CONTROL THEORY

CONTROL LOOPS:
Closed Loop Control System:
An open loop system has no feedback and controller action is not related to final result.
Consider a domestic central heating system as an example, in which fuel supply is varied
manually or automatically by external ambient temperature. Room temperature will be
maintained at a reasonable value related to outside conditions. However room temperature does
not control fuel supply so that this is open loop. The word loop is really a misnomer.
Now to the open loop shown, add a human operator, so closing the loop (dotted lines on
sketch). This is a manually controlled closed loop system.

The automatically controlled closed loop system is actuated by a signal dependent upon
deviation (error) between input (set) and output values. Deviation only exists when monitored
output (negative feedback) differs from input and this signal controls power supplied to output.
For a closed loop system, as sketched, output power is only controlled by, and not supplied by,
the actuating signal. Closed loops have a self regulating property.

Closed Loop Control System

Is one in which the control action is dependent upon the output. The system may be manually or
automatically controlled. Fig. 11.15 shows the basic elements in a closed loop control system.
The measured value of the output is being fed back to the controller which compares this value
with the desired value for the controlled condition and produces an output to alter the controlled
condition if there is any deviation between the values. Measured values; actual value of the
controlled condition symbol teta.
Desired Value; the value of the controlled condition that the operator desires to obtain.
Examples,2 rev/s, 25 degree, 55 bars, etc.
Set Value; is the value of the controlled condition to which the controller is set-this should
normally be the desired value and for simplicity no distinction will be made between them.
Deviation (or error); is the difference between measured and desired values (symbol 6). Hence 0
= 6,-0*. This signal probably converted into some suitable form such as voltage to hydraulic
output or voltage to pneumatic output, etc., would be used to instigate corrective action-object
to reduce the error to zero.
Offset; is sustained deviation.
Feedback is the property of a closed loop control system which permit the output to be
compared with the input to the system.
Feedback will increase accuracy and reduce sensitivity.

Control Actions:
Three basic action will be described:(i) proportional (ii) integral (iii)derivative.

PRESSURE GAUGES
Fluid HeadManometers
The height of a column of liquid, or the difference between the heights of two liquid columns, is
used to measure pressure head in devices called U-tube manometers (see Figure 2). If a fluid is
installed in an open U-shaped tube, the fluid level in each side will be the same. When pressure
is applied to one side, that level will go down and the level on the other side will rise until the
difference between the heights is equal to the pressure head. The height difference is
proportional to the pressure and to the density of the fluid. The U-tube manometer is a primary
standard for pressure measurement.

.
Figure 2. The U-tube manometer is a primary standard for pressure measurement. The pressure being
measured is balanced by the height of a column of liquid (A); if pressure is applied to one leg, that level will go down and the level on the other leg will rise (B).

Although many manometers are simply a piece of glass tubing formed into a U shape with a
reference scale for measuring heights, there are many variations in terms of size, shape, and
material (see Figure

Figure 3. U-tube manometers can

take many configurations, but
whatever the size or shape of the
two legs, the difference in liquid
column heights will always be a true
indication of the pressure difference.

3). If the le side is connected to the measurement point, and the right is le open to
atmosphere, the manometer will indicate gauge pressure, positive or negative (vacuum).
Differential pressure can be measured by connecting each of the legs to one of the
measurement points. Absolute pressure can be measured by evacuating the reference side. A
mercury barometer is such an absolute pressure measuring manometer indicating
atmospheric pressure.
In some versions, the two legs of the U are of different diameters. Some types incorporate a
large-diameter well on one side. In others, one tube is inclined in order to provide better
resolution of the reading. But they all operate on the same principle. Because of the many
constraints on geometry of installation and observation, and their limited range,
manometers are not practical or effective for most pressure measurements.
Well type manometer
Well Manometer is a direct-reading, single- tube type pressure gauge, which provides the
long-term reliability and high precision for accurate pressure measurement

Figure 7. In a well-type
manometer, the cross-sectional area of one leg (the well) is much larger than the
other leg. When pressure is applied to the well, the fluid lowers only slightly
compared to the fluid rise in the other leg.
Carrying this variation in tube sizes further is the well-type (or reservoir) manometer (see
Figure 7). As pressure is applied to the well, the level falls slightly as compared to the level
rise in the column. By compensating the columns scale graduations to correct for the well
drop, it is possible to make a direct reading of differential pressure. There are connection
guidelines placed on well-type manometers, compared to the U-tube style:

Connect pressures higher than atmospheric to the well; connect pressures lower than

atmospheric to the tube.

For differential measurements, connect the higher pressure to the well.
For raised-well manometers, the well connection can be used for gauge and vacuum
measurements.

A variation of the well-type manometer is the inclined-tube (or draft gauge) manometer in
Figure 8. With an inclined indicating tube, 1 in. of a vertical rise is stretched over several
inches of scale length. The inclined-tube manometer has better sensitivity and resolution for
low pressures.

Figure 8. Low pressure and low differentials

are better handled with an inclined-tube
manometer, where 1 in. of vertical liquid
height can be stretched to 12 in. of scale
length.
BURDON TUBE:
Pressure Gauge (Bourdon)
The sensor element is the relay tube which is semi-elliptical in cross section. When this
tube is subject to increased pressure it tends to unwind (straighten out) and this motion is
transmitted to the gauge pointer via the linkage, quadrant and gear. If pressure is reduced
the tube tends to wind (curl) up. This gauge is therefore suitable for measuring pressures
above or below atmospheric. A diagrammatic sketch is shown in Fig. 11.5. The tube is
generally made of phosphor bronze or stainless steel, as are other components except the
case, which is usually brass or plastic material. The Bourdon senior is often used as a
transducer device in pneumatic control.

The Dead Weight Tester

The Dead Weight Tester is generally regarded as the most accurate
method in calibration of pressure instruments, and is either used as a
primary or secondary pressure standard.
Application: Calibration of industrial Dead Weight Testers, Pressure
Gauges, Transmitters, Transducers, Transfer standards, Recorders, etc;
direct, high accuracy measurement of pressure in system and process.
Operating Principle: When fluid Pressure generated by a screw pump
acts on the bottom of a vertically free floating piston the force produced
pushes the load free piston vertically upwards. The piston floats freely in
its cylinder and the pressure in the circuit will be determined by the
weights loaded on the piston divided by the effective area of the piston
with corrections for value of acceleration due to gravity, air buoyancy,
surface tension and datum level difference.

PDH-series piston dead weight tester is a hydraulic pressure instrument that generate
pressure standard up to 600 bar for calibration of pressure instruments. The PDHseries piston testers have rugged construction and guarantee a long-term operation of
stable and reliable pressure output.

Rotor Wet Type Water Meter

The fluid flows though the meter, passing a fixed worm which imparts a spiral flow
which, in turn, spins the rotor on a virtually friction free bearing. The rotor blades reflect
an infrared beam which generates a high resolution digital output signal. The rotor is
the only moving part and, due to its light weight and the helical pattern of the fluid flow,
it has a minimal response time. DFS turbine flow meters can be mounted in any
position and do not require flow strengtheners or other specialized installations. Hosebarb, threaded, and other connections are available.

Positive Displacement Flow Meters

BiRotor Series

Materials of Construction:
Meter Housing : Aluminum, Steel
Meter Internals: Aluminum, Cast Iron

Seal Materials: Buna, Viton, Teflon

Bearing Material: Stainless Steel
Magnetic Flow Sensors
Magnetic flow meters operate based upon Faraday's Law of electromagnetic induction,
which states that a voltage will be induced in a conductor moving through a magnetic
field.

Faraday's Law: E=kBDV

The magnitude of the induced voltage E is directly proportional to the velocity of the
conductor V, conductor width D, and the strength of the magnetic field B. As shown in
Figure 2.21, magnetic field coils are placed on opposite sides a pipe to generate a
magnetic field. As the conductive process liquid moves through the field with average
velocity V, electrodes sense the induced voltage. The distance between electrodes
represents the width of the conductor. An insulating liner prevents the signal from
shorting to the pipe wall. The only variable in this application of Faraday's law is the
velocity of the conductive liquid V because field strength is controlled constant and
electrode spacing is fixed. Therefore, the output voltage E is directly proportional to
liquid velocity, resulting in the linear output of a magnetic flow meter.

Magnetic flow meters are used to measure the flow rate of conducting liquids (including
water) where a high quality low maintenance measurement system is desired. The cost
of magnetic flow meters is high relative to many other meter types. Typical
performance is 30:1 turndown at 0.5% accuracy.
INFERENTIAL FLOMETERS:
Turbine flowmeters, like windmills, utilize their angular velocity (rotation
speed) to indicate the flow velocity. A good turbine flowmeter requires well
designed and placed aerodynamic/hydrodynamic blades that are suitable
for the fluid and flow condition and bearings that are both smooth and
durable to survive the sustained high-speed rotation of the turbine.

VARIABLE AREA FLOWMETER

Tapered Flow Tube.

The meter comprises a vertically tapered tube through which the fluid to be measured
is passed, from the smaller end up to the larger. As the fluid flows through the tube, it
forces an indicator (float) upward. The clearance space (area) between the float and
tube increases as the float approaches the top of the meter. This increasing area
requires a larger amount of fluid to force the float higher. By varying the taper of the
tube, the mass of the float, and the length of the tube, different flow ranges can be
calibrated.
The variable area flow meter must be plumbed into a piping system the right way: that
is, with the narrow part of the taper at the bottom. Usually printed on, or next to, the
tube are the flow increments (scale). The flow rate can be read by matching the
increments on the tube with the edge of the float.

THERMOMETERS:
Mechanical thermometry includes liquid in glass, filled system and bi-metallic types.
Mercury can be used within liquid in glass thermometers from -38C to 366C; if pressurized
and contained in specially resistant glass the temperature range can be increased up to 600 C.
Alcohol can be used for low temperature measurement (-80C to 70C) and pentane can be used
down to - 190C.
Filled system thermometers utilize a bulb sensor, connecting capillary and bourdon tube
measure element. The system is filled with a liquid (such as mercury), or a vapor (such as
Freon), or a gas (such as helium), under pressure.

Bi-metallic Thermometer
The principle of operation of this type is that of differential expansion of two different materials
rigidly joined together, one on the other. Fig. 11.1 illustrates a typical design employed between
-40C and 320C. The helix coils or uncoils with temperature variation and as one end is fixed
the movement rotates shaft and pointer. Invar (36% Ni, 64% Fe) has a low coefficient of
expansion and when welded to a Ni-Mo alloy gives a good bi-metallic strip.

Electrical thermometry includes resistance thermometers and thermocouples.

Thermocouple
Whenever the junctions formed of two dissimilar homogeneous materials are exposed to a
temperature difference, an emf will be generated which is dependent on that temperature, the
temperature level and the materials involved. This causes a current to flow in the circuit (See
beck effect) and the two materials, usually metals, form the thermocouple. Fig. 11.3 (top
sketch) shows a thermocouple consisting of two wires, one iron and one constantan, with a mill
voltmeter coupled to the iron wire. If the junction A is heated to a higher temperature than
junction B current will flow since the emf at one junction will be greater than the opposing emf
at the other junction. The mill voltmeter will have calibrations directly in temperature values. A
third wire can be introduced (middle sketch), where AB and AC form the couple wires. A will
be the hot junction and B with C will form the cold junction. Providing the junctions B and C
are maintained at the same temperature, the introduction of the third wire BC will not affect the
emf generated. A copper ( + ) constantan (-) couple is used up to 35OC (constantan 40% Ni
60% Cu). An iron-constantan couple is used up to 85OC and a chromel (90% Ni 10% Cr)
alumel (94% Ni 2% Al) couple up to l,200C. Platinumplatinum plus 10% rhodium couples
have been used to l,400C.

Liquid-in-glass thermometer: glass tube filled with liquid (often mercury or alcohol) that
expands/contracts with air temperature
maximum thermometer: usually are liquid-in-glass thermometers that record maximum
observed temperature
minimum thermometer: usually are liquid-in-glass thermometers (use alcohol) that record
minimum observed temperatures
Electrical resistance thermometers - measure temperature by measuring resistance in a wire
radiometer - measures radiation emitted by an object

Mercury in Steel Thermometers Rigid Stem.

Mercury in steel, 100mm and 150mm dial thermometers for direct reading. Standard
finish black case and bright bezel. Rigid stem models are bottom entry (vertical) or
centre back entry (horizontal). The thermometers listed are to suit 63mm & 100mm
immersion pocket lengths 1/2" BSP.