Professional Documents
Culture Documents
THE LIGHT
1.1.
General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.
Wave characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.
Frequency spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.
13
14
Figure 1. Wavelength .
* Wave: Graphic expression of a periodic variation represented in amplitude and time. Amplitude is the maximum value or ordenate taken by the wave.
15
Wavelength is a highly important characteristic in order to classify the visible radiation spectrum, object of study in this section of
LIGHTING ENGINEERING 2002.
This parameter is determined by the result of propagation velocity (), multiplied by the time it takes to cover one cycle (T Period):
= (m/s s = m)
Frequency ( f )
It is defined as the number of periods that take place in a time unit.
Since period is inverse to frequency,
and, therefore, frequency is directly proportional to propagation velocity, and inversely proportional to wavelength.
Propagation velocity ( )
Propagation velocity depends on wave type, elasticity of the medium and rigidity. If the medium is homogeneous and isotropic,
propagation velocity is the same in all directions.
For example, sound propagation velocity in the air, at 20 C, is that of 343.5 m/s, whereas electromagnetic waves propagation velocity
in the vacuum is equivalent to 300 000 km/s = 3 108 m/s.
The fundamental equation which relates propagation velocity to wavelength and frequency is
= f (m s-1 = m/s)
16
Black light
Ultraviolet rays
790x1012 Hz
Violet
Indigo
Blue
Green - Blue
Green
Green - Yellow
Yellow
Orange
Red
400x1012 Hz
384x1012 Hz
370x1012 Hz
Infrared
300 nm.
320
340
360
380
400 nm.
420
440
460
480
500 nm.
520
540
560
580
600 nm.
620
640
660
680
700 nm.
720
740
760
780
800 nm.
= 10-10 m
17
40
40
20
20
500 nm.
780 nm.
500 nm.
780 nm.
60
700 nm.
60
380 nm.
400 nm.
80
700 nm.
80
600 nm.
100
380 nm.
400 nm.
100
600 nm.
Figure 3
20
780 nm.
20
700 nm.
40
600 nm.
40
380 nm.
400 nm.
60
780 nm.
60
700 nm.
80
600 nm.
80
500 nm.
100
380 nm.
400 nm.
100
500 nm.
Figure 4
18
their own theory of wave propagation, Huygens was able to explain reflection and refraction supposing that light travels more slowly in
glass or in water than in air. Newton realized about the advantages of the wave theory of light, particularly because it explained colours
formed by thin films, which he had studied very thoroughly. Notwithstanding, he rejected the wave theory due to the apparent rectilinear
propagation of light. In his time, diffraction of the luminous beam, which allows to evade objects, had not yet been observed.
Newton's corpuscular theory of light was accepted for more than a century. After some time, in 1801, Thomas Young revitalized the
wave theory of light. He was one of the first scientists to introduce the idea of interference as a wave phenomenon present both in the
light and in the sound. His observations of interferences obtained from light were a clear demonstration of their wave nature.
Nevertheless, Young's research was not known by the scientific community for more than ten years. Probably, the most important
breakthrough regarding a general acceptance of the wave theory of light is due to the French physicist Augustin Fresnel (1782-1827),
who conducted thorough experiments on interference and diffraction. He also developed a wave theory based on a solid mathematical
foundation. In 1850, Jean Foucault measured the speed of light in water and checked that it is slower than in air. Thus, he finally
destroyed Newton's corpuscular theory of light. In 1860, James Clerk Maxwell published his electromagnetic mathematical theory which
preceded the existence of electromagnetic waves. These waves propagated with a calculated speed through electricity and magnetism
laws which was equivalent in value to 3 x 108 m/s, the same value than the speed of light. Maxwell's theory was confirmed by Hertz
in 1887 who used a tuned electric circuit to generate waves and another similar circuit to detect them. In the second half of the 19th
century, Kirchoff and other scientists applied Maxwell's laws to explain interference and diffraction of light and other electromagnetic
waves and support Huygens' empirical methods of wave construction on a solid mathematical basis.
Although wave theory is generally correct when propagation of light is described (and of other electromagnetic waves), it fails when other
light properties are to be explained, specially the interaction of light with matter. Hertz, in a famous experiment in 1887 confirmed
Maxwell's wave theory, and he also discovered the photoelectric effect. Such an effect can also be explained by means of a model of
particles for light, as Einstein proved only a few years later. This way, a new corpuscular model of light was introduced. The particles of
light are known as photons and energy E of a photon is related to frequency f of the luminous wave associated by Einstein's famous
ratio E = h f (h = Planck's constant). A complete understanding of dual nature of light was not achieved before the 20's in the 20th
century. Experiments conducted by scientists of the time (Davisson, Germer, Thompson and others) proved that electrons (and other
"particles") also had a dual nature and presented interference and diffraction properties besides their well-known particle properties.
In brief, the modern theory of quantum mechanics of luminous radiation accepts the fact that light seems to have a dual nature. On the
one hand, light propagation phenomena find a better explanation within Maxwell's electromagnetic theory (electromagnetic wave
fundamental nature). On the other hand, mutual action between light and matter, in the processes of absorption and emission, is a
photoelectric phenomenon (corpuscular nature).
19
20
Chapter 2.
THE EYE
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
Image formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4.
2.5.
Accommodation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.6.
Contrast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.7.
Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.8.
Glare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
21
22
Vitreous humor
Upper eyelid
Yellow spot
Aqueous humor
Ophthalmic muscles
Visual axis
Cornea
Optical nerve
Crystalline lens
Ophthalmic muscles
Iris
Retina
Ciliary muscle
Lower eyelid
Blind spot
Sclera
Choroids
23
g) Cones: photosensitive or photoreceptive cells of the retina which are mainly located in the fovea. They are very sensitive to colours
and almost insensitive to light. Hence, their function is to discriminate fine details and to perceive colours (Fig. 2).
h) Rods: photosensitive or photoreceptive cells of the retina which are only outside the fovea and more concentrated in the periphery.
They are very sensitive to light and movement, and almost insensitive to colour. Thus, their function is to perceive more or less
brightness with which objects are illuminated (Fig. 2).
i) Macule: yellow spot situated in the rear part of the retina, on the optical axis, where a precise and sharp fixation of details and colours
take place. The fovea is in its center which is only formed by cones.
j) Blind spot: a spot in the retina through which the optical nerve drives images or feelings of light to the brain. At this point, there are
no photoreceptors.
Eye globe
Nerve cell
Pigment grains
Rod
Retina enlargement
Cone
Pigmented cell
24
Photographic camera
Pigment of photoreceptors
Film emulsion
25
100
400
Wavelength nm.
500
600
700
%
80
60
40
NIGHT
DAY
20
0
Figure 4. Eye sensitivity curve to monochromatic radiations.
In this curve, the maximum eye sensitivity for day white light (photopic) corresponds to a 555 nm. wavelength and to the yellow colour.
The minimum sensitivity corresponds to the red and violet colours.
Hence, luminous sources whose wavelength corresponds to yellow - green are the ones with highest efficacy and worst quality, the
reason being that such light is not appropriate for our eye, which is accustomed to the sun white light. Thus, in premises where there
is a high illumination level orange and red colours are highlighted.
In the case of night light (scotopic), the maximum of sensitiveness moves towards shorter wavelengths (Purkinje's effect). Consequently,
those radiations with a shorter wavelength (blue- violet) produce greater intensity of sensation with low illumination. Such an effect is
very important when illuminating premises with a low illumination level where blue and violet colours can be seen better.
2.5. Accommodation
It is the eye capacity to adjust automatically to different distances of objects, and, this way, to obtain sharp images on the retina. This
adjustment takes place by modifying the crystalline curvature and, thus, the focus distance by contracting or relaxing ciliary muscles.
Provided that the objective is close to the eye, the crystalline curvature is greater than when it is far. In the photographic camera, the
lens and the film.
Accommodation or focus is easier with high luminances * (lighting) which oblige the pupil to adapt or modify the diaphragm towards a
closing position. The common result of this action is the increase of the field depth, or what is the same, a sharp vision of objects at
different distances from the eye or camera.
The eye accommodation capacity decreases with age, as a result of a hardening of the crystalline.
2.6. Contrast
All objects are perceived by contrasts of colour and luminance which different parts of their surface present among themselves and in
relation to the background in which the object appears.
* Luminance: Luminosity effect which a surface produces on the eye retina, whether it comes from a primary source of light or a reflecting surface.
26
For high enough lighting levels, the normal eye is colour sensitive, whereas for low lighting ones, objects are fundamentally perceived
by luminance contrast which is present against the background. The luminance difference between the observed object and its
immediate space is known as contrast.
Lo
Lf
Figure 5
In Fig. 5, the surface of the object has a luminance "L0" and the background surface has a luminance "Lf". Therefore, contrast "K" is the
difference between these two luminances, divided by their background one, that is to say:
K=
L0 Lf
Lf
If L0 < Lf
0<K<e
-1 < K < 0
Example a) in Fig. 6 presents an easily distinguished contrast, whereas b) and c) offer greater difficulty.
Figure 6
There is also a colour contrast. Chart 2 shows some examples.
27
Object colour
Background colour
black
yellow
green
white
red
white
blue
white
white
blue
black
white
yellow
black
white
red
white
green
white
black
Chart 2. Colour contrasts.
Contrast sensitivity
It is a concept derived from the former one which is equivalent to the minimum contrast of luminances that may be perceived by the
human eye. Mathematically speaking, it would be the inverse of contrast.
G=
Lf
L0 Lf
1
K
1
0.01
= 100
However, in normal practical conditions, sensitivity to contrasts is quite smaller because of the reasons exposed above.
2.7. Adaptation
It is the ability of the eye to adjust automatically to different lighting degrees for objects. It consists of the adjustment of the size of the
pupil so that luminance projected in the retina is equal to a value bearable by sensitive cells. If compared to a photographic camera, it
would be the greater or lesser opening of the diaphragm.
If lighting is very intense, the pupil contracts, decreasing the amount of light that reaches the crystalline. If lighting is scarce, it expands
to capture more of it.
In high value illuminations, the pupil reduces to a diameter of approximately 2 mm. In very low value illuminations, the pupil expands
up to about 8 mm.
When a person moves from a place with high illuminance to another which is completely dark, the eye undergoes an adaptation process.
In order to adjust totally to the new situation, the eye needs 30 minutes. The opposite process, when a person goes from a completely
dark place into another with high illuminance, the adaptation period lasts for only a few seconds (Fig. 7).
28
Relative photosensitivity
100
%
80
60
40
20
10
20
30
40
50
2.8. Glare
It is a phenomenon that produces disturbance or decrease in the capacity to distinguish objects, or else, both things at the same time.
This could be due either to an inadequate luminance distribution or phasing or to excessive contrasts in space or time.
This phenomenon affects the retina of the eye: an energetic photochemical reaction is produced which desensitizes it for a certain period
of time, after which, it recovers.
Effects produced by glare may be classified as psychological (discomfort) or physiological (disability). It may be produced in different
ways: direct glare, like the one from sources of light (lamps, luminaires or windows), which are located within the field of vision. Reflected
glare specially from surfaces with great reflectance, specular surfaces like polished metal.
Sources of light generally give rise to a disability glare which is proportional to the lighting produced by the source of light on the eye
pupil, as well as to a factor dependent on the q angle. Such an angle is formed by both the straight line R which joins the eye with
the F focus and the H horizontal plane which goes through the eye in a working position. In Fig. 8, different glares are indicated,
Glare
depending on the angle function. A minimum value of 30 has been taken as admissible.
10
20
30
40
50
60
29
Surfaces which are not completely matte give rise to more or less sharp images of their sources of light due to light reflection. Even if their
luminance is not excessive, such images are almost always discomforting when found in the field of vision, and specially, in its central area.
According to these lines, all unnecessary polished surfaces will be avoided as far as possible (glass over tables, for example.). In case semipolished surfaces are used (blackboards), sources of light will have the least possible luminance and their position will be calculated bearing
in mind reflexes that may occur (filters, grids, diffusers, etc.). In special cases, images which provide reflection will be useful (silhouette effect
vision, flaw inspection in polished surfaces, typesetting, etc.).
30
Chapter 3.
MATTER OPTICAL
PROPERTIES
3.1.
General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.
Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3.
Transmmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4.
Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5.
Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
31
32
3.2. Reflection
When any type of waves strikes a flat surface like a mirror, for example, new waves that move away from the surface are generated. This
phenomenon is known as reflection.
When light is returned by a surface, a certain amount of light is lost due to the absorption phenomenon. The ratio between the reflected
flux and the incident flux is called surface reflectance
Any surface which is not completely dark may reflect light. The amount of reflected light is determined by the surface reflection
properties. There are four kinds of reflection, namely: specular, composed, diffused and mixed. Reflector systems are based on these
reflection properties.
Specular reflection (Fig. 1): It takes place when the reflecting surface is flat. This kind of reflection is based on two fundamental laws:
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the surface at the point of incidence lie in the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence (i) is the same as the angle of reflection (r).
N
i
33
34
Reflecting surface
% reflection index
Gloss silver
92 - 97
Gold
60 - 92
Matte silver
85 - 92
Polished nickel
60 - 65
Polished chrome
60 - 65
Polished aluminium
67 - 72
Electropolished aluminium
86 - 90
Vaporised aluminium
90 - 95
Copper
35 - 80
Iron
50 - 55
Enamelled porcelain
60 - 80
Mirrors
80 - 85
70 - 80
Light beige
70 - 80
60 - 75
Accoustic ceilings
60 - 75
Light green
70 - 80
45 - 65
Light blue
45 - 55
Light grey
40 - 50
Light red
30 - 50
Light brown
30 - 40
Dark beige
25 - 35
5 - 20
Black
3-4
Chart 1. Reflection coefficient for white daylight.
3.3. Transmmission
Radiation passes through a medium without a change in the frequency of monochromatic radiations. This phenomenon can be seen
on certain kinds of glass, crystal, water and other liquids, and air, of course.
However, when passing through the material, some of the light is lost due to the reflection on the medium surface and through
absorption. The relation between the transmitted light and the incident light is known as material transmittance.
Transmission falls into three categories: spread, diffused and mixed.
Spread transmission (Fig. 5): The beam strikes a medium and passes through it. The media which fulfill this property are called
transparent materials and allow a sharp view of objects on the opposite side.
35
36
3.4. Absorption
Process by which radiant energy is converted into a different form of energy, mainly in the form of heat. This phenomenon is
characteristic both of all surfaces which are not completely reflective and of materials which are not totally transparent. The ratio between
absorbed flux to incident flux is known as absorptance.
Absorption of certain light wavelengths is called selective absorption. Generally speaking, objects take their color from selective
absorption.
3.5. Refraction
The direction of the light beam may change when passing from one medium to the other. This is a result of a change in the light speed
of propagation. Speed decreases if the new media density is higher, and increases if it is lower. This change in speed and direction is
known as refraction.
There are two laws of refraction:
1. When the wave goes from one medium to another, the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the separating surface of
the media on the incidence point, are on the same plane.
2. The ratio between the incidence angle sine and the refraction angle sine is a constant for the given pair of media.
The above mentioned constant is known as the index of refraction n, for the given media. The second law of refraction is usually known
as Snells law.
1
n1
n2
2
n1
sin a1 n2
= =n
sin a2 = n1
37
Refraction varies according to wavelength. Short waves (like blue and violet) are transmitted better than long waves (for example red).
This phenomenon is used to decompose white light into its component colours when passing through a refraction prism. The degree
to which color is decomposed depends on the angle of incidence and the refraction properties of the prism material. This is called
dispersion.
* ni is calculated by the quotient between the speed of light in the air and the speed of light in the medium i.
38
Chapter 4.
THE COLOUR
4.1.
General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
39
40
Prism
380 nm.
400 nm.
White light
500 nm.
600 nm.
700 nm.
780 nm.
41
520
530
540
510
550
560
570
500
580
590
3.200
5.000
10.000
490
600
2.500
800
6.500
24.000
610
620
630
650
700
750
480
470
460
450
400-380
* K = Kelvin. Temperatures of Kelvins scale exceed in 273 C the corresponding ones in the centigrade scale.
42
Colour appearance
Warm
Below 3 300
Intermediate
Cold
Above 5 300
Chart 1
Tc (K)
R.C.
Blue sky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10 000 a 30 000
85 to 100 (group 1)
Cloudy sky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 000
85 to 100 (group 1)
Daylight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 000
85 to 100 (group 1)
6 000
96 to 100 (group 1)
3 000 a 5 000
70 to 84 (group 2)
Warm white . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40 to 69 (group 3)
2 900
Lower than 40
Incandescent lamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 100 a 3 200
85 to 100 (group 1)
Photographic lamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 400
85 to 100 (group 1)
1 800
40 to 69 (group 3)
Chart 2
43
Rendering group
in colour
R 90
Intermediate
Cold
1B
colour (R or Ra)
Warm
1A
90 > R 80
Warm
Intermediate
Intermediate
Warm
industrial work
Warm
2
80 > R 60
60 > R 40
40 > R 20
Intermediate
Industrial work
Offices, schools
Rough industries
Industrial work
Cold
Rough work, industrial work
with low requisites for
colour rendering
Chart 3. Lamp colour rendering groups.
44
Chapter 5.
LUMINOUS MEASUREMENTS
5.1.
5.2.
5.3.
Luminous intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.4.
5.5.
Luminance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.6.
5.7.
5.8.
45
46
Two basic elements intervene in lighting engineering: both the source of light and the object to be illuminated.
In the present chapter, we will deal with fundamental measurements and units used to evaluate and compare the quality and effects of
sources of light.
(lm/W)
If a lamp was to be manufactured which transformed all the consumed electrical output into light at one 555 nm. wavelength without
losses, such a lamp would have the highest performance possible. Its value would be 683 lm/W.
47
=1
= 1 radian
r=1
(total) = 2 radians
r = 1m.
= 1 Lm
E = 1 Lux
S = 1 m2
1cd
(total) = 4 stereoradians
(lm/sr)
Candela is defined as the luminous intensity of a specific source which emits luminous flux equal to one lumen in a solid angle per
stereoradian (sr).
48
According to the I.S.*, candela may also be defined as the luminous intensity in a certain direction, from a source which emits
monochromatic radiation with a frequency of 540 1012 Hz, and whose energy intensity in the aforementioned direction is 1/683 watts
per stereoradian.
(lx = lm/m2)
Thus, according to the formula, the higher the luminous flux incident on a surface, the higher its illuminance. Also, for the same given
incident luminous flux, illuminance will be higher as surface decreases.
According to the I.S., lux may be defined as the illuminance of a certain surface which receives a luminous flux of one lumen, spread
over one square meter of its surface.
1
2
3
5.5. Luminance
Luminance is the effect which produces a surface on the retina of the eye, both coming from a primary source which produces light,
or from a secondary source or surface which reflects light.
Luminance measures brightness for primary light sources as well as for sources constituting illuminated objects. This term has substituted
the concepts of brightness and lighting density. Nevertheless, it is interesting to remember that the human eye does not perceive colours
but brightness, as a colour attribute. Light perception is, in fact, the perception of differences in luminance. Therefore, it may be stated
that the eye perceives luminance differences but not illuminance ones (provided that we have the same lighting, different objects have
different luminance since they have different reflection characteristics).
Luminance of an illuminated surface is the ratio between luminance of a source of light in a given direction, to the surface of the
projected source depending on such direction.
49
Real surface
1nt =
1m2
1stilb =
1cd
1cm2
S cos
where:
S cos = Apparent surface.
Luminance is independent from the observation distance.
Luminance measurement
Luminance measurement is conducted by means of a special device called a luminancemetre or nitmeter. It is based on two optical
systems, directional and measurement systems, respectively. (Fig. 6).
The directional system is oriented in such a way that the image coincides with the point to be measured. Once it has been oriented,
the light that reaches it is transformed into electric current. Its values are measured in cd/m2.
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
Figure 6. Luminancemeter.
50
Symbol c
Unit
Ratio
5.6.2. Reflectance
Ratio between the flux reflected by a body (with or without diffusion) and the flux received.
Unit
Symbol c
Ratio
5.6.3. Absorptance
Ratio between the luminous flux absorbed by a body and the flux received.
c
Symbol c
Unit
Ratio
5.6.4. Transmittance
Ratio between the luminous flux transmitted by a body and the flux received.
Unit
Symbol c
Ratio
Symbol c
Um
Unit
Ratio
Um =
min
med
Symbol c
Ue
Unit
Ratio
Ue =
min
max
Symbol c
UL
Unit
Ratio
UL =
Llongitudinal min
Llongitudinal max
Symbol c
U0
Unit
Ratio
U0 =
Lmin
Lmed
51
Symbol c
Fm
Unit
Ratio
Fm = Fpl Fdl Ft Fe Fc
Fpl = lamp position factor
Fdl = lamp depreciation factor
Ft = temperature factor
Fe = ignition equipment factor
Fc = installation preservation factor
!r dr
Photometric solid is the solid obtained. Fig. 7 shows an incasdescent lamp photometric solid.
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
20
40
52
180
150
120
80
60
40
cd
90
20
40
60
80
60
100
120
140
0
30
C=
18
0
270
C=
rotation axis
"C" planes
frequently used coordinate systems to obtain photometric curves is the C - represented in Fig. 9.
C=
90
= 180
in c
lin
C=
a ti
on
axi
0
= 9 0
s
= 0
Ro
ad
Wa
lkw way
si
ay
sid de
e
53
the reason why a sole curve is enough for its photometric identification. Fig. 11 reflector is asymmetric and each plane has a different
curve. All planes must be known.
60o
30o
0o
30o
Unit = cd/1000 lm
C=90
C=45
C=0
320
240
80 0
70o
50o
30o
10o 0o
Unit = cd/1000 lm
C=90
C=45
C=0
-90
-80
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
80
1
5
10
90
-70
80
60 40
70
20
30
-60
60
-50
60
-40
30
-20
-10
GM=0
10
50
40
-30
54
90
20
Imax=100%
This representation is very comprehensive. However, more experience is needed to interpret it.
The flux emitted by a source of light provides surface lighting (illuminance) whose values are measured in lux. If those values are
projected on the same plane and a line links the ones with the same value, isolux curves are formed (Fig. 13).
WALKWAY SIDE
5
30
40
20
80
60
50
70
10
h
5
2h
1
ROADWAY SIDE
3h
6h
5h
3h
4h
2h
2h
3h
Lmax=100%
fl=0.154
Figure 13. Isolux curves.
Finally, luminance depends on the luminous flux reflected by a surface in the observers direction. Values are measured in candelas per
square metre (cd/m2) and are represented by isoluminance curves (Fig. 14).
OBSERVERS: A, B AND C
A
B
6h
5h
ROADWAY SIDE
3h
4h
1
2h
2h
20
30
40
50
60
3h
80
70
50
h
10
2h
3h
WALKWAY SIDE
Roadway R2
Qo = 0.07
Lmax=100%
fl=0.152
55
Unit
Ratio
Luminous flux
Measurement
Lumen (lm)
F=Iq
Luminous efficacy
Luminous output
Q=Ft
Luminous intensity
Illuminance
Candela (cd)
Lux (lx)
(lx = lm/m )
Nit = cd/ m2
L=
Utilization coefficient
Reflectance
Absorptance
Transmittance
Um
Stilb = cd/cm2
Ue
UL
U0
Maintenance factor
Fm
S cos
Um =
Ue =
UL =
Luminance
56
(cd = lm/sr)
e
r
min
med
min
max
Llongitudinal min
Llongitudinal max
U0 =
Lmin
Lmed
Fm = Fpl Fdl Ft Fe Fc
Chapter 6.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
6.1.
6.2.
Cosine law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.3.
6.4.
Illuminance ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.5.
Lamberts law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
57
58
d2
(lx)
where is the illuminance level in lux (lx), is the intensity of the source in candelas (cd), and d is the distance from the source of light
to the perpendicular receptor plane.
In this way, an illuminance ratio 1 and 2 may be established, between two planes separated by a distance d and D from the source
of light, respectively:
1 d2 = 2 D2
1
D2
= 2
2 = d
S2
S1
E2
E1
d
D
d2
cos (lx)
59
Illuminance in any given point of a surface is proportional to the cosine of the angle of incidence of the luminous rays in the
illuminated point.
In Fig. 2 two sources of light F and F with the same luminous intensity (I) and at the same distance (d) from point P are represented.
To the source of light F with cos0 = 1 corresponds an angle of incidence equal to zero. This source produces illuminance for the point
P with a value of:
F'
60
F
P
d
Figure 2. Iluminance at a point from two sources of light with different angles of incidence.
p =
d2
cos 0 =
d2
1 c p =
(lx)
d2
Likewise, F with an angle = 60, corresponding cos60 = 0.5, will produce at the same point an illuminance valued as:
p =
d2
cos 60 =
d2
0.5 c p =
1
2
d2
(lx)
Therefore, p = 0.5 p, that is to say, to obtain the same illuminance at point P, the luminous intensity of the source F must double
that of the source F.
In practice, distance d from the source to the considered point is not known, but its height h to the horizontal of the point is. By using
a simple trigonometric relation and substituing it in the equation, a new relation where height h plays an important role is obtained:
h
cos =
p =
cos =
( )
cd=
cos =
h
cos
h2
cos2 cos
cos
p =
60
h2
cos3
(lx)
Vertical
illuminance
M2
I
d
al e
rm a n c
o
N in
m
illu
Horizontal
illuminance
M1
M
a
Normal illumination
The inverse square distance law is applied:
N =
(lx)
d2
where I is the luminous intensity under the angle a. Virtually, only normal illuminance of a point is considered whenever this point is
situated in the vertical of the source on the horizontal plane (M1 point). Thus, the previous formula is transformed into:
N =
(lx)
h2
and also when it is situated in a straight line with the source on the vertical plane (M2 point), the illuminance is:
N =
(lx)
a2
Horizontal illumination
If the law of cosine is directly applied, the result is:
H = N cos =
d2
cos
(lx)
Such a formula may be reformulated in relation to the height h between the F source and the M point (d = h / cos):
H =
h2
cos3
(lx)
61
Vertical illumination
In this case, the law of the cosine is also directly applied. The result is that:
V = N cos
(lx)
Between the and angles, there is a simple relation since both belong to a triangle rectangle.
+ + 90 = 180
= 90 -
d2
sin
(lx)
(lx)
The equation may be expressed in relation to the height h between the F source and the M point.
V =
h2
cos2 sin
(lx)
I
h
h2
(lx)
h is the vertical height of the source of light over the horizontal plane which contains point P.
Vertical / horizontal
The experience from high illuminance level installations with a very good glare control indicates that the ratio between vertical (EV) and
horizontal illuminance (EH) for a good modelling* must not be lower than 0.25 in the main directions of vision.
V
H
0.25
* Modelling: Ability of light to reveal the texture and tridimensional form of an object creating light and shade contrasts.
62
Vectorial /Spherical
Directional lighting effects may be described partly through vectorial illuminance and partly through the ratio between vectorial and
spherical illuminance.
The illuminance vector at a point has a magnitude equal to the maximum difference in illuminance over those diametrically opposed
surface elements in a small disc (Fig. 5) located in a point, their direction being from the greatest illuminance element to the lowest
one.
Ef
Er
E
Figure 5. Illuminance vector E = Ef Er.
The spherical average at point is the average illuminance over all the surface of a small sphere located at such a point (Fig. 6).
Es
Figure 6. Spherical medium illuminance ES.
Lighting directional intensity may be indicated by the given modelling through the ratio between vectorial illuminance and average
spherical illuminance:
S
If we measure it using a sphere with a radius r which receives a beam of light with an F luminous flux, it would be:
S =
4 r2
r2
j
In a room with a floor, walls and a flat ceiling with diffused reflection, where there is also diffused light, we have that j 0 (that is to
j
say, there are no shadows). Under these circumstances, the modelling index is / sj 0. However, in a completely dark room where
63
j
the light comes from one direction only (for example, sunlight), = (that is to say, dark shadows). Under these circumstances, the
j
modelling index is equivalent to / = / s = 4.
Therefore, modelling index may vary between values such as 0 and 4.
j
Vector must have a downward direction (preferibly between 45 and 75 to the vertical) in order to obtain a natural appearance of
human features.
Cylindrical / Horizontal
An alternative concept to describe the modelling effect is the ratio between cylindrical illuminance and horizontal illuminance at a certain
point.
The average cylindrical illuminance C at a point is average illuminance over a curved surface of a small cylinder located at the point
(Fig. 7). Unless otherwise indicated, the cylinder axis must be vertical.
EC
Figure 7. Average cylindrical illuminance EC.
Cylindrical illuminance at a point equals average vertical illuminance in all directions at such a point. A good modelling is achieved when
the ratio is:
C
0.3 3
H
Generally speaking, direction is automatically taken into account. Therefore, it is not necessary to specify it from an additional point of
view, like in the case of vectorial / spherical ratio: when light comes directly from above, C = 0 and C / H = 0; when light is horizontal,
H = 0 and C / H j q.
Vertical / Semicylindrical
Tests conducted in relation to lighting of pedestrian outodoor areas (low level lighting areas) have proved that the ratio between vertical
illuminance and semicylindrical illuminance provides a useful measure of acceptance of human features modelling, for the mentioned
application area.
Semicylindrical illuminance semicyl at a point in a given horizontal direction equals the average illuminance on a curved surface of a
small vertical semicylinder located at such a point, with a curved surface focused towards the specified direction (Fig. 8).
64
Esem
Figure 8. Semicylindrical illuminance.
Well balanced lighting relief (neither very short nor very intense) is obtained at:
0.8
V
semicyl
1.3
(/2) = 1.57
0
S
and L =
S cos
This ratio is known as Lamberts Law and only perfect emitters or diffusers comply to it.
Lo
L
Io
Surface
Figure 9. Luminance invariability in relation to the incidence angle.
65
66
Chapter 7.
LUMINAIRES
7.1.
General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.2.
7.3.
7.4.
7.5.
7.6.
7.7.
Luminaire efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
67
68
Chapter 7. LUMINAIRES
General remarks
Due to the high luminance of lamps, it is necessary to increase the emission apparent surface in order to avoid visual problems (glare).
Also, it is necessary to shield lamps to protect them from external agents and to direct their flux in the most convenient way for visual
task.
Thus, different studies and contemporary research place great emphasis on the combination formed by the source of light and the
luminaire.
According to the UNE-EN 60598-1* Norm, a luminaire may be defined as a lighting apparatus which spreads, filters or transforms
light emited by a lamp or lamps including all components necessary for supporting, fixing and protecting the lamps, (except for the
lamps themselves). Should the need arise, also the auxiliary circuits combined with the media for the connection to the power supply.
Main components
Independently from other definitions which could be more or less descriptive, a luminaire may be defined as an object formed by a
combination of elements designed to give an appropriate luminous radiation of an electric origin. Materialization of these elements is
achieved by combining a good formal design and a reasonable economy of materials in each situation.
Formal design solves luminous control depending on needs, which is the main aim: both a thermal control which makes its functioning
stable and an electric control which offers adequate guarantees to the user. Economy of materials provides a solid and efficient product,
an easily installed luminaire, and minimum maintenance while in use.
Regarding the most fundamental characteristic components, body, control gear, reflector, diffuser, and filter among others, must be
mentioned. All of them fall into other classifications shown below.
1. Body: This is the minimum physical element which supports and defines the volume of the luminaire and contains the key
components. According to this criterion, several types may be defined:
- For indoor or outdoor areas.
- Surface or embedded mounted.
- Suspended or rail mounted.
- Wall, bracket or pole mounted.
- Open or enclosed.
- For normal or harsh environments (corrosion or explosion).
2. Control gear: Appropriate control gear would be selected to suit different sources of artificial light, according to the following
classification:
- Regular incandescent with no auxiliary elements.
- High voltage halogene to regular voltage, or low voltage with converter or electronic source.
- Fuorescent tubes. With reactances or ballasts, capacitors and starters, or electronic combinations of ignition and control.
- Discharge. With reactances or ballasts, capacitors and starters, or electronic combinations of ignition and control.
3. Reflector: A specific surface inside the luminaire which models form and direction of the lamp flux. Depending on how luminous
radiation is emitted, it may be:
- Symmetric (with one or two axes) or asymmetric.
- Narrow beam (lower than 20) or wide beam (between 20 and 40; greater than 40).
- Specular (with scarce luminous dispersion) or non specular (with flux dispersion).
- Cold (with dicroic reflector) or normal.
4. Diffuser: This forms the cover of the luminaire in the direction of the luminous radiation. The most frequently found types are:
- Opal (white) or prismatic (translucent).
- Lamellae or reticular (with a direct influence on the shielding angle).
- Specular or non specular (with similar characteristics to reflectors).
5. Filters: In possible combination with diffusers, they are used to protect or lessen certain characteristics of luminous radiation.
* The UNE-EN 60598-1 Norm adopts the Internacional Norm CIE 598-1.
69
Chapter 7. LUMINAIRES
7.2. Luminaire classification according to the degree of protection from electric contacts
Luminaires must secure protection of people from electric contacts. Depending on the degree of electric insulation, luminaires can be
classified as:
Class 0: Luminaire with basic insulation, lacking double insulation or overall reinforcement as well as an earth connection.
Class I: Luminaire with functional basic insulation and an earth connection terminal or contact.
Class II: Luminaire with double basic insulation and /or reinforced overall insulation lacking provision for earth discharge.
Class III: Luminaire designed to be connected to extra-low voltage circuits, lacking internal or external circuits not working at an extra-low
security voltage.
Brief description
Symbol
Non-protected.
No symbol
No symbol
No symbol
No symbol
No symbol
Dust- protected.
Dust tight.
Chart 1. EN-60598 classification according to dust protection degree (1st numeral).
Brief description
Non- protected.
Symbol
No symbol
No symbol
No symbol
-m
Chart 2. EN-60598 classification according to the degree of protection from water (2nd numeral).
70
Chapter 7. LUMINAIRES
Brief description
Symbol
Non- protected
No symbol
No symbol
No symbol
No symbol
No symbol
No symbol
IK
From 00 to 10
Each characteristic numeral represents a value for impact energy, whose correspondance is summarised in chart 4.
IK Code
IK00
Ik01
IK02
IK03
IK04
IK05
IK06
IK07
IK08
IK09
IK10
0.15
0.2
0.35
0.5
0.7
10
20
Symbol
No symbol, but a warning notice is required.
On plaque.
71
Chapter 7. LUMINAIRES
00 - 010
90 - 100
Semi-direct
10 - 040
60 - 090
Direct-indirect
40 - 060
40 - 060
General diffuse
40 - 060
40 - 060
Semi-indirect
60 - 090
10 - 040
Indirect
90 - 100
00 - 010
Direct
Direct
Semi-direct
General-diffuse
0~10%
10~40%
40~60%
90~100%
60~90%
40~60%
Direct-indirect
Semi-indirect
Indirect
40~60%
60~90%
90~100%
40~60%
10~40%
0~10%
Symmetrical distribution luminaires: Those in which the luminous flux is spread symmetrically with respect to the
symmetric axis and spatial distribution of luminous intensities. It may be represented as a single photometric curve.
2)
Asymmetric distribution luminaires: Those in which the luminous flux is spread asymmetrically with respect to the
symmetric axis and the spatial distribution of luminous intensities. It may expressed by a photometric solid, or, partially, by
a flat curve of such a solid, depending on certain characteristic planes.
72
Chapter 7. LUMINAIRES
- Plane C = 0.
- Plane C = 45.
- Plane C = 90.
Polar distribution curves are in the cd units per 1 000 lumens of flux emited by the lamp. They are represented in cd/1 000
lm or cd/Klm. (Fig. 2).
C=90
0
C=45
200
100
C=0
300
400
Cd/Klm
80
70
60
50
GM=0
10
20
30
40
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
GM=0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
73
Chapter 7. LUMINAIRES
For wide beam luminaires, the diagram will show a curve with a softer slope, since flux varies little by little, as the angle increases.
Glare diagram
These diagrams are based on the C.I.E. Glare Protection System. Curves representing these diagrams are of luminance limitation.
Such curves cover a glare index scale (quality classes from A to E established by the C.I.E.) and different illuminance values in
standard service.
Two diagrams must be used depending on luminaire type and orientation according to vision.
The required limitation of luminance depends on the luminaire type of orientation, shielding angle, acceptance degree or class
quality, as well as on the value of the illuminance in service.
In Figs. 4a and 4b, diagrams of luminance curves for the evaluation of direct glare are shown. Diagram 1 is for those directions
of vision parallel to the longitudinal axis of any elongated luminaire and for luminaires which lack luminous lateral panels,
observed from any direction. Diagram 2 is for those directions of vision in right angles to the longitudinal axis of any luminaire
with luminous lateral panels.
It is defined as:
- Luminous laterals: A luminaire has luminous laterals is it possesses a luminous lateral panel with a height of more than 30
mm.
- Elongated: A luminaire is elongated when the ratio between length and width of the luminous area is higher than 2:1.
C=90
C=90
C=0
C=180
C=270
C=270
85
GM
8
6
4
75
3
a/h
65
55
45
9 10
G
1.15
1.50
1.85
2.20
2.55
Quality
A
B
C
D
E
6 7 8 9 10 Cd/m
1000
2000
500
1000
2000
=<300
500
1000
2000
=<300
500
1000
2000
=<300
500
1000
74
=<300
500
=<300
Chapter 7. LUMINAIRES
Quality
A
B
C
D
E
1.15
1.50
1.85
2.20
2.55
1000
2000
85
ab c
500
1000
2000
=<300
500
1000
2000
=<300
500
1000
2000
=<300
500
1000
=<300
500
=<300
h
8
6
GM
75
3
a/h
65
55
45
9 10
6 7 8 9 10
Cd/m
C=0
C=180
Type of
luminaire
Direction of
maximum intensity
inferior to
Cut off
30 cd / 1 000 lm
10 cd / 1 000 lm*
65
100 cd / 1 000 lm
50 cd / 1 000 lm*
76
Any
75
Chapter 7. LUMINAIRES
195 cd
130 cd
65 cd
65 cd
130 cd
195 cd
195 cd
65 cd
65 cd
130 cd
195 cd
195 cd
130 cd
65 cd
130 cd
195 cd
Cut- off
195 cd
130 cd
65 cd
65 cd
130 cd
195 cd
Cut- off
Axis of the
beam
max
90% Imax
I max
0
Figure 6. Intensity polar curve in the plane which contains the maximum
luminous intensity, indicated by the angle used to determine the throw.
Three levels of throw are distinguished as follows:
max < 60
: short throw.
70 max 60
: intermediate throw.
max > 70
: long throw.
76
Chapter 7. LUMINAIRES
The spread is defined by the positioning of the line, running parallel to the axis of the path. Virtually, it does not touch the
furthest side from the 90% Imax on its path. The positioning of this line is defined by the 90 angle.
The three levels of spread are defined in the following manner:
90 < 45
: narrow spread.
55 90 45
: average spread.
90 > 55
: broad spread.
90
1h
2h
90% Imax
3h
4h
Figure 7. Spread.
Both the luminaire throw and spread may be more easily determined from an isocandela diagram in an azimuthal projection
(Fig. 8).
max
90% Imax
90
77
Chapter 7. LUMINAIRES
Control is defined by the specific index, the luminaire SLI. This is part of the G formula of glare control, determined only by the
features of the luminaire.
SLI = 13.84 - 3.31 . log(I80) + 1.3 . log
( )
I80
I88
( )
0.5
- 0.08 .
log
I80
+ 1.29 . log(F) + C
I88
where:
I80 = Luminous intensity at an elevation angle of 80, in a parallel plane to the axis of the roadway (cd).
I80
= Ratio between luminous intensities for 80 and 88.
I88
F = Light emission area for the luminaires (m2) projected on the direction of the elevation at 76.
C = Colour factor, variable according to lamp type (+0.4 for low pressure sodium and 0 for the others).
55
60 45
70
(90% Imax)
Short
1.7h
2.7h
1h
1.4 h
Intermediate
Long
Narrow
Average
Broad
Spread
max
Figure 9. In this figure, the three degrees of throw and spread defined by the
C.I.E. are shown, where h is the luminaire mounting height.
Control is also classified into three levels, which are the following:
SLI < 2
: limited control.
4 SLI 2
: moderate control.
SLI > 4
: tight control.
In the following chart, the C.I.E. previous definitions are summarised and shown.
Throw
Short max < 60
Intermediate 70 max 60
Long max > 70
Spread
Control
Narrow 90 < 45
Average 55 90 45
Moderate 4 SLI 2
Broad 90 > 55
78
Chapter 7. LUMINAIRES
-90
240
160
80
100
200
300
400
90
100
200
300
400
90
-80
80
80
-70
70
70
-60
60
60
-50
50
50
-40
-30
-20
-10 GM=0 10
20
30
40
GM=0 10
30
20
40
C=20.0
-90
-80
320
330
340 350
C=0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
80
1
5
10
90
-70
60 40
80
70
20
30
-60
60
-50
60
-40
50
40
-30
30
-20
-10
GM=0
10
20
I =100%
max
79
Chapter 7. LUMINAIRES
6h
5h
4h
WALKWAY SIDE
3h
1
2h
2h
40
50
60
3h
20
30
70
80
50
h
10
5
2h
ROADWAY SIDE
Roadway R2
Qo = 0.07
3h
Lmax=100%
fl=0.152
WALKWAY SIDE
5
30
40
20
80
60
50
70
10
2h
1
3h
ROADWAY SIDE
6h
5h
Emax=100%
fl=0.154
4h
3h
2h
2h
3h
80
Chapter 7. LUMINAIRES
Under the diagram, a factor for the luminaire in use () is indicated.
Maximum illuminance is calculated by means of the following formula:
max =
.
h2
where:
= factor for the luminaire in use.
= lamp luminous flux.
h = interdistance between luminaires.
Performance in luminances
These diagrams are used to calculate average luminance on the surface of the roadway of a public lighting installation. If the
pavement reflection class is known, the corresponding diagram will be used.
Luminance performance diagrams are drawn in units of luminaire mounting height. Due to this reason, they are very useful for
direct graphic uses.
0.6
C
0.5
B
A
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
h
2h
3h
270
C=90
180
81
Chapter 7. LUMINAIRES
Lmax =
L . . Qo
w .s
where:
L = luminance performance factor.
= lamp luminous flux.
QO = average luminance coefficient.
w = road width.
s = interdistance between luminaires.
Utilization factors
In road lighting, utilization factor (h) is defined as the fraction of the luminous flux coming from a luminaire which, in fact, reaches
the road. Utilization factor curves found on the photometric information sheets offer a simple method to calculate average
illumination, which may be determined for a certain transverse section of the road.
= used
lamp
Utilization factor curves for a luminaire are understood as a function of transverse distances, measured in terms of h (mounting
height) on the road surface, from the center of the luminaire up to each of the two curves (Fig. 15).
Walkway side
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
2h
3h
270
C=90
180
0.0
med =
where:
= utilization factor.
= lamp luminous flux.
n = number of lamps per luminaire.
w = width of the road.
s = interdistance between luminaires.
82
..n
w .s
Chapter 7. LUMINAIRES
Description
Narrow beam
< 20
Medium beam
20 to 40
Wide beam
> 40
50% I max
Imax
Beam opening
50% I max
Figure 16
For a floodlight with an intensity distribution of light in a symmetric rotational way (that is to say, distribution remains unchanged
independently from the plane containing the axis of the beam under consideration), a figure for the opening of the beam may
be established, for example 28 at both sides of the axis of the beam.
For asymmetric distribution, as that given by rectangular fllodlights, two figures are given: for example 6/24, since the beam
is spread into two symmetric perpendicular planes (vertical and horizontal, respectively). Sometimes, distribution in the vertical
plane of such floodlights is asymmetric in relation to the beam axis. In this kind of situation, two figures are given for the opening
of the beam in this plane: for example, 5 - 8/24, that is to say, 5 above and 8 below the axis of the beam; and, in the
83
Chapter 7. LUMINAIRES
Imax/2
400
300
200
100
-90 -80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
84
Chapter 7. LUMINAIRES
80
70
60
50
40
30
Planes B
20
10
0
AXIS X
70
-10
50% of Imax
-20
-30
-40
30
20
-50
15
-60
5
10
3
-70
-80
-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Beta angles
Figure 18. Isocandela diagram for the B- system.
85
Chapter 7. LUMINAIRES
of the systems A- and B-. Tests for obtaining the last two differ depending on the country that conducts them.
When applied to the photometry of these types of luminaires, the reference axis is always vertical and directed towards the
lowest point (nadir).
All systems have a beam of planes with an intersection axis, sometimes called rotation axis.
In each case, a direction in space is characterized by an angle measured between two planes and an angle measured in one
of the planes.
Systems differ between themselves with regards to axis orientation of the intersection in space in relation to the luminaire axis.
To test floodlights, systems adapted to the horizontal axis are used, but their name varies in different countries.
86
Captulo 7. LUMINARIAS
LUMINOTECNIA 2002
87
Chapter 8.
LAMPS
8.1.
General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.2.
Thermal radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.3.
Luminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
8.4.
8.5.
Incandescent lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
8.6.
8.7.
8.8.
8.9.
87
88
Chapter 8. LAMPS
LIGHT PRODUCTION
Thermal radiation
Incandescent
combustion
Luminiscence
Gas discharge
Natural
Sun
Artificial
Flame
Gaslight
Electric arc
Incandescent lamp
Ray
Glowworm
Luminiscent substance
Luminous plaque
Solid body plaque
Radioactive source of light
Incandescent colour
0.400
0.700
red - grey
0.900
red - dark
1 100
red - yellow
1 300
red - light
1 500
2 000 onwards
red - white
89
Chapter 8. LAMPS
50
%
40
30
20
10
10
5 000
10 000
Temperature
Figure 2. Visible radiation depending on absolute temperature.
90
Chapter 8. LAMPS
a coal filament and gave it a practical utility as a series article in 1879. At the same time as Edison, the british Swan also achieved
a usual incandescent lamp.
The coal filament: Lamps used from 1880 to 1909, had a coal filament composed of coked bamboo or paper fibres.
The point of fusion of this filament was approximately of 3,700 C, but due to its high vaporization index, lamps could also be
made for a temperature in service of about 1,900 C. Thus, luminous performance was not more than 3 to 5 lm/W.
The metal filament: At the beginning of the past century, a search begun in order to find metals that would be able to substitute
the coal filament in a susccessful way. Among metals with a high degree of fusion were osmium, tantalium and wolfram mainly.
Wolfram point of fusion is approximately 3,400 C, with an evaporation index slightly lower than that of coal. The lamp life is
approximately 1,000 hours, the filament incandescence temperature reached 2,400 C and a luminous performance of 8 to
10 lm/W was obtained.
8.3. Luminescence
Those luminous phenomena whose cause does not exclussively obey to temperature of the luminescent substance. Such phenomena
are characterized because only some particles of the matter atoms, the electrons, are excited to produce electromagnetic radiations. In
order to understand such a study, Brhs atomic model must be studied.
E = Electron
e3
e2
e1
f1
A= Absorption
Weak excitation
Strong excitation
W
f2
= Energy emission
S= Emission
A S
Phosphorescence
m = Acummulation level
According to this model, each atom is formed by a positive atomic nucleus and by a cover of negative electrons. These are distributed
in different layers that rotate around the nucleus following certain orbits. Usually there is an electric balance in the atom, that is to say,
the number of positive charges is equal to the number of negative charges (electrons). This balance is known as fundamental state of
the electron E, and for electrons in the most internal orbit, it is identical to the base line f (Fig. 3).
If a certain amount of energy is administered to the electron from the outside, electron E is excited and moved from its regular orbit to
the next one or to another more external one. Thus, the energy supplied is absorbed. The electron is located in a superior energy level
(level lines e1, e2, e3, etc. of Fig. 3). After a short time in this level, the electron returns again to its regular initial position (line f of Fig.
3) and emits the amount of energy absorbed at the beginning, usually in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
If the amount of energy is greater, electron E may instantaneously reach a more external orbit. As a consequence of the greater range
of energy achieved, radiation emited when the electron returns to base f will be richer in energy.
Therefore, the different layers of energy correspond to a perfectly determined level of energy, and, thus, there are not intermediate
levels. Thus, it is deduced that in order to excite an atom, an exactly determined amount of energy is necessary. This is emitted in the
form of radiation and/ or heat loss when the atom recovers its fundamental shape.
91
Chapter 8. LAMPS
The emission of energy transformed in this process from an atomic point of view takes place in portions or discontinuous parts known
as energy quants (Bhr postulated that the atom may not rotate at any distance from the nucleus, but in certain orbits only). However,
in the field of practical lighting engineering, light emitted in this tranformation is considered to be emitted in a continuous way, in the
form of electromagnetic waves, which is acceptable for normal cases of its application.
By means of the theory of energy quants formulated by Max Plank, it is proved that different chemical elements, when excited, do not
emit a continuous spectrum due to the different structure of their electronic layers, but only very particular wavelengths (lines) within all
the electromagnetic spectrum. These spectra are known as linear spectra. Each substance has a characteristic linear spectrum and also
luminescent gases like, sodium vapor, whose spectrum is composed by a double yellow line whose wavelengths correspond to 589
and 589.6 nm, respectively.
According to the physical technique used to excite atoms, the type of radiation and the form in which it is emitted, several types of
luminiscence may be distinguished.
E
E
If a continuous current is applied to the anode A (+) and to the cathode C (-) of the discharge tube (Fig. 4), an electric field
is created between A and C which accelerates negative charges (electrons) and hurries them towards the anode. When an
electron reaches a certain speed, it has enough kinetic energy to excite a gas atom. If the speed of the electron when crashing
against the atom gas is even greater, the impact may even cause the separation of an electron from the atomic cortex, so the
atom lacks an electron in its configuration. That is to say, a positive ion is obtained. This phenomenon is known as impact
ionization. This way, the number of free electrons is even higher. It is even possible that they will increase enormously if the
electric current produced by them is not limited by means of an appropriate resistance (stabilizer).
Together with the free or separated electrons, positive ions may be also found moving in the opposite way of electrons. That is
to say, towards the cathode. Due to their small speed, they may not produce any excitation of other gaseous particles. On the
contrary, after a short period of time, they take an electron again in exchange for an energy emission.
Depending on the noble gas or metal gas with which the discharge container is filled, by means of the previously mentioned
atomic excitation, linear spectra or light colours characteristic of the chosen chemical element will be formed. For example, if
the gas is neon, the light colour is red- orangish, and if it is mercury vapor, it will be white- bluish.
All these phenomena take place within a volume ranging between two electrodes, and it is limited by the discharge container
wall. This volume forms a discharge gaseous column.
If the discharge tube receives an alternating power supply, instead of a continuous one, electrodes change their function
periodically, sometimes behaving as a cathode and some other times as an anode. Otherwise, the luminous production
phenomenon is exactly the same.
Electric discharge conditions for light production in a gas essentially depend on the gas or vapor pressure inside the discharge
tube. So, there are three kinds of discharge, namely:
- Low pressure discharge.
- High pressure discharge.
92
Chapter 8. LAMPS
High voltage electric discharge between cold electrodes (noble gas tubes)
In order to administer enough free electrons in this type of discharge, cold electrodes are used mostly built with a chromiumnickel metal.
The filling of the discharge tube is with noble gases like neon which emits an intense red- orangish light, or helium which emits
a light pink coloured light and also with metal vapors, especially mercury vapor which emits a white- bluish light, and when
mixed with the neon gas an intense blue light.
Starting and working voltages are high, 600 to 1,000 volts being necessary for half a metre in length. The average voltage
consumption also for half a metre in length is of about 33 W, with a luminous performance of 2.5 to 5 lm/W.
Due to this low luminous performance, noble gas tubes have been barely used for indoor lighting, but they really have played an
important role in luminous advertisement due to their particular easiness to be modelled in the shape of letters.
Low voltage electric discharge between hot electrodes (metal vapor lamps)
If a certain amount of solid sodium or liquid mercury is introduced inside a glass tube previously evacuated in order to transform
metal into vapor through the electric discharge, a metal vapor discharge in gas is obtained. This may be even produced at a
regular low voltage (220 V), with prehated or heated electrodes (hot cathodes). Sodium and mercury vapor lamps work
according to this principle.
From everything that has been exposed until now, it is deduced that light emitted by metal vapor lamps especially depends on
the linear spectrum of the metal vapor chosen. Thus, sodium vapor lamps produce a monochromatic light of a yellow- orangish
light and mercury vapor lamps one of a green- bluish characteristic.
Discontinuous spectra of these lamps are improved through different ways:
Mercury lamps:
- Through combination with an incandescent lamp (blended light lamps).
- Through combination with a fluorescent layer (mercury vapor lamps, corrected colour).
- Through addition of metal halides (metal halide vapor lamps).
Sodium lamps:
- Through combination with mercury light in a metal transparent recipient, at high pressure filling (high pressure sodium
lamps).
93
Chapter 8. LAMPS
Phosphorescence
Phosphorescence takes place when luminous radiation persists in certain luminescent substances even after excitation is over.
This phenomenon corresponds to the fact that under certain energy levels (belonging to certain electronic layers) of some
chemical components, like sulphures, seleniures or oxides of alkali earth metals, apart from this, there is an acummulation level
that prevents electrons from quickly returning to their initial position.
Electrons, that because of their excitation reach this acummulation level, can only in a slow fashion recover their fundamental
state. It is then when the substance continues emitting light. This phenomenon may last fractions of seconds or months
(depending on material type and temperature).
Electroluminance
In order to produce this phenomenon, instead of an exciting radiation, also an electric field may be directly used to rise
electrons at a higher level of energy. This is achieved by inserting a luminescent substance between two conducting layers
and applying alternating current to the group, as for plaque condensers.
This way to obtain light (manifested by a sparkle of a moderate splendor) has been performed in the so- called luminous
plaques to be applied in hospital rooms, building numbering, stair lighting, etc.
Injected luminescence
To a certain extent, it is the opposite case to that of the photoelectric principle, in which photometres to measure light are based.
Whereas there is a luminous energy transformation in the photometre into electric energy (in the form of a minicurrent), on
applying injected luminescence to the so- called solid body lamp of an electric energy, a luminous energy is reciprocally
produced (chromatic radiation). This kind of radiation has a very good application for simple procedures of unimportant marking.
A solid body lamp is obtained by inlay in the net of a semiconductor certain strange atoms, in such a way, that it will remain
divided into two parts, one with an excess of electrons and the other with a defect.
Bioluminescence
Bioluminescence is a luminous phenomenon which is weakly manifested in Nature. It consists of a sparkle emitted by light
worms, some classes of fishes, marine algae, rotten wood and similar. This phenomenon is due to the oxidation process of
some special chemical or organic substances, like the ones glow worms and photogene bacteriae have when in contact with
the air or water oxygen.
So far, it has not been possible to reproduce this phenomenon of Nature artificially.
94
Chapter 8. LAMPS
8.4.2. Luminance
Light lamps preferably used outside must not have a high luminance so that their glare effect is kept within bearable limits. The
admissible luminance value depends on the type of application.
On the contrary, lamps used in luminaires may have great luminances, since they trimmer the glare effect. In general, luminance
to be obtained from a lamp depends on the system adopted for light production, that is to say, on the physical nature of the
source of light and on the fact that it may be pointed, linear or plane.
Lamps luminance may never be increased by means of any optical system but it may be weakened, for example by diffusing
layers.
Color temperature
Incandescent-fluorescent
2 600-2 700 K
Warm white
2 900-3 000 K
3 500-4 100 K
Cold white
4 000-4 500 K
Daylight white
6 000-6 500 K
Chart 2
Whereas incandescent lamps, due to their high content in the power supply (with the exception of coloured lamps), may only
radiate a warm white colour, light colours of discharge lamps are determined by gases or vapors chosen for them. For example,
95
Chapter 8. LAMPS
yellow for sodium vapor discharge, or pale blue for mercury vapor. Other chromatic variants may be used, combining different
metallic vapors or modifying vapor pressure. With fluorescent lamps the possibility of achieving any shade that may be desired
is offered by means of the selection or mixture of a great amount of well- known luminescent substances, in order to adapt
them to each type of application.
96
Chapter 8. LAMPS
8.4.13. Time needed until the luminous flux acquires the normal regime
Incandescent lamps ignite immediataly emiting their total flux. Fluorescent lamps may also do it if quick ignition starters are used.
If not, ignition will be done later on, after one or several attempts.
The other discharge lamps require some minutes as ignition time, until metal vapor acquires the necessary pressure and the
luminous flux reaches it maximum value.
97
Chapter 8. LAMPS
20
45
60
45
p 20
p 45
p 60
h 45
150
110
30
h 110
h 150
hs 30
NON admissible position
Admissible position
98
45
hs 45
Chapter 8. LAMPS
Filament
Filling gas
The main parts of an incandescent lamp are the filament, the filament supports, the glass bulb, the filling gas and the base.
Filament: The one used in modern lamps is made out of wolfram (high fusion point and low evaporation degree). A higher
luminous efficiency would be achieved by twisting the filament as an spiral.
Glass bulb: It is a cover of sealed glass which encloses the filament and avoids contact with the air outside (so that it does not
burn).
Filling gas: Filament evaporation is reduced filling the glass bulb with an inert gas. The most commonly used gases are argon
and nitrogen. In these lamps, luminous energy obtained is very little compared to the heat energy irradiated, that is to say, a
great amount of the transformed electric energy is lost as heat and its luminous efficacy is small (it is a waste- energy lamp).
The advantage of these lamps is that they are directly connected to the electric current without the need of an auxiliary
equipment for their working.
99
Chapter 8. LAMPS
Tungsten filament
Tungstene particles
Tungsten halide
Glass bulb
The main difference between an incandescent lamp, apart from the halogene additive mentioned before, is in the glass bulb.
Due to the fact that temperature of the glass bulb must be high, halogene lamps are of a smaller size than regular incandescent
lamps. Their tubular- shaped glass bulb is made out of a special quartz glass (which must not be touched with the fingers).
Since their introduction, wolfram halogene lamps have entered almost all applications where incandescent lamps were used.
The advantages of wolfram halogene lamps with regard to regular incandescent lamps are the following: longer duration, greater
luminous efficiency, smaller size, greater colour temperature and little or no luminous depreciation in time.
Lamp holder
Wolfram electrodes
with electron emitting matter
Visible light
Free electron
1
2
Ultraviolet
radiations
Mercury
atom
100
Chapter 8. LAMPS
The main parts of the fluorescent lamp are the glass tube, the fluorescent layer, the electrodes, the filling gas and the base.
Glass tube: The glass tube of a regular fluorescent lamp is made out of sodium- calcium glass softened with iron oxide to control
short wave ultraviolet transmission.
Fluorescent covering: The most important factor to determine the characteristics of the light of a fluorescent lamp is the type
and composition of the fluorescent powder (or phosphorous) used. This establishes colour temperature (and, as a
consequence, colour appearance), colour reproduction index (R) and, lamp luminous efficiency, to a great extent.
Three groups of phosphorous are used to produce different series of lamps with different colour qualities (standard
phosphorous, tri- phosphorous and multi- phosphorous).
Electrodes: Electrodes of a lamp which possesses an adequate layer of material emitter serve to drive electric energy to the
lamp and provide the necessary electrons to maintain discharge.
The majority of fluorescent tubes have electrodes that are preheated by means of an electrical current just before ignition (they
are given the name of preheating electrode lamps; this preheating is begun by an independent starter).
Filling gas: Filling gas of a fluorescent lamp consists in a mixture of saturated mercury and an inert gas trimmer (argon and
krypton).
Under normal working conditions, mercury is found in the discharge tube both as a liquid and as vapor. The best performance
is achieved with a mercury pressure of about 0.8 Pa., combined with a pressure of the trimmer of about 2 500 Pa. (0.025
atmospheres). Under these conditions, about 90% of the radiated energy is emitted in the ultraviolet wave of 253.7 nm.
In fluorescent lamps, colour temperature ranges between 2 700 K and 6 500 K., with a discontinuous spectral distribution curve
reproducing colours depending on the composition of the fluorescent substance that covers the inner wall of the tube.
Each resulting total luminous radiation is the sum of the radiation of discontinuous spectrum plus that of a continuous spectral
distribution, more efficient each time, with the use of special phosphorous.
Thus, fluorescent tubes with several light tones and chromatic reproduction indexes are manufactured. According to the C.I.E.
norms, these are divided into three main groups:
- Daytime white light: TC > 5 000 K.
- Neutral white: 5.000 K TC 3 000 K.
- Warm white: TC < 3 000 K.
There are several tones for each group, with a wide range of colour temperatures and chromatic reproduction indexes,
depending on each manufacturer. These cover the needs for a wide range of applications.
These lamps require an auxiliary equipment formed by a ballast and an igniter (starter), besides a compensation condenser to
improve the power factor.
Working nominal values are reached after five minutes. When the lamp is turned off, due to a great pressure in the burner, it is
necessary to cool down between four and fifteen minutes before it is turned back on.
101
Chapter 8. LAMPS
Ignition
Ignition is achieved by means of an auxiliary electrode, placed very close to the main electrode and connected to the other
through a high value resistance (25 k ). When the lamp is turned on, a high voltage gradient takes place between the main
and the ignition electrodes, which ionizes the filling gas in this area as a luminescent discharge, the current being limited by a
resistance. Luminescent discharge is then expanded through the discharge tube under the influence of the electric field between
the two main electrodes.
When luminescent discharge reaches the most distant electrode, current increases in a considerable way. As a result, the main
electrodes are heated until the emission increases enough to allow the luminescent discharge to change completely to an arch
discharge. The auxiliary electrode lacks another function in the process as a consequence of the high resistance connected
serially to it.
During this stage, the lamp works as a low pressure discharge (similar to that of a fluorescent lamp). The discharge fills the tube
and gives it a bluish appearance. la corriente limitada por una resistencia. La descarga luminiscente luego se expande por todo
el tubo de descarga bajo la influencia del campo elctrico entre los dos electrodos principales.
Turn- on
The inert gas having been ionized, yet, the lamp does not burn in the desired way and does not offer its maximum production
of light, until mercury present in the discharge tube is completely vaporized. This does not happen until a certain amount of
time has elapsed, called turn-on time.
As a result of the arch discharge in the inert gas a heating is generated providing a quick increase of temperature inside the
discharge tube. This causes mercury gradual vaporization, increasing vapor pressure and concentrating discharge towards a
narrow band along the axis of the tube. With an increase in pressure, radiated energy progressively concentrates along the
spectral lines of greater wavelengths and a small portion of continuous radiation is introduced. This way, light turns whiter. With
time, the arc achieves a stabilization point and it is said that the lamp reaches the total thermodynamic balance point. All mercury
is then evaporated, and discharge occurs in non- saturated mercury vapor.
The turn- on time, defined as the necessary time for the lamp since the ignition moment to reach an 80% of its maximum
production of light, is approximately four minutes.
Stabilization
The high pressure mercury lamp, like most discharge lamps, has a negative resistance and, thus, it cannot work on its own in a
circuit without an adequate ballast to stabilize the flux of the current through it.
Main parts
In Fig. 9 the main parts of a high pressure mercury lamp may be observed.
Base
Fluorescent substance
Low pressure inert gas filling
Auxiliary electrodes
Discharge tube
Principal electrodes
Support
Wire beam lead
102
Chapter 8. LAMPS
Discharge and support tube: The discharge tube is made out of quartz. It has a low absorption of ultraviolet and visible radiation.
Also, it stands high temperatures of the work involved.
Electrodes: Each main electrode is composed of a wolfram bar, whose extreme is covered by wolfram serpentine impregnated
with a material that favors the emission of electrons. The auxiliary electrode is simply a piece of wire of molybdenum or wolfram
located near one of the main electrodes and connected to another one by means of a resistance of 25 k .
Blister: For lamps up to 125 W of potency, the blister may be of glass sodium- calcium. However, lamps with higher potencies
are manufactured, generally, with hard glass of borosilicate, since higher working temperatures and thermal shock are tolerated.
The blister, which normally contains an inert gas (argon or a mixture of argon and nitrogen), protects the discharge tube from
changes in the room temperature and protects lamp components from corrosion.
Glass covering: In most high pressure mercury lamps, the inner surface of the blister is covered by white phosphorous to
improve lamp colour reproduction and to increase its luminous flux. Phosphorous transforms a great amount of ultraviolet
energy radiated by the discharge into visible radiation, predominantly in the red extreme of the spectrum.
Gas filling: The discharge tube is filled with an inert gas (argon) and a precise dosis of distilled mercury. The first is necessary
to help originate the discharge and to secure a reasonable life for the covered emission electrodes.
The blister is filled with argon or with a mixture of argon and nitrogen at atmospheric pressure. The addition of nitrogen serves
to avoid an electronic arc between the wire supports of the glass.
These lamps require an auxiliary equipment which is normally a ballast with an inductive resistance or transformer of the
dispersion field, besides a compensation condenser.
When the lamp is turned off, it will not start again until it has cooled off enough to lower vapor pressure to the point where the
arc will be turned on again. This period lasts about minutes.
Tractional resistence
Fluorescent substance
Low pressure inert
gas filling
Discharge tube
Principal electrodes
Incandescent filament
103
Chapter 8. LAMPS
Filament: The filament, which also acts as a resistance ballast for the discharge tube, is a coiled wolfram wire the same as that
of the incandescent lamp. It is connected with the discharge tube in series and located next or around it, to obtain a good
blended light and to favour a quick ignition of the tube.
Filling gas blister: As for incandescent lamps, the filling gas in blended light lamps is made out of argon but adding a percentage
of nitrogen to avoid an arc in the filament. Compared with the standard high pressure mercury lamp, a greater filling pressure
to keep evaporation of wolfram to the minimum is used.
Blended light lamps have the advantage of being connected directly to the power supply system (ballast and starter for is not
required their working). Ignition takes about two minutes and re- ignition is not possible before cooling- down.
Base
Clear tubular
glass bulb
Electrodes
Quartz discharge
tube
Ellipsoidal diffuser
glass bulb
104
Chapter 8. LAMPS
Due to metal halides, the ignition voltage for these lamps is high. The use of a starter or ignition device with shock voltage of
0.8 to 5 KV is needed.
Most lamps allow for immediate re- ignition with hot lamps (right after being turned- off), by using shock voltage of 35 to 60
KV. If not, they must cool- down between four and fifteen minutes before being turned back on.
105
Chapter 8. LAMPS
Main parts
Bayonet cap
Discharge tube and supports: The discharge tube of a high pressure sodium lamp is U- shaped, to make the most out of space
and provide a better thermal isolation. It is made out of sodium- calcium glass, and has an inner surface covered with borate
glass to form a protective layer against sodium vapor.
The tube also contains a number of small slits or holes, where sodium is deposited during manufacturing.
Discharge tube filling: The discharge tube filling consists of metallic sodium of high purity and of a mixture of neon and argon,
which behaves as an ignition and trimmer gas.
Electrodes: Low pressure sodium lamps possess cold ignition electrodes. These consist of a triple wolfram wire, in such a way
that a great amount of emitter material may be maintained.
Blister: It is empty and covered by a thin film of infrared material reflector in its inner surface. The infrared reflector serves to
reflect most part of the heat radiation which returns to the discharge tube, keeping it, at the desired temperature, this way, while
visible radiation is transmitted.
These lamps precise an auxiliary equipment formed by a power supplier with an autotransformer or ballast and igniter with
impulse voltage depending on type. A compensation condenser is required.
Nominal values are reached after fifteen minutes after re- ignition. When the lamp is turned off, a few minutes are necessary
before re- ignition.
106
Chapter 8. LAMPS
Base
Discharge tube
Discharge tube: The discharge tube is made out of aluminium oxide ceramics (sintered aluminium) very resistant to heat and
to chemical reactions with sodium vapor.
Electrodes: Electrodes, covered by a layer of emitter material, consist of a twisted serpentine wolfram rod around it.
Filling: In the inside of the discharge tube are sodium, mercury and noble gases (xenon or argon) out of which sodium is the
main producer of light.
Blister: This glass is generally empty.
The shape must be either ovoid or tubular. The first one has an inner covering. However, since the discharge tube of the high
pressure sodium lamp does not virtually produce any ultraviolet radiation, the covering is simply a diffused layer of white powder,
to decrease the high brightness of the discharge tube. The tubular glass is always made out of clear glass.
Starters and auxiliary starters: Many of the high pressure sodium lamps have an incorporated auxiliary starter, which helps
reduce the measure of the ignition peak voltage needed for the lamp ignition. Sometimes, both the incorporated starter and
the auxiliary starter are in the lamp itself.
These lamps precise of an auxiliary equipment formed by a ballast and an igniter with impulse tension depending on type. A
compensation condenser is also needed. Nominal values are reached five minutes after ignition. When a lamp is turned off, due
to a great pressure of the burner, it needs to cool down between four and minutes before turning it back on.
107
Chapter 8. LAMPS
Magnetic field
Fluorescent covering
Coil
Ultraviolet radiation
Electron
Visible light
Mercury atom
The system has an electronic equipment (at a frecuency of approximately 250 kHz) separated from the lamp besides a
fluorescent tube without electrodes. This allows to preserve optimal energy of discharge in the fluorescent lamp and reach a
high luminous potency with a good efficacy.
The main advantages of this lamp are:
- Extremely long life: 60 000 hours.
- Lamp potency 100 and 150 W.
- Luminous flux up to 12 000 lumens.
- Luminous efficacy of 80 lm/W.
- Low geometric profile that allows the development of flat luminaires.
- Comfortable light without oscillations.
- Start without flickers or sparkles.
These lamps are essentially indicated for those applications where relamping increases maintenance expenses excesively, like
for example, illumination of tunnels, industrial premises with very high ceilings and difficult access, etc.
108
Chapter 8. LAMPS
Bulb
Potency coupler
Flux
Performance
Diametre
Length
power
(lm)
Lm/W
in mm
L in mm
18
1350
75.00
26
0.590
18
1150
63.88
26
18
1100
61.11
26
Lamp holder
R.I.
Chromatic
Ra
degree
G 13
85
1B
0.590
G 13
62
2B
0.590
G 13
75
2A
18
1000
55.55
26
0.590
G 13
98
1A
36
3350
93.05
26
1200
G 13
85
1B
36
2850
79.16
26
1200
G 13
62
2B
36
2600
72.22
26
1200
G 13
75
2A
36
2350
65.27
26
1200
G 13
98
1A
58
5200
89.65
26
1500
G 13
85
1B
58
4600
79.31
26
1500
G 13
62
2B
58
4100
70.68
26
1500
G 13
75
2A
58
3750
64.65
26
1500
G 13
98
1A
109
Chapter 8. LAMPS
Flux
Performance
Width
Length
power
(lm)
Lm/W
in mm
L in mm
Lamp holder
R.I.
Chromatic
Ra
degree
13
0.900
69.23
27
138
G24d-1
85
1B
18
1200
66.66
27
153
G24d-2
85
1B
26
1800
69.23
27
172
G24d-3
85
1B
Lamp holder
R.I.
Chromatic
Ra
degree
Flux
Performance
Width
Length
power
(lm)
Lm/W
in mm
L in mm
13
0.900
69.23
27
131
G24q-1
85
1B
18
1200
66.66
27
146
G24q-2
85
1B
26
1800
69.23
27
165
G24q-3
85
1B
Lamp holder
R.I.
Chromatic
Ra
degree
Flux
Performance
Width
Length
power
(lm)
Lm/W
in mm
L in mm
18
0.750
41.66
38
225
2G11
95
1A
24
1200
50.00
38
320
2G11
95
1A
36
1900
52.77
38
415
2G11
95
1A
40
2200
55.00
38
535
2G11
95
1A
55
3000
54.54
38
535
2G11
95
1A
110
Nominal
Flux
Performance
Diametre
Length
power
(lm)
Lm/W
in mm
L in mm
0.050
01800
36.00
55
130
Lamp holder
E-27
0.080
03800
47.50
70
156
E-27
0.125
06300
50.40
75
170
E-27
0.250
13000
52.00
90
226
E-40
0.400
22000
55.00
120
290
E-40
0.700
38500
55.00
140
330
E-40
1000
58000
58.00
165
390
E-40
Chapter 8. LAMPS
Flux
Performance
Diametre
Length
Lamp holder
power
(lm)
Lm/W
in mm
L in mm
160
03100
19.37
075
180
250
05600
22.40
090
226
E-40
500
14000
28.00
125
275
E-40
Lamp holder
E-27
Flux
Performance
Diametre
Length
power
(lm)
Lm/W
in mm
L in mm
035
03400
97.14
19
100
G12
075
05500
73.33
25
084
G12
150
12500
83.33
25
084
G12
Lamp holder
Flux
Performance
Diametre
Length
power
(lm)
Lm/W
in mm
L in mm
0.070
005500
078.57
20
114
RX7s
0.150
013500
090.00
24
132
RX7s
0.250
020000
080.00
25
163
Fc2
0.400
038000
095.00
31
206
Fc2
1000
090000
090.00
40
Cable
2000
220000
110.00
40
Cable
Lamp holder
Metal halide lamps with a clear base and a clear tubular shape
Nominal
Flux
Performance
Diametre
Length
power
(lm)
Lm/W
in mm
L in mm
0.250
020000
080.00
045
225
E-40
0.400
042000
105.00
045
275
E-40
1.000
080000
080.00
075
340
E-40
2.000
240000
120.00
100
430
E-40
3.500
320000
091.42
100
430
E-40
111
Chapter 8. LAMPS
Metal halide lamps with a base in an ellipsoidal form with a diffusing layer
Nominal
Flux
Performance
Diametre
Length
power
(lm)
Lm/W
in mm
L in mm
Lamp holder
0.070
04900
070.00
055
140
E-27
0.100
08000
080.00
055
140
E-27
0.150
12000
080.00
055
140
E-27
0.400
43000
107.50
120
290
E-40
1000
90000
090.00
165
380
E-40
Lamp holder
Flux
Performance
Diametre
Length
power
(lm)
Lm/W
in mm
L in mm
018
01800
100.00
55
0.215
BY-22d
035
04600
131.42
55
0.310
BY-22d
055
08100
147.27
55
0.425
BY-22d
090
13000
144.44
70
0.530
BY-22d
135
22500
166.66
70
0.775
BY-22d
180
32000
177.77
70
1120
BY-22d
Performance
Diametre
Length
Lamp holder
112
Flux
power
(lm)
Lm/W
in mm
L in mm
026
03500
134.61
55
215
BY-22d
036
05750
159.72
55
310
BY-22d
066
10700
162.12
55
425
BY-22d
091
17000
186.81
70
530
BY-22d
131
25000
190.83
70
775
BY-22d
Chapter 8. LAMPS
Flux
Performance
Diametre
Length
power
(lm)
Lm/W
in mm
L in mm
Lamp holder
0.050
004000
080.00
40
155
0.070
006500
092.85
40
155
E-27
0.100
010000
100.00
45
210
E-40
E-27
0.150
017000
113.33
45
210
E-40
0.250
033000
132.00
45
255
E-40
0.400
055500
138.75
45
285
E-40
0.600
090000
150.00
55
285
E-40
1000
130000
130.00
65
400
E-40
Lamp holder
High pressure sodium lamps with an ellipsoidal shape and a diffusing layer
Nominal
Flux
Performance
Diametre
Length
power
(lm)
Lm/W
in mm
L in mm
00.50
003500
070.00
070
155
E-27
00.70
005600
080.00
070
155
E-27
0.100
010000
100.00
075
185
E-40
0.150
014000
093.33
090
225
E-40
0.250
025000
100.00
090
225
E-40
0.400
047000
117.50
120
290
E-40
1000
128000
128.00
165
400
E-40
Lamp holder
Flux
Performance
Diametre
Length
power
(lm)
Lm/W
in mm
L in mm
070
07000
100.00
20
115
RX7s
150
15000
100.00
25
130
RX7s-24
250
25500
102.00
25
205
Fc2
400
48000
120.00
25
205
Fc2
Lamp holder
Flux
Performance
Diametre
Length
power
(lm)
Lm/W
in mm
L in mm
150
12.500
83.33
45
210
E-40
250
23.000
92.00
45
255
E-40
400
39.000
97.50
45
285
E-40
113
Chapter 8. LAMPS
Luxurious high pressure sodium lamps with an ellipsoidal form and a diffusing layer
Nominal
Flux
Performance
Diametre
Length
power
(lm)
Lm/W
in mm
L in mm
Lamp holder
150
12.000
80.00
090
225
E-40
250
22.000
88.00
090
225
E-40
400
37.500
93.75
120
285
E-40
Flux
Performance
Width
Length
power
(lm)
Lm/W
in mm
L in mm
Lamp holder
R.I.
Chromatic
Ra
degree
100 W
8000
80.00
139
313
80 (840/835)
1B
150 W
12000
80.00
139
414
80 (840/835)
1B
114
Nominal
Flux
Performance
Diametre
Height
power
(lm)
Lm/W.
in mm.
in mm.
Lamp holder
R.I.
Ra
55 W
3500
65
85
140.5
80 (840/830/827)
85 W
6000
70
111
180.5
80 (840/830/827)
165 W
12000
70
130
210
80 (840/830/827)
Chapter 9.
9.1.
9.2.
Ballasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
9.3.
Starters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
9.4.
Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
9.5.
9.6.
115
116
Discharge stabilization
The most simple element that could be applied is a resistance. This solution is not recommendable for alternating current
though, because the lamp illuminates virtually when the power applied to the whole reaches instantaneous values, higher than
the power of the arc. This is translated into flickering of the lamp. Hence, this type of stabilization is almost exclusively used with
continuous current.
Another element that may be also applied to discharge stabilization is a condenser. This solution is not tolerated in a normal
frequency of 50 Hz. (let alone for continuous current) because current of the lamp is greatly distorted when strong peaks of
short duration are produced. The lamp will emit light intermittently and it will run out prematurely. However, this system may
be used with higher frequency power supplies (above 300 Hz.). The advantage being greater luminous performance of the
lamp.
The most widely known element to stabilize discharge lamps in normal practice is formed by an inductive reactance which limits
the intensity of the discharge current, quite efficiently, simply and economically. Current distortion produced in the lamp is
tolerable and generally without flickering. Although it displaces the phase between the power of the lamp and the supply net,
this may be easily corrected by means of condensers in parallel with the line.
When power available in the line is not enough to allow lamp ignition, previous transformers or autotransformers may help. In
order to simplify the set, the so called leakage autotransformers (also called dispersion autotransformers) are used, too. They
incorporate the precise inductive reactance in their secondary body. Once an adequate leakage transformer is available, if a
fluorescent lamp is to work that requires heating of its cathodes for ignition, a starter is introduced. Or it may not be necessary
means of incorporating two new coils to the autotransformer for a correct heating.
Parallel to the previous evolution, the condenser necessary to correct the power factor was used. An inductive reactance in series
with a condenser constitutes an intensity regulator. By correctly using the elements with slight alterations of these, complex
equipments are built. In them, the condenser in series with the secondary one of the transformer, and sometimes with the
primary one, improves lamp stability when compared to strong power variations in the line. Besides, it simultaneously corrects
the power factor and cos of the whole to a better value than if a simple condenser in parallel to the line is used.
117
half the lamps and inductive ballasts without compensation for the other half in circuits which contain several lamps.
For lamp ignition some type of help is needed, due to the fact that the fluorescent lamp inner resistance when turned
off is too cold to be turned on automatically when the power supply is applied to it. As far as ignition is concerned,
fluorescent lamp circuits may be divided into three groups:
- Circuits with preheated starter: Ignition is controlled by a conventional or electronic starter.
- Circuits without preheated starter: These lamps may operate with two different types of circuit, instantaneous ignition
(semi- resonant circuit) and quick ignition (non- resonant circuit).
- Circuits with cold ignition: Specially designed for lamps provided with an inner band to ease immediate ignition
without preheating and without a starter.
High pressure mercury lamps
Apart from the reactance, a start equipment is not necessary for mercury lamps. Compensated inductive ballasts may be used
both in parallel compensation circuits and in compensation circuits in series. Both circuits take a condenser to compensate for
the power factor.
Metal halide lamps
Working conditions for metal halide lamps are very similar to those of conventional mercury one., They are arranged in such a
way that they may be connected in series with a current limiting ballast. Nevertheless, due to halides, power ignition of these
lamps is high and need the use of a starter or igniter.
The ballast to be connected to the metal halide lamp depends on its properties. For example, the so- called three band lamps
use ballasts designed for high pressure mercury lamps, but rare earth lamps work better with ballasts of high pressure sodium
lamps.
Low pressure sodium lamps
These lamps require an auxiliary equipment which may be:
- Ballast, with or without a separate igniter: Due to the lamp low voltage, these may operate in comparatively simple circuits
which consist, basically, in a ballast in series with the lamp and a starter in parallel. For the correction of the power factor, a condenser in parallel is used.
- Transformer with a separate igniter: In this circuit power of the lamp is almost always constant for all its life. It consists in a
ballast, a condenser in series for the correction of the power factor and an electronic igniter.
High pressure sodium lamps
As for metal halide lamps, high shock powers are necessary for ignition due to the high pressure to which the gas is kept. Thus,
high pressure sodium lamps operate normally with a ballast and a starter. Some lamps have an incorporated starter, but most
of them use an external ignition device.
Mainly, there are two types of circuits, either with the starter connected in series or in parallel with the lamp:
- Circuit with a starter in series: The starter is connected between the ballast and the lamp.
- Circuit with a semi starter in parallel: The starter is connected to the lamp through the reactance.
Correction of the power factor may be achieved through a condenser in the way of compensation in parallel in both circuits.
Induction lamps
Induction lamps are connected to the power supply through a high frequency generator, which is formed by a system of
electronic circuits. The connection between the lamp and the generator is achieved through a coaxial cable which forms part of
an oscillator circuit. Therefore, its length may not be modified.
118
9.2. Ballasts
9.2.1. Introduction
Reactances or ballasts are accessories to be used in combination with discharge lamps. As inductive, capacitive or resistive impedances,
alone or in combination, they limit the current which circulates through them to the values required for an adequate working.
Moreover, they supply power and ignition current required when necessary, and, in the case of quick start reactances, they also supply
low power necessary for the heating of lamp cathodes.
Given the characteristics offered for correct performance and working of the lamp, the most widely used are those of an inductive type.
The combination of inductive- capacitive reactance is also used.
Resistance and capacitive ones are not used alone since the first ones produce many losses, thus, providing low performance. The
second ones provide a very low power in the lamp due to great deformation of the current wave originated by them.
According to their installation principles, they may be classified into:
- Independent reactance, which is covered by a special protection to work outside.
- Reactance to be incorporated, which requires a secondary protection like a housing, a luminaire, etc.
AENOR SPAIN
GERMANY
IMQ-ITALY
IRAM-ARGENTINA
SLOVAQUIA
CENELEC-AENOR
119
UNE-EN 60922:
Reactances for discharge lamps (except for fluorescent tubular lamps). General and
safety prescriptions.
UNE-EN 60923:
Reactances for discharge lamps (except for fluorescent tubular lamps). Working
prescriptions.
ANSI C82.4:
Reactances for high intensity discharge lamps and low pressure sodium lamps.
UNE-EN 60662:
UNE-EN 61167:
UNE-EN 60188:
UNE-EN 60192:
UNE-EN 60598:
Luminaires.
European directives
In order to be able to use electric and electronic devices in the European Union, it is compulsory for them to have the
mark "CE" which means European Conformity, and represents the compliance with the following European Directives
to which lighting products are subjected:
- Low Voltage Directive (LV) 73/23/EEC, in force since 1-1-97 and applicable to all electric devices of nominal voltage
from 50 to 1,000 V. in alternating current and from 75 to 1,500 V. in continuous current.
- Electromagnetic Compatibility Directive (EMC) 89/366/EEC, in force since 1-1-96 and applicable to all electric and
electronic devices that may generate radio- interferences or be affected by perturbances generated by other devices
in their surroundings.
Reference norms
For the Low Voltage Directive (LV), security norms on the product are compulsory.
For those corresponding to Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC), the following norms are applicable:
UNE-EN 50081-1:
UNE-EN 55015:
EN 61000-3-2:
EN 61547:
The applicable harmonic and immunity requeriments of radio- interference emission must be checked with the
luminaire or in the installation where reactances are going to be used.
Harmonics
A harmonic is a perturbation introduced in the power supply by electric equipments. In lighting systems, energy is supposed to
receive a unique frequency and to be constant. Frequency constancy in energy distributions is generally achieved. However, due
to several circunstances, the fundamental wave may be polluted with undesirable harmonics (for example, produced by
associated frequency converters, etc.).
The study of such pollution produced by harmonics is very complex because its consequences depend on the harmonic
frequency amplitude and order, as well as on the situation over the fundamental.
120
It is necessary to highlight that if the situation of harmonics over the fundamental wave makes composed waves to tend to be
square, impedance coils do not limit intensity received from the lamp sufficiently. Under these conditions, alternating voltage is
similar to a continuous pulsatory voltage to which inductive shocks do not respond in an efficient way.
A mathematical model may be established for the study of power in different elements of the electric circuit (lamp, ballast, etc.),
and decompose it in Fouriers series, taking the first two terms as an acceptable approximation.
The third and subsequent harmonics produced during the use of electromagnetic nuclei (magnetic ballasts) in lighting with
discharge lamps and the generation of odd harmonics produced by the lamps themselves, have two immediate consequences:
1st- Capacitors of power factor correction are not able to correct power factor down to the unit, but, on adding capacity
to such condensers, a capacitive circuit appears.
2nd- In threephasic systems with neuter, current in the neuter becomes similar to that of phases. The reason is that
even cancelling the fundamental frequency charges being equal, that is to say, with balanced phases, the third
harmonics are in phase and, therefore, they are summed.
If devices providing power supply of the threephasic line with neuter would take only the fundamental frequency, the neuter
would not carry current in case of charge balance over the phases. However, if devices take a current containing 33.3% of the
third harmonic, the neuter wire is charged with the same current as that of the phases, although its frequency is three times the
fundamental.
In practice, so that this does not happen with lighting lines, limits have been established in admissible current distorsions for
even harmonic cases , since odd numbers are cancelled (see IEC 1000-3-2, IEC 1000-3-3 or EN 61000-3-2 and EN 610003-3 Norms). Nevertheless, the neuter must be measured at the same size than those of phases, as demanded by the Low
Voltage Regulation, in order to avoid surprises with low quality materials.
Another typical problem with power supply polluted by frequency harmonics is the resonance phenomenon, which may take
place in those equipments composed by an inductive reactance and a condenser in series. These equipments are special and
known as regulators, autorregulators or constant power ballasts.
Types of reactances
Shock reactance
This type of inductive reactance, formed by a simple coil with its corresponding magnetic nucleus, electrically connected in series
with the lamp, is the most comonly used. It constitutes a set of low factor power which may be corrected placing a condenser
in parallel with the power supply (Fig. 2).
Ballast
F
Power supply
Capacitor
N
Lamp
Figure 2
This type of reactance, economic, light and of a small size, provides poor power regulation , as opposed to variations in the
power supply voltage (around 20% of the power oscillation, for power supply variations of 10%) and starting current is high
with respect to the functioning; circuits must be measured for that value. This makes lamp life to be considerably reduced if
121
power supply volatge fluctuates more than 5%. Therefore, this type of reactances is adequate whenever adequate voltage
stability conditions are met.
Autotransforming reactance
When power supply has a voltage lower than 220 V, it is necessary to foresee an elevation system for that voltage which will
provide us with the necessary one for lamp ignition. This system may be simply an autotransformer and a normal shock
Ballast
reactance, which is correct from an electric point of view, but also very costly and bulky.
Power supply
Lamp
N
Figure 3
Normally, autotransforming reactances have been built for this function, whose basic structure is shown in Fig. 3. They are
formed by two magnetically decoupled winded, even with magnetic shunts between them. So, on top of raising voltage so that
the lamp may be ignited, they also control its intensity. This type of reactances have a very small power regulation. Thus, a
voltage variation of about 5% is transformed into lamp power oscillations of 12%. Besides, we are speaking about power low
factor reactances. In order to correct this factor, bearing in mind that power supply (normally 110 or 125 V), it is obligatory to
place condensers with a great capacity, and, thus, very costly ones.
Autorregulating reactance
This reactance combines an autotransformer with a regulating circuit. Due to the fact that part of the main coil is common to
the second one, its size is reduced. Since only the secondary coil contributes to a good regulation, its degree depends on the
portion of primary power coupled to the second one (Fig. 4).
Ballast
Capacitor
Power supply
Lamp
N
Figure 4
122
It is the maximum temperature to which coils of a reactance may be constantly working in normal
conditions, at their nominal voltage and frequency, to secure an average life of 10 years. Increases or
decreases of temperature in coils have an influence on their life.
t
Coil heating of a reactance over room temperature in which they are installed, working in normal
ta
Maximum room temperature at which a reactance may work in normal conditions. It is given by:
tW - t
Losses
It is the autoconsumed power. If not indicated otherwise, this value is measured with nominal voltage
and frequency and with coils at a temperature of 25C.
Besides these, conformity prints from different organisms may appear as it was previously indicated.
123
Lamp
F
Electronic
control
Power supply
N
Lamp
Trimmer
capacitor
Narrow filter
Rectifier
High frequency
oscillator
Lamp stabilizer
Figure 5
As it may be seen, a narrow filter placed before reduces distorsion of the power supply current and avoids that high frequency
signals are reflected in the power supply. Besides, the electronic circuit must be protected from fortuitous impulses which appear
in 50 Hz alternating current.
Once the alternating current has been modified, and with the help of the coupling condenser, high frequency generation in
square wave is the following step, through two transistors, generally. This frequency must be higher than 20 KHz. to go over
audible limits and achieve the greatest performance.
Before applying high frequency to tubes, some solutions to limit current and ease ignition must be established.
It is also necessary to provide the necessary solutions to avoid ballast deterioration at the end of the tube life, etc.
124
To maintain this low emission level of radio interferences, special attention must be paid to the installation wiring disposition,
following recommendations for this purpose at any time.
UNE-EN 55015:
EN 61000-3-2:
EN 60928:
EN 60929:
Working prescriptions.
UNE-EN 50082-1:
9.3. Starters
Mercury lamps have electrodes which allow starting with a low voltage, around 220 V. Therefore, no additional starting device is required.
However, metal halide and high pressure sodium lamps need very high ignition voltage which may not be supplied by the reactance
alone.
Supplying this ignition power is the role of starters, which are also used for ignition of some low pressure sodium lamps.
125
Working principles
They are based on the principle of taking advantage of energy stored in a condenser, which is discharged by means of an
adequate shooting system in the primary coil of a transformer. Due to the brusque flux variation in its nucleus, a voltage impulse
induced in the secondary one appears. Its peak value is very high and it is of a short duration. When superimposed to the power
supply, it arcs the discharge tube.
According to its working principle three different types of starters may be distinguished: independent starter, impulse transformer
starter and independent starter from two wires.
Besides this classification according to their working, starters may have a deactivation system inside that will interrupt their
working if the lamp does not start in a period of time. These are called temporized starters.
Independent starter or impulse superimposed starter (Starter in series)
It works as shown in Fig. 6. The starter of the condenser is discharged by means of the shooting circuit on the spirals of the
primary transformer, which amplifies the impulse at the adequate value. The impulse voltage depends exclusively on the starter
itself. It is compatible with any shock reactance and it does not bear ignition impulses, whose value is high in many cases.
Ballast
Transformer
F
Shooting circuit
Capacitor
Lamp
Power supply
Capacitor
Resistance
Starter
Figure 6
Impulse transformer starter (semi parallel starter)
It uses the reactance as an amplifier of the products by the starter and it works as shown in Fig. 7. The condenser of the starter
is discharged by means of the shooting device between points 2 and 3 of the reactance. Together with an adequate proportion
of spirals with regards to the total coil, it amplifies the impulse to the necessary value.
The value of the impulses depends both on the starter itself as well as on the reactance used. Due to this reason, it is not always
compatible with any combination of both. The reactance must have an intermediate feeding point and it must also be subjected
to high peak power voltage produced for ignition.
Ballast
2
Capacitor
Lamp
Power supply
Capacitor
Stater
Shooting
circuit
Resistance
Figure 7
126
Resistance
Lamp
Power supply
Starter
Capacitor
Capacitor
Shooting circuit
Figure 8
The may be only used for some metal halide lamps and low pressure sodium lamps of 35 W., which require voltage impulses
relatively low but of a certain duration.
Temporized starters
These starters have an inner device, which after a time previously fixed for impulse production, deactivates its working. If the
lamp does nor ignite due to exhaustion or failure, its stops subjecting all circuit to high voltage impulses.
The starter is active again after the interruption of the power supply circuit voltage, although only for a short period of time
(milliseconds).
127
Reference norms
Norms applicable to starters are the following:
EN 60926:
EN 60927:
EN 60662:
EN 61167:
Starters
This name is given to starters designed for fluorescent lamp ignition.
The most common type of starter is that called flicker, composed by a glass bulb full of neon gas at a low pressure. In its interior there
are two electrodes, one of them or both are bimetal lamellae which bend slightly by the action of heat. In parallel with the electrodes,
a condenser is connected to eliminate interferences. All this is housed in a cylindrical recipient made of aluminium or of an insulating
material. A plaque with two pins for contact and fixing are included. The starter is embedded in series with the lamp electrodes and
ballast, working automatically in the following way:
When the connection is established, a small electric discharge takes place between the lamellae through the gas, heating them enough
to bend till they get together. This union closes the circuit and eases the flow of current through the lamp electrodes for a short period
of time. When the electrodes are incandescent, they emit electrons around them in the form of a cloud. A bit later, when the lamellae
cool down, they separate opening the circuit and giving rise to the ballast spreading a power impulse tension through which discharge
of the arc and lamp working takes place. Once the lamp is turned on, the starter is out of service without an insufficient voltage reaching
it. If ignition fails, the starter behaves exactly in the same way.
However, electronic starters only make one ignition attempt (very determined) so that any flickering during the ignition stage is
eliminated. Additional advantages of electronic starters are high ignition reliability at low room temperatures and prolongation of lamp
life.
128
9.4. Capacitors
9.4.1. General remarks
Electric capacitors are a system formed by two conductors separated by insulation. If no element is between the two conductors,
air is the insulator. Nevertheless, generally speaking, air is substituted by another insulator with higher dielectric power. Hence,
conductors (frameworks) may be very close to one another without electric charges jumping from one to the other.
If frameworks of a capacitor are connected to the poles of an electric generator, equal and different sign charges are adquired.
So, once it has been disconnected, the capacitor stores electric charges.
The amount of charge stored by a capacitor is directly proportional to the power differential established between its plaques.
But it may also happen that two capacitors of a different form or size adquire different charges when subjected to the same
power difference.
Capacity of a capacitor is the quotient between the charge of one of its plaques and the power differential between both of
them.
C=
q
U
where:
C = capacity of the capacitor.
q = charge of the capacitor (coulomb).
U = power differential between the capacitor (V) plaques or pins.
Frequency effect
Capacity reactance
The capacity of a circuit serves to delay the increase or decrease of voltage, but under no circumstances does it avoid or limit
change. Nevertheless, frequency limits current amplitude in a value equal to 1. = . 1. . ohms. This value is called
C 2 f C
capacitive reactance XC, which increases when frequency decreases and it
decreases if frequency increases. Thus, for continuous current like f = 0 Hz, the capacitive reactance value is infinite and that of
current is zero amperes.
Inductive reactance
Inductance of a circuit serves the purpose of delaying the increase or decrease of current, but under no circumstances does it
avoid or limit the change. However, frequency limits amplitude of the current in a value equal to . L = 2 . . f . L ohms. This
129
value is known as inductive reactance XL, which increases when frequency is higher and decreases if frequency also does. Thus,
in continuous current, like f = 0 Hz., the value of inductive reactance is zero.
Resistance
Resistance offered by a conductor in alternating current may be said to be the same as that offered in continuous current (ohmic
resistance), whenever the Kelvin and corona effects, and resistance due to parasite currents, hysteresis, etc. may be disregarded.
r Ur
Z = r
I
()
r
Z = Z . (cos + j . sin) = R + j . X
()
The real part of the complex number is the measurement known as resistance, R, represented in the real axis. Its module equals:
R = Z . cos = ZZ2 - R2
()
r
The imaginary part of this complex number, Z is the reactance X, represented in the imaginary axis in such a way that if it is of
an inductive nature, it is positive, +j . XL, and if it is of a capacitive nature, it is negative,-j . XC. Its module equals:
X = Z . sin = ZZ2 - R2
()
The angle is the phase different angle between tension and intensity, in such a way that if it is positive, it corresponds to an
inductive circuit. If it is negative, it corresponds to a capacitive circuit. As it is widely known, this angle is of great importance in
alternating current. It is called power factor and provides information about reactive energy and also quantifies it.
XL
-Xc
Z
X (inductive)
Figure 9
If the impedance triangle of Fig. 9 is multiplied by I2, the result obtained is its corresponding power triangle, in which:
(W)
Reactive power
P = R . I2 = U . I . cos
Q = X . I2 = U . I . sin
Apparent power
S = Z . I2 = U . I
(V A)
Active power
130
(V Ar)
S
Q
Figure 10
2
2
=
UI
S=
L
+Q
QL=UI sin
P=UI cos
Figure 11
It will always be lower than the unit, but the closer to it, the more advantage we are taking out of the energy from the power
supply.
Norms for reactances specify that an equipment (set of reactance lamp) has a high power factor when its value is equal or
greater than 0.85.
The use of high power factor reactances has the following advantages:
1- Compliance with requisites from electric energy supply companies of compensating the power factor, at least, at
0.85.
2- To avoid extra charges in light bills for reactive energy.
3- To reduce the section in power supply line conductors in installations.
4- To use high power factor equipments implies to install a larger number of luminaires per circuit so that protection
equipments are reduced and simplified (magnetothermal, differentials, etc.).
Power factor compensation
As usual, industrial use reactances are of an inductive type and their power factor is around 0.5. Reactances of a capacitive type
must be associated to them so that the power factor of the set is close to the unit. This capacitive reactance consists in one or
several capacitors, whose installation is convenient near the inductive reactance in order to measure conductors for the smallest
intensity possible. This would not be achieved if capacitors are placed at the beginning of the installation, next to the distribution
board, for example.
On selecting the necessary compensation method, location of capacitors and economic aspects should be considered (prices,
power supply parameters, acquisition initial expenses and equipment maintenance expenses). Apart from this, there are factors
such as system harmonics and surrounding conditions which may limit the effective use of capacitors.
There is not a compensation method which may be universally recommended. Nevertheless, several methods may be applied
in each case.
131
Compensation in parallel
Compensation in parallel is done as shown in Fig. 12 where a fluorescent lamp with ignition through a starter has been
represented as a typical example, but it may be applied to any other type of lamp.
Ballast
IL
Capacitor
Power supply
Starter
Lamp
Ic
IL
N
Figure 12
The capacitor connected in parallel to the power supply, must have the adequate value so that reactive intensity ahead of the
phase absorbed by it, IC, formed by the one circulating through the lamp, IL, gives a power supply absorbed intensity, IT, whose
power factor is close to the unit (Fig. 13).
Ic
Vpower supply
'
It
IL
Figure 13
Power to be born by the capacitor is that of the power supply, and tolerance admitted in capacity is usually 10% of its nominal
value.
Being:
VPOWER SUPPLY = Power supply tension.
IL =
IC =
It =
C=
where:
132
P . (tag - tag)
(F)
. V2
cos =
cos =
V=
=
Compensation in series
As established before, compensation in parallel reduces the reactive power component of the power supply, and, thus, power
losses. With compensation in series reactive power is transmitted to a certain degree and the recover of the line remains
influenced when connecting capacitors in series to the power supply. The formula for the power loss in the line is given by:
U = Ia . R + Ir . (XL - XC)
This formula shows that, when XC = XL,, the power supply reactance is zero and the tension loss originated by the reactive power
transmission is also zero, as a consequence. When an adequate capacitor in series, is included, Xc may be greater than XL. In
this case, reactance of the power supply becomes negative. Thus, compensation in series may also reduce a power supply drop
caused by the transmission of active power.
Lamp
Figure 14. The relay switches the winding intake in a single nucleus.
133
Relay
Principal ballast
Auxiliary ballast
Lamp
Figure 15. The relay is inserted in series with the auxiliary shock circuit.
Relay
Auxiliary ballast
Lamp
Principal ballast
N
Figure 16. The relay opens the shock circuit derived from the main one.
In any case, lamp consumption is reduced since the relay acts, connecting with an important line existing in the installation. Also,
a temporizer in the equipment of each luminaire may be available, which programmed as required, passes from the normal
level to the reduced one.
The double level system being described may be applied to high pressure mercury lamps and high pressure sodium lamps
(having special care in ignition circuits). This system is not adequate for metal halide lamps because the colour of the light is
very much affected by the emitted power.
In energy saving systems with several lighting levels, the power factor of the installation must be carefully watched. Sometimes
it will be necessary to reduce the needed installed capacity for the maximum level in the minimum level. An added advantage
in double level equipments is the longer duration of equipments and lamps, since generally, harmful surges are produced in
lines during hours in which lighting is connected at a reduced level.
134
Another type of tubes is that of cold cathodes, which almost exclusively ignite through tension applied between their extremes.
Ballast
Capacitor
Starter
Power supply
Lamp
Lamp
Figure 17. Ignition through starter. Inductive ballast. Compensation of power factor in parallel with the line.
F
Power
supply
Capacitor
Figure 18. Rapid ignition. Circuit with autotransformer dispersion (with heating of electrodes in parallel).
Ballast
Power supply
Capacitor
Lamp
Figure 19. Rapid ignition. "Semi resonant" circuit with heating of electrodes in series.
135
Ballast
F
Power supply
Capacitor
N
Lamp
Lamp
Ballast
Power supply
Capacitor
Reactance
F
Power supply
Capacitor
136
Ballast
Capacitor
Power supply
Starter
Lamp
Capacitor
Power supply
Starter
Ballast
F
Capacitor
Starter
Lamp
Power supply
137
Lamp
Power supply
Capacitor
Starter
Ballast
F
Capacitor
Starter
Lamp
Power supply
Ballast
Power supply
Capacitor
Starter
138
Lamp
Chapter 10.
139
140
141
and their surroundings. Reflectances form part of the intrinsic properties of the task and the indoor area. These are not
affected by lighting. Thus, for these tasks only illuminance remains a factor of the lighting system which affects visibility. It
should be born in mind that for these tasks, luminance contrast is not affected by illuminance, but it is determined by
reflectances of details and their background. Therefore, task visibility will be larger with the increase in illuminance up to a
maximum certain level. The effect of the illuminance increase over visibility will be larger as size is smaller, or the contrast
detail or the number of exigencies of the eye motor functions. For details of large angular size, with a high contrast with the
background and static in a known position, the effect of illuminance increase in visibility on a moderate level will be
insignificant.
Bright objects and their surroundings
Considering that luminance of a perfectly matt object is proportional to the product of illuminance and reflectance (diffuse),
luminance of a regular reflecting surface is proportional to the product of its reflectance (regular) and the environmental
luminance in the reflection direction.
In practice, however, most surfaces do not belong either to the perfectly diffused reflection or to the perfectly regular one.
Surfaces have mixed reflection properties in such a way that their luminance depends both on the illuminance properties of
the surface as well as on the luminances of the surroundings. In order to relate luminance of mixed reflection surfaces with
illuminance in a similar way as luminance of a matt surface is related to illuminance by its reflectance, the luminance factor
has been introduced.
Luminance factor of a surface in a given direction under certain lighting conditions, is the reason for the surface luminance
in that direction to the luminance of a perfectly diffusing white surface, when they are identically illuminated.
From this definition, it may be deduced that the luminance factor of a perfectly diffusing surface is constant and equal to its
reflectance in all directions and under all lighting conditions.
In an environment of uniform luminance L, luminance of a perfectly regular reflecting surface is L in all directions and
luminance of a perfect diffusing white surface is also equal to L. Luminance factors of that regular reflecting surface under
such lighting conditions, are equal to 1 in all directions.
In an environment of luminance equal to 0 except for a limited L luminance area (source), luminance of a perfect diffusing
white surface is smaller than L because illuminance is lower than illuminance in an environment of uniform luminance L.
Luminance of a regular perfectly reflecting surface is equal to 0 except in all reflection directions of the source in which
luminance is equal to L. Luminance factor of such regular surface, thus, is larger than 1 in the directions of reflection of the
source and 0 in all other directions.
Since bright surfaces have reflection properties partly regular and partly diffused, it may be deduced from all the above that
for such mixed reflection surfaces, luminance factor will be constant and equal to its reflectance (mixed) in all directions only
in a uniform luminance environment. In other environments, it may reach values between 0 and above 1, depending both
on reflection properties and lighting systems.
This also means that contrasts in objects which are not perfectly matt are affected by lighting because they are determined
by luminance factors of details and background. These may reach different values in different visual directions, especially in
directions of high luminance reflection.
In conclusion, for tasks and bright contours not only illuminance is important for good visibility but also lighting direction. This
is a general term which describes the special distribution of incident light in the task. It is determined by luminance
distribution of the environment and depends on factors such as geometry of installation, luminances of luminaires and indoor
reflectances.
142
surfaces and their task. Give origin to brightness by reflectio is. an important factor affecting visual satisfaction.
For indor areas with bright tasks or surroundings, environmental luminances reflected on surfaces and which may veil the
contrast of the task or give origin to brightness by reflection, are an important factor affecting visual satisfaction.
Much research has been conducted in order to determine a preferred range of horizontal illuminances surrounding indoor
areas. For such a purpose, carefully controlled values of surface reflectance in a room must be taken into account. Out of the
results obtained in Western Europe, for brightness free fluorescent lighting conditions, an average curve has been determined
indicating the percentage of observers which consider a particular illuminance as satisfactory. This curve is shown in Fig. 1,
together with the evaluation of too dark and too light.
%
100
80
Satisfactory
Too dark
Too light
60
40
20
0
2
10
10
10
(Lx)
143
Reference surface
Reference surface of an indoor area is the surface where the recommended appropriate illuminance is supplied, selected
from the charts shown at the end of the present chapter. The reference surface does not need to be reduced to a single
surface area, but it may include a number of separate areas. Indoor lighting specifications must always include a clear
definition of the reference surface.
In indoor working areas, the reference surface will normally be the working plane. For indoor areas where tasks are not
restricted to fixed places, the working plane is considered to be the horizontal plane limited by indoor walls at a height of
0.85 m. above the floor. For indoor areas where task localizations are known and clearly specified, the reference surface may
consist in specific areas of working or task areas.
When the task is not performed in a horizontal plane or is at a different height, the reference surface will have the angle of
the task plane and be at its height.
In indoor areas where work is not done, the reference surface may be the floor, the wall, or any important plane.
Illuminance uniformity
Illuminance given on the reference surface by a lighting installation will never be totally uniform, either in space or in time.
Uniformity in space
Measurement of illuminance uniformity on the reference surface is the ratio between minimum illuminance and average
illuminance.
In general lighting, illuminance uniformity on the reference surface must not be lower than 0.8 to provide possible locations
of equivalent tasks in all the indoor areas.
In localized general lighting or lighting of general areas, average illuminance in areas surrounding tasks must not be lower
than one third of the level for task areas.
Ratio between average illuminances for two adjacent indoor areas (for example, an office and a corridor) must not exceed
5:1.
Uniformity in time
Average illuminance given by an installation will gradually decrease with time due to depreciation of the lamp luminous
flux and the accumulation of dirtiness in lamps, luminaires and surfaces in the room.
Initial lighting: it is the average illuminance when the installation is new and surfaces in the room are clean. Initial
illuminance must be chosen according to requisites imposed by the maintenance program. Its value should not be
used for illuminance recommendations.
Illuminance in service: it is the average illuminance during all maintenance cycle on the reference surface. In some
countries, it is used for illuminance recommendations.
Maintenance illuminance: it is the average illuminance on the reference surface during all the time between two
maintenance operations, substitution of lamps and/ or cleaning of luminaires and surfaces in the room. In some
countries, it is used for illuminance recommendations. In countries where recommended illuminance is established in
terms of illuminance in service, maintenance illuminance should not be under 0.8 of the recommended value.
10.3. Glare
Glare is the sensation produced by an exaggerated luminance within the visual field which alters sensitivity of the eye, causing
discomfort, reducing visibility or both.
Glare may take place in two different ways. Sometimes they occur separately, but generally, they take place simultaneously. The first is
144
known as physiological glare (or disability glare). It impairs visual capacity and visibility, but it does not necessarily produce discomfort.
The second is known as psychological glare (or discomfort glare). This type is discomforting but it does not necessarily impairs object
observation.
In indoor lighting, psychological glare (discomfort) is likely to be more of a problem than physiological glare (disability). Measurements
taken to control discomfort glare will have to take discomfot glare into account, too. The sensation of discomfort experimented by
discomfort glare tends to increase with the passing of time and contributes to nervous tension and fatigue.
Any given type of glare may be direct or by reflection. Direct glare is the glare directly caused by luminances of the sources of
light, such as lamps, luminaires and windows, which appear in the observers field of vision. Glare by reflection is the glare
produced by reflected luminances from surfaces with high reflectance, especially specular surfaces such as polished metals,
except when these form part of the luminaire. Glare by reflection must be distinguished from other types of reflection which
produce a reduction of the task contrast. They are more correctly described as veiling reflections (high luminance is reflected
by the task towards the eyes, veiling it and reducing its contrasts).
Glare
Class
A, very high quality
index (G)
1.15
B, high quality
Type of task or
1.50
activity
Visual tasks exceptionally difficult.
Visual tasks extremely difficult.
Tasks requiring moderate visual demand and high
concentration.
C, average quality
1.85
D, low quality
2.20
2.55
145
G= 8 . log 2
1+ Ed / 500
Ei + Ed
L2 . w
p2
where:
G: C.I.E. glare index.
Ed and Ei: vertical illuminances in the eye.
Ed: directly from sources of glare.
Ei: indirectly from background.
L: luminance of the source of glare.
w: size of the source of glare.
p: Guths position index (position index for each luminaire, which is related to the shift of the area of vision).
Quality
1.15
1.50
1.85
2.20
2.55
A
B
C
D
E
85
GM
1000
2000
500
1000
2000
=<300
500
1000
2000
=<300
500
1000
2000
=<300
500
1000
=<300
500
85
GM
=<300
ab c d
75
65
75
55
65
45
55
45
9 103
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Cd/m2 2
Diagram 2
9 103
Diagram 1
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Cd/m2 2
146
Diagrams of Fig. 2 are diagrams of luminance curves for the evaluation of direct glare. Diagram 1 is for those directions of
vision parallel to the longitudinal axis of any elongated luminaire and for luminaires lacking lateral luminous panels observed
from any direction. Diagram 2 is for those directions of vision in right angles to the longitudinal axis of any luminaire with
lateral luminous panels.
Limitation of the required luminance depends on the type and orientation of the luminaire, the shielding angle, the
acceptance degree or quality class, and the value of illuminance in service.
Type of luminaire
The terms luminous laterals and elongated used to describe the types of luminaire are defined in the following
way:
- Luminous laterals: a luminaire is considered to have luminous laterals if it has a luminous lateral panel with a height
of more than 30 mm.
- Elongated: a luminaire is considered to be elongated when the ratio between the length and the width of the
luminous area is higher than 2:1.
Luminaire orientation
When using diagrams in Fig. 2, luminance distribution of the luminaire in two vertical planes must be taken into account: the
C0-C180 plane and the C90-C270 plane.
85
85
75
45
75
45
C90 - C270
C0 - C180
147
Shielding angle
90 - < S
90 - = S
90 - > S
148
Luminance range
Lamp type
limitation
ABC
20
30
DE
10 *
20
Tubular fluorescent.
High pressure discharge
diffusers or fluorescent tubes.
30
30
45
hs
tan =
a
hs
1.20 m.
149
UGR= 8 . log
0.25
Lb
L2 . w
p2
where:
Lb = background luminance (cd/m2).
L = luminance of luminous parts of each luminaire in the direction of the observers eye (cd/m2).
=solid angle drawn by the luminous parts of each luminaire in the observers eye (stereoradian).
p = position index for each luminaire, which is related to the shift of the area of vision (Guths position
index for each luminaire)
A more exact evaluation of glare is achieved by means of a direct application of the UGR formula for the considered
installation, for which a computer program is required.
UGR Charts
A simpler UGR value may be obtained, although not as exact, using standard UGR glare charts. These charts provide
the UGR value calculated for different standard situations and for different types of luminaires.
A disadvantage of these charts is that luminaires cannot be classified. Due to this reason, UGR limitation curves have
been developed.
150
UGR
85
13
16
19
22
25
28
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
2
8 10
3 4 5 6 8 10
3 4 5 6 8 10
3 4 5 6 8 10
2
2
L (cd/m )
Figure 7
The range of the glare index extends from 13 to 28 in groups of 3 units, this being the least increase provided by a
significative change in the sensation of psychological glare.
Another difference is that for these curves, luminaire classification is independent from illuminance. Thanks to curves
luminaires may be classified. However, they are not as exact as charts, since only the luminaire effect is considered and not
the effect of all the installation.
Glare produced by windows
Sky luminance in which glare begins to be perceived is approximately 2 000 cd/m2 and corresponds to horizontal illuminance
of 10 000 lux under cloudy conditions.
Since sky luminance may not be diminished, glare produced by windows may only be prevented using curtains, blinds or
lattices. Alternatively, working positions may be established in such a way that glare from windows does not interfere with
the occupants field of vision.
Psychological glare produced by windows may be reduced using very light decorations on surfaces close to window openings
and spreading decorations on them, allowing incident light to reduce contrast from the window.
Veiling reflections and reflected glare
Brightness of a source of light reflected by a matte or semi-matte surface in the observers eyes produces a slight or
considerable discomfort. When this reflection is produced in a task is known as veiling reflection. When glare is produced
outside the task, it is reflected glare.
On top of producing discomfort, veiling reflections reduce the context of the task, and, as a consequence produce a loss of
details.
Both veiling reflections and reflected glare may be minimized in the following way:
1. Designing a lighting system or locating working areas in such a way that no part of the visual task is within or near the
reflection angle of any bright source of light with respect to the eye.
2. Increasing the amount of light in both sides on the visual task, approximately in right angles to the direction of vision.
3. Using luminaires which possess a wide range of emission and low luminance.
4. Using working surfaces, paper, stationery, office machines, etc. with a matte surface to reduce effects from reflection.
151
ILLUMINANCE IN LUX
produced. Kruithofs curves delimit possible combinations between TC and illuminance calculation (Fig. 8).
5 000
500
50
5
2 000
2 500 3 000
4 000
5 000
COLOR TEMPERATURE K
Figure 8. Kruithofs curves for the ratio between Tc and illuminance.
152
10 000
The Chromatic Reproduction Index (R) is extremely important as far as quality of light goes, being the first measurement in activities
where an optimal chromatic reproduction is absolutely essential (see chapter 4).
153
1000
500
200
100
50
20
Satisfactorily
perceptible
10
5
Barely
perceptible
2
1
154
100
Loss due to lam
90
p deterioration
Lighting percentage
80
70
62
60
50
40
70
71
65
62
55
30
Luminaires cleaned
every 12 months
20
Luminaires cleaned
every 12 months
10
0
1 000
2 000
3 000
4 000
5 000
6 000
7 000
8 000
9 000
Working hours
Figure 10. Depreciation combined curves showing the cleaning and renovation effect
for an installation of fluorescent lamps.
Factors to be considered in indoor lighting depreciation
Dirtiness in lamps and luminaires
For the most part, light loss may be attributed to dirtiness accumulated in lamps and light control surfaces (reflected, refracted
or diffused) of luminaires.
Depreciation speed caused by dirtiness which accumulates on light control surfaces is affected by the tilt angle, finish, and
surface temperature, by the luminaire ventilation degree or tightness, as well as by the atmospheric pollution degree
surrounding the luminaire.
Depreciation in the emission of light may be reduced selecting appropriate luminaires for each place. Those luminaires with
open bases and closed surfaces accumulate dirtiness more quickly than those with ventilation. In ventilated luminaires,
convection currents take dust and dirtiness out through holes or slits in the canopy or reflector, and out of reflection surfaces.
In highly polluted environments, it is better to use sealed or dustproof luminaires. Some of them possess a filter inside which
155
156
Ratio of premises =
A.L
h . (A + L)
3.A.L
.
2 h . (A + L)
In both formulas:
A = Width of the premises (m.).
L = Length of the premises (m.).
h= Mounting height (m.). The distance between the luminaire down to the useful or working plane is considered.
The height of the premises, H, is the sum of the luminaire suspension contour height, C, plus the mounting height, h,
plus 0.85* m. to which the working plane is from the ground.
Since H and C are data previous to the installation, mounting height is calculated with the following formula:
h = H C 0.85 (m.)
Fm
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
Chart 3
* Distance at which the working plane is from the ground according to the Construction Technological Norm.
157
. N . . fu . fm
S
158
Kind of area
Illuminance in service
Quality class
100
D-E
Bathrooms, restrooms
100
C-D
Businesses, warehouses
100
D-E
Stairs, Escalators
150
C-D
Assembly workshops
Kind of area
Rough work: heavy machinery
Quality classd
C-D
1.500
B-C
1.750
A-B
1 500
A-B
Quality class
C-D
1.300
C-D
1.500
C-D
Pharmaceutical manufacturing
1.500
C-D
Pneumatic manufacturing
1.500
C-D
assembly
Medium work: vehicle body and
engine assembly
Fine work: office machinery and
electronics assembly
Very fine work: instrument
assembly
Inspection
1.750
A-B
Colour combination
1 000
A-B
Ironing
Quality class
A-B
Sewing
1.750
A-B
Inspection
1 000
A-B
Quality class
B-C
Clothing
Kind of area
Electricity industry
Kind of area
Cable manufacturing
Coil winding
1.500
A-B
1 000
A-B
Evaluation, adjustment
1 000
A-B
1 500
A-B
Kind of area
Automatic process
Quality class
D-E
300
C-D
Craft decoration
500
A-B
electronic components
Food manufacture
159
Smelting
Kind of area
Smelting areas
Quality class
D-E
300
C-D
500
A-B
Kind of area
Furnaces/furnace rooms
Quality class
D-E
1.300
C-D
1.300
B-C
1.500
B-C
1.750
A-C
Fine work
1 000
A-B
Quality class
D-E
200
D-E
300
D-E
500
A-B
Quality class
B-C
1.750
A-B
1 000
A-B
Metal manufacture
Kind of area
Totally automatic
production plants
Semi-automatic
production plants
Work stations with permanent
staff in production plants
Control and inspection platforms
Leather works
Kind of area
General work area
Pressing, cutting, sewing,
shoe manufacture
Classification, piling, quality
control
160
Quality class
D-E
1.300
C-D
1.500
B-C
1.750
A-B
1 500
A-B
Quality class
C-D
1.750
B-C
1 000
A-B
Quality class
D-E
300
C-D
Inspection, classification
500
A-B
Quality class
C-D
Binding
1.500
A-B
Composing, correcting,
1.750
A-B
Retouching, etching
1 000
A-B
1 500
A-B
2 000
A-B
Kind of area
Carding, patterned cloths
Quality class
D-E
1.500
C-D
Paper factory
Kind of area
Automatic processses
Printing works
Kind of area
Printing machine
Textile industries
Twisting, weaving
1.750
A-B
Sewing, inspection
1 000
A-B
161
Woodwork shops
Kind of area
Sawmills
Quality class
D-E
1.300
C-D
Wood machining
1.500
B-C
Finishing
1.750
A-B
1 000
A-B
Kind of area
Archives
Quality class
C-D
Conference rooms
1.300
A-B
1.500
A-B
1.750
A-B
Drawing offices
1 000
A-B
Quality class
A-B
500
A-B
Quality class
B-C
Self- service
500
B-C
750
B-C
Offices
Schools
Kind of area
Workshops, libraries, reading rooms
Classrooms, assembly halls,
laboratories, art rooms, sports halls
Shopping precincts
Kind of area
Conventional shops
162
Public edifices
Kind of area
Cinema auditorium
Quality class
B-C
Cinema foyer
150
B-C
100
B-C
200
B-C
150
B-C
300
B-C
Church naves
100
B-C
300
B-C
Quality class
B-C
Houses
Kind of area
Bedrooms in general
Head of bedroom
200
B-C
Bathroom in general
100
B-C
500
B-C
House in general
100
B-C
500
B-C
Stairs
100
B-C
Kitchen in general
300
B-C
500
B-C
Desk
300
B-C
Childrens room
100
B-C
Quality class
B-C
100
B-C
300
B-C
300
B-C
500
B-C
the bathroom
halls in general
Kitchens
163
Hospitals
Kind of area
Ward corridors at night
Quality class
A-B
000.200
A-B
000.150
A-B
000.500
A-B
001 000
A-B
000.750
A-B
Nurses stations
000.300
A-B
000.500
A-B
1 000
A-B
100 000
A-B
000.750
A-B
005 000
A-B
000.750
A-B
001 000
A-B
000.500
A-B
000.750
A-B
examination rooms
General lighting in
operating rooms
Local lighting in operating
rooms
General lighting in post- mortem
rooms
Local lighting in post- mortem
rooms
General lighting of laboratories
and pharmacies
Local lighting of laboratories
and pharmacies
General lighting in
consulting rooms
Local lighting in
consulting rooms
164
Chapter 11.
FLOODLIGHTING
165
166
Chapter11. FLOODLIGHTING
Data collection
It is the fundamental base to make ulterior decisions. The more data, the better, as far as planes, observations, possibility of locations,
lighting hours, dirtiness acummulation prediction, surroundings of the area, streets, crossings, roads or nearby roads, power supply
systems, estimate possibilities, etc. is concerned.
- Lighting hours, needs in peak hours, glares, favourable contrasts, atmospheric conditions, etc. must be carefully considered in security,
protection or production lighting.
- Possible colour effects, shadows and contrasts, floodlight angles, surface reflectance, brightness of the surroundings, etc., must not
be forgotten in decorative or architectonic lighting.
- Possible vertical lighting exigencies, avoidance of shadows and glares to users or the audience, contrasts and game features or class
(competition, club, training, leisure, etc.) will be preferably considered in sports lighting.
Illuminance determination
In case it is not provided, the recommendable level must be fixed bearing in mind all particularities and with the help of the charts
present throughout this chapter and at the end of it.
But not only the minimum luminous level for a correct perception of the object must be taken into account (always eased by the
extraordinary eye adaptation capacity), but also the slightest visual fatigue of people subjected to the action of artificial lighting for long
periods of time must also be avoided. Thus, accidents or a decrease of faculties may be avoided.
167
General remarks
Column height
In order to calculate the column (tower or post) height in which floodlights will be mounted, avoiding a direct glare, the
abacus in Fig. 2 will be used. It is important the fact that with excessive heights, the price of columns increases considerably.
However, if heights are lower, the number of columns, lamps and luminaires increases very much. Also, if there are relatively
high constructions in different positions within the area, mounting heights lower than those shown in the abacus must be
used in order to avoid strong shadows projected on the area. When the emphasis lies in saving space and in the flexibility
of use of the area, the columns used must be higher than those of the abacus, since an increase in height also increases
the allowed space, and, the number of obstructions in the form of columns decreases, too.
.
6m
0 m.
6 m.
12 m.
18 m.
24 m.
30 m.
36 m.
42 m.
48 m.
54 m.
60 m.
0 m.
MOUNTING HEIGHT
.
m. 5 m. 8 m. 1 m. 4 m. 7 m.
1
9 m 12
2
1
2
2
m.
30
m.
33
.
m
36
.
m
39
.
m
42
.
m
45
m.
48
.
m
51
.
m
54
.
m
57
m.
60
Figure 2
168
MOUNTING HEIGHT
Figure 1
Chapter11. FLOODLIGHTING
Lighting levels
At least the level required in the horizontal plane (horizontal illuminance) must be defined. Sometimes also vertical
illuminance must be controlled (for example, where reading tasks take place, goods are inspected or moved).
The necessary lighting levels and uniformities depend on the difficulty of the visual task, on the one hand, and on the degree
of efficiency and security required, on the other hand. In Chart 1 level and uniformity requirements for different categories
of areas are indicated.
Visual task and
Example
category
Horizontal illuminance
Uniformity factor
recommended
maintained average (lux)
Security
Low risk areas
1:7
20
1:4
50
1:2.5
1:7
10
1:4
20
1:2.5
1:4
Normal transit
General work
Very rough
Excavation, clearance
20
Rough
Woodwork
50
1:4
Regular
Masonery, woodwork
100
1:2.5
Fine
200
1:2
169
170
Chapter11. FLOODLIGHTING
B
A
B
A
Figure 3
Also projecting elements (like balconies), walls or balustrades may enrich the appearance of a facade and must be taken
into account, if included in the lighting structure. In this case, floodlights must be placed at a certain distance from the facade,
in order to avoid excessively strong shadows. If there is not enough space for this, small floodlights placed on the projection
itself may be used as complementary lighting (Fig. 4).
Recess or concave elements like galleries or balconies will remain in the shadow when placing floodlights at a short distance
from the facade. In these situations, complementary lighting placed on the recess parts themselves may be used. Light of
another colour may be appropriate for this purpose. Lighting through floodlighting placed at a greater distance produces less
shadows and eliminates the need for additional lighting.
d
Change in the height of the shadow
produced by variation of
distance "d"
Figura 4
Some of the many alternatives to place luminous sources are: on public lighting posts or on posts specifically placed for this
purpose; on the roof of a neighbouring building; on supports fixed to the facade itself or on the ground, behind low walls,
bushes or hedges.
Recommended lighting levels
In order to determine the necessary level of illuminance to provide a structure with the required visual impact, factors such
as brightness of the surroundings and background, material used in the construction, etc. must be taken into account. Three
171
Facade material
Light-coloured stone
white marble
Medium-coloured stone
Cement
Light-coloured marble
Dark-coloured stone
Grey granite
Dark marble
Light yellow brick
Light brown brick
Dark brown brick
Pink granite
Red brick
Dark brick
Architectonic detail
Aluminium coating:
natural finish
Saturated lacquer thermic
finish (10%)
red, brown, yellow
Saturated lacquer thermic
finish (10%)
blue, green
Medium lacquer thermic
finish (30-40%)
red, brown, yellow
Medium lacquer thermic
finish (30-40%)
blue, green
Pastel lacquer thermic
finish (60-70%),
red, brown, yellow
Pastel lacquer thermic
finish (60-70%),
blue, green
Correction coefficients
S
Clean
Dirty
20
30
60
1.0
0.9
3.0
5.0
40
60
120
1.1
1.0
2.5
5.0
100
150
300
1.0
1.1
2.0
3.0
35
40
55
50
60
80
100
120
160
1.2
1.2
1.3
0.9
0.9
1.0
2.5
2.0
2.0
5.0
4.0
4.0
100
120
60
200
150
180
100
300
300
360
200
600
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.0
1.2
1.2
1.1
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.5
3.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
120
180
360
1.3
1.1
1.5
2.0
120
180
360
1.0
1.3
1.5
2.0
40
60
120
1.2
1.0
2.0
4.0
40
60
120
1.0
1.2
2.0
4.0
20
30
60
1.1
1.0
3.0
5.0
20
30
60
1.0
1.1
3.0
5.0
Chart 2
Recommended lighting levels are those necessary to create a luminance of 4, 6 or 12 cd/m2 on the facade when the
surroundings are poorly illuminated, well illuminated or with a lot of brightness, respectively. Values are valid for lamps with
172
Chapter11. FLOODLIGHTING
a wolfram filament of 2 800 K and clean surfaces of buildings . Correction coefficients shown are multiplying.
173
174
Chapter11. FLOODLIGHTING
175
e) The form of a building illuminated through floodlighting is best highlighted when its contours are visible, its
solidity is emphasized, and the corners are emphasized too, by illuminating the neighbouring walls with a
different luminance. The shape of a building with a non- peaked roof is evidently complete when both, roof and
wall, are illuminated through floodlighting.
f) The solidity of towers, domes and column heads is emphasized if illuminated through floodlighting from no
more than three directions in azimuth.
g) A good pronounced modelling is always desirable, but it does not make sense to highlight small details on flat
facades when the building is seen from a certain distance.
h) Height is more pronounced if building lighting is reduced progressively from its base upwards. If the lowest
parts of a building are hidden from observation at a certain distance by the structures of the surroundings, maybe
it will be convenient to reduce brightness in the opposed direction, for example, towards the ground.
Lighting of contemporary design buildings
New materials and building methods have played an important role in the development of a distinctive style of contemporary
buildings. For example, external and internal walls of modern buildings with a steel structure are not load- bearing walls and,
therefore, they may be made of light materials and be pre- manufactured before installation; structures of reinforced
concrete, some with roofs of 40 meters or more in height, are another typical element of the contemporary landscape.
On condition that the structure is adequate, lighting through floodlighting may be used to emphasize social and architectural
meaning of many civilian, commercial and educative buildings recently built. Maybe, it will also be propaganda for the
products of the company which owns or rents the building. For example, in Fig. 9 an office building may be seen. It has a
pre- manufactured reinforced concrete facade which was built for a company which manufactures concrete; lighting through
floodlighting strongly reveals the forms of the material.
Figure 9
176
Chapter11. FLOODLIGHTING
11.3.3. Monuments
Monuments should be illuminated through floodlighting in a way that indicates their style, age and their historical meaning
wherever possible.
Floodlights for monument lighting are similar to those for historical buildings in general. The effects of erosion and, if ceilings
and walls have been destroyed or partially destroyed, should be reported. Lighting should be designed to achieve an effect
without and apparent cause (Fig. 10).
Figure 10
Floodlights for lighting of castles in ruins and similar monuments should be designed to emphasize the compact character
of their structures and reveal the shape of their towers and other prominent elements (Fig. 11).
Figure 11
The historical importance of a monument may be indicated by coloured light. For example, blue light may be used to create
a mysterious atmosphere, and red light to indicate the scene of a battle.
The splendour and magnificence of a monument may be manifested to the maximum only by means of a close and
continuous cooperation between the architect of the project, the lighting engineer and, wherever appropriate, the
archeologist, whose main interest is the preservation of the monument. The lighting equipment should not be attached to
the structure of the building unless a special permission has been granted.
177
Figure 12
- The shape and main elements of the bridge must be visible from a considerable distance. Most of the times it is desirable
for bridges on roads to include accesses in the lighting project so that it is seen as a part of the road and not as an isolated
element of the complex. Amenity lighting luminaires for roadway lighting should be treated as part of the lighting design.
- The convenience for a bridge to be illuminated through floodlighting depends on the surroundings, the main directions and
the observation distances, the importance of the structure and architecture of the bridge, its importance in the night- time
decoration, and the materials with which it has been built.
- Stone and reinforced concrete bridges generally respond well to lighting through floodlighting, but it may be difficult to show
the shape and details in iron and steel bridges this way, due to the low reflectance and the small area projected of the
members of the structure. However, other methods may be used. For example, lighting with ornamental lights, lamps
supported by cables and chain, have been used in some hanging bridges with satisfaction, but an effective maintenance may
be difficult.
- Lighting should not distract attention from traffic (motorized, highway or maritime traffic) which goes under or above the
bridge. If coloured lighting is used, a special care must be taken to avoid confusion with traffic signals.
- Illuminance necessary to show the effective shape of the bridge will mainly depend on the type of bridge, its surroundings
(including district lighting) and reflectance of the building materials. When the lighting system and location of floodlights has
been decided, its type, number and voltage may be estimated using the INDALWIN calculation program. After the lighting
system has been installed, the effects must be valued from a critical point of view, and adjustments must be done in situ.
- The sides of a stone bridge or similar crossing a valley, a clearing or a river may be usually illuminated through mounted
asymmetric rectangular floodlights in one or both banks. If light is directed from one of the sides mainly, the arches, wring
walls, counterforts and balustrades will be emphasized through coherent shadows which will be formed.
However, this system is not likely to be applied if the bridge is very long. Preferably, floodlights should be mounted under the
bridge platform to minimize glare for traffic and pedestrians going over or under the bridge (Fig. 13). Floodlights that,must be
mounted over the bridge height due to practical reasons should be conveniently oriented so that glare is restricted as much
as possible. This type of bridges may be illuminated also through luminaires mounted on the bridge or near it and hidden
from the normal observation angles or by a continuous row of waterproof fluorescent luminaires mounted on the railing.
178
Chapter11. FLOODLIGHTING
The latter system may be applied for the lighting of pedestrian bridge by using luminaires which direct part of the light to
the sidewalk and part to the sides of the bridge. Often, the appearance of an arched bridge is improved if the lower part of
the arches is illuminated, preferably with a different colour of light to the one used on the sides of the bridge. A very dramatic
effect is produced leaving the sides without lighting (in the dark). It is difficult to delineate cables and chains of hanging
bridges except for festive lighting, but their support towers may be generally illuminated by floodlights with a great advantage,
using circular symmetrical floodlights with a narrow beam, mounted in the bridge or next to it and aiming upwards. Lighting
of the zone of the bridge for motorized traffic is normally done with public lighting luminaires.
Asymmetric floodlight
Asymmetric floodlight
Figure 13
Tree lighting
sideways
from below
Figure 14
Luminaires may illuminate the foliage from a certain distance or be located next to the trunk lighting its branches from the
ground upwards (Fig. 14). The first technique is appropriated for trees with a dense foliage, whereas the other type of
focusing is appropriate for light foliage trees. Beautiful effects may be achieved using different coloured lights (Fig. 15).
179
Figure 15
If a superior frontal or vertical lighting is not desired or it is not applicable, flowered trees or with naked branches may be
projected against a white or light coloured wall, fence or railing. Another subtle effect more interesting than frontal lighting
from a visual point of vie, may be obtained by illuminating trees and bushes from behind.
But in most cases, floodlights should be placed between the public and the objects to be illuminated. Glare may be avoided
placing screens on floodlights, even though most gardens have many places to hide them, such as bushes, tree trunks or
stumps, rocks, fences, small walls, etc. Alternatively, floodlights may be embedded in the ground (in this case, drainage
possibility must be born in mind).
In general, it is neither economical nor practical to illuminate but a few trees in the park; and due to aesthetical reasons,
uniform lighting of the totality of an area through floodlighting is satisfactory very few times. The trees chosen should be
important and beautiful species and placed in positions where depth and subtlety are given to the scenery.
180
Chapter11. FLOODLIGHTING
surroundings. Lighting must help the spectator to enter and exit the sport installation security. This security issue is also very
important for players.
T.V. broadcasting
For T.V. broadcasting, lighting must provide conditions that will secure a good quality colour image (Publication C.I.E. n 83),
both for general images of the play and close- ups of spectators and players.
Transmission continuity
In order to comply with T.V. transmission continuity, requirements in case of failure of the normal lighting system, a secondary
system is generally installed to provide an emergency T.V. lighting.
181
plane and average illuminance on the vertical one must be kept between 0.5 and 2 in general.
Glare
Glare occurs whenever a discomfort bright area approaches or enters the visual field, producing a disturbing effect for players
and spectators.
Glare may be minimised paying careful attention to floodlight or luminaire choice. We must also make sure that they are
carefully focused, taking into account the main visual directions.
Evaluation of glare
The C.I.E. has developed a basis to evaluate the subjective impression of glare in outdoor areas.
Essentially, it includes a glare index in which the lower the reaching is also, the lower the glare. Glare Rating (GR) is obtained
this way:
GR = 27 + 24 . log
EE R R
Lvl
Lve
0,9
where:
Lvl = veiling luminance produced by luminaires.
Lvl =
eyej
i 2
where Eeye,i is the eye illuminance produced by the source of light (lux) i, and i is the angle between the direction of vision
and the direction of incident light from the source of light i (degrees).
Lve = veiling luminance produced by the medium.
Lve may be approached from the horizontal average illuminance where the sports event is taking place, Ehav, using the
following formula:
p
Lve = 0.035 . Ehav .
where p = the area reflectance.
For Lvl the sources of light are luminaires, whereas for Lve the field and luminous surroundings are considered as an infinite
number of small light sources.
It is necessary to calculate GR for the observers most critical positions, defined in Fig. 16. for a football playfield.
182
Chapter11. FLOODLIGHTING
300 m.
300 m.
1A
300 m.
10
300 m.
9
1/4 A
1/2 A
1/4 A
300 m.
7
6
11
1/4 B
1/2 B
1B
Figure 16
Nowadays, international sport associations are introducing their own GR norms and veiling luminance.
External glare
In past times, glare was only taken into account for players and spectators who were in the illuminated area or very close to
it. Nevertheless, in case of outdoor lighting sports, the disperse light of the installation may bother spectators who are outside
the playfield: for example, for traffic on adjacent roads or for those people who live in the surroudings.
Currently, the C.I.E. is studying a direct parameter to quantify such disturbance, which is directly related to the optical quality
of the floodlights used. This means that in order to avoid this inconvenience, floodlights must be chosen taking into account
the limitation of the disperse light outside the main beam. They must be focused and mounted in an adequate manner.
Recommendations
Although glare ratio, or GR, is not specified in the recommendation sections, it is highly important for all sports lighting
installations. It must coincide with the GR values established in the Publication C.I.E. n 83.
The calculated GR value depends partially on the reflectance area where the sports activity is taking place. For grass courts,
a diffused reflectance of about 0.15 to 0.25 is generally presupposed.
The GR value must be determined for the observers positions of such a sport, at a height of 1.5 metres over the area where
the sports activity is taking place. The observer must see all points at ground level. For an outdoor installation, the effect of
disperse light outside the precinct at a distance of 300 metres from the centre of the area must be calculated. This means
that veiling luminance must be calculated at a 1.5 metre height over the ground for the five most extreme positions.
Modelling and shadows
Modulate is the lighting capability to reveal forms and textures. This is particularly important to provide a general vision of sportmen,
183
players, ball or other elements and spectators who are in the area where the sports activity is taking place or near it.
The efficacy of modelling depends on directions from which light sources come from as well as on the number and type of sources
used in it. Modelling may be hard, produced by means of deep shadows, for example, using floodlights with a narrow and simple
beam; or soft, resulting from lighting without shadows from a luminous ceiling, for example. None of these extremes is advisable.
However, for the latter case, it is possible to add some small floodlights to improve modulate.
Good quality television images require a good modulate for lighting. This is the reason why up to 60% of the installed total flux may
come from the side of the main camera, and 40% or even more, from the opposite side, in order to limit length and hardness of
projected shadows for sportment where an asymmetric arrangement of floodlights is used.
Colour appearance and reproduction
A good colour perception is important in most sports, and, although some distortion due to artificial light is accepted, it must
not be so much as to produce colour discrimination problems (between partially distorted colours).
Two important aspects related to colour must be distinguished.
- Light colour appearance: It is the colour impression in all the medium created by the lamp.
- Light colour reproduction: It is the ability of light to reproduce colours of objects.
Both colour appearance and colour reproduction of the light emitted by lamps depend on the distribution of spectral energy
of theemitted light. One indication of the colour appearance of a lamp may be obtained from its colour correlative
temperature, measured in Kelvin (K), which varies between 2 000 and 6 000 K. If colour temperature is lower, light colour
impression will be warmer. The higher colour temperature, the colder or more bluish light colour impression.
Colour reproduction properties of a luminous source may be indicated by the colour reproduction index (R). The maximum
theoretical value of the colour reproduction index is 100, which may be compared with daylight. The visual characteristics
of the surroundings depend on the R. The higher the R, the more comfortable the environment.
184
Chapter11. FLOODLIGHTING
185
When glare may produce important discomfort to people outside the area where the sports activity is practiced, luminous
intensities outside the current beam must be the lowest possible. For this application, a floodlight that may distribute light
totally under the horizontal plane is recommended.
11.4.2.2. Lighting design
Lighting calculations
In daily practice, it is very common to use computer programs (INDALWIN) to design sports lighting installations. The results
of the program show quantitative values for most of the parameters, such as vertical and horizontal illuminances, uniformity
and glare ratios.
Floodlight orientation and location
Calculations done with the computer assume that small groups of floodlights in a power supply network are located in a
single point, that is to say, in the centre of the group. Such calculations are generally exact enough for general applications.
However, when there are large groups of floodlights and the spacing between the external units is considerable, the
calculation may result inexact in the focusing (Fig. 21). In these cases, a point of reference is determined for each small
group of floodlights.
Figure 21
Calculation matrix
Since the distance between the matrix points is relatively small, the value shown for each point represents the area
surrounding such a point (Fig. 22.). Matrix sizes commonly used are:
- from 1 to 2 m.:
- from 5 m.:
In order to specify horizontal illuminances, the matrix must be at ground level, whereas in order to specify vertical
illuminances, it generally is at 1.5 m. over such a level.
186
Chapter11. FLOODLIGHTING
1/2 Sx
Sx
1/2 Sy
Sy
Figure 22
The positions of the observer and the observation or vision directions used when calculating glare are defined in the matrix.
Camera positions
Camera positions must be known to secure that lighting in such directions is adequate. These are specified as points of
reference in the computer program, and generally speaking, separate calculations are done for a number of points.
11.4.2.3. Football fields
Because of practical reasons, lighting requisites for different activities taking place in different periods of the year
in outdoor football fields, must have floodlighting systems. Therefore, they may be defined in general.
Illuminance
When the events are regularly broadcasted from a stadium or football field, the floodlight lighting project is generally designed
to provide the high illuminance necessary to comply with television requisites. The necessary horizontal illuminance for a
play field depends on:
a) The competition level taking place on it.
b) The speed of the ball (also the rapid movement of players must be taken into account).
c) The maximum distance between players and between any of them and the ball during the game.
If the play field has tiers for spectators and the distance between the centre of the field and the most distant spectator is
greater than the maximum distance existent between a player and the game object, the latter is the one that must be taken
into account as a reference criterion. In Fig. 23, the minimum horizontal illuminance levels recommended for different
distances between spectators and the centre of the field are represented.
187
Horizontal
illuminance
Competition level
Professional/
colour T.V.
Competition
Training
Leisure
Figure 23
Vertical illuminance is characterized not only by its magnitude but also by its direction. Vertical illuminance is considered
on a vertical plane in a straight angle with the observers line of vision (Fig. 24).
Position of
observer 1
Position of
observer 2
188
Chapter11. FLOODLIGHTING
Uniformity ratio
Illuminance uniformity necessary on the field and surrounding courts depends on what is happening. For example, greater
light uniformity is required for television broadcasting than for game development or following of a competition without
broadcasting by the naked eye. A lower uniformity may be accepted for training than for competition. See Chart 3.
Glare
Glare should not be discomforting unless:
a) Floodlights with a precise light control are used and correctly pointed.
b) Floodlights are mounted far from the important observation directions. Mounting angles measured from the centre of the
field should be higher than 20 on the horizontal.
c) The least number of floodlight groups is used or a one- sided disposition. The number of groups in any of the field sides
should not be greater than 4.
d) Illuminance on the field of vision (which includes the field and the areas opposed to spectators) is as high and uniform
as possible, consequent with the avoidance of too much illuminance in the spectators' eyes. In practice, this means that
average illuminance on planes vertical to the height of the spectators eyes opposite it should not be greater than half their
average value on the vertical over the field, and preferably not more than 1/3.
If these requisites are met, the size and luminosity of individual sources and the number of floodlights in each group is not
very important with respect to glare. They have a stronger effect on illuminance on the field. Experience has proved that glare
of a correctly planned installation does not increase when illuminance is greater.
Illuminance on vertical planes; modelling
If floodlights are mounted at more than 30 on the horizontal measured from the centre of the field, the expense of towers
is normally unaffordable. The reason for illuminance on vertical or almost vertical planes to that of horizontal ones is lower
than expected, and modelling is not satisfactory.
In general, the best balance between glare degree and illuminance on vertical planes is obtained when floodlights are well
pointed and illuminance at the level of the spectators' eyes in front of it is within the given limits.
The most adequate modelling is obtained with floodlights mounted in 4 towers at the corners (Fig. 28). The effect is lower
with 6 towers, even less with groups of floodlights laterally mounted, and even less with continuous lines close to laterally
mounted floodlights. Moreover, with lateral lighting, illuminance on vertical planes opposed to the band line is higher than
with the systems of towers in corners. The advantages and disadvantages of the various floodlight lighting systems are
discussed later in the chapter.
Floodlight lighting systems
To a great extent, the following descriptions of floodlight lighting systems reflect conditions which are necessary for football
or similar games, but they will be generally satisfactory when other events take place in the stadium.
Lateral lighting systems
A lateral lighting system using 4 groups of floodlights on each side of the field is observed in the upper half of Fig. 25. The
lower half shows the design for 3 groups of floodlights.
189
l/8
l/4
l/4
l/4
l/8
l/3
l/3
l/6
Figure 25
Small training fields may be illuminated from fewer positions and sometimes only from one side. Rectangular symmetric or
asymmetric floodlights (which produce a fan- shaped beam) are used for most lateral lighting projects. The recommended
mounting height is deduced from Fig. 26, the characteristic angles being measured from the longitudinal line of the centre
12 m. minimum
75 max.
45 min.
Objective 25
Maximum 30
Minimum 20
Figure 26
When three groups of floodlights are used, these should be pointed to obtain an acceptable illuminance uniformity along
the nearby band line. Choosing an appropriate number of floodlights for each tower, illuminances that may be provided go
from adequate low values for training fields, up to high values necessary for colour T.V. broadcasting. Illuminance on vertical
planes on the play area is approximately equal to that of the horizontal planes. Modelling is relatively insignificant and several
shadows may be clearly seen. A careful pointing is necessary to avoid inadequate glare.
Fig. 27 shows the design of lateral floodlight systems where floodlights are mounted in single rows under each side of the
field and provide the necessary high illuminance for colour T.V. Mounting heights of floodlights are defined by the angles
given in Fig. 26. The row of floodlights should be preferably extended beyond the goal lines in order to maintain a reasonable
illuminance uniformity, especially in the areas, and provide light over the players so that they are seen behind the goal posts.
190
Chapter11. FLOODLIGHTING
However, this extension may not be possible in practice. Then, trimmer in illuminance towards the goal lines should be
restricted by a reduction of the space of floodlights towards the end of lines or by the pointing of final floodlights outwards.
As for other systems of lateral lighting, average illuminance on vertical planes on the play area is approximately equal to that
of the horizontal ones and a careful pointing is necessary to avoid excessive glare. Where floodlights are mounted on ceilings
(shelters) of tiers, the compensation distance may not be large enough to provide adequate vertical illuminance on the
closest band line. Then, extra floodlights will be needed and should be mounted under the ceiling (shelter) at the necessary
compensation distance.
Figure 27
Systems of towers in corners
The design used for 4 towers in corners is the one observed in Fig. 28. Recommended heights for the tower are deduced
from Fig. 26. Normally, symmetric circular- shaped floodlights are used giving a symmetric beam. Individual beams may be
joined to fill what is seen as a playing area in a non- rectangular form from the above structure. This allows an adequate
illuminance design to be increased over the field. Angular compensations of 5 and 15 degrees, respectively, from the
centre of the band line and the goal entrance provide adequate locations for the towers. In practice, location of the tower is
ordered more often by the disposition of the place than by the ideal lighting requisites.
Large stadiums, and specially those with courts outside the play field, are difficult to illuminate enough from the 4 corners.
Very high towers would be necessary to comply with the angular requisites in Fig. 26, and glare from the long reach
floodlights which would be necessary, would be probably excessive. Because of these reasons, the 6 tower system seen in
Fig. 29 is preferred. The tower height is defined from the centre of the half of the field and approximately twice as many
grouped floodlights in the central towers as those in the corners. Pointing angles are sharp and glare may be controlled quite
easily. The illuminance ratio between vertical planes and horizontal planes is approximately 0.7.
191
5
15
Figure 28.
5
15
Figure 29
Shadows of tiers
The position of shadows projected in the field by tier ceilings and other obstacles may be obtained from the sketch seen in
Fig. 30. If possible, height and location of the tower must be chosen so that shadows do not fall on the play field. Wherever
this is not possible, additional floodlights should be mounted under the tier ceiling and directed towards the shadowed areas
with the same average angle of the main floodlights.
192
Chapter11. FLOODLIGHTING
D= d h
h-H
Tower
a= d H
h-H
Tier
d
D
Tier
Shadow area
Tower
Figure 30
Atmospheric absorption losses
Dust and humidity in the air make light to be lost by absorption and dispersion, depending on the amount lost of the stadium
localization, projection length of floodlights and atmospheric conditions at the same time. The UEFA and CIE recommend
that a discount of 30% of light lost should be done in calculations.
Dispersion of light caused by fog, mist or rain produces veiling glare with the consequent reduction of visibility. Very little may
be done about this, but there is evidence and it is that the effect is the least with the tower systems in corners that with the
lateral lighting systems.
193
Activity level
E (lux)
U1
U2
Tc
t/r
100
0.3
0.4
60
2000
0.3
0.4
60
2000
Group
Archery (indoors)
- shooting zone
- target
ca
500
cp
n.a.
t/r
300*
n.a.
n.a.
60
2000
ca
500*
n.a.
n.a.
60
2000
cp
n.a.
Archery (outdoors)
- shooting zone
- target
t/r
50
0.3
0.4
60
2000
ca
100
0.3
0.4
60
2000
cp
n.a.
t/r
100*
n.a.
n.a.
60
2000
ca
200*
n.a.
n.a.
60
2000
cp
n.a.
t/r
200
0.3
0.5
65
2000
Athletics
- indoors
- outdoors
A
ca
300
0.4
0.5
65
4000
cp
500
0.5
0.7
65
4000
t/r
100
0.2
0.3
20
2000
ca
200
0.2
0.3
20
2000
cp
400
0.3
0.5
65
4000
t/r
300
0.4
0.6
65
4000
ca
600
0.5
0.7
65
4000
cp
800
0.5
0.7
65
4000
t/r
150
0.3
0.5
65
4000
ca
300
0.4
0.6
65
4000
cp
750
0.5
0.7
65
4000
t/r
100
0.2
0.3
65
4000
ca
200
0.3
0.4
65
4000
cp
500
0.4
0.5
65
4000
t/r
300
0.4
0.6
65
4000
ca
400
05
0.7
65
4000
Badminton
Baseball
- in the field
Basketball
- indoors
- outdoors
cp
600
0.5
0.7
65
4000
t/r
100
0.2
0.3
60
2000
ca
200
0.3
0.4
60
2000
cp
n.a.
Cycle racing
- indoors
- outdoors
194
B
t/r
200
0.3
0.4
65
ca
300
0.4
0.5
65
4000
4000
cp
500
0.4
0.5
65
4000
t/r
100
0.2
0.3
20
4000
ca
200
0.4
0.5
65
4000
cp
400
0.4
0.5
65
4000
Chapter11. FLOODLIGHTING
Activity level
E (lux)
U1
U2
Tc
all
500
0.5
0.7
85
3000
t/r/ca
cp
150
300
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
65
65
4000
4000
Bowls
- approximations,
- greens and rinks
t/r
200
0.3
0.5
65
3000
- pins
ca
cp
t/r
ca
cp
200
400
300*
300*
500*
0.3
0.3
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
0.5
0.5
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
65
65
65
65
65
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
t/r/ca
cp
t/r/ca
cp
750
1.500
500
1.000
0.5
0.7
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.8
0.5
0.6
65
65
65
65
4000
4000
4000
4000
100
200
300
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.5
65
65
65
4000
4000
4000
Billiards
Sleigh
Boxing
See martial arts
Cricket
- in the field
- outside the field
Curling
- tees/court
A
t/r
ca
cp
Darts
A
t/r
ca
cp
300*
500*
1.000*
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
85
85
85
3000
3000
3000
t/r/ca
cp
200
500
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.7
20
65
2000
4000
t/r
Ca
cp
300
600
800
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.7
65
65
65
4000
4000
4000
t/r
ca
cp
t/r
ca
cp
300
400
600
100
200
500
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.7
65
65
65
65
65
65
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
t/r
ca
cp
t/r
ca
cp
50
50
n.a.
30*
30*
n.a.
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.5
65
65
4000
4000
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
65
65
4000
4000
Greyhound racing
Fencing
Football
- indoors
- outdoors
Golf driving
- tee/green
- fairway/range
Group
195
Activity level
E (lux)
U1
U2
Tc
t/r
ca
cp
300
400
600
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.7
65
65
65
4000
4000
4000
t/r
ca
cp
t/r
ca
cp
300
400
600
100
200
500
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.7
65
65
65
65
65
65
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
t/r
ca
cp
t/r
ca
cp
300
600
800
100
250
500
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.7
65
65
65
65
65
65
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
4000
Gynastics
Handball
- indoors
- outdoors
Lawn hockey
- indoors
- outdoors
Ice hockey
- indoors
- outdoors
Equestrian sports
- indoors
- outdoors
B
t/r
ca
cp
t/r
ca
cp
300
600
800
100
250
n.a.
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.5
0.6
65
65
65
20
65
4000
4000
4000
2000
4000
t/r
ca
cp
t/r
ca
cp
300
400
600
50
150
300
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.3
0.5
0.5
65
65
65
20
65
65
4000
4000
4000
2000
4000
4000
t/r/ca
cp
200
500
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.7
20
65
2000
4000
t/r
ca
cp
300
400
600
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.7
65
65
65
4000
4000
4000
t/r
ca
cp
100
200
500
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.7
65
65
65
4000
4000
4000
t/r
ca
cp
500
1000
2000
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.7
65
65
65
4000
4000
4000
Horce racing
Judo
Karate
See martial arts
Lacrosse
Martial arts
196
Group
Chapter11. FLOODLIGHTING
- outdoors
Activity level
E (lux)
U1
U2
Tc
B
t/r
ca
cp
t/r
ca
cp
300
400
600
50
100
200
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.3
0.4
0.4
65
65
65
20
20
65
4000
4000
4000
2000
4000
4000
t/r
ca
cp
250
500
750
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.6
60
65
65
2000
4000
4000
t/r
ca
cp
250
500
750
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.6
60
65
65
2000
4000
4000
t/r
ca
cp
100
200
500
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.5
0.5
20
65
65
2000
4000
4000
t/r
ca
cp
100
200
500
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.7
65
65
65
4000
4000
4000
t/r
ca
cp
t/r
ca
cp
200
400
n.a.
500*
1.000*
n.a.
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
60
60
2000
2000
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
60
60
2000
2000
t/r
ca
cp
t/r
ca
cp
100
200
n.a.
200*
400*
n.a.
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
60
60
2000
2000
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
60
60
2000
2000
t/r
ca
cp
t/r
ca
cp
300
600
800
100
250
n.a.
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.6
65
65
65
20
65
4000
4000
4000
2000
4000
t/r
ca
cp
t/r
ca
cp
200
300
500
100
200
400
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.5
0.5
65
65
65
20
65
65
4000
4000
4000
2000
4000
4000
Tennis
Pelota court
Roller skating
Rugby
Shooting (indoors)
- shooting zone
- target
Shooting (outdoors)
- shooting zone
- target
Figure skating
- indoors
- outdoors
Speed skating
- indoors
- outdoors
Group
197
Activity level
E (lux)
U1
U2
Tc
50
0.2
0.3
20
2000
Skiing
B
t/r
ca
100
0.2
0.3
20
2000
cp
200
0.2
0.3
20
2000
t/r
100
0.4
0.5
60
2000
Skiing jump
- sliding
- winning post
B
ca
200
0.4
0.5
60
2000
cp
200
0.4
0.5
60
2000
t/r
200
0.3
0.5
65
4000
ca
400
0.3
0.5
65
4000
cp
400
0.3
0.5
65
4000
t/r
200
0.3
0.5
60
3000
Swimming
- indoors
- outdoors
Group
A
ca
300
0.3
0.5
60
3000
cp
500
0.3
0.5
60
3000
t/r
100
0.2
0.3
65
4000
ca
200
0.3
0.5
65
4000
cp
400
0.3
0.5
65
4000
t/r
300
0.4
0.6
60
4000
Table tennis
C
ca
400
0.5
0.7
60
4000
cp
600
0.5
0.7
60
4000
t/r
500
0.4
0.6
65
4000
4000
Taekwondo
See martial arts
Tennis
- indoor (PPA)
- indoor (TPA)
- outdoor (PPA)
- outdoor (TPA)
B
ca
750
0.4
0.6
65
cp
1.000
0.4
0.6
65
4000
t/r
400
0.3
0.5
65
4000
ca
600
0.3
0.5
65
4000
4000
cp
800
0.3
0.5
65
t/r
250
0.4
0.6
60
2000
ca
500
0.4
0.6
65
4000
cp
750
0.4
0.6
65
4000
t/r
200
0.3
0.5
60
2000
ca
400
0.3
0.5
65
4000
cp
600
0.3
0.5
65
4000
t/r
300
0.4
0.6
65
4000
Diving board
A
ca
400
0.5
0.7
65
4000
cp
600
0.5
0.7
65
4000
t/r
300
0.4
0.6
65
4000
Volleyball
- indoor
- outdoor
198
B
ca
400
0.5
0.7
65
4000
cp
600
0.5
0.7
65
4000
t/r
100
0.4
0.6
65
4000
ca
200
0.5
0.7
65
4000
cp
500
0.5
0.7
65
4000
Chapter11. FLOODLIGHTING
Maximum
distance
Illuminance
Main
Secondary
camera
camera
Uniformity
U1
U2
500 lux
500 lux
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.5
65
4 000
Vertical
Horizontal
U1
U2
Tc
A
25 m
75 m
700 lux
500 lux
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.5
65
4 000
150 m
1 000 lux
700 lux
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.6
65
4 000
25 m
700 lux
500 lux
0.5
0.6
0.3
0.5
65
4 000
75 m
1 000 lux
B
700 lux
0.5
0.6
0.3
0.6
65
4 000
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.6
65
4 000
25 m
1 000 lux
700 lux
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.6
65
4 000
75 m
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.6
65
4 000
Tc
150 m
C
150 m
n.a.
n.a.
Group
Maximum
distance
Illuminance
Main
Secondary
camera
camera
Uniformity
Vertical
U1
U2
Horizontal
U1
U2
A
25 m
700 lux
700 lux
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.5
65(1)
4 000(2)
75 m
1 000 lux
700 lux
0.5
0.6
0.3
0.5
65
(1)
4 000(2)
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.6
65(1)
4 000(2)
25 m
1 000 lux
700 lux
0.5
0.6
0.3
0.5
65(1)
4 000(2)
75 m
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.6
65(1)
4 000(2)
150 m
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.6
65
(1)
4 000(2)
25 m
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.6
65(1)
4 000(2)
75 m
0.7
0.8
0.5
0.7
65(1)
4 000(2)
150 m
B
150 m
n.a.
n.a.
199
200
Chapter 12.
ROAD LIGHTING
201
202
203
distance of 500 m. between vehicles circulating in opposite directions. Therefore, the maximum number of vehicles driving
with full headlights per hour, at an average speed of 75 Km/h., is that of 150. This number is equivalent to a total of 300
vehicles per hour during the night on a straight stretch.
Chart 1 offers guiding criteria by indicating values for traffic daily average intensity (IMD) that may be adopted to take into
account the possibility of road lighting.
Likewise, in order to avoid the so-called "black hole" effect, it would be convenient to consider lighting stretches between
merging areas whose distance is inferior to 6 Km. in separate carriageway roads, and to 2 Km. in single carriageway roads.
Besides, it would be advisable to bear in mind those road stretches where there exists a considerable percentage of accidents
during the night when compared to daytime conditions.
Road type
Conventional roads
12 000
22 000
Intersections
4 000
Merging areas
7 000
204
Road type
Project
situations
A1
A2
0
A3
TYPES OF USERS
Main user
0
Motor traffic
Excluded users
Bicyclists
Pedestrians
Chart 2
205
TYPES OF USER
LIGHTING
CLASS*
Roads with separate carriageways, crossings at grade and access control (highways,
motorways):
Traffic density and complexity of road layout:
High (IMD) > 25,000
Medium (IMD) Between 15,000 and 25,000
Low (IMD) < 15,000
A1
ME 1
ME 2
ME 3a
Two- way circulation roads and access control (high speed roads):
Traffic density and complexity of road layout:
High (IMD) > 15,000
Medium and low (IMD) < 15,000
Urban traffic routes with no separation for walkways or cycle paths.
A2
A3
ME 1
ME 2
ME 1
ME 2
ME 3a
ME 4a
ME 1
ME 2
ME 3b
ME 4a
ME 4b
* For all project situations (A1-A2 and A3), whenever nearby areas are light (light backgrounds), all traffic roads will increase their exigencies to that of
their immediately above lighting class.
Chart 3
Luminance is expressed in cd/m2, whereas uniformities, understood as a ratio between luminances, lacks a unit. Disability glare
appears as a percentage, and again, the environmental ratio also lacks units because it is a quotient between luminances.
From the point of view of lighting engineering, the most interesting project situations are the ones belonging to group A-1.
Situations for A-2 and A-3 lighting class are treated in a more general way.
For A1 project situation, Chart 3 summarizes the specific kind of lighting to be adopted, depending only on traffic intensity and
road layout complexity.
For the rest of project situations A2 and A3 there are several options to choose the kind of lighting. In each case, it is selected
according to traffic intensity and road layout complexity, traffic control and separation of different kinds of users, as well as
dominant specific parameters, specified below:
A2 project situation. Dominant parameters:
- Crossroad type (merging areas, intersections).
- Number of junctions.
A3 project situation. Dominant parameters:
- Roadway separation.
- Crossroad type (merging areas, intersections).
- Number of junctions.
12.2.2.1. Lighting engineering requirements for project situations
In Chart 4, lighting levels corresponding to each ME series lighting class are detailed.
206
LIGHTING CLASS*
ME1
ME2
ME3
ME4
a
b
a
b
0.40
0.40
1.00
0.40
0.75
0.40
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.60
0.60
0.50
DISTURBING SURROUNDINGS
GLARE
LIGHTING
Threshold
Surrounding
increase
ratio
TI (%)**
SR***
10
10
0.50
0.50
15
0.50
15
0.50
*The levels for the chart are minimum values in service with maintenance of the lighting installation, except for TI, which are maximum initial values. In order
maintain such service levels, a depreciation factor not greater than 0.8 must be considered, depending on luminaire type and degree of pollution in the air.
** When low luminance level sources of light are used (fluorescent tubes and low pressure sodium), a 5% threshold increase (TI) is allowed.
*** The surround ratio SR must be applied to those traffic roadways where there are not other adjacent areas to the roadway with their own requisites.
Chart 4
DRY ROADWAY
LIGHTING CLASS
DISTURBING SURROUNDINGS
LIGHTING
GLARE
Average
luminance
Lm (cd/m2)
Overall
uniformity
U0
Longitudinal
uniformity
U1 *
Overall
uniformity
U0
Threshold
increase
TI (%)
Surrounding
ratio
SR
2.00
0.40
0.60
0.15
10
0.50
MEW2
1.50
0.40
0.60
0.15
10
0.50
MEW3
1.00
0.40
0.60
0.15
15
0.50
MEW4
0.75
0.40
0.15
15
0.50
MEW1
* This criterion is not restrictive but may be applied, for example, to motorways, dual carriageways, two- way traffic single carriageways with access control.
Chart 5
207
Luminance criterion
Whenever possible, luminance criteria, overall and longitudinal uniformities, disability glare and environmental ratios
defined for different lighting classes, will be applied to conflict areas. In all cases, lighting class defined for the conflict
area will be one degree higher than the degree of the roadway to which such a conflict area corresponds. For
example, if a road is to be provided with an ME4 lighting class, a conflict area included in its route will need an ME3a
lighting class. If several lanes meet in a conflict area, as it may happen with crossroads, the lighting class will be a
degree higer than the degree of the roadway that has the highest lighting class.
b)
Illuminance criterion
Only when luminance criteria cannot be applied, will illuminance criteria be used. This situation may take place when
the sight distance is lower than 60 m. (minimum value used for luminance calculation), and whenever the observer
may not be properly located due to convolution and complexity of road layout.
In such situations, lighting criteria will be applied by means of average illuminance and its uniformity, which
correspond to the CE series lighting classes (Chart 6). Limitations of glare or lighting pollution control, represented
by G series intensity classes (Chart 7), will also be observed.
LIGHTING CLASS CE SERIES
LIGHTING
CLASS*
HORIZONTAL ILLUMINANCE
CEO
Average Illuminance
Em (lux)
50
Average Uniformity
Um
0.40
CE1
30
0.40
CE2
20
0.40
CE3
15
0.40
CE4
10
0.40
CE5
7.5
0.40
* The levels of the chart are minimum values in service with lighting installation maintenance. In order to keep
such service levels, a depreciation factor not lower than 0.8, depending on luminaire type and air pollution
degree, must be considered.
Chart 6
208
According to Chart 8, ME and CE lighting classes, with identical numbers (for example CE3 and ME3), have a similar
lighting level. When the illuminance criterion is used, lighting class defined for the conflict area will be one degree
higher than that of the corresponding conflict area road. For example, if a road is attributed an ME2 lighting class, a
CE1 lighting class would correspond to a conflict area included in it.
Supposing there is a conflict area in which there is an ME1 lighting class road merging, the conflict area will continue
also as an ME1 lighting class or its equivalent, CE1. When this conflict area offers special complexity and a high risk
of accidents, in the worst situation and circumstances, a CE0 (50 lux) lighting class will correspond to such an area
or its similar luminance level of 3.3 cd/m2. For intermediate situations, lighting classes ranging between the CE1 and
CE0 interval may be adopted, corresponding to illuminance levels of 35, 40 and 45 lux or their similar values of 2.3,
2.7 and 3 cd/m2, respectively.
Conflict areas whose sidewalks or shoulders are not provided with a specific lighting, this will be considered as a
lighting level of, at least, 50% of that foreseen for the roadway.
INTENSITY CLASSES G SERIES
MAXIMUM INTENSITY
(cd/Klm)**
INTENSITY CLASS
At 70 *
500
350
350
G1
G2
G3
G4
G5
G6
At 80 *
200
150
100
100
100
100
At 90 *
50
30
20
10
10
0
OTHER REQUIREMENTS
None.
None.
None.
Intensities above 95 must equal zero.
Intensities above 95 must equal zero.
Intensities above 95 must equal zero.
** Any direction formed by the specified angle from the vertical downwards, with the luminance installed for its working.
** All intensities are proportional to lamp flux for 1 000 lm.
NOTE: Intensity classes G1, G2 and G3 coresspond to semi cut-off and cut-off photometric representations, concepts traditionally used for lighting
requirements defined in section 7.5.2. Intensity classes G4, G5 and G6 designate luminaires with very strong cut-off distribution, like for example,
luminaires with glass flat closing, in any position near the horizontal of the opening or the horizontal position strictly.
Chart 7
When an exhaustive requirement on glare limitation or light pollution control is needed, intensity classes G1, G2 and
G3 may be adopted. Supposing the conflict area typology, due to its configuration, complexity and potential
dangerousness, requires a greater glare limitation or light pollution control, only G4 and G5 intensity classes can be
chosen. Only under extreme circumstances, will G6 intensity class be mandatory.
209
delineators and contrasting pavement markings, being over the roadway water film caused by rain, maintain visibility
provided by road lighting and vehicle own headlights, preserving visual guidance and road security.
CE 0
ME 1
MEW 1
CE 1
ME 2
MEW 2
CE 2
ME 3
MEW 3
CE 3
ME 4
MEW 4
CE 4
ME 5
MEW 5
CE 5
210
ME 6
LIGHTING
CLASSES
CE 0
CE 0
CE 1
CE 2
NOTE: In lighting situations corresponding to very complex crossings with high traffic density and complex road
layout and field of vision, in some special cases, luminance average uniformity will be 0.5.
Chart 9
211
L=
where the sum () comprises, in theory, all luminaires in the installation. Luminous intensity values (I(c,)) and
reduced luminance coefficient (r(, tg)) are obtained by square interpolation of the luminaire intensity matrix and
the pavement reflection chart. Lastly, variable h is the luminaire maximum height (Fig. 1).
Q
h
Observer
212
number of points that will provide distances equal or inferior to 5 m. between them, for separations between
luminaires higher than 50 m.
- From a transversal point of view: 5 points per lane, one of them located in its center. The two most external points
will remain inside the roadway, with respect to its edge, at 1/6 of the lane width.
Luminaire
Luminaire
a/2
a
a/6
: Lattice point
213
E=
E (c, )
cos3
h2
(lux)
being the angle formed by the direction of incidence at the point with the vertical (Fig. 3). The sum () comprises,
in theory, all luminaires in the installation.
E=
d
dS
214
Lv = 3 10-3
Eg
( )
2
(cd/m2)
where Eg (lux) is the illuminance produced by the eye in a plane perpendicular to the line of vision, and (rad) is
the angle between the direction of light inciding in the eye and the observation direction. The sum () is extended,
in principle, to all luminaires of the installation (see 12.3.3.4.).
The increase of the perception threshold is calculated according to the following formula:
TI = 65
Lv
(Lm)0.8
... (in %)
which is a valid formula for roadway average luminances (Lm) between 0.05 and 5 cd/m2.
12.3.3.2. Shielding angle
For disability glare calculation purposes, luminaires whose observation direction forms an angle greater than 20 with
the vision line will not be considered, since they are shielded by the roof of the vehicle.
12.3.3.3. Observers position
a) Height: 1.5 m. over the roadway surface.
b) Longitudinal situation: in such a way that the closest luminaire to be considered in the calculation will formed
exactly a 20 angle with the vision line. For staggered dispositions, two different calculations will be done (with the
first luminaire on each side at 20). The highest value of the two will be the result provided.
c) Transversal situation: at 1/4 of the roadway total width, measured from its right edge.
d) Observation point: The observer always looks at a point on the roadway placed at 90 m. in front of him, in the
ne
iel
d
ing
p la
Ig
Sh
20
=1
O
W
1/4W
215
Walkway
Walkway
Walkway
Walkway
Roadway
Walkway
Walkway
Figure 5
Walkway
Roadway
Walkway
Walkway
Figure 6
H mounting height of aiming points (Figs. 7 and 8) must be equal to that of the points of the main road that merges in the
traffic round to be illuminated. In case the central area of the traffic round lacks lighting higher or equal to 1.5 times the main
roadway average illuminance, supplementary lighting will be required.
216
lk
Wa
Wa
lkw
ay
Roadway
wa
y
a
Ro
dw
Ro
ay
Walkway
ad
wa
lk
Wa
Wa
lkw
ay
Roadway
Figure 7
wa
y
y
wa
ad
Ro
Walkway
Ro
ad
wa
Figure 8
If the central part of the traffic round has a diameter lower than 18 m., a special aiming point in a column or multiple arm
shaft will be installed in its center (Fig. 7). If its diameter is greater than 18 m. or it has trees in the center, aiming lights will
be placed in the prolongation of the circulation axis (Fig. 8).
With regard to installation of aiming points in curves and in relation to lighting, curve stretches are considered those whose
radius is inferior to 300 m. When their radius is greater than such a figure, they will be considered as straight stretches.
If the width A of the traffic road is lower than 1.5 times its mounting height H, aiming points must be installed in the outer
part of the curve, locating an aiming point in the prolongation of the circulation axis (Figs. 9 and 10). Separation between
aiming points will be inversely proportional to the radius of the curve, varying between 3/4 and 1/2 of the calculated average
separation of a straight stretch of such a traffic road.
For traffic roads whose width is greater than 1.5 times their mounting height H, the installation of aiming points must be twosided coupled. In any case staggered distribution must be avoided.
Walkway
Roadway
Roadway
Figure 9
217
ay
y
lkw
ay
wa
Wa
ad
lkw
Ro
Wa
Figure 10
H
Roadway
Walkway
A
S
Roadway
Walkway
A
S
218
Walkway
Roadway
Walkway
A
S
Walkway
Direction of traffic
Roadway
Central reservation
Direction of traffic
Roadway
Walkway
Figure 14. Installation for values 1 < b < 3 m.
For central reservations, wider than 3 m., double-armed shafts will not be used. In any case, their disposition will be
studied as if we were talking of two separate and independent roadways, giving rise to the installation of the following
figures. Fig. 15 is recommended over Fig. 16, since drivers are incited to circulate always on the traffic lane nearest
to the central reservation (left lane).
Walkway
Direction of traffic
Roadway
Central reservation
Direction of traffic
Roadway
Walkway
Figure 15. Installation for any b value.
219
Walkway
Direction of traffic
Roadway
Central reservation
Direction of traffic
Roadway
Walkway
Figure 16. Installation for values b > 3m.
12.4.2.5. Catenary
Aiming points are fixed axially to the catenary longitudinal cables, lying between two solid supports installed in the
central reservation and located at a great distance one from the other, at about 50 to 100 m. (Fig. 17).
220
Walkway
Slow moving traffic roadway (2 lanes)
Direction of traffic
Central reservation
Direction of traffic
Central reservation
Roadway
Direction of traffic
Central reservation
Walkway
Figure 18. Combined grouping.
Walkway
Slow moving traffic roadway
Direction of traffic
Central reservation
Direction of traffic
Central reservation
Slow moving traffic roadway
Direction of traffic
Walkway
Figure 19. Combined grouping.
221
8 - 10 mts.
12 - 15 mts.
222
e1' < e1
e1
Aiming points drawn in intersections in white serve as the basis for installing the rest.
e' < e
e1
e = normal separation
e' = reduced separation
e1
Figure 22
e' < e
e1' < e1
e1
e = normal separation
e' = reduced separation
Figure 23
223
e1
e' < e
e1' < e1
e1
e = normal separation
e' = reduced separation
e' < e
e1' < e1
e1
Figure 24
e1
e = normal separation
e' = reduced separation
Figure 25
In the second case, when motor traffic in one of the roadways is canalized by means of small directional traffic islands
whereas, traffic is not in the other, (Fig. 26), the installation of aiming points must begin with the roadway provided
with traffic islands, which will be studied separately. The installation of aiming points will begin from the intersection,
reducing the separation between these and continuing with the roadway with canalized traffic, adopting any of the
adequate installation systems (one- sided, staggered, double row, two- sided, etc.).
The origin of locating aiming points for roadway lighting wherever traffic is not canalized by means of traffic islands
will be also tackled at the intersection, adjusting aiming points as established for the other roadway, and continuing
with an adequate placing of aiming points bearing in mind the roadway characteristics (one- sided, staggered, double
224
Figure 26
12.4.4.2. "T"- shaped intersections between two illuminated and partially canalized roadways
This type of intersections (Fig. 27) establishes an installation of aiming points recommended so that users who arrive
from the merging roadway are able to see an illuminated background ahead of them.
This is not the only possible solution, though. Depending on local conditions, it may be possible to reduce the
number of aiming points, using others of a higher potency and height installation (Fig. 28).
Figure 27
225
60 m.
"T"- shaped intersection: Installation example with aiming points of more power
and of height supports than those of figure 13.27. Aiming point of 18 m.
with 4 luminaires. Aiming point of 18 m. with 2 luminaires. Aiming point of 12
m. with 1 luminaire. Aiming point of 12 m. with 2 luminaires
Figure 28
12.4.4.3. "Y" or "T"- shaped intersections between two roadways totally canalized
In the proximity of such intersections, generally both traffic directions for vehicles are separated by large directional
traffic islands, along which the layout of aiming points is one- sided (Fig. 29).
Likewise, more powerful and aiming points of a greater height may be placed (Fig. 30).
226
.
50 m
.
50 m
.
50 m
.
50 m
Figure 30
12.4.5. Vegetation
Understanding and cooperation between vegetation and lighting is required so that neither interferes with the job or function
performed by the other.
Pruning line
Pruning line
angle "A"
Mounting height
luminaire
Tree pruning
height
70
75
80
M = 0.36 D
M = 0.26 D
M = 0.17 D
Figure 31
227
The selection of the type of shrub or tree must be based on those which leave enough free space for lighting with minimum
interference between both of them. These selections may include trees with stylized, spherical or normal forms. In most cases,
a good pruning service may solve any problem between trees and road lighting.
It must be highlighted that even in installations with a great mounting height, it is not necessary to prune all trees up to the
luminaire height. It is only necessary to prude those branches which fall below the useful luminous beam (Fig. 31). Leafiness
of trees located between the luminaire and the objects, may serve the purpose of trimming and distinguishing silhouettes in
an intentioned way. At the same time, it helps to reduce luminaire direct glare on possible observers or drivers. This advantage
is particularly important in roads with local traffic and residential areas, where relatively high inter- distances, together with high
potencies and angles approaching the horizontal are required.
12.4.5.1. Criteria and design compromises
To minimize lighting interferences with trees, there are certain types of compromises which may be applied to lighting
systems. Regarding this respect, possible variations that may happen in inter-distance, mounting height, and
transverse situation of aiming points must be born in mind. Such variations generally produce, in turn, changes in the
luminous distribution of the lighting installation.
12.4.5.2. Design modifications
As a modification example, mention the fact that all luminaires may be mounted on long arms. This usually increases
the installation expenses, but improves lighting effectiveness, avoiding or palliating interference with vegetation.
14
4
6
8
10
luminaire mounting height mts.
12
Wi
Cyli
de
nd
py
ri c
r
al
a
yra m
m
ida
idal
typ e
l ty
pe
ow p
N a rr
Spher
ical
typ
Oval type
e
e
typ
Walkway
Roadway
Figure 32
Another possible design modification may be luminaire suspension by means of catenary systems over the center
of the roadway. In this case, the problem is the extra expenses implied by the utilization of two supports per
luminaire. An added disadvantage to this system is the loss of lighting efficacy which takes place when luminaires
are under the action of the wind, given that the wind modifies their orientation and, therefore, also their photometric
distribution.
Another possible design variation consists in reducing the luminaire installation height under vegetation, in such a
way that also lamp potency is reduced. The problem is also that of extra expenses, since the interdistance between
luminaires has to be reduced. Therefore, the number of luminaires must be increased and advantages disappear.
One last design alteration may be performed, which consists in increasing lamp potency to compensate for light lost
on its way towards roadway and sidewalks. However, this presupposes a clear inconvenience since the luminaire
228
direct glare increases and, above all, energetic cost is also higher without resulting in a clear improvement of luminous
uniformity.
12.4.5.3. Design fundamentals
When variations in the longitudinal inter- distance of aiming points is performed so that they do not interfere with
trees, deviations of 10% of the previous calculated separation may be assumed. Such variations do not imply great
differences as far as results are concerned.
Maximum differences of about 20% of the interdistance may be tolerated, provided it does not happen in two
consecutive aiming points. Such variation, anyway, may be proved through calculations which will indicate whether
all exigencies established beforehand are verified or not for those areas affected by modification. When separation
of two or more consecutive luminaires is altered, it must be confirmed by means of variation of other parameters,
like transverse location of aiming points or their installation height.
Luminaire alingment over the roadway is a basic factor with respect to visibility and installation aspect or appearance.
Only when it is not possible in any other way, a luminaire will be installed outside the line of the others.
The height of columns or shafts which support luminaires will be selected in such a way that it will be adequate to
each installation in particular. The higher these supports are, the fewer problems will be encountered with leafiness
of vegetation, but it is also true that expenses will probably grow in a considerable way.
12.4.5.4. Design data
Figs. 32 and 33 aim at being a practical guide when this kind of difficulties between lighting and tree leafiness appear.
Nar
ro
Cy
l
Sp
W h
id
Luminaire projection in mts.
e
yp
Rodway side
pe
l ty p e
l ty mida
icapyra
r
pe
e e
a l ty
ric
d
in
amidal typ
p yr
w
pyramida
lt
row
l ty p e
rica
ramidal type
he e py
Sp Wid
rical type
lind
Cy
N
ar
Walkway side
For example, a luminaire transverse situation for different heights and vegetation types.
1
2
3
4
5
Figure 33
Although roadway lighting usually produces interferences with vegetation, lighting of walkways of other lateral areas
of the roadway must not be forgotten. This aspect is sometimes even more important than roadway lighting itself in
certain residential or pedestrian areas.
229
230
Chapter 13.
TUNNEL LIGHTING
231
232
233
L0 Lf
Lf
where:
L0 = Luminance of the obstacle.
Lf = Luminance of the background.
Contrast C may be positive or negative:
If L0 > Lf C > 0
If L0 < Lf C < 0
In the case of tunnels, two types of contrast must be distinguished: the so- called intrinsic or physic Cint measured
next to the obstacle and the retina contrast CR measured from the vehicle drivers eye.
In Fig. 1, it may be checked that intrinsic contrast Cint is measured next to the obstacle in (1), while retina contrast
CR is evaluated from the observers eye in (4). Between both contrasts, a set of veiling luminances called atmospheric
Latm, of windshield Lpb and foveal or Frys Lv, respectively, which give rise to veiling glare which discomforts vision in
the drivers eyes.
The layers of air in the atmosphere containing particles illuminated by sunlight give rise to atmospheric luminance
Latm due to the refraction of light in such air layers of the atmosphere. This type of luminance depends on
atmospheric conditions and the position of the sun.
Luminance of the windshield Lpb is produced as a result of the existence of windshields in vehicles, which provokes
difraction or reflection effects depending on the position of the sun in the visual field and the state, curvature and
inclination of the windshield itself.
Foveal veiling luminance or Frys Lv is caused by the discomfort in vision provoked by a luminance not belonging to
the visual task to be perfomed. This also difficulties the perception of images of such a visual task, due to the
luminous veil produced in the drivers eye as a result of the difraction of light in the aqueous humor of the eye globe.
Atmospheric windshield and foveal or Frys veiling luminances produced between the obstacle and the driver, as
shown in Fig. 1, reduce the intrinsic contrast Cin of the obstacle (CR < Cint) without changing the sign of the contrast,
decreasing visibility of obstacles at the entrance of tunnels.
Such a reduction in the intrinsic contrast may cause that visibility of obstacles at the entrance of tunnels is not
secured, above all in the case of strong veiling luminances, which may oblige to duplicate luminance values to be
reached in the tunnel threshold zone by means of artificial lighting. The aim is to soften reduction of the mentioned
contrast. Consequently, a decrease of the visibility of obstacles on the part of the driver may take place. Thus, the
effect produced by veiling luminances is taken into account when establishing lighting levels at the entrance of
tunnels.
Parasite or veiling luminances which characterise the effects of the surroundings of the tunnel, the windshield and
the atmosphere and bother the drivers vision are variable according to the region and zone where the tunnel is
located. They also depend on its orientation, season, climate, hour of the day, etc.
234
4
2
Atmosphere
3 Windshield
1
Cint. = LO - Lf
Lf
CR = LOR - LfR
LfR
Atmospheric parasite veils Latm of windshield Lpb and of foveal veil or Fry's Lv
Figure 1
V0
3.6
1
3.62 g
v
f1 (v) + h
dv
where:
DS =
V0
RT =
f1(v) =
Applying the formula, the following examples of stopping distance DS on flat roads for retardations from 3.5 to 5
m/s2 are obtained:
Design speed (Km/h)
Ret
120
100
80
70
60
50
DS (wet road) m.
3.5
230
160
105
90
70
50
DS (dry road) m.
150
110
75
65
55
40
Chart 1
When a vehicle is close to a tunnel, the induction and adaptation effects and the influence of veiling luminances are
intimately related to the distance at which the driver of the vehicle is at the entrance of such a tunnel, in the so-called
access zone with an approximate length equal to the security distance (DS, Fig. 4).
The higher the speed of a vehicle, the higher the security distance (DS). This is the reason why some considerations
must be taken into account:
- Perception of an obstacle is proportional to the inverse of the square of the security distance (DS-2), supposing
contrast is constant.
- Atmospheric veiling luminance Latm is proportional to the security distance (DS). Atmospheric transmission is
Tatm = 10-kDS.
- Visual adaptation speed is related to the vehicle approximation speed.
235
For a driver in the access zone, the higher the speed of the vehicle, the longer the distance from the entrance of the
tunnel towards the interior in which the driver has to see inside the tunnel. This presupposes greater length of the
threshold zone to be illuminated.
Likewise, the greater the distances, an obstacle located in the interior of the tunnel requires a smaller angle in the
drivers eye and, thus, it is less visible. Besides, the air layer between the driver located in the access zone and the
entrance of the tunnel is greater, which means greater atmospheric luminance Latm, reduction of intrinsic contrast Cint
and, consequently, decrease of visibility of obstacles. All this requires higher lighting levels in the threshold zone of
the tunnel.
In short, higher speeds require longer security distances (DS), which means greater length of the threshold zone of
the tunnel to be provided with lighting, as well as higher lighting levels in such a zone. Therefore, due to both reasons,
higher costs come along.
P = qc =
L
Ev....
where:
L
Ev = Obstacle vertical illuminance in lux at the roadway level in the direction of traffic. That is to say, average
illuminance on a vertical surface perpendicular to the axis of the tunnel, and oriented towards the entrance.
13.1.2.1. Symmetrical lighting system
The symmetrical lighting system is that in which luminaires have a distribution of luminous intensity which is
symmetrical in relation to the plane C
90/270.
Fig. 2.
Contrasts of obstacles may be negative or positive, depending on the reflection properties of their surface.
Nevertheless, this system strives to secure vision on a positive contrast: obstacles will be seen as light against the
dark background of the tunnel roadway and walls.
The symmetrical lighting system is used in all cases in the interior zone of tunnels with luminaires provided with
conventional and compact fluorescent lamps, high and low pressure sodium lamps or discharge by induction lamps.
The installation of such a system is possible in the entrance zone of such tunnels which have established a low
limitation in the approximation speed of vehicles.
This system allows good visibility of obstacles and lack of glare. From a photometric point of view, it is advisable that
the roadway pavement and the tunnel walls are diffusing surfaces (low specular factor S1) and light (high average
luminance coefficient Q0). Therefore, it is convenient that pavement belongs to the R1, R2 or C1 Class, following
recommendations of the C.I.E., with a high degree of brightness or luminosity (Q0 is the highest possible).
236
Figure 2
The measuring of tunnel lighting, by means of a symmetrical system in the entrance zone leads to lighting levels
difficult to achieve for approximation speed of vehicles higher than 90 Km/h with weak or average veiling luminances
in the access zone, or higher than 70 Km/h with strong veiling luminances. When levels higher than 200 cd/m2 are
to be achieved, very complicated to reach in practice with the symmetrical system, it is necessary to find other
alternatives in such situations, either limitation of the speed of vehicles or installation of a lighting system at
counterflux in the entrance zone.
13.1.2.2. Counterflux lighting system
The counterflux lighting system is a system in which luminaires have a distribution of asymmetric luminous intensity,
directed against the direction of traffic, as represented in Fig. 3.
This lighting system favours seeing obstacles by negative contrast. Obstacles are highlighted as dark against the
roadway light background and tunnel walls, due to the fact that vertical illuminance in planes facing approaching
drivers is low. This vision in negative contrast is achieved reducing the obstacle luminance (L0), slightly limiting its
vertical illuminance (Ev), and increasing roadway luminance.
237
Figure 3
The counterflux lighting system is only used in the tunnel entrance zones. It is recommended in this zone where the
limitation of the vehicle speed is high, that is to say, from approximately 90 Km/h, given economic advantages found
in these situations. Luminaires are to be installed over traffic lanes and are normally equipped with high pressure
sodium lamps. It must be stressed that counterflux lighting is never installed in the interior zone of tunnels.
Due to the own structure of the system, its installation must be avoided in two- way tunnels (bidirectional), because
in this case, what is counterflux for one determined direction of traffic would be favourable for the opposite one, thus,
modifying drivers visual conditions.
The counterflux lighting system usually creates more contrast between the obstacle and the background, but it can
also produce a certain increase in the black hole effect, reducing drivers visual comfort. Likewise, such a counterflux
system may not be appropriate for the entrance of tunnels with high daytime light, and it is even less effective when
traffic intensities are very high or a high percentage of slow moving vehicles is foreseen.
In this lighting system which provides good visibility of obstacles, glare must be limited controlling luminous intensity
emited by luminaires. The use of specular pavement (high specular factor S1) and light is advisable, from a
photometric point of view. That is to say, with a high average luminance coefficient Q0, pavement class R3, R4 or C2,
according to recommendations of the C.I.E., with a high degree of brightness or luminosity (Q0 is the highest
possible). Besides, a high luminance must be limited in tunnel walls, at least, up to a 1 m. level, with the aim of
reducing obstacle vertical illuminance (Ev).
13.1.2.3. Contrast development coefficient
The adopted lighting system either symmetrical or counterflux is characterized by certain contrast development
coefficients qc, whose values are included in Chart 2.
238
Lighting systems
Symmetrical
0.2
Counterflux
0.6
Note: Lighting systems whose values for contrast development coefficient is between 0.2 and
0.6 have not been taken into account.
Chart 2
The value of the contrast development coefficient qc = L/Ev is slightly linked to the intrinsic characteristics of the
tunnel lighting system, to the installation of luminaires and the reflective characteristics of the pavement, as well as
to the photometric contribution of the tunnel walls.
These values of Chart 2 characterize the lighting system of tunnels only in night- time measures, that is to say, without
influence of day- time light, which alters values of the contrast development coefficient qc.
In measurements during the day in the entrance zone of tunnels and for the symmetrical lighting system, qc reaches
figures higher than 0.2, whereas for the counterflux system, qc values are lower than 0.6. Especially, due to this
variation in the contrast development coefficient qc = L/Ev during a day- time measurement respect to a night- time
measurement, contrast changes sign going from negative to positive contrasts and viceversa. This gives rise to
situations in which obstacles are not perceived.
13.1.2.4. Natural lighting system with daytime light
Besides artificial lighting systems and counterflux ones, there is another alternative for tunnel entrance lighting by
means of an adequate use of shielded daytime light provided by paralumens or screens. This type of natural lighting
must satisfy the same luminous levels than those of artificial lighting. Factor k values (coefficient by which luminance
of the tunnel access zone must be multiplied L20 in order to obtain luminance of the threshold zone of the tunnel
Lth, that is to say, Lth = k L20), are identical to those of the symmetrical lighting system. Likewise, the contrast
development coefficient qc for natural lighting will be determined in the same way as for artificial lighting, included
also, in the calculation to the interreflected light contribution.
239
PONDERATION FACTOR
Unidirectional
Bidirectional
< 60
< 30
60-100
30-60
100-180
60-100
180-350
100-180
350-650
180-350
650-1200
35-650
> 1200
650-1200
> 1200
Chart 3
13.1.3.1.2. Ponderation factors according to traffic composition
As it has been indicated, the degree of dificulty of the task of driving a vehicle on a road is generally
influenced by traffic speed and intensity, not to mention traffic composition and road layout and
surrounding areas.
Traffic composition also influences lighting design of tunnels in several aspects:
- Percentage of lorries.
- Presence/ ausence of motorbikes and/ or bicyclists.
- Presence/ ausence of limitation to allow the transit of dangerous cargo.
Lighting design in tunnels must be adapted to previous circumstances. Higher luminous levels or better
lighting of walls or roadways is required when conditions are more difficult or more dangerous.
Ponderation factors depending on traffic composition are the following:
PONDERATION FACTOR
Motorized traffic
Motorized traffic
(trucks percentage > 15%)
Mixed traffic
2
Chart 4
PONDERATION FACTOR
2
Chart 5
240
Visual guidance provided by tunnel lighting allows an increase in the visibility of the roadway and vertical
and horizontal marking, especially the latter, installing, in turn, marking (rows of luminaires, post
mounted delineators, etc.) both on the roadway and on the tunnel walls in order to improve visual
guidance.
In this sense, when establishing ponderation factors depending on visual guidance (Chart 5), additional
installation of retroreflecting dispositives on the walls and surface of the roadway, especially for tunnels
corresponding to 5, 6 and 7 lighting classes (Chart 7), will be taken into account.
13.1.3.1.4. Ponderation factors according to driving comfort
Driving comfort of vehicles in tunnels must be taken into account for their lighting purposes, understood
as easiness and a minimum effort on the part of users, due to complete information received and lack
of complexity of the visual field.
Ponderation factors according to comfort when driving are the following:
PONDERATION FACTORS DEPENDING ON DRIVING COMFORT
DRIVING COMFORT
PONDERATION FACTOR
4
Chart 6
PONDERATION FACTOR
0-3
4-5
6-7
8-9
10-11
12-13
14-15
7
Chart 7
241
levels of the different zones. Nomenclature and a corresponding definition of such lighting engineering levels is established below:
L20 =
Lth
Ltr
Ln
Lex
Entrance
Exit
Direction of traffic
Exit
Entrance
Tunnel length
L20
Lth
Luminance
Lex
Ltr
Access
zone
DS
Lin
Threshold Transition
zone
zone
Interior zone
DS
Exit zone
DS
Entrance zone
Figure 4
242
CHART A
AVERAGE LUMINANCE OF THE ACCESS ZONE L20 (Kcd/m2)
SKY PERCENTAGE (%) IN CONICAL VISUAL FIELDS AT 20
35%
ROAD TYPES
25%
10%
0%
(1)
(1)
(4)
(4)
(1)
6
(1)
(2)
2.5 3.5
3
4.5
(3)
3
(2)
3.5 1.5
2.5
(3)
3
1.5
2.5
Being:
1) Effect fundamentally depends on tunnel orientation:
B: Low; In the north hemisphere: southern entrance.
A: High; In the north hemisphere: northern entrance.
For eastern and western entrances intermediate values between low and high must be chosen.
2) Effect fundamentally depends on brightness of surroundings:
B: Low; Low reflectances of surroundings.
A: High; High reflectances of surroundings.
3) Effect fundamentally depends on tunnel orientation:
B: Low; In the north hemisphere: northern entrance.
A: High; In the north hemisphere: southern entrance.
For eastern and western entrances intermediate values between low and high must be chosen.
4) For a stopping distance of 60 m, in practice, there are no sky percentages of 35$.
Notes: northern entrance means the entrance for drivers circulating southwards. southern entrance refers to the entrance for drivers
circulating northwards.
Chart 8
Exact method
Luminance of the access zone L20 is the average luminance contained in a conical field of vision represented by an angle of
20%, with its vertex in the position of the drivers eye. It is located at a distance before the tunnel equal to the stopping
distance, and the cone oriented towards the tunnel portal on a point situated at a height of 1/4 of the tunnel mouth.
Determining luminance for the access zone L20 is extremely relevant since it predetermines the level to be obtained by means
of lighting in the threshold zone. Such luminance of the access zone depends on the atmospheric conditions of the place
where the tunnel is located. The calculation of the luminance of the access zone L20 is obtained from a sketch of the
surroundings of the tunnel zone. The formula below is used:
L20 = a * Lc + b * LR + c * LE + d * Lth
where:
a
% of the sky.
Lc =
Sky luminance.
b =
% of the road.
LR
c
LE
Road luminance.
% of the surroundings.
Surrounding luminance.
d =
% tunnel entrance.
Lth =
with:
a+b+c+d=1
The unknown factor to be determined in the formula is the value of the luminance in the threshold zone (Lth). When stopping
distances higher than 100 m. are faced, the mouth entrance percentage of tunnels is low (< at 10%) and since Lth also has
243
a low value with respect to other luminance values, the contribution of Lth may be disregarded.
For a stopping distance of 60 m., the norm establishes that:
L20 = (a * Lc + b * LR + c * LE) / (1 / K)
Because K never exceeds 0.1, the result is:
L20 = a * Lc + b * LR + c * LE
being a + b + c < 1.
If the data to know exactly the value for a, b, c and d are not available, the ones defined in the following charts will be used.
If surrounding values are not available, the following are used:
Driving
Sky
direction
(Lc)
Kcd/m
Road
Surroundings
(LR)
2
Kcd/m2
(LE)
Kcd/m
Rocks
Edifices
Snow
Grass
15 (M, H)
E-O
12
10 (M)
15 (H)
S
16
5 (M)
15 (H)
Chart 9
In this chart, the value for L is known. In order to define the percentage of the sky which contributes to the value L20 in the
installation under study, Fig. 5 is used.
244
245
COUNTERFLUX
SYMMETRIC
class
60 m
10
15
15
20
20
30
45
25
35
50
30
40
35
40
100 m
160 m
60 m
100 m
160 m
30
15
20
35
40
20
25
40
25
35
45
30
40
50
55
35
50
65
45
60
40
55
80
50
70
50
60
100
Notes: For security or stopping distances (DS) ranging between (60-100 and 160 m), values for factor (k) are obtained by linear interpolation between the
figures established in the chart. Values for factor (k) for the lighting system at counterflux have been determined to guarantee, in most situations, a degree
of security and comfort, at least, comparable to that achieved with the symmetric lighting system.
Security or stopping distances for 60, 100 and 160 m are respectively equivalent to design speeds of the tunnel of 60, 80 and 100 km/h.
Chart 10
13.2.2.2. Threshold zone length
Length of the threshold zone must be, at least, equal to the security distance (DS). For the first half of such distance
(DS), luminance on the roadway will be equal to Lth, that is to say, the value at the beginning of the threshold zone.
Half of the security distance (DS) onwards, luminance of the roadway may gradually and linearly decrease down to
a value, at the end of the threshold zone, equal to 0.4 Lth (Fig. 6). The gradual reduction in the second half of the
threshold zone may take place in a staged way, so that ratio between stages does not exceed the ratio 3:1 and
luminance does not go under those values corresponding to linear gradual decrease.
13.2.2.3. Luminance of walls
Wall average luminance in the threshold zone, up to a height of 2 m., must be similar to average luminance of the
roadway surface.
13.2.2.4. Luminance and length of the transition zone
The transition zone is that part of the tunnel following the threshold zone, as indicated in Fig. 4. Therefore, it begins
at the end of the threshold zone and finishes at the beginning of the interior zone.
246
L%
100
80
60
Lth
Ltr = Lth(1.9 + t)-1-428
Ltr = Lth(1.9 + t)-1-428
with Lth = 100% and t = time in seconds
40
20
10
8
6
4
2
t. sec.
Threshold zone
Security distance
(DS)
10
12
Transition zone
14
16
18
20
60 Km./h
100 m.
200 m.
300 m.
80 Km./h
100 m.
200 m.
300 m.
400 m.
100 Km./h
100 m.
200 m.
300 m.
400 m.
500 m.
120 Km./h
100 m.
200 m.
300 m.
400 m.
500 m.
600 m.
Figure 6
According to Fig. 6, the length of the transition zone is the distance a vehicle must travel to go from the level of
luminance at the end of the threshold zone, up to the luminance value at the beginning of the interior zone, visual
adaptation supposed. Consequently, for each speed of the vehicle, the allowed reduction of luminance in the
transition zone Ltr, depends on the distance travelled in the mentioned zone.
Average luminance in service of the roadway with maintenance of the installation of the transition zone Ltr decreases
gradually, from the luminance of the threshold zone down to the luminance of the interior zone. In any position in
the transition zone, luminance of the roadway surface must be equal or exceed luminance established in Fig. 6.
The curve of Fig. 6 is the result of numerous experimental tests depending on eye adaptation, from high luminance
levels to very low values which have given rise to a mathematical approximation corresponding to the following
formula:
Ltr = Lth (1.9 + t)-1.428
being: t = time in seconds.
In practice, a decrease in the luminance in the transition zone may take place through a series of stages which must
be lower than the ratio 3:1. Luminance cannot reach values lower than those of the curve in Fig. 6. The end of the
transition zone is reached when its luminance is equal to three times the level of the interior zone of the tunnel.
It is compulsory that wall average luminance of the tunnel up to a 2 m. height, in any specific position of the transition
zone, must not be lower than average luminance of the roadway in such a place.
247
established in Chart 11 depending on the security distance (DS) and the lighting class defined in Chart 7.
Up to a height of 2 m., the walls of the tunnel must have an average luminance similar to the roadway average luminance in
service with maintenance of the installation Lin.
The luminance level in the interior zone of the tunnel must allow to reach the following objectives:
- Visibility of any eventual obstacle on the roadway at a distance, at least, equal to the security distance, bearing in
mind opacity of the atmosphere of the tunnel due to vehicle toxic fumes.
- Guidance of vehicles without ambiguities.
- Good quality of the luminous environment, whose psychological effect above all is important in very long tunnels.
It must be stated that levels of the interior zone are achieved in all the length of the tunnel. Also, in the so- called lighting
reinforcement zones (entrance zone and, exit ones, too), where this lighting is called basic lighting.
SYSTEM
60 m
100 m
0.5
1,5
2,5
2,5
2,5
3,5
3,5
10
160 m
Chart 11
248
UNIFORMITY
CLASS
Overall U0
Longitudinal U1
1-2-3
0.3
0.5
4-5-6-7
0.4
0.6
Chart 12
LV
(Lm) 0.8
LV
(Lm) 1.05
in % for 0.05 [ Lm [ 5
cd/m2
in % for Lm > 5
cd/m2
where:
TI = Threshold increase corresponding to disturbing glare.
Lv = Total veiling luminance in cd/m2.
Lm = Average luminance on the roadway in cd/m2.
The threshold increase (TI) must be lower than 15% for threshold, transition and interior zones during the day, and for all
zones during the night. For the exit zone during the day, there is no limit in the disturbing glare.
249
related to speed of change from light to dark is minimized, the flickering or Flickers effect perceived becomes insignificant,
due to the fact that the lighting installation may be similar to a continuous line.
In order to calculate the flickering frequency or Flicker in a zone of the tunnel, speed of traffic is divided in metres/ second by
the separation between luminaires in metres.
Example:
v = 60 Km/h. = 16.6 m/s.
Luminaire separation = 4 m.
Flickering frequency or Flicker = 16.6 / 4 4.2 Hz.
Flickering frequencies or Flicker (luminance variation) ranging between 2.5 Hz. and 15 Hz. at driving speed for more than 20
seconds must be avoided, given the fact that the flickering effect may be disregarded for frequencies under 2.5 Hz. and above
15 Hz.
1-2
0.5
3-4-5-6-7
1
Chart 13
250
251
Length (m)
< 25
Visible exit?
Lighting
required
25 to 75
75 to 125
YES
NO
Daytime lighting
is not required
YES
> 125
NO
Limited
daytime lighting
Long tunnel
lighting
Daytime lighting for A type tunnels, short or urban tunnels or by- passes (highways and dual carriageways excluded), with limited
circulating speed between 40 and 60 km/h.
Chart 14
Short tunnels B type Chart 15.
Bidirectional intercity tunnels, considering a dense amount of traffic when daily average intensity of vehicles is higher than 5
000 (IMD > 5 000).
Length (m)
0 to 80
Visible exit?
Speed 80 Km/h
YES
NO
YES
NO
Traffic density
Light Dense
Light Dense
Lighting
required
81 to 120
121 to 150
YES
NO
YES
> 150
NO
Day-time lighting for type B short, urban, bidirectional tunnels (dense traffic when IMD > 5 000).
Chart 15
Short tunnels C type Chart 16.
One- way intercity tunnels (motorways and dual carriageways), estimating a dense amount of traffic when daily average
intensity of vehicles is higher than 10 000 (IMD > 10 000).
Length (m)
0 to 100
Visible exit?
Speed 80 Km/h
YES
NO
Light Dense
Traffic volume
Lighting required
100 to 150
151 to 200
YES
NO
YES
YES
NO
Light Dense
> 200
NO
Day-time lighting for type C short urban unidirectional tunnels for highways and motorways (dense traffic when IMD > 10 000).
Chart 16
Short tunnels D type Chart 17.
Intercity tunnels with low speed traffic (speed limit considerably lower than 80 Km/h.), and a traffic density notably lower than
a daily average intensity of 5 000 vehicles (IMD < 5 000).
Length (m)
0 to 100
Visible exit?
Lighting
required
101 to 150
YES
151 to 200
NO
YES
Limited
day- time lighting
> 200
NO
Complete
day- time
lighting
Long
tunnel
lighting
Day- time lighting for type D tunnels, intercity, short with low speed traffic (lower than 80 Km/h) and traffic density lower than
5 000 vehicles in a day (IMD < 5 000).
Chart 17
252
For each type of short tunnel in guiding diagrams and in their left part, the following four questions are posed: length, exit
visibility, speed and traffic density.
- Length (m): Four sorts of length are established for each guiding diagram for short tunnels or underpasses,
expressed in metres.
- Visible exit?: In each guiding diagram it is considered, whether the exit of the tunnel or underpass is visible or not
when the driver of the vehicle approaches the tunnel and finds himself, at least, at a distance equal to that of
security distance (DS) before the tunnel entrance.
- Speed [80 Km/h: In guiding diagrams 2 and 3, corresponding to tunnels of the B and C type, the speed of the
tunnel or underpass design is thought to be higher or lower than 80 Km/h. The design speed is very important in
relation to security distance (DS), as well as regarding risk of accidents and their severity.
- Traffic density: In guiding diagrams 2 and 3, it is born in mind and it may be classified as light and dense.
In diagram 2 corresponding to short tunnels of the B type (two- way intercity), a dense amount of traffic is valued when daily
average intensity of vehicles is higher than 5 000 (IMD > 5 000).
In diagram 3, which makes reference to short tunnels of the C type (one- way intercity of motorways and dual carriageways),
a dense amount of traffic is estimated when daily average intensity of vehicles in higher than 10 000 (IMD > 10 000).
Four diagrams are established constituting a guide of an orientative nature. They also provide help to decide whether the short
tunnel or underpass needs day- time lighting or not. If necessary, the type of lighting to be adopted is also detailed.
For example, the case of a short tunnel of 120 metres in length, located on an intercity road with slow moving traffic (v < 60
Km/h.) and a daily average intensity of IMD < 3 000. It is necessary to decide whether day- time lighting must be provided
and, in case it is required, to determine the type of lighting to be installed. The working system is the one described below:
Following guiding diagram n. 4, the tunnel is located within the corresponding interval of lengths. That is to say, between 101
and 150 metres.
The second question, visible exit?, is answered. For an affirmative answer, day- time lighting is not required according to
diagram 4. For a negative answer, due to the existence of curves or slopes in the interior of the tunnel, limited day- time lighting
is installed.
Supposing the same short tunnel but with a length of 170 metres, according to diagram 4, the only two alternatives are, in
case the tunnel exit is not visible, the installation of limited day- time or complete day- time lighting respectively.
Diagrams constitute a practical guide that, for each concrete situation, will be adapted to the type of road bearing in mind:
- The real structure of the tunnel, its access and exit roads.
- Traffic density and composition, either motorized or mixed, including slow and fast moving vehicles, bicyclists,
pedestrians, etc.
Guiding diagrams may be considered to be orientative for the design, working and maintenance of short tunnels and
underpasses lighting. The following technical and economic considerations will be taken into account:
- Performance of a detailed analysis of the risk of accidents and security in relation to lighting (quality and quantity).
- Study of convenient marking at the entrance of the tunnel, especially regarding the limit speed, turn- on of vehicle
headlights, etc.
- Performance a meticulous exam of installation costs and annual exploitation of lighting, including working,
maintenance and repairing costs in relation to security and comfort provided by such an installation (costs/ benefits
binomial).
253
254
13.5. Maintenance
The maintenance factor used in lighting studies normally covers luminaire depreciation (dirtiness) and lamp (loss of luminous flux).
In the case of tunnels which are installations with a high degree of atmospheric pollution, it is very important to have a maintenance
program (cleaning of walls and luminaires) defining the cleaning cycles which will allow to comply with the factor established in the
study.
The norm recommends to use a maintenance factor of 0.7 to define the value of the average level of the luminance of the roadway
and 0.5 for the walls.
Relamping will be performed when the average level is under the one established or the lack of uniformity is unacceptable.
255
SHORT TUNNELS
TYPES OF
TYPE A
TYPE B
TYPE C
TYPE D
TUNNELS
DIAGRAM-1
DIAGRAM-2
DIAGRAM-3
DIAGRAM-4
< 25
25 to 75
75 to 125
> 125
< 80
80 to 120
120 to 150
> 150
< 100
100 to 150
150 to 200
> 200
<
100
100 to 150
150 to 200
> 200
YES
YES
YES
YES
NO
NO
NO
YES
YES
Length
Visible exit?
NO
Speed
< 80 km/h
Traffic density
NO
NO
LIGHT
LIGHT
DENSE
DENSE
Chart 18
If lighting is foreseen on the road, this will be installed in such a way that an adequate penetration of lighting inside the short tunnel
or underpass is guaranteed.
The content of guiding diagrams for short tunnels and underpasses detailed in section 13.3. are summarized in the previous chart.
A high reflectance of walls is important to increase brightness of the background against which objects may be seen. In short tunnels,
where the exit is not visible from the security distance (DS) in front of the tunnel entrance, reflectance of walls is particularly important.
The reason is that reflectance of high walls will secure that a great amount of day- time lighting, entering through the exit mouth, is
reflected towards drivers. Walls with a diffused reflectance in service higher than 40% are known as HIGH, and walls with less than
40% of reflectance, are called LOW (the depreciation or maintenance factor must be considered).
In any tunnel, walls must have a white covering of up to 2 m. in height, with a flat surface and a high specular reflectance in service
or maintained. The low part down to 0.50 m. and lateral sidewalks may be blackened or painted black, basically when the roadway
covering is light or white, due to vehicle driving needs with a good maintained contrast, in order to improve total perception. When
reflectance of the walls is classified as LOW, length signalled in each of the four guiding diagrams must be reduced in a 20%.
The degree of day- time light entering the exit is also important. Thus, a tunnel with a big transverse section, for example, of three lanes
or wider, and a flat exit or with a downward slope and facing south, will admit a maximum of day- time light and will contribute
considerably to visibility in the tunnel. Moreover, day- time light may be poor when the tunnel has two or fewer lanes, in case the exit
is located in a cut or is surrounded by high buildings. Also when the road has an upward slope from the exit or in case the exit faces
north. The importance of day-time light near the exit decreases with the length of the tunnel. When day- time light is GOOD, the length
indicated for each of the four guiding diagrams must be increased up to a 20%.
As far as tunnel geometry and access roads are concerned, lighting design of the tunnel must follow the most conservative route for
each guiding diagram. The same attitude must be considered when:
- The tunnel has a slope first and a ramp later (changes in vertical curvature).
- There are geometrical discontinuities or singularities.
In case the tunnel presents a bad total perception, lighting design must follow a conservative path for each of the four guiding diagrams.
A specific analysis is needed when transportation of dangerous cargo is frequent. In this case, lighting design in the tunnel must be
performed following the most conservative path for each of the guiding diagrams.
256
= 87.5
INTENSITY (cd)
MIN.
MAX.
MIN.
MAX.
300
800
400
50
25
Chart 19
In order to secure an adequate visual guidance, the separation between luminaires will not be higher than 25 m. In
curved tunnels, at least four luminaires will be visible. Regarding separation between luminaires this could be
reduced.
13.9.1.2. Visual guidance in the interior zone for tunnels. Lighting class 1
In the interior zone of tunnels, lighting class 1 (Chart 19), the luminaires installed will have luminous intensities
towards the driver that will comply with what has been established in Chart 20.
257
CHART II
LUMINOUS INTENSITIES IN TUNNEL INTERIORS
LIGHTING CLASS 1
ANGLE
TIME
Day and night
= 87.5
INTENSITY (cd)
INTENSITY (cd)
MIN.
MAX.
MIN.
MAX.
50
25
Chart 20
258
Chapter14.
LIGHT POLLUTION
259
260
261
Visual task and pedestrians needs differ from drivers in many aspects. The speed of movement is lower, and the perception of objects
surrounding pedestrians is more important than seeing objects that are further away. Therefore, quality criteria of pedestrian lighting
cannot be equal to those of road traffic. In urban areas, perception of their immediate environment is more important for pedestrians,
in order to avoid any type of crime (thefts, vandalism, sexual harassment, terrorist acts, etc.).
The decision whether lighting for a public road in a certain area or place must be provided or not must be taken based on a detailed
study. Once the decision to service a lighting installation has been made, design criteria and lighting levels will be adjusted, avoiding
exceeding the criteria established in the following C.I.E. publications:
- Publication C.I.E. 47: 1979
Recommendations for the Lighting of Roads for Motor and Pedestrian Traffic.
Nevertheless, lighting levels established in the publications above may be exceeded up to a 20%, except for cases correctly justified
in which it would be possible to exceed such percentage.
As far as those elements which constitute the installation, LIGHTING ENGINEERING calculations, measurements, maintenance, etc.
whatever is established in the following C.I.E. publications will be observed:
- Publication C.I.E. 30.2: 1982
C=
L0 Lf
Lf
Being:
L0= Object luminance.
Lf= Background luminance.
Contrast C may be either positive or negative:
If L0 >Lf
If L0 <Lf
0<C<
-1 < C < 0
Light pollution or night- time luminous glare in the sky produces a veil in the observation field which has its own luminance L v. At the
same time, this luminance is added to the luminance of the object and its background. Thus, the new contrast C is the following:
262
C =
L0 Lf
Lf LV
It is always verified that C < C, given that the dividend is the same and the divisor is always greater.
When veiling luminance Lv increases, the observed object may disappear from the field of vision, specially in the case of astronomic
observations when a star or celestial object with a very weak luminance L0 is under study.
ZONE CLASSIFICATION
DESCRIPTION
E1
E2
E3
E4
National parks and areas with a special natural beauty will receive the same treatment as the "E 1" zone, as far as installed upper
hemisphere flux limitations go, as established in Chart 2. Distance regime shown in Chart 4 is not applied to the rest of the zones.
263
ZONE CLASSIFICATION
E1
E2
0-5
E3
0-15
E4
0-25
Chart 2. Limit values for the installed upper hemisphere flux.
As a way of an example, Chart 3 contains the type of astronomic observations possible for each zone.
ZONE CLASSIFICATION
ASTRONOMIC ACTIVITIES
E1
E2
E3
Amateur Observatories
E4
Sporadic Observations
Chart 3. Astronomic activities possible for each zone.
Nevertheless, in the case of lighting of highways and dual carriageways, important urban routes, by-passes, etc. it is recommended to
install luminaires with an Installed FHSinst 5% upper hemisphere flux.
In the case of pedestrian lighting, as well as artistic with lanterns, historic devices, etc., an FHSinst 25% is suggested
When the life of lighting installations is exhausted, or renovation is needed for any reason, it is recommended to install luminaires with
the upper hemisphere flux limitations shown above in this section.
It is advisable to have a replacement program of existent luminaires whose installed upper hemisphere flux is greater than 25%
(FHSinst/25%), installing luminaires which comply with the values recommended in this section.
264
REFERENCE POINT
ZONE
E1-E2
E2-E3
E3-E4
E1
10
100
10
E2
E3
E4
WITHOUT LIMITS
Chart 4. Minimum distances in Km. between limits for each zone.
For the correct use of Chart 4, the zone where the "point of reference" is located must be first selected. Afterwards, in Chart 4, the
minimum distance in Km. is obtained, where the following zone begins, and so on for the rest of adjacent areas.
Values recorded in Chart 4 have been deduced from practical experience, even when the number of cases under study has been
limited.
265
NO
YES
YES
Figure 1
-
If there is no possibility to direct lighting downwards and not upwards, use screens and paralumens to avoid dispersion of
NO
YES
YES
Figure 2
-
To install lighting equipments which will reduce the dispersion of light on the horizontal plane of the luminaire, with
minimum values or even none over such plane (Figs. 3 and 4).
NO
YES
Figure 3
266
YES
NO
Figure 4
-
For glare to be minimum, direct light ray beams downwards keeping them under 70. If mounting height is increased, light
ray beams shoud be lowered. In places with low environmental light, glare may be very disturbing. Due to this reason,
positioning, aiming or orientation of luminaires may be carefully attended (Fig. 5).
YES
O.K.
90
70
<70
NO
Figure 5
-
When possible, it is recommended to install luminaires with an asymmetric reflector which will permit to maintain their
front closing parallel or almost parallel to the surface that needs to be illuminated (Fig. 6).
NO
YES
Figure 6
-
In order to avoid installing excess of light, recommendations which fix levels to light different tasks with tolerances permited
must be observed.
In the case of small safety lighting installations and house lighting, there are two solutions:
Passive detectors of infrared rays may be effectively used if correctly installed and lined. In general, a 150 W. halogene
lamp is more than enough. 300/500 W. lamps provide too much lighting, greater glare and darker and more emphasized
shadows.
267
Permanent illuminations with low brightness during all night. are equally acceptable. In the case of a porch in a house, a
compact fluorescent lamp of 9 W. (600 lm.) is adequate for most cases.
- For motor traffic lighting, flux emitted above the horizontal plane must be reduced and close light must be restricted.
268
ZONE
NIGHT- TIME
LIGHT IN WINDOWS
LUMINOUS
EV (lux)
GLOW
INTENSITY OF SOURCE
Luminance in
edifices***
Disturbing
Lm (cd/m2)
glare
%
Before
After
Before **
After
IN THE SKY
lighting
lighting
reduced
reduced
After reduced
FHSinst %
time
time
time
time
time
E1
1*
10
E2
50
0.5
10
CLASSIFICATION
E3
15
10
100
1.0
10
15
E4
25
25
10
100
2.5
25
15
EV
Lm
**
***
In order to avoid excessive lighting, luminance is limited in edifices. It must coincide with the general luminosity of the
area.
269
270
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
IES Lighting Guide: The Outdoor Environment.
IES Lighting Guide: Sports.
IES Code for Interior Lighting.
IDAE: Eficiencia energtica y medioambiental en iluminacin.
ADAE: Gua sobre la iluminacin de interiores.
Frdergemeinschaft Gutes Licht: Good Lighting for Schools and Educational Establishments.
Frdergemeinschaft Gutes Licht: Good Lighting for Safety on Roads, Paths and Squares.
Frdergemeinschaft Gutes Licht: Good Lighting for Offices and Office Buildings.
Frdergemeinschaft Gutes Licht: Good Lighting for Trade and Industry.
Frdergemeinschaft Gutes Licht: Good Lighting for Sports Facilities.
Frdergemeinschaft Gutes Licht: Prestige Lighting.
Castejn Santamara: Tecnologa elctrica. Ed: McGraw Hill.
Fsica. Paul A. Tipler. Ed. Revert, S.A. 3 edicin.
Electricidad y Magnetismo. Francis W. Sears. Ed. Aguilar.
Equipos auxiliares para lmparas de descarga. Antonio Vela Snchez, Juan Jos Garrido Vzquez.
Sistema elctrico para lmparas de descarga. Antonio Vela Snchez, Juan Jos Garrido Vzquez.
Recomendaciones para la iluminacin de carreteras y tneles. Ministerio de Fomento.
J.I. Urraca Pieiro: Tratado de alumbrado pblico. Ed: Donostiarra, S.A.
Julio Arias Alfonso Ramos: Luminotecnia Prctica. Indalux Iluminacin Tcnica, S.L. (1990).
Jess Feij Muoz: Instalaciones de iluminacin en la arquitectura. Ed: Secretariado de publicaciones, Universidad de Valladolid.
Manual de Iluminacin. Philips Iluminacin (1997).
J.A. Taboada. Manual de Luminotecnia. Ed. Dossat, S.A. (4 edicin).
Catlogo General de Lmparas y Equipos, 1998/1999/2000. Philips.
Catlogo de Lmparas. Sylvania.
Catlogo General de Luz, 1998/1999/2000. Osram.
Spectrum. Catlogo General de lmparas. General Electric Company.
Catlogo Descarga y Fluorescencia ELT.
Catlogo General ETI.
Catlogo 2001 SLUZ.
Catlogo General 2002. Indalux Iluminacin Tcnica, S.L.
Publication CIE n 18.2 (1983): The Basis of Physical Photometry.
271
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Publication CIE n 19/2.1 (1981): An Analytic Model for Describing the Influence of Lighting Parameters upon Visual Performance.
Publication CIE n 19/2.2 (1981): An Analytic Model for Describing the Influence of Lighting Parameters upon Visual Performance.
Publication CIE n 20 (1972): Recommendations for the Integrated Irradiance and the Spectral Distribution of Simulated Solar
Radiation for Testing Purposes.
Publication CIE n 24 (1973): Photometry of Indoor Type Luminaires with Tubular Fluorescent Lamps.
Publication CIE n 27 (1973): Photometry of Luminaires for Street Lighting.
Publicacin CIE n 29.2 (1986): Gua de iluminacin interior.
Publication CIE n 30.2 (1982): Calculation and Measurement of Luminance and Illuminance in Road Lighting.
Publication CIE n 31 (1976): Glare and Uniformity in Road Lighting Installations.
Publication CIE n 33 (1977): Depreciation of Installations and their Maintenance.
Publication CIE n 34 (1977): Road Lighting Lantern and Installation Data-photometrics, Classification and Performance.
Publication CIE n 38 (1977): Radiometric and Photometric Characteristics of Materials and their Measurement.
Publication CIE n 42 (1978): Lighting for Tennis.
Publication CIE n 43 (1979): Photometry of Floodlights.
Publication CIE n 44 (1979): Absolute Methods for Reflection Measurements.
Publication CIE n 45 (1979): Lighting for Ice Sports.
Publication CIE n 46 (1979): A Review of Publications on Properties and Reflection Values of Material Reflection Standards.
Publication CIE n 47 (1979): Road Lighting for Wet Conditions.
Publication CIE n 49 (1981): Guide on the Emergency Lighting of Building Interiors.
Publicacin CIE n 52 (1982): Clculos para iluminacin interior.
Publication CIE n 53 (1982): Methods of Characterizing the Performance of Radiometers and Photometers.
Publication CIE n 55 (1983): Discomfort Glare in the Interior Working Environment.
Publication CIE n 57 (1983): Lighting for Football.
Publication CIE n 58 (1983): Lighting for Sports Halls.
Publication CIE n 60 (1984): Vision and the Visual Display Unit Work Station.
Publication CIE n 61 (1984): Tunnel Entrance Lighting.
Publication CIE n 62 (1984): Lighting for Swimming Pools.
Publication CIE n 67 (1986): Guide for the Photometric Specification and Measurement of Sports Lighting Installations.
Publication CIE n 84 (1989): The Measurement of Luminous Flux.
Publication CIE n 85 (1989): Solar Spectral Irradiance.
Publication CIE n 92 (1992): Guide to the Lighting of Urban Areas.
Publication CIE n 93 (1992): Road Lighting as an Accident Countermeasure.
Publication CIE n 95 (1992): Contrast and Visibility.
272
BIBLIOGRAPHY
273
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Norma UNE-EN 60598-2-01 (1993): Luminarias. Parte 2. Requisitos particulares y ensayos. Seccin 1: Luminarias fijas de uso
general.
Norma UNE-EN 60598-2-02 (1993): Luminarias. Parte 2. Reglas particulares. Seccin 2: Luminarias empotradas.
Norma UNE-EN 60598-2-03 (1993): Luminarias. Parte 2. Reglas particulares. Seccin 3: Luminarias para alumbrado pblico.
Norma UNE-EN 60598-2-04 (1993): Luminarias. Parte 2. Reglas particulares. Seccin 4: Luminarias porttiles de uso general.
Norma UNE-EN 60598-2-05 (1993): Luminarias. Parte 2. Reglas particulares. Seccin 5: Proyectores.
Norma UNE-EN 60598-2-06 (1993): Luminarias. Parte 2. Reglas particulares. Seccin 6: Luminarias con transformador integrado
para lmparas de filamento de wolframio.
Norma UNE-EN 60598-2-08 (1993): Luminarias. Parte 2. Reglas particulares. Seccin 8: Luminarias porttiles.
Curso bsico de Ergonoma. Santiago Gonzlez Gallego. Colegio Oficial de Peritos e Ingenieros Tcnicos Industriales de Valladolid.
Documentos Tcnicos: La Iluminacin en los Lugares de Trabajo. Instituto Nacional de Seguridad e Higiene en el Trabajo. Ministerio
de Trabajo y Seguridad Social.
Gua Tcnica: Lugares de Trabajo (interpretacin y aplicacin del R.D. 486/1997 de 14 de Abril). Instituto Nacional de Seguridad e
Higiene en el Trabajo. Ministerio de Trabajo y Seguridad Social.
274