Local Motors Wing Design PDF

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Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide

iTABLE
OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO UNMANNED AIRCRAFT
PARTS OF AN AIRCRAFT
10
INTRODUCTION TO AERODYNAMICS
21
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
35
AIRCRAFT STABILITY AND CONTROL
41
CONCEPTS OF DESIGN
57
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INTRODUCTION TO UNMANNED AIRCRAFT
This guide will provide brief descriptions and details of the major
components and subsystems of a UAS.
This Design Guide is intended to familiarize the non-aviation community

with some of terminology and design philosophy used to create unmanned
aircraft systems.
This guide is only to be used as a reference material, and is not intended to

satisfy any Civil Aviation Authorities requirements for training a UAS pilot.
Remember to follow your local national requirements before you attempt to
fly any unmanned aircraft.
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Aircraft
Unmanned Aircraft (UA), although ranging in size and appearance, ultimately

share common goals and design. Take a hand-launched MicroUAS and
compare it to a larger aircraft, and it will be obvious that they are designed
for the same purposes.
Desirable characteristics of a UA are:
Stability
Maximize payload capability
Endurance
Ruggedness
Maintainability
For the most part, UA are of composite construction. This means that
multiple types of materials are used. For example, the fuselage may be
carbon fiber reinforced plywood and the wings may be cut from foam and
overlaid with carbon fiber. Ultimately the design will attempt to use
materials that will provide the strongest properties while remaining light
enough to maximize the payload capability.
Within the larger sized UA, the configuration of the space available to carry
the payload is important. Increasingly, over the last several years, more
diverse collections systems have been incorporated onto UA. The ability to
easily reconfigure the payload space to accommodate these various form
factors is desirable.
Compared to the UAS as a whole, the UA has the greatest concentration of

subsystems, all of which have to be designed to occupy the least amount of
space possible and weigh the least possible.
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Autopilot
The autopilot is essentially the brain of the UA. After reception of the uplink
commands through the antenna and receiver, the control computer in the autopilot
processes and distributes the commands to the respective components aboard the
UA. For redundancy purposes, the autopilot may incorporate several computers that
may process independent information such as flight control and mission control. It
may also assume control of the aircraft and execute a pre-programmed series of
maneuvers if communication with the ground station is lost.
Electrical System
The electrical system may consist of batteries, some form of engine driven generator,
relays, and switches. The electrical system may be divided into segments known as
busses, which power essential and nonessential equipment. In the event of an engine
failure, resulting in a loss of power generation, the autopilot may incorporate logic to
switch off the non-essential busses, thus reducing the load on the emergency or backup batteries. An example of non-essential equipment may be the payload. Essential
components would be the flight control servos. In addition, the electrical system may
be designed to provide redundancy to critical components in the event of damage or
failures.
Flight Sensors
The flight sensors consist of the instruments that measure UA attitude, altitude, speed
and heading. Many UA incorporate solid state circuits and accelerometers referenced
to GPS position to measure these values.
Propulsion System
The propulsion system consists of the propeller, engine and all associated
components.
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Payload
The payload may consist of one large item or several smaller items
transported by the UA.
When designing the UA, consideration must be given to:
Location on the aircraft. The aircraft must be able to be safely and

efficiently operated throughout the full range of possible payload weights.
This will mean the design must take into consideration the change in aircraft
weight when the payload is transported and when it is offloaded.
Stability of the payload. Payloads and the containers that hold them
must ensure that the loads do not shift during flight. This can cause loss of
aircraft if the autopilot cannot compensate quickly enough.
Loading and unloading procedures. Payloads must be added to and
removed to aircraft with relative ease and minimal risk of damage (both to
cargo and the aircraft).
For this challenge, the payload focus is on cargo.
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Data Link System
The Data link system of a UAS can generally be described as the collection of
equipment, both ground based and airborne, that provide the path, through the use
of Radio Frequency (RF), to send commands to the UA (uplink) and receive reports and
status from the UA (downlink). The subsystems of the data link can be found in the
Ground Control Station (GCS), on the UA and as stand-alone equipment, such as the
antenna.
UAS data link is usually discussed in terms of uplink and downlink. The forward (up)
link controls the activities of the platform itself and the payload hardware. This
command and control link requires a sufficient degree of security to ensure that only
authorized agents have access to the control mechanisms of the platform. The return
(down) link transmits critical data from the platform payload to the warfighter or
analyst on the ground or in the air. System health and status information must also be
delivered to the ground control station or UAV operator without compromise.
Data link systems are designed as either line of sight (LOS) or beyond line of sight
(BLOS).
LOS - As implied, LOS data links are limited primarily by the curvature of the
earth, but also by local obstructions. Transmitter output power and antenna
sensitivity also contribute to the limitations of LOS systems. Most UAS that
are <25kg/55lbs primarily use LOS data links.
BLOS - BLOS data link systems overcome the limitations of LOS data links
through the use of satellites. The satellite acts as a repeater, receiving the
transmitted signal and sending it back to the receiver on Earth.
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Spectrum Usage
Radio frequency is a term that refers to alternating current (AC) having

characteristics such that, if the current is input to an antenna, an electromagnetic
(EM) field is generated suitable for wireless broadcasting and/or
communications. These frequencies cover a significant portion of the
electromagnetic radiation spectrum, extending from kilohertz (kHz) the lowest
allocated wireless communications frequency (it's within the range of human
hearing), to thousands of gigahertz(GHz).
With respect to RF, there are two basic forms used in UAS data links: analog and
digital.
Analog - Analog is the process of taking an audio, RF or video signal and

translating it into electronic pulses or waves.
Digital - Digital is the process of breaking the signal into a binary format
where the audio, RF or video data is represented by a series of "1"s and
"0"s. The nature of digital technology allows it to compress many 1s and
0s together into the same space, thus requiring less bandwidth (space)
for an equal amount of data as an analog signal. Digital signals are more
tolerant to noise (interference), but digital signals can be completely
corrupted in the presence of excess noise. In digital signals, noise could
cause a 1 to be interpreted as a 0 and vice versa, which makes the
received data different than the original data.
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Ground Control Station
All UAS incorporate some form of control station, from which the flight of
the Unmanned Aircraft (UA) is controlled and monitored. The grouping of
ground based, Command and Control (C2) equipment, necessary to do this is
commonly referred to as a Ground Control Station (GCS).
The inception of many GCS can be traced to the engineering efforts of the
individual UAS manufacturers. The GCS was a tool simply used to
manipulate and test the platform from the perspective of the design
engineer. As such, standardization of displays and architecture, across
multiple UAS has not existed until recently.
The GCS of a UAS is the collection of equipment and structure to house the
equipment (aircraft mounted or other) required to control the specific
platform. The individual subsystems of the GCS will be discussed later in this
module.
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Ground Support Equipment
Larger UAS (>55lbs) typically require specific support equipment to sustain

operations.
This equipment may include:
Generators
Ground vehicles used to transport the UAS
Specialized tools
Petroleum, Oil, Lubricants (POL) containment and dispensing systems
One of the more distinguishable characteristics of a UA is the method by

which it is launched and recovered. Some are designed strictly to be launched
by a catapult mechanism, while others operate by the more traditional
method of rolling takeoffs. Regardless of the method there will be additional
system support equipment commonly described as Launch and Recovery (LR)
equipment.
This equipment may include:
Launcher
Compressor
Arresting gear
Specialized GCS and antenna for LR operations
Future challenges may address Service stations for cargo UAS.
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PARTS OF AN AIRCRAFT
Fuselage
Wings
Empennage
Powerplant
Rotors
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Fuselage
The body of the aircraft is called the Fuselage. This shape provides the space
for all of the components the aircraft.
Cargo compartments should be designed to be remain within the fuselage.
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Wings
Wings are the lifting surfaces for the aircraft, and are vital to the performance
of any airplane.
To be practical, an unmanned aircraft must be able to fly at very low speeds,
and also have acceptable cruise performance.
Chord Line: The theoretical line running from the leading edge of the wing to
the trailing edge. The chord line is frequently used in calculating the efficiency
of an airfoil.
The design challenge is to design a wing with a high lift coefficient so that the
wing area is as small as possible, while take-off / landing speeds are as low as
possible. Relatively short wings make the aircraft easier to taxi, especially when
operating in an off-airport environment with obstructions, and requires less
space for hangaring, while being easier to build, and stronger (less weight and
wing span to support).
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Empennage
The main purpose of the empennage is to give stability to the aircraft.
Also called a tail assembly, the empennage includes static and dynamic control
surfaces.
Elevators, rudders and vertical stabilizers are dynamic control surfaces (highlighted in
color on the image to the right)
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Rotor Blades
Multirotors use counterrotating rotors for lift and directional control. A

quadcopter uses two clockwise and two counter-clockwise propellers.
Propellers are classified by length and pitch. For example, 94.7 propellers are
9 inch long and has a pitch of 4.7.
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Flight Control Surfaces and their Axis
A properly designed UA is stable and easily controlled during normal

maneuvering.
Control surface inputs cause movement about the three axes of rotation
through the Center of Gravity (C.G.)
The types of stability a UA exhibits also relates to the three axes of rotation.
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Helicopter Flight Control Surfaces
Rotorcraft require a different method of control than airplanes and are much
harder to master for teleoperation.
Flying a helicopter requires constant concentration by the pilot and a nearcontinuous flow of minute control corrections.
Multirotors use differential control instead of cyclic control surfaces or antitorque petals.
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Flight Control Surfaces
The ailerons, elevator, and rudder constitute the primary control surfaces and
are required to control a UA safely during flight.
Aileron (Roll Control)

Elevator (Pitch Control)
Rudder (Yaw Control)
Elevons- A control surface(s) that combine the functions of the elevator

and the aileron.
Ruddervators (V-Tail): This control surface combines the functions of
rudders and elevators
Hybrid control surfaces reduce the need for additional servos by combing
different primary controls:
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Aileron Flight Control Surfaces (Longitudinal Axis-Roll)
Roll is controlled by the ailerons.
The UAs motion about its longitudinal axis resembles the roll of a ship from side
to side. The motion about the UAs longitudinal axis is roll.
Longitudinal axis is nose to tail

Roll or Bank rotates around the longitudinal axis
Ailerons must be sized correctly to make sure the aircraft is controllable. Ailerons
can be made more effective by increasing their surface area or moving them
farther away from the centerline of the aircraft.
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Elevator Flight Control Surface (Lateral Axis/Pitch)
The elevator controls pitch about the lateral axis. Deflecting the
trailing edge of the elevator surface up (up elevator) pitches
the nose of the UA up.
Deflecting the trailing edge of the elevator surface down (down
elevator) pitches the nose of the UA down.
Lateral axis is wing tip to wing tip

Pitch pivots around lateral axis
Elevators play a crucial function in aircraft control. Their

effectiveness depends on size (surface area), deflection range,
and distance from the lateral axis. This distance is often related
to the length of the fuselage. The deflection of the elevator
contributes to drag. So, an efficient design will have the
minimum amount of elevator defection during cruise. When a
aircraft has a wide-range of operating weights, this optimum
setting can be a challenge.
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Rudder Flight Control Surface (Vertical axis/yaw)
The rudder controls movement of the UAs about its vertical axis. This motion
is called yaw.
Like other primary control surfaces, the rudder is a moveable surface hinged
to a fixed surface, in this case to the vertical stabilizer, or fin
The vertical axis runs top to bottom

Yaw- pivots around the vertical axis
Yaw control is increased with a larger rudder or increased distance behind the
vertical axis. In some cases, it might be more efficient to use two separate
rudders instead of one large one.
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INTRODUCTION TO AERODYNAMICS
Introduction - Aerodynamics is the study of forces and resulting

motion of objects through the air. In order to understand
aerodynamics, an understanding of the physical properties of the
atmosphere and certain laws of physics are required. This module will
discuss these principles and laws
Thrust, lift, weight and drag are forces that act upon all Unmanned
Aircraft (UA) in flight. Understanding how these forces work and
knowing how to control them with the use of power and flight
controls is essential to flight. This module discusses the aerodynamics
of flight- how design, weight, load factors, and gravity affect a UA
during flight maneuvers.
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Aerodynamic Forces
The four forces acting upon a UA are:
Thrust
Lift
Weight (Gravity)
Drag
Understanding how these forces work and knowing how to control them
with the use of power and flight controls is essential to flight.
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Thrust
The forward force produced by the Powerplant/propeller or rotor that sets

a UA in motion. It opposes or overcomes the force of drag. As a general
rule, in fixed wing UAS, it acts parallel to the longitudinal axis of the
airframe.
Thrust:
Puts a UA into motion

Overcomes drag
External (catapult or hand-launched)

Internal (onboard propulsion- sustained flight)
Induced by:
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Lift
Lift opposes the downward force of weight, and is produced by the dynamic
effect of the air acting on the airfoil. In fixed-wing UA, acts perpendicular to
the flight path through the center of the airfoil.
Lift is the upward force created by the wings moving through the air that
sustains a UA in flight.
Lift operates to overcome weight. It must be equal to or greater than the

weight of the object in flight and acting in the opposite direction in order to
sustain flight. Lift can be increased by increasing the forward speed of the
UA, or by increasing the wings angle of attack.
Lift produced by air flow across wings is affected by:
Wing size
Wing shape
High pressure under wing

Low pressure above wing
Lift opposes weight by producing
Lift is also affected by the density of the air
Lift is higher at lower altitudes

Lift decreases as altitude increases
Causes aircraft to have an operational ceiling
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Weight
Weight is the load factor of the UA itself, the payload, the fuel (including
batteries). Weight pulls the UA downward because of the force of gravity. It
opposes lift, and acts vertically downward through the UAs center of gravity
(CG). The CG may be considered as a point at which all the weight of the UA is
concentrated and is a critical aspect for determining UA performance and
stability.
Total weight of the UA is a measure of the force of gravity

CG is a critical aspect for determining UA performance
Pulls the UA downward
Opposes lift
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Drag
Drag is a rearward, retarding force caused by disruption of airflow by the

wing, rotor, fuselage and other protruding objects. Drag opposes thrust, and
in a fixed wing UA, acts rearward parallel to the relative wind.
There are two basic types: parasite drag and induced drag. The first is called
parasitic because it in no way functions to aid flight, while the second,
induced drag, is a result of an airfoil developing lift.
Drag:
Acts rearward
Opposes thrust
Parasitic
Induced
Two Types of drag:
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Density Altitude (Air Density), Temperature and Humidity
An increase in altitude, temperature, or humidity results in a corresponding

decrease in air density. These changes contribute to the resulting decrease in
lift and thrust being created by the power plant and lifting surface.
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Effects of Altitude
As we move upward through the atmosphere, the weight of the air above becomes
less and less. Under standard conditions at sea level, a column of air that has a
footprint of one square inch would weigh 14.7 pounds. That same column of air at
18,000 feet is approximately 7.4 pounds, almost 50 percent less than the sea level
column.
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Temperature
This concept is best described by the Kinetic Theory of Gases. This theory
states that a body of gas is composed of identical molecules which behave
like minute elastic spheres spaced relatively far apart and continuously in
motion.
The degree of this molecular motion depends on the temperature of the
gas. An increase in temperature will result in an increase in molecular
motion with a corresponding increase in collisions between the molecules
and the walls of the container. The increase in collisions results in an
increase in pressure because a greater number of molecules strike against
the walls of the container.
Because of the Kinetic Theory, warm air also rises. Heat causes the air
molecules to spread apart, becoming less dense and lighter than the
surrounding air. As air cools, the molecules pack together more closely,
becoming denser and heavier than warm air and therefore it descends
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Effects of Pressure, Temperature and Humidity on Density
Since air is a gas, it can be compressed or expanded. When air is compressed,

a greater amount of air can occupy a given volume. Conversely, when
pressure on a given volume of air is decreased, the air expands and occupies a
greater space. At a lower pressure, the original volume of air contains a
smaller mass of air. The density is decreased because density is directly
proportional to pressure. If the pressure is doubled, the density is doubled; if
the pressure is lowered, the density is lowered. This statement is true only at
a constant temperature.
Because of airs compressibility, flight conditions will vary depending upon the
altitude. This is due to the air density. More molecules for a given volume of
air will generate greater lift with less thrust. Fewer molecules for a given
volume of air will require greater thrust to generate the same lift. Air density
decreases with an increase in altitude.
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Temperature/Density
Increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density. Conversely,

decreasing the temperature increases the density. Thus, the density of air
varies inversely with temperature. This statement is true only at a constant
pressure. In the atmosphere, both temperature and pressure decrease with
altitude, and have conflicting effects upon density. However, the fairly rapid
drop in pressure as altitude is increased usually has the dominating effect.
Hence, pilots can expect the density to decrease with altitude.
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Humidity/Density
The preceding paragraphs refer to air that is perfectly dry. In reality, it is

never completely dry. The small amount of water vapor suspended in the
atmosphere may be almost negligible under certain conditions, but in other
conditions humidity may become an important factor in the performance of
an aircraft. Water vapor is lighter than air; consequently, moist air is lighter
than dry air. Therefore, as the water content of the air increases, the air
becomes less dense, increasing density altitude and decreasing performance.
It is lightest or least dense when, in a given set of conditions, it contains the
maximum amount of water vapor.
Humidity, also called relative humidity, refers to the amount of water vapor
contained in the atmosphere, and is expressed as a percentage of the
maximum amount of water vapor the air can hold. This amount varies with
temperature. Warm air holds more water vapor, while colder air holds less.
Perfectly dry air that contains no water vapor has a relative humidity of zero
percent, while saturated air, which cannot hold any more water vapor, has a
relative humidity of 100 percent.
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Pressure Altitude (PA)
In the standard atmosphere, sea level pressure is 29.92 inches Hg and is used as the
Standard Datum Plane (SDP). Pressure altitude is the height above or below this SDP.
Example: If an aircraft were at an airfield located at sea level, and standard atmospheric
conditions prevailed, the altimeter was set to 29.92, the altimeter would indicate 0 feet.
As atmospheric pressure changes from standard, the SDP may be below, at, or above
actual sea level.
There are several ways to determine or calculate what the pressure altitude is at any
location.
The first and easiest method is to set the barometric pressure of a sensitive altimeter to
29.92. The altitude indicated on the face of the altimeter is pressure altitude.
The second method is to calculate it as follows: subtract the current barometric pressure
setting from standard setting (29.92) and either add or subtract this number depending on
whether it is a positive or negative number, to/from field elevation.
Example: standard atmosphere 29.92 minus current atmosphere 29.98 equals -.06. This
represents -60 feet. At an airfield with a surveyed altitude of 1200 feet, the pressure
altitude would be 1140 feet (1200-60).
The third method is through the use of a chart typically found with the rest of the
performance charts for your UA/aircraft. An example of this type chart is to the right.
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Density Altitude
Air density is affected by changes in altitude, temperature, and humidity. High

density altitude refers to thin air (the molecules are spread out) while low
density altitude refers to dense air (the molecules are tightly packed).
The conditions that result in a high density altitude are high elevations, low
atmospheric pressures, high temperatures, high humidity, or some combination
of these factors.
Density altitude is determined by first finding pressure altitude, and then
correcting this altitude for nonstandard temperature variations.
Since density varies directly with pressure (the higher the pressure, the more the
molecules are compressed, or. denser), and inversely with temperature (the
higher the temperature, the more the molecules spread apart, or. less dense), a
given pressure altitude may exist for a wide range of temperatures by allowing
the density to vary. However, a known density occurs for any one temperature
and pressure altitude. Regardless of the actual altitude at which the UA/aircraft
is operating, it will perform as though it were operating at an altitude equal to
the existing density altitude. The density of air has significant effects on the
UA/aircrafts performance.
As air becomes less dense, it reduces:
Power because the engine takes in less air.

Thrust because a propeller/rotor is less efficient in thin air.
Lift because the thin air exerts less force on the airfoils
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PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
Introduction
The theories defining lift have historically been the adaptation over the past few
centuries of basic physical laws. The fundamental physical laws governing the forces
acting upon an aircraft in flight were adopted from postulated theories developed
before any human successfully flew an aircraft.
Sir Isaac Newton, formulated the law of universal gravitation and also described the
three basic laws of motion.
In 1852, a German physicist and chemist, Heinrich Gustav Magnus made experimental
studies of the aerodynamic forces on spinning spheres and cylinders. (The effect had
already been mentioned by Newton in 1672) These experiments led to the discovery of
the Magnus Effect, which helps explain the theory of lift.
A half-century after Newton formulated his laws, Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss

mathematician, explained how the pressure of a moving fluid (liquid or gas) varies with
its speed of motion. This principle explains what happens to air passing over the
curved top of the airplane wing.
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Bernoullis Principle
As the velocity of a moving fluid (liquid or gas) increases, the pressure within the
fluid decreases.
A practical application of Bernoullis Principle is the venturi tube.
The venturi tube has an air inlet that narrows to a throat (constricted point) and an
outlet section that increases in diameter toward the rear. The diameter of the
outlet is the same as that of the inlet. At the throat, the airflow speeds up and the
pressure decreases; at the outlet, the airflow slows and the pressure increases.
Since air is recognized as a body and it is accepted that it must follow the above
laws, one can begin to see how and why an airplane wing develops lift. As the wing
moves through the air, the flow of air across the curved top surface increases in
velocity creating a low-pressure area. This pressure difference results in an
upwards lift force.
The carburetor used in many reciprocating engines contains a venturi to create a
region of low pressure to draw fuel into the carburetor and mix it thoroughly with
the incoming air. The low pressure in the throat of a venturi can be explained by
Bernoulli's principle; in the narrow throat, the air is moving at its fastest speed and
therefore it is at its lowest pressure.
The principle also makes it possible for sail-powered craft to travel faster than the
wind that propels them (if friction can be sufficiently reduced). If the wind passing
in front of the sail is fast enough to experience a significant reduction in pressure,
the sail is pulled forward, in addition to being pushed from behind.
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Magnus Effect
Flow of air against a non-rotating cylinder - If air flows against a cylinder

that is not rotating, the flow of air above and below the cylinder is
identical and the forces are the same.
A rotating cylinder in a motionless fluid - If a cylinder is rotated and
observed from the side while immersed in a fluid, the rotation of the
cylinder affects the fluid surrounding the cylinder. The flow around the
rotating cylinder differs from the flow around a stationary cylinder due to
resistance caused by two factors: viscosity and friction.
Viscosity - This is the property of a fluid or semi-fluid that causes
it to resist flowing. High-viscosity fluids resist flow; low-viscosity
fluids flow easily.
Friction - This is the resistance one surface or object encounters
when moving over another and exists between a fluid and the
surface over which it flows.
A rotating cylinder in a moving fluid - If a cylinder rotates in a fluid that is
also moving, the result is a higher circulatory flow in the direction of the
rotating cylinder.
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The Magnus Effect is applied to an airfoil in the following ways:
The highest differences of velocity are 90 from the relative motion between
the cylinder and the airflow. Additionally, a stagnation point exists where
the air stream impacts on the front of the airfoils surface and splits; some
air goes over and some under. When viewed from the side, an upwash is
created ahead of the airfoil and downwash at the rear.
The highest velocity of air flow is at the top of the airfoil with the lowest
velocity at the bottom. This concept can be readily applied to a wing or
other lifting surface, because there is a difference of velocity above and
below the wing. The result is a higher pressure at the bottom of the wing
and a lower pressure on the top of the wing. This low-pressure area
produces an upward force known as the Magnus Effect.
To summarize the Magnus effect, an airfoil with a positive Angle of Attack (AOA)
develops low pressure air circulation above the upper surface of the wing/rotor.
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Angle of Attack/Stall (AOA)
AOA is the acute angle between the chord line of the airfoil and the direction of
the relative wind. A UA stall results from a rapid decrease in lift caused by the
separation of airflow from the wings surface brought on by exceeding the critical
AOA.
A stall can occur at any pitch attitude or airspeed. As long as the airfoils lift (L in
the figure to the right) is less than the aircraft weight (W in the figure to the
right) the aircraft will stall.
Stalls are one of the most misunderstood areas of aerodynamics because drone
pilots often believe an airfoil stops producing lift when it stalls. In a stall, the wing
does not totally stop producing lift. Rather, it cannot generate adequate lift to
sustain level flight.
Critical AOA
Angle at which AOA produces maximum lift

Varies with wing design
When exceeded, lift decreases
Decrease in Lift
Critical AOA exceeded
Lift not sufficient to counter weight (L<W)
Stall
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Dissymmetry of Lift
Unique to rotary wing aircraft is a phenomenon known as dissymmetry of lift.

This is the difference of lift created by the advancing and retreating sections
of the rotor disk.
The differential that results from the relative wind (i.e., the airflow over the
rotor disk) caused early helicopters to be uncontrollable. In traditional
rotocraft, technological solutions, such as articulated rotor blades and hinged
flapping masts, are used to counteract this condition.
Multirotor aircraft, configured with counter-rotating blades, are inherently
resistant of the effects of dissymmetry of lift.
41
AIRCRAFT STABILITY AND CONTROL

Application
An airfoil is constructed in such a way that its shape takes advantage of

the airs response to these physical laws.
As the air stream strikes the relatively flat lower surface of a wing or
rotor blade when inclined at a small angle to its direction of motion, the
air is forced to rebound downward, causing an upward reaction in
positive lift. An airfoil is shaped to cause an action on the air, and forces
air downward, which provides an equal reaction from the air, forcing
the airfoil upward. At the same time, the air stream striking the upper
curved section of the leading edge is deflected upward. If an airfoil is
constructed in such form that it causes a lift force greater than the
weight of the UA/aircraft, the aircraft will fly.
If all the lift required were obtained merely from the deflection of air by
the lower surface of the airfoil, an UA/aircraft would only need a flat
wing like a kite. However, the balance of the lift needed to support the
UA/aircraft comes from the flow of air above the airfoil. Herein lies the
key to flight. Applying Bernoullis Principle of Pressure, the increase in
the speed of the air across the top of an airfoil produces a drop in
pressure. This lowered pressure is a component of total lift. The
pressure difference between the upper and lower surface of an airfoil
alone does not account for the total lift force produced.
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Center of Gravity
The center of gravity (CG), or center of mass, is the point at which the entire
weight of the UAS is concentrated. If supported at this point, the UAS would
remain in equilibrium (balanced) in any position. The CG is the intersection of
the lateral, longitudinal, and vertical axes.
The CG can be determined by calculation, graphically, physically hanging the

vehicle by a hook from a simple jig, or supporting it from the underside on a pair
of posts.
The point where the wings and fuselage are level (as measured by a laser/bubble
level) and parallel to the floor is the CG. This method will yield the lateral and
longitudinal CG locations. The vertical CG will normally have to be calculated or
determined graphically.
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Stability
Stability is the inherent quality of an UA/aircraft to correct for conditions that

may disturb its equilibrium, and to return to or to continue on the original
flight path. It is primarily a UA/aircraft design characteristic. If a UA/aircraft
is to fly straight and steady along any arbitrary flight path, the forces acting
on it must be in static equilibrium (When disturbed, it has a tendency to
return to its previous position or attitude). The reaction of any body when its
equilibrium is disturbed is referred to as stability. The two types of stability
are static and dynamic. Stability in an UA/aircraft affects two areas
significantly:
Maneuverability This is the quality of a UA/aircraft that permits it to

be maneuvered easily and to withstand the stresses imposed by
maneuvers. It is governed by the aircrafts weight, inertia, size,
location of flight controls, structural strength, and powerplant. It is a
UA/aircraft design characteristic. Maneuverability requires a certain
lack of stability to be inherently designed into the aircraft. Complete
stability would result in an aircraft that could not be maneuvered at
all.
Controllability This is the capability of a UA/aircraft to respond to
the pilots control.
44
Static Stability
Static stability refers to the initial tendency, or direction of

movement, back to equilibrium. In aviation, it refers to the
UA/aircrafts initial response when disturbed from a given pitch
attitude, roll attitude, or yaw attitude. Types of static stability:
Positive Static Stability This is the initial tendency of the
UA/aircraft to return to the original state of equilibrium after being
disturbed
Neutral Static Stability This is the initial tendency of the
UA/aircraft to remain in a new condition after its equilibrium has
been disturbed
Negative Static Stability This is the initial tendency of the
UA/aircraft to continue away from the original state of equilibrium
after being disturbed
Essentially, static stability can be defined as the initial tendency to
return to or not to return to equilibrium that a UA/aircraft displays
after being disturbed from its trimmed condition.
45
Dynamic Stability
Dynamic stability refers to the UA/aircraft response over time when

disturbed from a given pitch attitude, roll attitude, or yaw attitude.
This type of stability also has three subtypes:
Positive Dynamic Stability - Over time, the motion of the

displaced object decreases in amplitude (amplitude is the amount a
value changes from its at- rest, or normal condition to its maximum
condition) and, because it is positive, the object displaced returns
toward the equilibrium state.
Neutral Dynamic Stability - Once displaced, the displaced object
neither decreases nor increases in amplitude. A worn automobile
shock absorber exhibits this tendency.
Negative Dynamic Stability - Over time, the motion of the
displaced object increases and becomes more divergent.
46
Longitudinal Stability (Pitching)
Longitudinal stability is the quality that makes a UA/aircraft stable about its
lateral axis. It involves the pitching motion as the UA/aircrafts nose moves up
and down in flight. A longitudinally unstable UA/aircraft has a tendency to
dive or climb progressively into a very steep dive or climb, or even a stall.
Thus, a UA/aircraft with longitudinal instability becomes difficult and
sometimes dangerous to fly.
The following is a simple demonstration of longitudinal stability. If a slight

push to nose the UA/aircraft down were given to the control of an UA/aircraft
and after a brief period, the nose rose to the original position and then
stopped, the UA/aircraft is statically stable. Ordinarily, the nose passes the
original position (that of level flight) and a series of slow pitching oscillations
follows. If the oscillations gradually cease, the UA/aircraft has positive
stability; if they continue unevenly, the UA/aircraft has neutral stability; if they
increase, the UA/aircraft is unstable.
Lift Effects
The primary surface to control longitudinal stability is the elevator. In addition, longitudinal stability is greatly affected by the relationship
between the center of gravity (CG) and the center of lift. The combined (wing and horizontal tail) center of lift must be aft of the CG.
47
The closer the two centers are, the more maneuverable, but less stable the aircraft
becomes. This range of locations is known as the Static Margin. The Center of Lift
(aerodynamic center) on a low speed, symmetric aircraft wing is approximately 25% of
the mean (average) chord length measured aft of the leading edge of the wing.
Now that the locations of both the CG and the Center of Lift are known, the distance
between the two points, divided by the chord length, is the Static Margin.
Typical values range from 5% to 40%. As previously mentioned, the smaller the SM, the
less stable and more maneuverable the vehicle will be. However, in order to maintain
stability, the horizontal tail will play a much larger role. This may mean it must be larger
and may create more drag.
Thrust Effects
Longitudinal stability is also affected by the engine. In some configurations, the increase
in power will create additional airflow over the wings creating more lift. The location of
the CG in the vertical axis may also contribute to stability. As depicted in the diagram,
the relationship between the thrust line and the CG may cause pitching motions. Unless
properly accounted for, these influences may cause the aircraft to become unstable.
48
Lateral Stability (Rolling)
Stability about the UA/aircrafts longitudinal axis, which extends from the nose
of the UA/aircraft to its tail, is called lateral stability. This helps to stabilize the
lateral or rolling effect when one wing gets lower than the wing on the
opposite side of the aircraft. Properly sized ailerons aid in controlling all aspects
of lateral stability.
There are five main design factors that make an UA/aircraft laterally stable:
Dihedral - The most common procedure for producing lateral stability is

to build the wings with an angle of one to three degrees above
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. The wings on either side of the
aircraft join the fuselage to form a slight V angle called dihedral.
Sweepback This is an addition to the dihedral that increases the lift
created when a wing drops from the level position. A sweptback wing
is one in which the leading edge slopes backward. When a disturbance
causes a UA/aircraft with sweepback to slip or drop a wing, the low
wing presents its leading edge at an angle that is perpendicular to the
relative airflow. As a result, the low wing acquires more lift, rises and
the UA/Aircraft is restored to its original attitude.
Keel Effect and Weight Distribution A UA/aircraft always has the
tendency to turn the longitudinal axis of the aircraft into the relative
wind. This weather vane tendency is similar to the keel of a ship and
exerts a steadying influence on the UA/aircraft laterally about the
longitudinal axis. When the UA/aircraft is disturbed and one wing dips,
the fuselage weight acts like a pendulum returning the airplane to its
original attitude.
With propeller driven aircrafts, the torque of the engine may cause roll
in the opposite direction of the propeller motion. This is especially
noticeable during changes in power settings.
Lateral CG Location If the CG is offset from the centerline of the
vehicle, this imbalance will tend to introduce rolling motions.
49
Vertical Stability (Yawing)
Stability about the UA/aircrafts vertical axis (the sideways moment) is called yawing
or directional stability. Yawing or directional stability is the most easily achieved
stability in UA/aircraft design. The area of the vertical fin and the sides of the
fuselage aft of the CG are the prime contributors which make the UA/aircraft act
like the well known weather vane or arrow, pointing its nose into the relative wind.
Rudder size is also a key factor.
Positive directional stability is ensured by having more fuselage side surface aft of
the CG than ahead of it. To provide additional positive stability to that provided by
the fuselage, a vertical fin is added. The fin acts similar to the feather on an arrow
in maintaining straight flight. Like the weather vane and the arrow, the farther aft
this fin is placed and the larger its size, the greater the UA/aircrafts directional
stability.
If a UA/aircraft is flying in a straight line, and a sideward gust of air gives the
UA/aircraft a slight rotation about its vertical axis (i.e., the right), the motion is
retarded and stopped by the fin because while the UA/aircraft is rotating to the
right, the air is striking the left side of the fin at an angle. This causes pressure on
the left side of the fin, which resists the turning motion and slows down the
UA/aircrafts yaw.
Power changes and aileron deflections will also induce additional yaw and must be
properly managed.
50
Airspeed change and straight-and-level as required
All of the principal components of flight performance involve steady-state flight

conditions and equilibrium of the UA. For the UA to remain in steady, level flight,
equilibrium must be obtained by lift equal to the UA weight and power plant thrust
equal to the UA drag.
Thus, the UA drag and weight defines the Thrust required to maintain steady, level flight.
For all practical purposes, the airspeed will remain constant in straight-and-level flight
with a constant power setting. Significant changes in airspeed will, of course, require
considerable changes in pitch attitude and pitch trim to maintain altitude.
These required changes are especially evident in low-speed or hovering flight when
performed by rotorcraft.
51
Load Factors While Turning
Newtons First Law of Motion, the Law of Inertia, states that an object at rest
or moving in a straight line remains at rest or continues to move in a straight
line until acted on by some other force. A UA/aircraft, like any moving object,
requires a sideward force to make it turn. In a normal turn, this force is
supplied by banking the UA/aircraft so that lift is exerted inward, as well as
upward. The force of lift during a turn is separated into two components at
right angles to each other. One component, which acts vertically and opposite
to the weight (gravity), is called the ver cal component of li . The other,
which acts horizontally toward the center of the turn, is called the horizontal
component of lift, or centripetal force. The horizontal component of lift is the
force that pulls the UA/aircraft from a straight flight path to make it turn.
There are three factors associated with turning that a pilot should be familiar
with.
Additional lift is required while turning to maintain constant altitude

Radius and Rate of Turn depend on speed and angle of bank
Stall speed increases as bank angle increases
52
Establishing and Maintaining Altitude
No discussion of climbs (increase in altitude) and descents (decrease in

altitude) would be complete without touching on the question of what
controls altitude and what controls airspeed. The UA pilot must understand
the effects of both power and pitch (elevator control), working together
during different conditions of flight. At any pitch attitude, the amount of
power used will determine whether the UA will climb, descend, or remain
level at that attitude.
Through a range of altitudes from very slightly nose-low to about 30o noseup, a typical light UA can be made to climb, descend, or maintain altitude
depending on the power used. In about the lower third of this range, the UA
will descend at idle power without stalling. As pitch altitude is increased,
however, increased engine power will be required to prevent a stall. Even
more power will be required to maintain altitude, and even more for a
climb. Typically, at a pitch altitude approaching 30o nose-up, all available
power will provide only enough thrust to maintain altitude. A slight increase
in the steepness of climb or a slight decrease in power will produce a descent.
53
Basic Aerodynamic Climb
The wings lift in a steady state normal climb is the same as it is in a steady
level flight at the same airspeed. During the transition from straight-and-level
flight to a climb, a change in lift occurs when back elevator pressure is first
applied. Raising the UAs nose increases the AOA and momentarily increases
the lift. Lift at this moment is now greater than weight and starts the UA
climbing.
Since the lift during the bank is divided into vertical and horizontal
components, the amount of lift opposing gravity and supporting the
UA/aircrafts weight is reduced. Consequently, the UA/aircraft loses altitude
unless additional lift is created. This is done by increasing the Angle of Attack
(AOA) until the vertical component of lift is again equal to the weight.
Since the vertical component of lift decreases as the bank angle increases,
the AOA must be progressively increased to produce sufficient vertical lift to
support the UA/aircrafts weight. An important fact for pilots to remember
when making constant altitude turns is that the vertical component of lift
must be equal to the weight to maintain altitude.
Since the drag of the airfoil is directly proportional to its AOA, induced drag
increases as the lift is increased. This, in turn, causes a loss of airspeed in
proportion to the angle of bank. A small angle of bank results in a small
reduction in airspeed while a large angle of bank results in a large reduction
in airspeed. Additional thrust (power) must be applied to prevent a
reduction in airspeed in level turns. The required amount of additional thrust
is proportional to the angle of bank
Rotorcraft encounter this in sideward flight.
54
Basic Aerodynamic Cruise
Cruise is the level portion of UA travel where flight is the most fuel
efficient
Forces are balanced

o Thrust=drag
o Lift=Weight
Neither gains nor loses altitude
Airspeed may vary
55
Basic Aerodynamic Bank
Enables UA to turn (change heading)
Less lift is opposing weight

Some lift is acting in the direction of the bank
If the UA were in a bank it would be apparent that lift did not act directly opposite to the
weight, rather it now acts in the direction of the bank.
When the UA banks, lift acts inward toward the center of the turn, as well as upward.
Because some of the lift is used to turn the UA, lift must be increased to increase the
component that offsets weight in order to maintain level flight. This increase in lift
causes an increase in induced drag. Thrust must be increased to maintain airspeed.
56
Basic Aerodynamic Descent
A UA may descend either by reduction in thrust or by a reduction in the angle of attack.
When reducing thrust, lift is decreased. With weight now being greater than lift, the UA begins to descend.
When reducing the pitch and therefore the AOA the resulting decrease in lift will also cause a descent.
57
CONCEPTS OF DESIGN
Overview
1. Mission of the UA what do I want it to do?

2. Design constraints what limitations are imposed on my design
Size
Weight
Powerplant/type
Takeoff/landing requirements
3. Once the design constraints are known, then you can work through to
determine the critical factors
4. Now an iterative process begins to balance the four forces while achieving
the mission
5. Iterative process is always influenced by inherently dependent variables
Stability
Controllability
Maneuverability
Maintainability
Reliability
Serviceability
Operability
6. Once design begins to take shape, it will need to be tested at various
phases, always keeping in mind the ultimate mission. Tradeoffs will need to
be made between various limitations of the design. For instance, a bigger
engine will make it fly faster, but it weighs more. The more weight will need
a larger wing. The larger wing produces more drag so it might end up flying
slower. There is an optimal balance between mission and physics. It is your
job to find that harmony.
58
Determining Wing Area Configuration and Design
Aspect Ratio: The ratio of the wings length to its chord line.
Aspect Ratio = (wing span)/chord

Aspect Ratio = (wing area)/chord2
A wing with a high aspect ratio will perform well at slow
speeds and produce large quantities of lift, but at the
expense of maneuverability and airspeed.
A wing with a low aspect ratio on the other hand will have
a sleek appearance and allow an aircraft to fly faster, or be
more maneuverable.
Typical aspect ratios are 4 to 5 for fast, maneuverable
aircraft (like a fighter jet); 12-15 for general aviation and
transport aircraft; and 25 or greater for gliders.
Camber: The name given to the curvature of the upper or lower

surfaces of the wing. A higher camber, or more curved surface,
results in an aircraft that can fly at slower speeds while still
generating sufficient lift for flight.
Chord Line: The theoretical line running from the leading edge of
the wing to the trailing edge.
Leading Edge: The front edge of an aircrafts wing.
Trailing Edge: The rear edge of an aircrafts wing.
59
Airfoil Designs
The following pages show typical cross-sections for various airfoil shapes. Keep
in mind that thicker wings produce more lift at lower airspeeds but create more
drag as airspeed increases. A more rounded leading edge is less susceptible to
stalls but have more drag over all airspeeds.
The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) airfoils were
designed during the period from 1929 through 1947 under the direction of
Eastman Jacobs at the NACAs Langley Field Laboratory
The numbering system for these airfoils is defined by: NACA MPXX
M is the maximum value of the mean line in hundredths of chord

P is the chordwise position of the maximum camber in tenths of the
chord.
XX is the maximum thickness in percent chord
The graphs are percentages.
A NACA 4418 airfoil that has a chord of 20 inches also has a camber of 4
inches at 6 inches along the chord line
A Clark Y airfoil that has a chord of 20 inches also has a camber of 2.2
inches at 6 inches along the chord line
60
61
62
Determining Wing Area
Tapered Wing Area:
Average Chord = (Root Chord + Tip Chord ) 2

Wing Area = Wing Span x Average Chord
Rectangular Wing Area: Wing Span x Wing Chord
Ellipse Wing Wing Area = ( 3.14 x Span x Chord ) 4
63
Wing Loading
While gross takeoff weight of the aircraft is important, wing loading is even more
so. This is a reflection of the distributed weight across the lifting surface area.
The lighter the wing loading, the slower the aircraft can take-off, fly and land. It will
have a better climb.
Wing Loading: Weight Wing Area
For multi-wing aircraft, divide the overall weight of the aircraft by the total wing
area for all wings.
For a 55lb aircraft, the wing area should be between 3600 square inches (232 dm2)
and 1300 square inches (84 dm2) for best wing loading (10 and 30 kg/m2)
Rotor Disc Loading
Rotor Disc Loading: Disc Load = Helicopter Weight (kg) / (* Blade Length m2)
For a 55lb aircraft, the combined rotor disc should be between 32 and 44
diameter for best rotor loading (24 and 48 kg/m2)
For larger multirotors that carry payloads, large propellers and low-kv motors tend
to work better. These have higher relative rotational momentum, and will more
easily maintain the aircrafts stability.
64
Determining Thrust
Short Takeoff and Landing Required Thrust Per Motor
Choose a power system that can provide a pitch speed of about 2 to 3 times the stall speed and a 2/3 thrust to weight ratio. This means that a
55lb aircraft needs 36lbs of thrust for a single pusher, or 18lbs for twin pushers.
VTOL lift Required Thrust per motor = (Weight x 2) / # of Rotors
This means that a 55lb aircraft needs 27.5lbs thrust for each motor for quad rotors, or 18.33lbs for hexacopters.
Power Requirements
This operating profile needs 75-100 watts/pound, which equates to 4125 to 5500 watts.
65
Calculations (Imperial)
Wing Area (Square Feet)

Wing Loading (Ounces per square feet)
Pitch Speed (Propellers)
Stall speed
Power in (Watts)
Shaft Power Out (Watts)
Shaft Horsepower
3.7
)
(

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1

Local Motors Unmanned Aircraft Design Guide

INTRODUCTION TO UNMANNED AIRCRAFT

AIRCRAFT STABILITY AND CONTROL

INTRODUCTION TO UNMANNED AIRCRAFT

This Design Guide is intended to familiarize the non-aviation community

This guide is only to be used as a reference material, and is not intended to

Unmanned Aircraft (UA), although ranging in size and appearance, ultimately

Compared to the UAS as a whole, the UA has the greatest concentration of

Location on the aircraft. The aircraft must be able to be safely and

Radio frequency is a term that refers to alternating current (AC) having

Analog - Analog is the process of taking an audio, RF or video signal and

Larger UAS (>55lbs) typically require specific support equipment to sustain

One of the more distinguishable characteristics of a UA is the method by

This equipment may include:

Future challenges may address Service stations for cargo UAS.

The main purpose of the empennage is to give stability to the aircraft.

Multirotors use counterrotating rotors for lift and directional control. A

A properly designed UA is stable and easily controlled during normal

Aileron (Roll Control)

Elevons- A control surface(s) that combine the functions of the elevator

Aileron Flight Control Surfaces (Longitudinal Axis-Roll)

Roll is controlled by the ailerons.

Longitudinal axis is nose to tail

Lateral axis is wing tip to wing tip

Elevators play a crucial function in aircraft control. Their

The vertical axis runs top to bottom

Introduction - Aerodynamics is the study of forces and resulting

The four forces acting upon a UA are:

The forward force produced by the Powerplant/propeller or rotor that sets

Puts a UA into motion

External (catapult or hand-launched)

Lift operates to overcome weight. It must be equal to or greater than the

High pressure under wing

Lift opposes weight by producing

Lift is also affected by the density of the air

Lift is higher at lower altitudes

Total weight of the UA is a measure of the force of gravity

Drag is a rearward, retarding force caused by disruption of airflow by the

Two Types of drag:

Density Altitude (Air Density), Temperature and Humidity

An increase in altitude, temperature, or humidity results in a corresponding

Effects of Pressure, Temperature and Humidity on Density

Since air is a gas, it can be compressed or expanded. When air is compressed,

Increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density. Conversely,

The preceding paragraphs refer to air that is perfectly dry. In reality, it is

Air density is affected by changes in altitude, temperature, and humidity. High

Power because the engine takes in less air.

A half-century after Newton formulated his laws, Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss

Flow of air against a non-rotating cylinder - If air flows against a cylinder

The Magnus Effect is applied to an airfoil in the following ways:

Angle at which AOA produces maximum lift

Unique to rotary wing aircraft is a phenomenon known as dissymmetry of lift.

AIRCRAFT STABILITY AND CONTROL

An airfoil is constructed in such a way that its shape takes advantage of

The CG can be determined by calculation, graphically, physically hanging the

Stability is the inherent quality of an UA/aircraft to correct for conditions that

Maneuverability This is the quality of a UA/aircraft that permits it to

Static stability refers to the initial tendency, or direction of

Dynamic stability refers to the UA/aircraft response over time when

Positive Dynamic Stability - Over time, the motion of the

The following is a simple demonstration of longitudinal stability. If a slight

Dihedral - The most common procedure for producing lateral stability is