What is emotional intelligence?

'We define emotional intelligence as the ability to reason with emotion.' John Mayer and
Peter Salovey

US psychologists John Mayer and Peter Salovey published the first formal definition of
emotional intelligence in 1990. Their publication also claimed that it might be possible to
assess and measure a persons emotional intelligence.
Mayer and Salovey believed that emotional intelligence is a subset of social intelligence and
is about a persons ability to:

perceive emotion in oneself and others

integrate emotion into thought

understand emotion in oneself and others

manage or regulate emotion in oneself and others.

They have also described emotional intelligence as being knowledge of self and others
and, more specifically, the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings and emotions,
to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide ones thinking.
Since 1990, Mayer, Salovey and David Caruso have developed a set of tasks that assess
this four-dimensional model. These include identifying emotions in human faces. They claim
their research indicates that emotional intelligence can be measured reliably and that it is
related to, but independent of, standard intelligence.

The development of emotional intelligence

Although theories of emotional intelligence have been around since the 1920s, writers
such as Howard Gardner and Daniel Goleman have championed the importance of emotions
and feelings in learning more recently. Gardners theory of multiple intelligence pioneered
the view that intra and interpersonal intelligences were as important as other forms such as
linguistic and logical. Daniel Goleman, who later coined the phrase emotional intelligence,
put forward the argument that emotional intelligence (EQ) mattered more than IQ
(Intelligence Quotient).
Goleman broadened the definition of emotional intelligence devised by Mayer and Salovey.
He defined it as understanding ones own feelings, empathy for the feelings of others and
the regulation of emotion in a way that enhances living. Goleman also identified what he
called the the five domains of emotional intelligence namely:

knowing ones emotions

managing ones emotions

motivating oneself

recognising emotions in others

handling relationships.
Golemans critics point out that motivation has never been recognised as a component of
emotional intelligence in any scientific tests, and that Goleman confuses mental abilities
with personality traits. Some infer that Goleman equates emotional intelligence with moral
character, or being a decent human being, which they say takes his book into the realms
of pop psychology, far beyond the idea of mental abilities.

It has also been pointed out by many academics that Goleman ignored the growing body of
empirical research already carried out in the area of emotional intelligence. This omission,
they argue, led Goleman to:

make unsupported claims about the power and predictive ability of emotional
intelligence that do not stand up to scientific scrutiny

broaden the definition of emotional intelligence to include aspects of personality and

behaviour, which are not correlated to emotional intelligence as it is scientifically defined

make premature and exaggerated claims about the extent to which we can increase
our emotional intelligence.

The link to emotional literacy

In the UK, the concept of emotional intelligence has influenced those promoting the
importance of self-esteem in learning, but these proponents have tended to use the term
'emotional literacy' rather than 'emotional intelligence'.
In recent times, those who have championed what might be termed the self-esteem
movement in schools regard emotional intelligence as being closely connected to the
building of self-esteem. Elizabeth Morris (2002) argues that it is hard to feel good about
yourself if you dont know yourself well, and if you cant recognise and manage emotions
such as anger and frustration. The more able you are to read body language and relate to
other people and their emotional states, the more likely you are to be popular. Morris and
other academics argue that this is what encourages a sense of belonging and builds selfesteem.
Their view is based on a belief that, although emotional literacy helps to develop selfesteem, it is not the same as self-esteem and they distinguish between the two concepts as
follows:
Self-esteem - the inner perception people have as being more or less valuable, worthy
and powerful in the world
Emotional literacy - the practice of being aware of, understanding and managing
emotional states in both oneself and other people.

Neurology
The idea that the emotions are central to learning, and that handling our own and other
peoples emotions is crucial for success and happiness, goes back a long way in both
western and eastern philosophy.
Advances in neuroscience and brain imaging techniques, however, have enabled scientists
to understand much more about the way that the human brain works. They have been able

to distinguish between the emotional centre of the brain - which gives rise to feelings and
emotions - from the neocortex, which is responsible for thinking and reasoning. Today most
scientists believe that our emotions are intimately involved in the rational decisions and
choices we make, and there is increasing evidence to show that what is known
as emotional intelligence has a far greater impact on our ability to learn and our future
success than was previously recognised.

Scientific psychology
Peter Salovey and Jack Meyer, who first coined the term emotional intelligence in 1990,
are qualified cognitive psychologists who base their claims about the nature of emotional
intelligence and how it can be measured on scientific research, citing over 160 academic
studies. Salovey and Meyer are still working on and refining the instruments that they use
to measure emotional intelligence. Their ability tests focus on, in particular, whether
emotional intelligence can be grown and developed, although they accept that some people
are born with higher levels of emotional intelligence than others.

The main messages

Human beings are emotional animals and their emotions play a critical part in
learning and in life.

Being able to monitor our own and others feelings and emotions, to discriminate
among them and to use this information to guide our thinking is, perhaps, the most
important life skill.

Some people are innately more emotionally intelligent than others. However people
can develop emotional intelligence, particularly at critical periods including infancy and
teenage years.

Emotional intelligence is a very complex area and, although our understanding is

growing, there is still a great deal we do not understand.

Emotional intelligence was popularised as a result of Daniel Golemans work, but

many of his claims about the nature of emotional intelligence and its influence were
premature and exaggerated.

As yet, there is no universally recognised method of measuring emotional

intelligence accurately, or demonstrating that it can be developed.

Schools can help to teach young people how to develop their emotional intelligence.
Classrooms also need to be emotionally secure places for both teachers and learners.

The emotional brain

'In the brain and the central nervous system, the emotions have a privileged position over
thought.' Joseph Ledoux (1998)

We now know that in certain situations, emotions have a stronger impact on human
behaviour than thinking. When humans are in a situation of high threat, emotions take
precedence over rational thought. This is what Goleman calls an emotional highjack.
Strong emotions, such as anxiety and stress, can overwhelm our ability to think and make
good decisions. This explains why in tests and examinations candidates often misread

questions or express themselves poorly. Even when we are relaxed and in the optimum
mood for learning, our emotions play a very strong role in how we come to learn and
whether we will be successful in learning. This makes the case for developing emotional
intelligence in young people very strong.
It seems likely that if we are aware of, and can understand and manage emotional states in
ourselves and other people, we are more likely to have robust self-esteem and be happy in
life. People with highly developed emotional intelligence are usually self-smart - they are
able to make sense of what they do, the thoughts they have, and why they feel what they
feel. They also communicate effectively and are able to tune in and empathise with others.
They are better at handling relationships of every kind and are more likely to be happy and
fulfilled.

Emotional intelligence and success

Goleman focused to a large extent on the power of emotional intelligence to help
individuals achieve success and he closely equated success with money and earning power.
Goleman also claimed that 20% of success in life is down to IQ and 80% to EQ, although
critics argue that he had little or no scientific evidence to back this up. Whilst Mayer and
Salovey claim that there is research to show that IQ contributes to 25% of the success
achieved by individuals, they cannot make similar quantifiable estimates about the impact
of emotional intelligence on achievement.

The implications for learners

Emotional intelligence can be thought of as a set of skills that help learners to be successful
in school, at work and in relationships. As a consequence of this, they are more likely have
robust self-esteem and be better placed to cope with disappointments and setbacks.
To become effective learners, young people need to develop a strong sense of self-worth
and confidence in their abilities. They need to learn to take responsibility for their own
learning and performance, and demonstrate persistence and resilience in the face of
obstacles or setbacks.
They must also be able to manage their emotions and help others to do the same. It is less
to do with controlling emotions and more to do with recognising and understanding the
effects of these emotional states and developing coping strategies. Young people must also
come to understand that negative feelings can be valuable since they provide personal
insights into thoughts, feelings and motivation to learn.

The implications for schools and teachers

The foundations for emotional intelligence, self-esteem, happiness and success in life are
laid in childhood and adolescence. Schools and teachers can play a significant part in
helping young people to establish these foundations for themselves.
Many proponents of emotional literacy believe that schools must set time aside specifically
to teach young people strategies for managing their emotional states and developing
empathy with others. Others argue, however, that this should not be treated as a separate
area of the curriculum, rather developing emotional literacy ought to be a core part of
every teachers work with young people.
Whichever approach prevails, schools must establish classroom environments that enable
teachers and learners to discuss and share their feelings, beliefs and values openly and
honestly.
The writer Andy Hargreaves proposes a four-point plan for making schools more
emotionally positive and supportive workplaces. He proposes that schools should seek to:

scale down the number of contacts between teachers and pupils, between pupils
and pupils and between teachers and teachers

develop structures that strengthen the emotional bonds between teachers and
learners

develop genuinely collaborative structures and ways of working that help teachers
to work with and in front of their peers, without feeling that they are being judged

encourage teachers to use their emotions in their teaching.

Many schools also advocate the teaching of positive strategies in order to promote
optimism and positive thinking, and to create resilient and confident learners. Teachers can
support this approach by creating classroom climates that promote optimism and by using
language rich with optimism.

Further reading
Books to help you reflect
'Emotional Intelligence' (John Mayer and Peter Salovey, 1990)
'Emotional Development and Emotional Intelligence' (John Mayer and Peter Salovey, 1997)
'Emotional Intelligence' (Daniel Goleman, 1995)
'The Emotional Brain' (Joseph LeDoux, 1996)
'Rethinking Educational Change With Heart and Mind' (Andy Hargreaves, 1997)

Books with practical ideas

'Quality Circle Time' (Jenny Mosley, 1996)
'More than 40 ways to develop emotional literacy in pupils' (Elizabeth Morris)
'Insight Secondary: assessing and evaluating self-esteem' (Elizabeth Morris, 2002)
'Insight Primary: assessing and evaluating self-esteem' (Elizabeth Morris, 2002)

Useful websites

http://www.unh.edu/emotional_intelligence/

What is a learning style?

The ways that people go about gathering and interpreting information can be surprisingly
different. Research shows that people have different preferences and strengths in how they
take in, and process, information. These preferences are sometimes referred to
as learning styles and are used to describe and help us understand the different ways in
which different people learn.
Some learners may be very receptive to visual forms of information such as pictures and
diagrams, whilst others prefer written and spoken explanations. Some people prefer to
learn actively and interactively, whilst others work better on their own.
The idea of learning styles usually refers to a preferred way of learning. It implies that
each individual has a natural inclination toward learning of some kind and, that if that
preference can be identified, teaching and learning experiences can be provided to help
that person learn more effectively.
Learning styles theory is not intended to pigeonhole or type people, but to understand
better the ways they learn.
A review of the most popular theories of learning styles can be found in the section on
Difference within Teaching for Effective Learning. This covers:

Visual, Auditory and Kinaesthetic learners

The Power of Diversity - Barbara Prashnig

Kolb's Learning Style Model

Felder-Silverman Learning Style

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Learning styles research

Over the years, a number of different learning styles theories have emerged. The majority
of these have been based on responses to questionnaires, and since this approach relies on
peoples willingness and ability to be accurate and objective about the ways that they learn,
the validity of learning styles theory has often been questioned.
The most thorough review of learning styles theory was undertaken by the Learning and
Skills Research Centre at Newcastle University whose 170-page report entitled Learning
Styles and Pedagogy in Post-16 Learning was published in 2004.
The Newcastle University researchers identified a wide range of learning styles models and
also reviewed the significant volume of research carried out into learning styles during the
past 30 years. This included David Kolbs influential inventory of Learning Styles research
between 1971 and 2004, and also Dunn and Dunns Learning Styles bibliography containing
over 1000 entries.
It was not only the number of learning styles models which surprised the Newcastle
University team, but the differences in what the models claimed to measure and the
terminology used to describe different kinds of learners. The researchers concluded that
this is potentially confusing for both schools and educational policy makers who are not
specialists in the field.

Identifying the common beliefs about learning styles

The Newcastle team reviewed 71 models of learning styles developed over the past 50
years and identified 13 as major models, largely based on their popularity. They also
sought to establish families of learning styles based on common principles and
methodologies.
Providing a holistic view of learning styles theory, however, has frequently proved difficult
for educational writers since there is no common conceptual framework or language across
learning styles models. Although there are some overlapping concepts, there is no direct
comparability between models. Across the broad landscape of learning styles models,
however, it is possible to draw some broad conclusions:

Most learning style theories focus heavily on the ability to think

The skills of visualising and verbalising are common to many models

Few approaches address the role of feelings and emotions within learning

Few theories deal with the role of physical activity within learning.
In summary, the Newcastle researchers were sceptical about the validity and reliability of
most of the main learning styles theories. Little, if any, of the research on which the main
theories are based has ever been published and there is a lack of scientific evidence to
support the underpinning constructs of learning styles theory.

No universally accepted theory

The BECTA report on learning styles (2005) support several of the key conclusions of the
Newcastle University review. The BECTA report concluded that, despite the many opinions
on learning styles, there are few generally agreed facts. Whilst some theories are more
influential than others, no model of learning styles is universally accepted. The BECTA
report, however, summarised some of the consistent messages associated with learning
styles.

There is no secure evidential base to support any one theory of learning styles - it is
important to be aware of the limitations of any learning styles model and indeed of the field
as a whole.

Any theory or model of learning styles is a simplification of the complexity of how

students learn.

Learning styles are at best one of a range of factors determining how learners react
to learning opportunities - environment, teaching methods and curriculum requirements are
all part of a complex pattern of interactions.

There is a danger inherent in learning styles of labelling students as particular kinds

of learners - given the lack of robust evidence in the field, labelling strategies seems safer
than labelling learners.

An awareness of learning styles theories may help to develop metacognition and the
ability to learn how to learn.

At least some aspects of learning styles and strategies can be taught, regardless of
the natural inclination of individual learners.
A number of influential writers (including Kolb, Honey and Mumford) have argued recently
that learning styles are not determined by inherited characteristics, but develop through
experience. Styles are, therefore, not necessarily fixed and can change over time, even
from one situation to the next. Bloomer and Hodkinson (2000) argue that learning styles
are not a major determinant of how people learn and that the effects of contextual, cultural
and relational issues are much greater.

Suzuki and Restak also promote the possibility that the brain has the ability to change
(plasticity) and transform itself based on experience. If this is true, then it is possible that
learning styles can also change and transform themselves based on experience. If teachers
promote a preferred set of learning styles for individual students, they may in fact be
limiting their ability to learn from a neurological perspective.
If learning styles are not fixed traits, but can change and adapt to different situations and
learning contexts, this suggests that schools should place less emphasis on identifying the
learning styles of students and more on encouraging a balanced approach to learning.

The argument for learning styles

Although the value of learning styles theory has been questioned in recent years, this has
been due largely to the lack of scientific research to support the various models,
particularly in relation to gains in learning and attainment. Nevertheless, there is a common
acceptance that people do learn in different ways and that greater awareness of learning
preferences and styles helps teachers to be more flexible in their teaching and to use a
wider range of classroom methodologies.
Recent work by Cheminais (2002), Reid (2005) and Burnett (2005) identifies learning style
as an important idea for inclusive learning and teaching in the classroom. Cheminais (2002)
believes that effective and successful teachers will:

show respect for pupils individual learning styles and differences

be responsive to pupils different learning styles

use different levels of tasks and activities.

The DEMOS Working Group led by David Hargreaves concluded that Many teachers are
successfully using learning styles as a means of getting students to reflect deeply on their
learning and thus develop their meta-cognitive capacities. (DEMOS, 2005)
If we accept we are different in similar ways and that it is possible to identify and measure
these differences reasonably accurately, then the potential benefits for teachers and
learners are considerable. A greater knowledge of a range of learning styles will help
teachers to:

be more aware of their preferred teaching style. This might include the way they
communicate and the kinds of methods and techniques used to explain things. It might also
include the way they plan lessons and the kinds of tasks and activities devised for learners.

recognise their students learning styles, particularly those that are different from
their own.

understand better the difficulties and barriers that young people experience in their
learning.
Potentially, the most attractive claim is that teachers will be able to match their teaching to
their students learning styles by explaining and presenting things in different ways, using
alternative teaching aids and techniques and tailoring the activities that they provide to suit
their students learning styles. Greater awareness of their own dominant learning styles can
help teachers to provide learning activities that are more inclusive of the other styles and
which reach all learners.
Even those educationalists who question the validity of learning styles as a concept, agree
that there is a benefit in enabling learners to reflect on how they learn best and this is an
important aspect of developing metacognition in young people. Some writers conclude that
fostering metacognition is perhaps the most important advantage that can be claimed for
applying learning styles theory to learning and teaching.

Learning styles - the main messages

It is important to recognise that there is no single learning style theory that is universally
accepted, nor is there a 'right' way to study or 'best' way to teach. Teachers should also
avoid the temptation to try to categorise or confine individual pupils to one learning style.
Age, educational level, and motivation influence each pupil's learning so that what was once
preferred may no longer be that pupil's current preferred learning style.
Nevertheless, greater awareness of learning preferences and styles helps teachers to be
more flexible in their teaching and to utilise a wider range of classroom methodologies. The
aim is not to match teaching style to learner preferences, but to help young people build
their skills and capacities to learn well in both preferred and less preferred modes of
learning.
The main messages for teachers, schools and learners are as follows.
1.

Do not place too much faith in any one learning styles theory. Most are not very
robust or reliable. A learning style should not be thought of as an absolute, nor should it be
considered the main determinant of intelligence, ability or competence.

2.

Most students have elements of more than one learning style. They may have a
preference for one way of learning, but can also learn in other ways although it may be
harder to do so. Knowing their preferred learning styles may help students develop
strategies to compensate for weaknesses and build on strengths.

3.

Teachers should avoid trying to categorise or confine individual pupils to one

learning style. The aim of learning style theory is to help young people build their skills and
capacities to learn well in both preferred and less preferred modes of learning. Teachers
should also be aware that age, educational level, and motivation influence each pupil's
learning and that preferred learning styles might alter over time.

4.

A teachers own preferred learning style often becomes his or her predominant
teaching style. Teachers who are aware of their preferred teaching styles and the preferred
learning styles of each of their learners, are more likely to adopt student-centred learning
experiences, even if it is not the way they learned or prefer to learn.

5.

Teachers should attempt to use a variety of materials and delivery methods to allow
students to at least have their learning style preference partly addressed.

6.

It is important that learners are able to make use of all their senses when
gathering, processing and recalling information. This is particularly true of visual and
kinaesthetic learning. Teachers should be able to vary their approaches when presenting

information and contexts for learning, for example, conveying the big picture as well as
detailing step-by-step learning where appropriate.
7.

Some research suggests that the most able learners are those with reasonably
plastic learning styles who can adapt their ability to learn to the prevailing materials and
circumstances. In other words, making people move out of their preferred learning style
gives them the possibility of developing new learning strategies.

8.

Teachers should also be aware of the importance of feelings and emotions in

learning, as well as the nature of feedback that they give to learners. This can markedly
affect the motivation and achievement of young people.
In summary, helping young people to identify the ways that they learn best and providing
them with opportunities to use all their senses and different intelligences is one of the key
challenges for policy makers, teachers and parents alike.

Further reading
Books to help you reflect
'Gifts Differing' (Isabel Myers, Consulting Psychologists Press, Paulo Alto, 1980)
'Marching to Different Drummers' (Pat Burke Guild and Stephen Garger, ASCD, Alexandria,
1998)
'Learning Styles and Pedagogy in Post-16 Learning' (The Learning and Skills Research
Centre, 2004, available at www.LSRC.ac.uk)
'About Learning: Report of the Learning Group' (David Hargreaves et al, Demos, 2005)
'Learning Styles' (Becta report, 2005)

Practical books
'What Type am I?' (Renee Baron, Penguin Books, 1998)
'Im not Crazy, Im Just not You' (Roger Pearman and Sarah Albritton, Davies Black, Paulo
Alto, California, 1996)
'A Teachers Guide to Cognitive Type Theory and Learning Style' (Carolyn Mamchur, ASCD
Virginia 1996)
'People Types and Tiger Stripes' (Gordon Lawrence, CAPT, Florida, 1979)
'The Developing Child' (Elizabeth Murphy, CPP, California, 1992)
'Different in Similar Ways' (Ian Smith, Learning Unlimited 2005)
'One of a Kind - Making the Most of Your Childs Uniqueness' (Lavonne Neff,1995)
'Please Understand Me' (David Kiersey and Marilyn Bates, Prometheus Books, California,
1978)
'Effective Teaching, Effective Learning: Making the personality connection in your
classroom' (Alice and Lisa Fairhurst, Davies Black, Paulo Alto, California 1995)
'The Power of Diversity' (Barbara Prashnig, David Bateman, New Zealand 1998)

Useful websites
www.personalitypage.com
www.knowyourtype.com
www.typelogic.com
www.personalitypathways.com