INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS PART-3

CURRENT & VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS

(FOR ELECTRIC T&D, POWER PLANTS &, INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS)
(S. R. JAVED AHMED)

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DIGITAL CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

INTRODUCTION
Current Transformers (CTs) are used in all Electrical Power Systems for Metering & Protection applications. These devices
reproduce analog secondary current (Is) proportional to the current in the Primary system.
Various types of Current Transformers are used which are classified based on the accuracy requirement as Metering class &
Protective class (otherwise known as Measuring & Relaying CTs).
These CTs are known to introduce two types of errors namely ratio (current) error and phase displacement. These errors are in
almost all cases are not introduced intentionally. In a CT designed based on induction, some part of primary AT (Ampere-turn) is
used as exciting AT to initiate polarization (reorientation of) of magnetic domains in an Iron core CT (or transforming the
electromagnetic field energy from primary to the secondary circuit). Some amount of the energy is lost as eddy current heat loss
(eddy currents that flow in the metallic body in response to varying ac flux cutting it in a plane perpendicular to it or a
component in that plane), some energy is consumed as hysteresis loss (in rotating polarity of the magnetic domains every cycle
resulting in some sort of loss analogous to friction) and some AT is consumed in magnetizing the core. Thus a CT draws some AT
from total primary AT (primary AT equals to IpxNp; where Np is number of turns of primary which the core encloses) called an
exciting AT (which is represented as IexNp; where Ie is exciting current). This exciting AT is therefore made of two perpendicular
components one IwxNP (watt loss AT made of eddy current & hysteresis losses) and ImxNP (magnetizing AT). Therefore, of the
total MMF (magneto-motive force) of IpxNP net available for transformation is (IpxNP-IexNP). This will be used to transform to
secondary AT (IsxNs).
AS we recall, for an Ideal CT: we have equation IpxNp = IsxNs. For a practical CT we have equation (IpxNp-IexNp)=IsxNs.
The ratio error is due to the magnitude of Ie and the phase displacement occurs due to the error triangle formed between Ie, Iw
& Im.
CT CORE:
A CT core satisfies equation B = H *where B is the flux density, H is magnetic field intensity (also called available magnetizing
AT/length) & is a constant known as permeability which is a magnetic property of material in which magnetic flux passes). For
an Iron core CT, is linear only until a point called a knee-point on its B-H curve (up to which all magnetic domains are fairly easy
to polarize (meaning the core flux density increases linearly with magnetizing AT for defined core length). Beyond this point it
takes lot of magnetizing AT to increase flux density in core (meaning the permeability no longer remains constant but reduces).
Ultimately, when the magnetic core is fully saturated (no more possible to polarize the domains as all domains are already
polarized---nothing is left to polarize in the iron core), it is not possible to increase any further flux in the core and flux density
reaches maximum value called saturation flux density of that core. Any further increase in magnetizing AT (by increasing Ip) will
result in leakage flux (in air which the secondary is nor able to enclose as secondary encloses only iron).
Air-core is used in case it is required to maintain constant (if the CT is required not to saturate). However, an air-core CT
requires more exciting current (in absence of ferromagnetic material)to produce enough flux to interact with secondary turns.
Hence are low powered and as the power required by the secondary circuit devices increases, the CT appears as if it gets
gradually open circuited and at a particular burden value it can no longer drive enough current for device to be useful.
Numerical devices are becoming more and more competitive in all field due to technology advances such as high-speed
processors, miniaturization, A/D converters, Digital filters, parallel processing technology etc. Substation Automation is already
became quite attractive and is going to be only option since it is devised to be future proof system, Industrial Automation &

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Power Plant Automations relied on PLC systems. Power Plant is gradually going towards unifying with the Substation Automation
as there is nothing left in power plant electrical not covered as logical node in the Substation Automation. It is only time before
them as unified (most of the relaying devices and meters are produced as automation standard compliant, e.g. IEC 61850).
Substation Automation introduced a bus called process bus at which the field inputs can be connected (CT, VT & all commands,
status etc). This has opened up a new area for the CTs & VTs. They can be designed as logic nodes to directly communicate with
any logic node in IEC 61850 systems (with all its attributes) and accordingly, the secondary system burden like wire etc is
gradually going to lose its meaning.
A CT & VT can thus become a digital device (a logical node) which forms a part of an IED (a physical device) and can communicate
digitally in ACSI with any measuring, recording, computing, protective device without any restriction in its physical location.
ADVANTAGES:
There will be no meaning like saturation of CTs, no distinction between a measuring & Protection VT in terms of
accuracy (as high accuracy required by metering and high current transformation required by protective devices can be
satisfied simultaneously).
Safety factor (making CT saturation as essential) for metering device protection will lose significance as it is digital
information that flows rather than Analog current proportional to the primary current.
Sizes will become small and cost effective.
As digital technology like optical removes requirement of Isolation and the fibers can run from EHV equipment without
elaborate cabinets, bushings etc. A fiber carrying electromagnetic wave within it can carry information from EHV system
directly to the process bus of Automation system (no metallic copper/aluminum wires required) and with technology
can act as very high band waveguide carrying huge data.
In short it is not too long before digital CTs & VTs becomes only choice for all systems.

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CTs FOR TRANSIENT PERFORMANCES

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