deliver the most
accurate wave height estimates. Ers-1 altimeter data is somewhat less accurate. Table 5
shows the quality of the raw wave height obtained by the altimeters of the various satellites.
Satellite
No. of
samples
Buoy
Mean [m]
STD
Error [m]
Topex
Poseidon
Geosat
Ers-1
Ers-2
Jason-1
GFO
Envisat
Jason-2
7696
524
1598
2706
7433
5421
3849
4241
944
2.30
2.27
2.31
2.35
2.07
2.05
2.17
2.06
1.95
0.26
0.32
0.29
0.37
0.36
0.31
0.26
0.27
0.31
Correlation
Coefficient
[-]
0.98
0.97
0.97
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.98
0.98
0.96
Relative
RMSE
[%]
10
12
11
22
16
14
14
12
14
Bias
[m]
0.02
0.02
-0.03
-0.46
0.16
0.08
0.23
0.07
-0.03
Table 5 Error statistics of raw wave height from altimeter based on all buoys.
Raw wind speed is most reliably estimated by Quikscat and the Ers scatterometers. Wind
speed from Geosat altimeter is much less accurate than wind speed from other sources.
Therefore, Geosat wind speed is not used by the online service Table 6 and Table 7 show the
quality of the raw wind speed obtained by the various missions.
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Satellite
No. of
samples
Buoy
Mean [m/s]
STD
Error [m/s]
Topex
Poseidon
Geosat
Ers-1
Ers-2
Jason-1
GFO
Envisat
Jason-2
7696
524
1598
2706
7433
5421
3849
4241
944
7.50
7.86
7.74
7.82
7.05
6.99
7.01
6.98
6.84
1.55
1.70
2.47
1.59
1.57
1.47
1.43
1.37
1.55
Correlation
Coefficient
[-]
0.91
0.90
0.77
0.91
0.91
0.91
0.93
0.92
0.90
Relative
RMSE
[%]
19
20
30
19
21
19
19
18
22
Bias
[m/s]
0.06
0.10
-0.69
-0.51
0.37
0.21
0.37
0.12
0.64
Table 6 Error statistics of raw wind speed from altimeter based on all buoys.
Satellite
No. of
samples
Buoy
Mean [m/s]
STD
Error [m/s]
Ers-1
Ers-2
Quikscat
9402
8778
64721
7.85
7.46
6.94
1.20
1.15
1.14
Correlation
Coefficient
[-]
0.94
0.94
0.94
Relative
RMSE
[%]
15
16
15
Bias
[m/s]
-0.54
-0.56
0.25
Table 7 Error statistics of raw wind speed from scatterometer based on all buoys.
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Figure 3 Bias and STD of error of raw wave height per year of Topex altimeter and all buoys.
From the figure above, we see that the bias in Topex raw wave height increases significantly
in 1998. This appears to be caused by a performance degradation of the chirp generator. A
switchover to the backup altimeter was successfully realised on Feb 9, 1999. Therefore, we
derived separate calibration coefficients for 1998 for wave height and wind speed from Topex.
Table 8 and Table 9 show the error statistics of Topex data for 1998 and for the years 19922005, excluding 1998.
Period
1998
1992 2005
(excl. 1998)
No. of
samples
Buoy
Mean [m]
STD
Error [m]
Relative
RMSE
[%]
14
Bias
0.32
Correlation
Coefficient
[-]
0.97
498
2.41
7198
2.29
0.25
0.98
10
0.04
[m]
0.21
Table 8 Error statistics of raw wave height from Topex altimeter based on all buoys.
Period
1998
1992 - 2005
(excl. 1998)
No. of
samples
Buoy
Mean [m/s]
STD
Error [m/s]
1.45
Correlation
Coefficient
[-]
0.91
Relative
RMSE
[%]
17
498
7.96
7198
7.46
Bias
[m/s]
0.12
1.59
0.91
19
0.05
Table 9 Error statistics of raw wind speed from Topex altimeter based on all buoys.
The quality of wind speed measured by Geosat follow-on (GFO) deteriorates as of 2007 as
shown below in Figure 4. For this reason, the online service only uses GFO wind speed from
the years 2002-2006.
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Figure 4 Bias and STD of error of raw wind speed per year of GFO altimeter and all buoys.
The next plot does show however that wave height observations from GFO are reliable for all
years.
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Figure 5 Bias and STD of error of raw wave height per year of GFO altimeter and all buoys.
3.2.
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The figure below (Figure 6) shows the fit of raw Topex wave height against buoy
measurements.
Figure 6 Least squares fit of raw wave height for Topex altimeter and all buoys.
Calibration coefficients derived from these fits, i.e. slope () and intercept (), were found per
satellite-sensor combination in order to calibrate the raw satellite data:
H icorrected H iraw
The use of non-linear curve fitting did not improve the fits significantly. Note that (the
smoothed version of) the sorted satellite versus buoy observations curve is such a non-linear
curve.
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3.3.
Period
1998
1992-2005
excl. 1998
1992-2002
1985-1989
1991-1996
1995-2009
2002-2009
2002-2008
2003-2009
2008-2009
[-]
1.07
1.06
[m]
-0.40
0.09
1.02
0.98
1.14
1.06
1.05
1.08
1.05
1.02
-0.05
0.09
0.20
0.04
0.03
0.07
-0.19
-0.00
Table 10 Calibration coefficients found for wave height from altimeter based on all buoys.
Satellite
Topex
Topex
Poseidon
Geosat
Ers-1
Ers-2
Jason-1
GFO
Envisat
Jason-2
Period
1998
1992-2005
excl. 1998
1992-2002
1985-1989
1991-1996
1995-2009
2002-2009
2002-2006
2003-2009
2008-2009
[-]
1.00
0.93
[m]
-0.15
0.51
0.95
0.94
1.03
0.90
0.93
0.87
0.95
0.88
0.34
1.11
0.27
1.03
0.66
0.61
0.22
0.23
Table 11 Calibration coefficients found for wind speed from altimeter based on all buoys.
Satellite
Ers-1
Ers-2
Quikscat
Period
1992-1996
1996-2000
2000-2009
[-]
1.07
1.06
1.00
[m/s]
0.02
0.10
-0.24
Table 12 Calibration coefficients found for wind speed from scatterometer based on all buoys.
We apply the above calibration to the raw satellite data except for Geosat winds. Winds from
Geosat are too inaccurate, so they are not used by the online service. From Table 10-Table
12, we see that calibration increases wave height by up to 14% (for Ers-1 altimeter). They
also confirm that, at least in open sea ares, scatterometer winds are more reliable than
altimeter winds.
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3.4.
No. of
samples
Buoy
Mean [m]
STD
Error [m]
Topex
Poseidon
Geosat
Ers-1
Ers-2
Jason-1
GFO
Envisat
Jason-2
7696
524
1598
2706
7433
5421
3849
4241
944
2.30
2.27
2.31
2.35
2.07
2.05
2.17
2.06
1.95
0.25
0.32
0.29
0.36
0.36
0.31
0.26
0.27
0.30
Correlation
Coefficient
[-]
0.98
0.97
0.97
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.98
0.98
0.97
Relative
RMSE
[%]
10
12
11
14
15
13
10
11
13
Bias
[m]
0.00
0.02
0.02
0.01
-0.01
-0.01
-0.01
-0.01
-0.00
Table 13 Error statistics of calibrated wave height from altimeter based on all buoys.
Satellite
No. of
samples
Buoy
Mean [m/s]
STD
Error [m/s]
Topex
Poseidon
Geosat
Ers-1
Ers-2
Jason-1
GFO
Envisat
Jason-2
7696
524
1598
2706
7433
5421
3849
4241
944
7.50
7.86
7.74
7.82
7.05
6.99
7.01
6.98
6.84
1.51
1.64
2.39
1.61
1.46
1.40
1.26
1.33
1.41
Correlation
Coefficient
[-]
0.91
0.90
0.77
0.91
0.91
0.91
0.93
0.92
0.90
Relative
RMSE
[%]
18
19
28
19
19
18
16
17
19
Bias
[m/s]
0.02
0.04
-0.00
-0.01
-0.01
-0.03
0.02
-0.01
-0.03
Table 14 Error statistics of calibrated wind speed from altimeter based on all buoys.
Satellite
No.
of
samples
Ers-1
Ers-2
Quikscat
9402
8778
57408
Buoy
Mean [m/s]
7.85
7.46
6.94
STD
Error [m/s]
1.22
1.16
1.12
Correlation
Coefficient
[-]
0.94
0.94
0.94
Relative
RMSE
[%]
14
14
15
Bias
[m/s]
-0.01
0.03
0.03
Table 15 Error statistics of calibrated wind speed from scatterometer based on all buoys.
Relative RMSE of the calibrated satellite data (listed in Table 13-Table 15) is indeed smaller
than relative RMSE of the raw satellite data (listed in Table 5-Table 7). Error in wave height
from Ers-1 altimeter (22% to 14%) and GFO altimeter (14% to 10%) reduces significantly.
Comparable error reductions are found for altimeter wind speed from GFO (19% to 16%) and
Jason-2 (22% to 19%).
As a confirmation of the correction procedure, example plots are given on the next pages to
illustrate the effect of calibration. The next two figures illustrate the removal of bias from GFO
wave height through calibration.
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Figure 7 Bias and STD of error of raw wave height per year of GFO altimeter and all buoys.
Figure 8 Bias and STD of error of corrected wave height per year of GFO altimeter and all buoys.
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The plots below show fits of Ers-1 wave height and buoy data before and after the calibration.
Figure 9 Least squares fit of raw wave height for Ers-1 altimeter and all buoys.
Figure 10 Least squares fit of corrected wave height for Ers-1 altimeter and all buoys.
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Figure 11 Least squares fit of raw wind speed for Jason-2 altimeter and all buoys.
Figure 12 Least squares fit of corrected wind speed for Jason-2 altimeter and all buoys.
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4.
SAR data
4.1.
348
1.97
0.08
0.50
22
0.89
69
2.85
0.07
0.59
19
0.91
Pacific
Hawaii
454
2.95
0.04
0.46
14
0.95
313
2.25
0.08
0.33
14
0.88
Table 16 Statistics of raw wave height based on SAR/ECMWF spectra per region.
Atlantic
N
Mean [s]
Bias [s]
StDev [s]
Rrmse [%]
Corr
348
7.20
0.14
0.99
14
0.68
69
8.61
0.26
0.90
11
0.79
Pacific
Hawaii
454
9.32
0.29
0.73
9
0.93
313
8.80
0.21
0.63
8
0.93
Table 17 Statistics of raw mean period based on SAR/ECMWF spectra per region.
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Atlantic
N
Mean [s]
Bias [s]
StDev [s]
Rrmse [%]
Corr
348
5.88
0.00
0.75
13
0.70
69
6.98
0.25
0.83
13
0.74
Pacific
Hawaii
454
7.30
0.24
0.61
9
0.92
313
6.80
0.14
0.53
8
0.92
Table 18 Statistics of raw zero-crossing period based on SAR/ECMWF spectra period per region.
Atlantic
N
Mean [m]
Bias [m]
StDev [m]
Rrmse [%]
Corr
348
0.40
0.08
0.36
71
0.64
69
1.05
0.14
0.50
41
0.85
Pacific
Hawaii
454
1.47
0.12
0.44
25
0.94
313
0.94
0.03
0.30
27
0.90
Table 19 Statistics of raw height of long waves based on SAR/ECMWF spectra per region.
The best results are obtained in the Pacific and Hawaii and the worst results in the Gulf of
Mexico. This can be explained by the fact that SAR data is especially useful for a wave
climate that includes long waves, which are lacking in the Gulf of Mexico. This is also
reflected by the results in Table 19, i.e. the mean wave height for long waves in the Gulf of
Mexico is a fraction of the mean wave heights for the other regions.
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4.2.
H icorrected H i2 si
where i counts the SAR samples, H icorrected and H i denote the corrected and total SAR wave
height respectively, is slope and is intercept. The factor s i ensures a smooth transition
near zero. It is found as
si 1 exp( H i2
To correct height of wind-sea or swell, the ratio of corrected and uncorrected total wave
height is used:
ri
H icorrected
Hi
Hswellicorrected ri Hswelli
Hseaicorrected ri Hseai
where Hswell and Hsea satisfy
Hswelli2 Hseai2 H i2 .
Calibration of all wave periods (zero-crossing and mean wave period, either corresponding to
the total spectrum, the wind-sea part or the swell part), makes use of the same ratio:
Ti corrected ri Ti
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Slope () and intercept () relate to the coefficients of the linear regression fit of SAR total
wave energy quantiles to altimeter wave energy quantiles:
2
2
H SAR
a H ALT
b
with a residual. Regression of SAR energy on altimeter energy assumes that altimeter wave
height is more accurate than SAR wave height, which is what we find in the validation against
buoys. In the regression, we minimize the sum of squares of
assume that the standard deviation of the residual is proportional to the altimeter wave height.
In the correction of total SAR wave height above,
1 / a and b / a .
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5.
5.1.
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d. Calibrate the merged altimeter data with buoy observations (co-locate within
50km and 30 minutes)
3. Calibrate scatterometer wind speed per satellite with buoys measurements (co-locate
within 50 km and 30 minutes)
4. Merge calibrated altimeter and calibrated scatterometer wind speed observations
Based on the number of measurements available, scatterometer data will be
dominant in the calibration on open sea whereas altimeter will gradually take over
towards the coast.
5. Compute model-satellite error statistics, including calibration coefficients (scale and
intercept from linear regression analysis). Model-satellite samples are co-located
within 50km. In time, model data are interpolated onto satellite observation dates.
Model wave height is calibrated with altimeter data while model wind speed is
calibrated with merged altimeter and scatterometer measurements.
6. Export calibration coefficients (scale and intercept to correct model wave height and
wind speed) per model grid point, based on best satellite data. During this step,
special attention is paid to potentially suspect points like boundaries, points with too
few co-located samples and points that provide large corrections. At boundary points,
calibration coefficients are copied from the nearest internal point. No calibration is
applied to points with too few samples. Scale and intercept are bounded at points for
which the ratio of corrected and original model mean is too small or too large.
A minimum of 100 co-located satellite samples is required for calibration of model
wave height or wind speed. For wind speed, from both scatterometer and altimeter,
there is an extra demand: the samples need to be within 15 km. This additional
demand ensures that satellite wind speed samples are centered about the center of
the spatial bin. For the same reason, calibration coefficients at boundary points are
copied from the nearest internal point.
The above steps result in sets of calibration coefficients for model wave height and wind
speed based on best satellite data.
Wind speed is calibrated before it is used by the wave model, whereas wave parameters are
calibrated afterwards. Waveclimate.com only uses calibrated model data. The calibration
coefficients for significant wave height and wind speed are computed offline and per wave
model grid point. Linear regression is performed on wave model and satellite samples
collocated in space and time. Slope and intercept are applied as follows:
H icorrected j H i j ,
where i is the sample index and j the grid point index. Calibration of height of wind-sea, height
of swell and wave periods re-uses the ratio of calibrated and un-calibrated total significant
wave height, similar to the method used for SAR (described in section 4.2 above).
Buoys are grouped into the same 5 geographical regions as used for validation of SAR
(section 4.1). In the next sections, original and calibrated satellite and model data are
compared to true measurements from buoys.
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5.2.
2.03
2.04
2.09
2.07
2.15
Bias (m)
-0.12
-0.11
-0.06
-0.08
0.00
Std (m)
0.36
0.31
0.29
0.28
0.28
Rrms (%)
15.00
13.30
11.80
11.40
11.00
Nr
94450
93024
93004
93004
93004
original
filtered
a priori
master
best
Table 20 Altimeter-buoy error statistics for wave height per processing level
Avg(m/s)
7.21
7.25
7.19
7.45
7.06
Bias (m/s)
0.17
0.20
0.15
0.41
0.02
Std (m/s)
1.62
1.60
1.56
1.55
1.43
Rrms (%)
20.90
20.60
20.00
20.60
18.30
Nr
91555
90144
87604
87604
87604
original
filtered
a priori
master
best
Table 21 Altimeter-buoy error statistics for wind speed per processing level
Each processing step improves the quality of the altimeter wave height and wind speed. For
significant wave height, the relative error reduces from 15% for original data to 11% for best
data (see Table 20). Note that the removal of spikes by median filtering significantly reduces
the variability of altimeter wave height. For both wave height and wind speed, biases are
mainly removed by a priori corrections and (of course) by buoy calibration. Altimeter wind
speed error is reduced from 21% to 18% (see Table 21).
The above process yields one set of altimeter data consistent over time. This is illustrated by
the plots below that show the error in original and calibrated altimeter wave height relative to
buoys over the years (Figure 13 and Figure 14).
Calibration of altimeter waves improves the quality over the whole range of wave heights as
illustrated by the probability of exceedance (PoE) plots below (Figure 15 and Figure 16).
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The figures below show the error in raw and best altimeter wave height over the years.
Error in wave height of alt minus buoy per class
1
0.8
Bias
STDE
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09
Classes
0.8
Bias
STDE
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09
Classes
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The next two plots focus on the effect of calibration on more extreme altimeter waves.
PoE of wave height for 1992-2009
10
buoy
alt
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
6
8
wave height [m]
10
12
14
10
buoy
alt
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
6
8
wave height [m]
10
12
14
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Scatterometer data is still calibrated with buoys per mission (unlike the altimeters, there is
hardly any overlap in time between the various missions). The reduction of the relative error in
wind speed (see Table 22) is less spectacular than for altimeter: 15.6% for original
scatterometer winds and 15.2% error for the buoy-calibrated winds. Apparently, original
scatterometer winds match buoy winds quite well already (at least much better than altimeter
winds with errors around 21%).
Avg(m/s)
7.12
7.12
Bias (m/s)
0.13
0.05
Std (m/s)
1.20
1.17
Rrms (%)
15.60
15.20
Nr
158800
158800
original
best
Table 22 Scatterometer-buoy error statistics for wind speed per processing level
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5.3.
Rel. error
Wave height
Wind speed
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
GOM
21.6
21.2
22.0
22.4
ATL
22.5
20.6
24.1
23.3
NFL
20.7
20.9
25.7
24.6
PAC
16.6
16.0
19.7
18.9
HAW
15.2
14.1
17.4
17.3
averaged
18.4
17.4
21.3
20.7
raw
best
raw
best
Table 23 Relative model-buoy error per region before and after calibration with satellites
From Table 23 it becomes clear that, on average and for most regions, satellite calibration
reduces the model-buoy error in wave height and wind speed. Significant improvements are
found for waves at buoys in the Atlantic and around Hawaii (more than the average 1% error
reduction). This improvement in relative error is mainly caused by reduction of the biases
(variation does not change much), shown in the table below (Table 24).
Bias
Wave height
(m)
(m)
GOM
-0.06
ATL
Wind speed
(m/s)
(m/s)
0.04
0.00
-0.08
-0.19
-0.05
0.55
0.18
NFL
-0.13
0.00
0.71
0.04
PAC
-0.03
-0.02
0.36
-0.06
HAW
0.05
0.00
-0.09
-0.12
averaged
-0.07
-0.01
0.27
-0.01
raw
best
raw
best
Table 24 Bias model-buoy per region before and after calibration with satellites
The above table (Table 24) shows that the systematic bias in model wave height is reduced
for all regions with about 50% or more. Bias in wind speed is strongly reduced in most areas.
The final bias in model wave height relative to buoys is 5cm or less while wind speed is
biased by less than 20cm/s.
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The plots on the next pages (Figure 17-Figure 28) illustrate the results printed in Table 24.
The positive effect of model calibration with satellites is most apparent at buoy locations in the
Atlantic (Figure 17 and Figure 18) and offshore New Foundland (Figure 19 and Figure 20).
In the Gulf of Mexico (Figure 21 and Figure 22), hurricanes seem to be a problem. Extreme
model waves, say higher than 10m, are too high and this is also true for wind speed above 20
m/s (Figure 23). Calibration of model wave height with altimeter cannot change this because
there are no buoy-altimeter co-locations above 10m (Figure 24). Note that model waves
below 5m, corresponding to about 99.8% of the samples, do improve thanks to calibration
with altimeter (compare Figure 21 and Figure 22).
In the Pacific (Figure 25 and Figure 26) calibration with altimeter does not change much. At
the buoys near Hawaii (Figure 27 and Figure 28), model calibration improves the lower swell
(swell below 4m representing roughly 98% of the data), which is too high, at the expense of
the higher swell.
The exceedance plots below (Figure 17-Figure 28) confirm that calibration with satellites
improves normal model waves in all regions. In general calibration with satellites improves
(Atlantic, New Foundland) or does not affect (Gulf of Mexico and Pacific) model extremes. But
there are exceptions (Hawaii).
Again it must be emphasized that the online service focuses on the normal wave and wind
climate and that extreme value analysis demands additional expertise as stated earlier in
section 1.3.
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The graphs of probability of exceedance (PoE) below clearly show the improvement of model
wave height due to calibration with altimeter according to the buoys in the Atlantic.
PoE of wave height for 1992-2009
10
atl
model
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
10
6
8
wave height [m]
10
12
14
Figure 17 Prob. of exceedance of raw model and buoy wave height for Atlantic
10
atl
model
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
10
10
15
Figure 18 Prob. of exceedance of altimeter-calibrated model and buoy wave height for Atlantic
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The figures below show the positive effect of calibration of model wave height with altimeter
according to the buoys offshore New Foundland.
PoE of wave height for 1992-2009
10
nfl
model
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
10
wave height [m]
15
20
Figure 19 Prob. of exceedance of raw model and buoy wave height for NFL
PoE of wave height for 1992-2009
10
nfl
model
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
10
wave height [m]
15
20
Figure 20 Prob. of exceedance of altimeter-calibrated model and buoy wave height for NFL
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The next plots show the effect of model calibration of model with altimeter according to the
buoys in the Gulf of Mexico. Waves below 5m improve. Waves above 10m remain too high.
PoE of wave height for 1992-2009
10
gom
model
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
10
10
wave height [m]
15
20
Figure 21 Prob. of exceedance of raw model and buoy wave height for GOM
10
gom
model
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
10
10
wave height [m]
15
20
Figure 22 Prob. of exceedance of altimeter-calibrated model and buoy wind speed for GOM
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Extreme model winds (>20m/s) are also too high in the Gulf of Mexico (Figure 23). Co-located
altimeter-buoy wave heights do not cover the model extremes above 10m (Figure 24).
PoE of wind speed for 1992-2009
10
gom
model
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
10
10
20
30
wind speed [m/s]
40
50
Figure 23 Prob. of exceedance of satellite-calibrated model and buoy wind speed for GOM
10
gom
alt
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
6
8
wave height [m]
10
12
Figure 24 Prob. of exceedance of altimeter and buoy wave height for GOM
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The next two pictures show the (negligible) effect of calibration of model wave height with
altimeter according to the buoys in the Pacific.
PoE of wave height for 1992-2009
10
pac
model
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
10
6
8
10
wave height [m]
12
14
16
Figure 25 Prob. of exceedance of raw model and buoy wave height for PAC
10
pac
model
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
10
6
8
10
wave height [m]
12
14
16
Figure 26 Prob. of exceedance of altimeter-calibrated model and buoy wave height for PAC
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The plots below show the effect of calibration of model wave height with altimeter according
to the buoys near Hawaii. Lower swell improves at the cost of higher swell.
PoE of wave height for 1992-2009
10
haw
model
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
10
4
6
wave height [m]
10
Figure 27 Prob. of exceedance of raw model and buoy wave height for HAW
10
haw
model
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
10
4
6
wave height [m]
10
Figure 28 Prob. of exceedance of altimeter-calibrated model and buoy wave height for HAW
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5.4.
Figure 29 Bias in global model wave height after calibration with satellites
Figure 30 Bias in global model wind speed after calibration with satellites
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Figure 31 Bias in model wave height in the Mediterranean after calibration with satellites
Figure 32 Bias in model wind speed in the Mediterranean after calibration with satellites
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The figures above show that, except for the polar region where ice causes problems (e.g. lack
of samples), calibration with satellites reduces the systematic model error equally in all of the
worlds oceans and seas (Figure 29 and Figure 30), including the semi-closed basins (Figure
31 and Figure 32), to less than about 5 cm for wave height and to less than 25 cm/s for wind
speed. This means that there isnt any significant variation in satellite performance and so we
may assume that the calibration of the model with satellites in regions with buoys (around
Northern America) is also applicable to any other (non-polar) region on the globe, including
the semi-closed basins.
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Appendices
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The northern Atlantic east of Northern America (ATL, buoy numbers start with 41 or 440)
The region around Hawaii (HAW, buoy numbers start with 51)
The buoys report hourly wind speed, significant wave height, zero-crossing wave period and
mean wave period. Some buoys provide spectral information.
The table below lists each buoys position, region, observation period and the number of
observations available.
Buoy
41001
Nobs
149032
Lat
34.68
Lon
-72.64
Region
ATL
Begin
01jan85
End
08jun08
41002
150946
32.27
-75.19
ATL
27feb85
30nov08
41006
99259
29.30
-77.40
ATL
26may82
21apr96
41010
250045
28.90
-78.53
ATL
10nov88
31dec09
42001
196010
25.93
-89.65
GOM
01jan85
31dec09
42002
193012
25.89
-93.57
GOM
01jan85
31dec09
42003
181573
25.94
-85.91
GOM
01jan85
31dec09
42039
64900
28.80
-86.06
GOM
01jan02
31dec09
42040
62004
29.21
-88.20
GOM
01jan02
05oct09
42041
23485
27.50
-90.46
GOM
08may02
16mar05
44004
158983
38.46
-70.69
ATL
01jan85
08mar08
44005
162817
42.90
-68.94
ATL
01jan85
31dec09
44008
63575
40.50
-69.43
ATL
01jan01
06dec09
44011
59007
41.08
-66.58
ATL
01jan01
22sep09
44137
36354
41.30
-61.40
NFL
30nov88
15oct97
44139
33325
44.30
-57.40
NFL
02dec88
21nov97
44140
25371
42.70
-50.60
NFL
05sep90
19nov96
44141
42892
42.10
-56.10
NFL
05sep90
08dec97
46001
179334
56.29
-148.18
PAC
01jan85
31dec09
46002
156312
42.53
-130.26
PAC
25jan85
28jul09
46003
100426
51.85
-155.92
PAC
01jan85
11aug99
46004
52622
50.90
-135.90
PAC
04aug88
31dec97
46005
158951
46.08
-131.00
PAC
01jan85
18dec08
46006
139094
40.84
-137.49
PAC
01jan85
21nov08
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46035
167028
56.91
-177.81
PAC
13sep85
31dec09
46036
69879
48.30
-133.90
PAC
22sep87
31dec97
46047
66517
32.43
-119.53
PAC
01jan02
31dec09
46059
111158
37.98
-130.00
PAC
19oct94
09jan09
46066
46695
52.70
-155.00
PAC
01jan02
31dec09
46184
61634
54.00
-138.80
PAC
20sep87
31dec97
51001
180005
23.40
-162.30
HAW
01jan85
24dec09
51002
180215
17.20
-157.80
HAW
01jan85
31dec09
51003
179918
19.10
-160.80
HAW
01jan85
31dec09
51004
173696
17.40
-152.50
HAW
13feb85
07oct09
51026
30383
21.40
-157.00
HAW
16jan93
23nov96
51028
62081
0.00
-153.90
HAW
29oct97
14apr08
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ei H isatellite H ibuoy
with H isatellite the wave height of sample no. i retrieved from satellite data, and Hibuoy the
coincident buoy measurement of the wave height. Coincident means that the retrieved
satellite observation is located within 50 km around the buoy and that the observations do not
differ more than 30 minutes in time. Bias, standard deviation of the error and correlation
coefficient are defined as
bias e n 1
i 1,..,n
stde (n 1) 1
(e
i 1,..,n
correlatio n
SB
S B
B buoy (n 1) 1
where
S , B , SB
e )2
(H
i 1,..,n
buoy
i
buoy 2
H mean
)
the buoy and the co-variance of the satellite and the buoy respectively.
Apart from bias, standard deviation of the error and correlation coefficient, the quality of the
data can be expressed in terms of the relative root-mean-square error (RRMSE). The rootmean-square error of say, significant wave height, is
RMSE n 1
satellite
i
H ibuoy
i 1,..,n
It is similar to the standard deviation, but also includes the bias error.
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The relative error is the root-mean-square error normalised by the root-mean-square value of
the buoy wave height:
RRMSE
H isatellite H ibuoy
i 1,..,n
buoy
i
i 1,..,n
The overall quality of satellite/model data can be conveniently expressed by this one
measure: the relative root-mean-square error (%) which incorporates both bias (offset) and
standard deviation (variability) of the differences between two data sources.
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Model
Resolution
Corner NW
Corner SE
Wind
Global
0115' x 0100'
7800'N , 18000W
7800'S, 17845'E
NCEP
EU Shelf
0010' x 0010'
6600'N , 01500'W
4000'N, 03100'E
ECMWF
Mediterranean
0025' x 0025'
4530'N, 00515'E
3030'N, 03545'E
ECMWF
Black Sea
0025' x 0025'
4700'N, 02745'E
ECMWF
Caspian Sea
0025' x 0025'
4500'N, 04315'N
3645'N, 05345'E
ECMWF
Red Sea
0025' x 0025'
2800'N, 03345'E
1300'N, 04315'E
ECMWF
Persian Gulf
0025' x 0025'
3000'N, 04815'E
2415'N, 05645'E
ECMWF
Table 26 BMT ARGOSS hindcast models, grid resolutions and wind data sources.
The wave model is a 3rd generation wave prediction model, based on the WAVEWATCH III
code. A 3rd generation wave model involves representation of the spectrum on a discrete
frequency-direction grid, and explicit computation of non-linear wave-wave interaction to redistribute energy.
WAVEWATCH III (Tolman, 2002) is a third generation wave model developed at
NOAA/NCEP. It differs from earlier models in many important points such as the governing
equations, the model structure, the numerical methods and the physical parameterisations.
The model solves the spectral action density balance equation for wavenumber-direction
spectra. The implicit assumption of this equation is that properties of medium (water depth
and current) as well as the wave field itself vary on time and space scales that are much
larger than the variation scales of a single wave. Also, the modeling of physical processes
does not address conditions where the waves are strongly depth-limited. These two basic
assumptions imply that the model can generally by applied on spatial scales (grid increments)
larger than 1 to 10 km, and outside the surf zone.
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Physical features
The governing equations include refraction and straining of the wave field due to temporal
and spatial variations of the mean water depth and of the mean current (tides, surges
etc.), when applicable.
Parameterizations of physical processes (source terms) include wave growth and decay
due to the actions of wind, nonlinear resonant interactions, dissipation (`white capping')
and bottom friction.
Numerical features
The model is written in ANSI standard FORTRAN 90, fully modular and fully allocatable.
The model uses a regularly spaced longitude-latitude grid (longitude and latitude
increment do not need to be equal) and, optionally, a Cartesian grid.
Wave energy spectra are discretized using a constant directional increment (covering all
directions), and a spatially varying wavenumber grid that corresponds to an invariant
logarithmic intrinsic frequency grid.
Both a first order accurate and third order accurate numerical scheme is available to
describe wave propagation.
The source terms are integrated in time using a dynamically adjusted time stepping
algorithm, to concentrate computational efforts in conditions with rapid spectral changes.
The model can optionally be compiled to include shared memory parallelisms and a
distributed memory environment.
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Wave breaking due to the limited water depth or steepness of waves in deep water
The first step in the wave transformation is to calculate the wave trajectories which end in the
near shore location of interest. A wave ray is the trajectory in space followed by a wave
packet with a particular frequency and initial propagation direction. It is determined by the
spatial variation of depth and current. The present model only accounts for the effect of depth
variation; the effect of current variation is ignored. A wave ray bends (wave refraction)
where there is a gradient in depth perpendicular to the wave direction, which causes a
gradient in propagation speed along a wave crest.
Starting from the near shore location, ray back-tracing is used to compute the wave rays for a
discrete set of frequencies and near shore propagation directions. The frequencies are the
same as those of the wave hindcast model providing the offshore wave conditions, and the
wave directions are on a regular grid of 5 degree spacing or finer. An Ordinary Differential
Equation solver is used to solve the coupled equations for position and propagation direction
backwards, while deriving the wave number magnitude from the local depth. The depth is
determined from a realistic digital bathymetry of the region of interest of sufficient resolution,
based on nautical Charts. The ray curvature is limited by an uncertainty principle to prevent
unrealistic wiggles. The solver adapts its step length to guarantee sufficient accuracy.
When the wave rays are computed, the near shore spectra are calculated from the offshore
spectra multiplied by weights determined from the Action Balance over the ray, and reduced
to satisfy the breaking criteria when necessary. For paths traced back to the shore, weights
are set to zero and fetch-limited growth is estimated from the local wind to account for waves
from these directions. Fetch-limited growth is computed using a growth curve and a DonelanPierson spectral shape. Finally the propagated and fetch-limited spectra are combined.
Offshore wave spectra from several different grid points of the hindcast model along an
offshore boundary chosen by the operator are used as offshore boundary conditions.
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Wave height H
Crest-to-trough wave height of an individual wave (between two consecutive
up-crossings of the still water level).
Zero-crossing period T
Time elapsed between two consecutive up-crossings of the still water level.
Spectral moment mp
p
For any integer p, mp is the integral over frequency f of f multiplied by the
wave spectrum, with f frequency in cycles per unit time. Remark: m0 is the
total variance of sea surface elevation.
Wave length
The horizontal distance between two consecutive up-crossings of the still
water level in the direction of wave propagation.
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Gravitational acceleration g
2
On Earth, taken equal to 9.81 m/s
Wind and wave directions are defined as coming from relative to true north positive
clockwise.
Units are expressed using the SI convention if not stated otherwise:
- length or distance (wave height, surface elevation, water depth) in
metres,
- time (wave periods) in seconds,
- speed in metres per second,
- direction in degrees clockwise from North.
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