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Cybernetics
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Forotheruses,seeCybernetics(disambiguation).
Cyberneticsisatransdisciplinary[1]approachforexploringregulatorysystems,theirstructures,constraints,and
possibilities.Inthe21stcentury,thetermisoftenusedinaratherloosewaytoimply"controlofanysystemusing
technology."
Cyberneticsisrelevanttothestudyofsystems,suchasmechanical,physical,biological,cognitive,andsocial
systems.Cyberneticsisapplicablewhenasystembeinganalyzedincorporatesaclosedsignalingloopthatis,
whereactionbythesystemgeneratessomechangeinitsenvironmentandthatchangeisreflectedinthatsystem
insomemanner(feedback)thattriggersasystemchange,originallyreferredtoasa"circularcausal"relationship.
Systemdynamics,arelatedfield,originatedwithapplicationsofelectricalengineeringcontroltheorytootherkinds
ofsimulationmodels(especiallybusinesssystems)byJayForresteratMITinthe1950s.
Conceptsstudiedbycyberneticistsinclude,butarenotlimitedto:learning,cognition,adaptation,social
control,emergence,communication,efficiency,efficacy,andconnectivity.Theseconceptsarestudiedbyother
subjectssuchasengineeringandbiology,butincyberneticstheseareabstractedfromthecontextofthe
individualorganismordevice.
NorbertWienerdefinedcyberneticsin1948as"thescientificstudyofcontrolandcommunicationintheanimaland
themachine."[2]ThewordcyberneticscomesfromGreek(kybernetike),meaning"governance",i.e.,
allthatarepertinentto(kybernao),thelattermeaning"tosteer,navigateorgovern",hence
(kybernesis),meaning"government",isthegovernmentwhile(kybernetes)isthegovernororthe
captain.Contemporarycyberneticsbeganasaninterdisciplinarystudyconnectingthefieldsofcontrol
systems,electricalnetworktheory,mechanicalengineering,logicmodeling,evolutionary
biology,neuroscience,anthropology,andpsychologyinthe1940s,oftenattributedtotheMacyConferences.
Duringthesecondhalfofthe20thcenturycyberneticsevolvedinwaysthatdistinguishfirstordercybernetics
(aboutobservedsystems)fromsecondordercybernetics(aboutobservingsystems).[3]Morerecentlythereistalk
aboutathirdordercybernetics(doinginwaysthatembracesfirstandsecondorder).[4]
Fieldsofstudywhichhaveinfluencedorbeeninfluencedbycyberneticsincludegametheory,systemtheory(a
mathematicalcounterparttocybernetics),perceptualcontroltheory,sociology,psychology
(especiallyneuropsychology,behavioralpsychology,cognitivepsychology),philosophy,architecture,
andorganizationaltheory.[5]
Contents[hide]
1 Definitions
2 Etymology
3 History
3.1 Rootsofcybernetictheory
3.2 Early20thcentury
3.3 Splitfromartificialintelligence
3.4 Newcybernetics
3.5 Cyberneticsandeconomicsystems
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4 Subdivisionsofthefield
4.1 Basiccybernetics
4.2 Inbiology
4.3 Incomputerscience
4.4 Inengineering
4.5 Inmanagement
4.6 Inmathematics
4.7 Inpsychology
4.8 Insociology
4.9 Ineducation
4.10 Inart
4.11 InEarthsystemscience
5 Relatedfields
5.1 Complexityscience
5.2 Biomechatronics
6 Seealso
7 References
8 Furtherreading
9 Externallinks

Definitions

[ edit ]

Cyberneticshasbeendefinedinavarietyofways,byavarietyofpeople,fromavarietyofdisciplines.TheLarry
RichardsReaderincludesalistingbyStuartUmplebyofnotabledefinitions:[6]
"Scienceconcernedwiththestudyofsystemsofanynaturewhicharecapableofreceiving,storingand
processinginformationsoastouseitforcontrol."A.N.Kolmogorov
"Theartofsecuringefficientoperation."LouisCouffignal[7]
"'Theartofsteersmanship':dealswithallformsofbehaviorinsofarastheyareregular,ordeterminate,or
reproducible:standstotherealmachineelectronic,mechanical,neural,oreconomicmuchasgeometry
standstorealobjectinourterrestrialspaceoffersamethodforthescientifictreatmentofthesysteminwhich
complexityisoutstandingandtooimportanttobeignored."W.RossAshby
"Abranchofmathematicsdealingwithproblemsofcontrol,recursiveness,andinformation,focusesonforms
andthepatternsthatconnect."GregoryBateson
"Theartofeffectiveorganization."StaffordBeer
"Theartandscienceofmanipulatingdefensiblemetaphors."GordonPask
"Theartofcreatingequilibriuminaworldofconstraintsandpossibilities."ErnstvonGlasersfeld
"Thescienceandartofunderstanding."HumbertoMaturana
"Theabilitytocurealltemporarytruthofeternaltriteness."HerbertBrun
Othernotabledefinitionsinclude:
"Thescienceandartoftheunderstandingofunderstanding."RodneyE.Donaldson,thefirstpresidentof
theAmericanSocietyforCybernetics
"Thecontrolofanautomaton'sfeedbackloop."LinkStarbureiy
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"Awayofthinkingaboutwaysofthinkingofwhichitisone."LarryRichards
"Theartofinteractionindynamicnetworks."RoyAscott

Etymology

[ edit ]

Thetermcyberneticsstemsfrom(kybernts)"steersman,
governor,pilot,orrudder".AswiththeancientGreekpilot,independence
ofthoughtisimportantincybernetics.[8]Cyberneticsisabroadfieldof
study,buttheessentialgoalofcyberneticsistounderstandanddefinethe
functionsandprocessesofsystemsthathavegoalsandthatparticipatein
circular,causalchainsthatmovefromactiontosensingtocomparisonwith
desiredgoal,andagaintoaction.Studiesincyberneticsprovideameans

Simplefeedbackmodel.AB<0
fornegativefeedback.

forexaminingthedesignandfunctionofanysystem,includingsocial
systemssuchasbusinessmanagementandorganizationallearning,includingforthepurposeofmakingthem
moreefficientandeffective.
FrenchphysicistandmathematicianAndrMarieAmprefirstcoinedtheword"cybernetique"inhis1834
essayEssaisurlaphilosophiedessciencestodescribethescienceofcivilgovernment.[9]
CyberneticswasborrowedbyNorbertWiener,inhisbookCybernetics,todefinethestudyofcontroland
communicationintheanimalandthemachine.[10]StaffordBeercalleditthescienceofeffectiveorganization
andGordonPaskcalledit"theartofdefensiblemetaphors"(emphasizingitsconstructivistepistemology)though
helaterextendedittoincludeinformationflows"inallmedia"fromstarstobrains.Itincludesthestudy
offeedback,blackboxesandderivedconceptssuchascommunicationandcontrolinliving
organisms,machinesandorganizationsincludingselforganization.Itsfocusishowanything(digital,mechanicalor
biological)processesinformation,reactstoinformation,andchangesorcanbechangedtobetteraccomplishthe
firsttwotasks.[11]Amorephilosophicaldefinition,suggestedin1956byLouisCouffignal,oneofthepioneersof
cybernetics,characterizescyberneticsas"theartofensuringtheefficacyofaction."[12]Themostrecentdefinition
hasbeenproposedbyLouisKauffman,PresidentoftheAmericanSocietyforCybernetics,"Cyberneticsisthe
studyofsystemsandprocessesthatinteractwiththemselvesandproducethemselvesfromthemselves."[13]

History

[ edit ]

Rootsofcybernetictheory

[ edit ]

Thewordcyberneticswasfirstusedinthecontextof"thestudyofselfgovernance"byPlatoinTheAlcibiadesto
signifythegovernanceofpeople.[14]Theword'cyberntique'wasalsousedin1834bythephysicistAndrMarie
Ampre(17751836)todenotethesciencesofgovernmentinhisclassificationsystemofhumanknowledge.
Thefirstartificialautomaticregulatorysystem,awaterclock,wasinventedbythemechanicianKtesibios.Inhis
waterclocks,waterflowedfromasourcesuchasaholdingtankintoareservoir,thenfromthereservoirtothe
mechanismsoftheclock.Ktesibios'sdeviceusedaconeshapedfloattomonitorthelevelofthewaterinits
reservoirandadjusttherateofflowofthewateraccordinglytomaintainaconstantlevelofwaterinthereservoir,
sothatitneitheroverflowednorwasallowedtorundry.Thiswasthefirstartificialtrulyautomaticselfregulatory
devicethatrequirednooutsideinterventionbetweenthefeedbackandthecontrolsofthemechanism.Although
theydidnotrefertothisconceptbythenameofCybernetics(theyconsidereditafieldof
engineering),KtesibiosandotherssuchasHeronandSuSongareconsideredtobesomeofthefirsttostudy
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cyberneticprinciples.
Thestudyofteleologicalmechanisms(fromtheGreekortelosforend,goal,
orpurpose)inmachineswithcorrectivefeedbackdatesfromasfarbackasthelate
18thcenturywhenJamesWatt'ssteamenginewasequippedwith
agovernor(17751800),acentrifugalfeedbackvalveforcontrollingthespeedof
theengine.AlfredRusselWallaceidentifiedthisastheprincipleofevolutioninhis
famous1858paper.[15]In1868JamesClerkMaxwellpublishedatheoretical
articleongovernors,oneofthefirsttodiscussandrefinetheprinciplesofself
regulatingdevices.JakobvonUexkllappliedthefeedbackmechanismviahis
modeloffunctionalcycle(Funktionskreis)inordertoexplainanimalbehaviourand
theoriginsofmeaningingeneral.
JamesWatt

Early20thcentury

[ edit ]

Contemporarycyberneticsbeganasaninterdisciplinarystudyconnectingthefieldsofcontrolsystems,electrical
networktheory,mechanicalengineering,logicmodeling,evolutionarybiologyandneuroscienceinthe1940s.
Electroniccontrolsystemsoriginatedwiththe1927workofBellTelephoneLaboratoriesengineerHaroldS.
Blackonusingnegativefeedbacktocontrolamplifiers.TheideasarealsorelatedtothebiologicalworkofLudwig
vonBertalanffyinGeneralSystemsTheory.
Earlyapplicationsofnegativefeedbackinelectroniccircuitsincludedthecontrolofgunmountsandradarantenna
duringWorldWarII.JayForrester,agraduatestudentattheServomechanismsLaboratoryatMITduringWWII
workingwithGordonS.BrowntodevelopelectroniccontrolsystemsfortheU.S.Navy,laterappliedtheseideasto
socialorganizationssuchascorporationsandcitiesasanoriginalorganizeroftheMITSchoolofIndustrial
ManagementattheMITSloanSchoolofManagement.ForresterisknownasthefounderofSystemDynamics.
W.EdwardsDeming,theTotalQualityManagementguruforwhomJapannameditstoppostWWII
industrialprize,wasaninternatBellTelephoneLabsin1927andmayhavebeeninfluencedbynetworktheory.
Demingmade"UnderstandingSystems"oneofthefourpillarsofwhathedescribedas"ProfoundKnowledge"in
hisbook"TheNewEconomics."
Numerouspapersspearheadedthecoalescingofthefield.In1935RussianphysiologistP.K.Anokhinpublisheda
bookinwhichtheconceptoffeedback("backafferentation")wasstudied.Thestudyandmathematicalmodelling
ofregulatoryprocessesbecameacontinuingresearcheffortandtwokeyarticleswerepublishedin1943.These
paperswere"Behavior,PurposeandTeleology"byArturoRosenblueth,NorbertWiener,andJulianBigelowand
thepaper"ALogicalCalculusoftheIdeasImmanentinNervousActivity"byWarrenMcCullochandWalterPitts.
In1936,Odoblejapublishes"Phonoscopyandtheclinicalsemiotics".In1937,heparticipatesintheIXth
InternationalCongressofMilitaryMedicinewithapaperentitled"Demonstrationdephonoscopie",wherehe
disseminatesaprospectusinFrench,announcingtheappearanceofhisfuturework"TheConsonantist
Psychology".[1]
ThemostimportantofhiswritingsisPsychologieconsonantiste,inwhichOdoblejalaysthetheoreticalfoundations
ofthegeneralizedcybernetics.Thebook,publishedinParisby"LibrairieMaloine"(vol.Iin1938andvol.IIin
1939),containsalmost900pagesandincludes300figuresinthetext.[2]Theauthorwroteatthetimethat"this
bookis...atableofcontents,anindexoradictionaryofpsychology,[for]a...greatTreatiseofPsychologythat
shouldcontain2030volumes".
DuetothebeginningofWorldWarII,thepublicationwentunnoticed.ThefirstRomanianeditionofthisworkdid
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notappearuntil1982(thefirsteditionwaspublishedinFrench).Cyberneticsasadisciplinewasfirmlyestablished
byNorbertWiener,McCullochandothers,suchasW.RossAshby,mathematicianAlanTuring,andW.Grey
Walter.Walterwasoneofthefirsttobuildautonomousrobotsasanaidtothestudyofanimalbehaviour.Together
withtheUSandUK,animportantgeographicallocusofearlycyberneticswasFrance.
Inthespringof1947,Wienerwasinvitedtoacongressonharmonicanalysis,heldinNancy,France.Theevent
wasorganizedbytheBourbaki,aFrenchscientificsociety,andmathematicianSzolemMandelbrojt(18991983),
uncleoftheworldfamousmathematicianBenotMandelbrot.
DuringthisstayinFrance,Wienerreceivedtheoffertowriteamanuscriptonthe
unifyingcharacterofthispartofappliedmathematics,whichisfoundinthestudy
ofBrownianmotionandintelecommunicationengineering.Thefollowingsummer,
backintheUnitedStates,Wienerdecidedtointroducetheneologismcybernetics
intohisscientifictheory.Thenamecyberneticswascoinedtodenotethestudyof
"teleologicalmechanisms"andwaspopularizedthroughhisbookCybernetics,or
ControlandCommunicationintheAnimalandtheMachine(MITPress/JohnWiley
andSons,NY,1948).IntheUKthisbecamethefocusfortheRatioClub.
Intheearly1940sJohnvonNeumann,althoughbetterknownforhisworkin
mathematicsandcomputerscience,didcontributeauniqueandunusualaddition
totheworldofcybernetics:vonNeumanncellularautomata,andtheirlogical
followupthevonNeumannUniversalConstructor.Theresultofthesedeceptively

JohnvonNeumann

simplethoughtexperimentswastheconceptofselfreplicationwhichcybernetics
adoptedasacoreconcept.Theconceptthatthesamepropertiesofgeneticreproductionappliedto
socialmemes,livingcells,andevencomputervirusesisfurtherproofofthesomewhatsurprisinguniversalityof
cyberneticstudy.
Wienerpopularizedthesocialimplicationsofcybernetics,drawinganalogiesbetweenautomaticsystems(suchas
aregulatedsteamengine)andhumaninstitutionsinhisbestsellingTheHumanUseofHumanBeings:
CyberneticsandSociety(HoughtonMifflin,1950).
Whilenottheonlyinstanceofaresearchorganizationfocusedoncybernetics,theBiologicalComputerLabatthe
UniversityofIllinois,Urbana/Champaign,underthedirectionofHeinzvonFoerster,wasamajorcenterof
cyberneticresearchforalmost20years,beginningin1958.

Splitfromartificialintelligence

[ edit ]

Artificialintelligence(AI)wasfoundedasadistinctdisciplineattheDartmouthConferences.Aftersomeuneasy
coexistence,AIgainedfundingandprominence.Consequently,cyberneticsciencessuchasthestudyofneural
networksweredownplayedthedisciplineshiftedintotheworldofsocialsciencesandtherapy.[16]
Prominentcyberneticiansduringthisperiodinclude:
GregoryBateson
AkselBerg

Newcybernetics

[ edit ]

Inthe1970s,newcyberneticiansemergedinmultiplefields,butespeciallyinbiology.Theideas
ofMaturana,VarelaandAtlan,accordingtoJeanPierreDupuy(1986)"realizedthatthecyberneticmetaphorsof
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theprogramuponwhichmolecularbiologyhadbeenbasedrenderedaconceptionoftheautonomyoftheliving
beingimpossible.Consequently,thesethinkerswereledtoinventanewcybernetics,onemoresuitedtothe
organizationswhichmankinddiscoversinnatureorganizationshehasnothimselfinvented".[17]However,during
the1980sthequestionofwhetherthefeaturesofthisnewcyberneticscouldbeappliedtosocialformsof
organizationremainedopentodebate.[17]
Inpoliticalscience,ProjectCybersynattemptedtointroduceacyberneticallycontrolledeconomyduringtheearly
1970s.Inthe1980s,accordingtoHarriesJones(1988)"unlikeitspredecessor,thenewcyberneticsconcerns
itselfwiththeinteractionofautonomouspoliticalactorsandsubgroups,andthepracticalandreflexive
consciousnessofthesubjectswhoproduceandreproducethestructureofapoliticalcommunity.Adominant
considerationisthatofrecursiveness,orselfreferenceofpoliticalactionbothwithregardstotheexpressionof
politicalconsciousnessandwiththewaysinwhichsystemsbuilduponthemselves".[18]
OnecharacteristicoftheemergingnewcyberneticsconsideredinthattimebyFelixGeyerandHansvander
Zouwen,accordingtoBailey(1994),[19]was"thatitviewsinformationasconstructedandreconstructedbyan
individualinteractingwiththeenvironment.Thisprovidesanepistemologicalfoundationofscience,byviewingitas
observerdependent.Anothercharacteristicofthenewcyberneticsisitscontributiontowardsbridgingthemicro
macrogap.Thatis,itlinkstheindividualwiththesociety".[19]Anothercharacteristicnotedwasthe"transitionfrom
classicalcyberneticstothenewcybernetics[that]involvesatransitionfromclassicalproblemstonewproblems.
Theseshiftsinthinkinginvolve,amongothers,(a)achangefromemphasisonthesystembeingsteeredtothe
systemdoingthesteering,andthefactorwhichguidesthesteeringdecisions.and(b)newemphasison
communicationbetweenseveralsystemswhicharetryingtosteereachother".[19]
Recentendeavorsintothetruefocusofcybernetics,systemsofcontrolandemergentbehavior,bysuchrelated
fieldsasgametheory(theanalysisofgroupinteraction),systemsoffeedbackinevolution,andmetamaterials(the
studyofmaterialswithpropertiesbeyondtheNewtonianpropertiesoftheirconstituentatoms),haveledtoa
revivedinterestinthisincreasinglyrelevantfield.[11]

Cyberneticsandeconomicsystems

[ edit ]

Thedesignofselfregulatingcontrolsystemsforarealtimeplanned
economywasexploredbyViktorGlushkovintheformerSoviet
Unionduringthe1960s.Bythetimeinformationtechnologywas
developedenoughtoenablefeasibleeconomicplanningbasedon
computers,theSovietUnionandeasternbloccountriesbegan
movingawayfromplanning[20]andeventuallycollapsed.
Morerecentproposalsforsocialisminvolve"NewSocialism",outlined
bythecomputerscientistsPaulCockshottandAllinCottrell,where
computersdetermineandmanagetheflowsandallocationof
resourcesamongsociallyownedenterprises.[21]

Partofaserieson

Economicsystems
Byideology

[show]

Bycoordination

[show]

Byregionalmodel

[show]

Sectors

[show]

Transition

[show]

Coordination

[show]

Othertypes

[show]

Businessandeconomicsportal
VTE

Subdivisionsofthefield

[ edit ]

Cyberneticsissometimesusedasagenericterm,whichservesasanumbrellaformanysystemsrelatedscientific
fields.

Basiccybernetics

[ edit ]

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Cyberneticsstudiessystemsofcontrolasaconcept,attemptingtodiscoverthebasicprinciplesunderlyingsuch
thingsas
Artificialintelligence
Robotics
ComputerVision
Controlsystems
Emergence
Learningorganization
NewCybernetics
Secondordercybernetics
InteractionsofActorsTheory
ConversationTheory

ASIMOusessensorsand
sophisticatedalgorithmstoavoid
obstaclesandnavigatestairs.

Selforganizationincybernetics

Inbiology

[ edit ]

Cyberneticsinbiologyisthestudyofcyberneticsystemspresentinbiologicalorganisms,primarilyfocusingon
howanimalsadapttotheirenvironment,andhowinformationintheformofgenesispassedfromgenerationto
generation.[22]Thereisalsoasecondaryfocusoncombiningartificialsystemswithbiological
systems.[citationneeded]Anotableapplicationtothebiologyworldwouldbethat,in1955,thephysicistGeorge
GamowpublishedaprescientarticleinScientificAmericancalledInformationtransferinthelivingcell,and
cyberneticsgavebiologistsJacquesMonodandFranoisJacobalanguageforformulatingtheirearlytheory
ofgeneregulatorynetworksinthe1960s.[23]
Bioengineering
Biocybernetics
Bionics
Homeostasis
Heterostasis
Medicalcybernetics
Practopoiesis
SyntheticBiology
SystemsBiology
Autopoiesis
Neuroscience

Incomputerscience

[ edit ]

Computersciencedirectlyappliestheconceptsofcyberneticstothecontrolofdevicesandtheanalysisof
information.
DesignPatterns
Robotics
Decisionsupportsystem
Cellularautomaton
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Simulation

Inengineering

[ edit ]

CyberneticsinengineeringisusedtoanalyzecascadingfailuresandSystemAccidents,inwhichthesmallerrors
andimperfectionsinasystemcangeneratedisasters.Othertopicsstudiedinclude:
Adaptivesystems
Engineeringcybernetics
Ergonomics
Biomedicalengineering
Systemsengineering

Inmanagement

[ edit ]

Entrepreneurialcybernetics
Managementcybernetics

Anartificialheart,aproductof
biomedicalengineering.

Organizationalcybernetics
Operationsresearch
Systemsengineering

Inmathematics

[ edit ]

MathematicalCyberneticsfocusesonthefactorsofinformation,interactionofpartsinsystems,andthestructure
ofsystems.
Dynamicalsystem
Controltheory
Informationtheory
Systemstheory

Inpsychology

[ edit ]

Homunculus
PsychoCybernetics
Systemspsychology
PerceptualControlTheory
PsychovectorAnalysis
AttachmentTheory
Humanrobotinteraction
Consciousness
Embodiedcognition
Cognitivepsychology
Mindbodyproblem
Behavioralcybernetics

Insociology

[ edit ]

Byexamininggroupbehaviorthroughthelensofcybernetics,sociologistscanseekthereasonsforsuch
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spontaneouseventsassmartmobsandriots,aswellashowcommunitiesdeveloprulessuchasetiquetteby
consensuswithoutformaldiscussion[citationneeded].AffectControlTheoryexplainsrolebehavior,emotions,
andlabelingtheoryintermsofhomeostaticmaintenanceofsentimentsassociatedwithculturalcategories.The
mostcomprehensiveattemptevermadeinthesocialsciencestoincreasecyberneticsinageneralizedtheoryof
societywasmadebyTalcottParsons.Inthisway,cyberneticsestablishesthebasichierarchyinParsons'AGIL
paradigm,whichistheorderingsystemdimensionofhisactiontheory.Theseandothercyberneticmodelsin
sociologyarereviewedinabookeditedbyMcClellandandFararo.[24]
AffectControlTheory
Memetics[citationneeded]
Sociocybernetics

Ineducation

[ edit ]

AmodelofcyberneticsinEducationwasintroducedbyGihanSamiSolimananeducationalconsultant,asa
projectideatobeimplementedwiththehelpoftwoteammembersinSinai.TheSinaiSustainabilityCybernetics
CenterannouncedasasemifinalistprojectbyMITannualcompetition2013.[25][26][27][28]Theprojectidea
proposedrelatingeducationtosustainabledevelopmentthroughanIMSprojectthatappliesamultipleeducational
programrelatedtotheoriginalnaturalselfhealingsystemoflifeonearth.Education,sustainabledevelopment,
socialjusticedisciplinesinteractinacausalcircularrelationshipthateducationwouldcontributetothe
developmentofthelocalcommunityinSinaivillage,onbothsustainabilityandsocialresponsibilitylevelswhilethe
communityitselfprovidesauniquelearningenvironmentthatwillcontributetothedevelopmentoftheeducational
programinaclosedsignalingloop.

Inart

[ edit ]

NicolasSchffer'sCYSPI(1956)wasperhapsthefirstartworktoexplicitlyemploycyberneticprinciples(CYSPis
anacronymthatjoinsthefirsttwolettersofthewords"CYbernetic"and"SPatiodynamic").[29]TheartistRoy
Ascottelaboratedanextensivetheoryofcyberneticartin"BehaviouristArtandtheCyberneticVision"
(Cybernetica,JournaloftheInternationalAssociationforCybernetics(Namur),VolumeIX,No.4,1966VolumeX
No.1,1967)andin"TheCyberneticStance:MyProcessandPurpose"(LeonardoVol1,No2,1968).Art
historianEdwardA.Shankenhaswrittenaboutthehistoryofartandcyberneticsinessaysincluding"Cybernetics
andArt:CulturalConvergenceinthe1960s

"[30]and"FromCyberneticstoTelematics:TheArt,Pedagogy,and

TheoryofRoyAscott"(2003),[31]whichtracesthetrajectoryofAscott'sworkfromcyberneticarttotelematicart(art
usingcomputernetworkingasitsmedium,aprecursortonet.art.)
Telematicart
InteractiveArt
Systemsart

InEarthsystemscience

[ edit ]

Geocyberneticsaimstostudyandcontrolthecomplexcoevolutionofecosphereandanthroposphere,[32]for
example,fordealingwithplanetaryproblemssuchasanthropogenicglobalwarming.[33]Geocyberneticsapplies
adynamicalsystemsperspectivetoEarthsystemanalysis.Itprovidesatheoreticalframeworkforstudyingthe
implicationsoffollowingdifferentsustainabilityparadigmsoncoevolutionarytrajectoriesoftheplanetarysocio
ecologicalsystemtorevealattractorsinthissystem,theirstability,resilienceandreachability.Conceptssuch
astippingelementsandtippingpointsintheclimatesystem,planetaryboundaries,thesafeoperatingspacefor
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humanityandproposalsformanipulatingEarthsystemdynamicsonaglobalscalesuchasgeoengineeringhave
beenframedinthelanguageofgeocyberneticEarthsystemanalysis.

Relatedfields

[ edit ]

Complexityscience

[ edit ]

Complexityscienceattemptstounderstandthenatureofcomplexsystems.
ComplexAdaptiveSystem
Complexsystems
Complexitytheory

Biomechatronics

[ edit ]

Biomechatronicsrelatestolinkingmechatronicstobiologicalorganisms,leadingtosystemsthatconformtoA.N.
Kolmogorov'sdefinitionofCybernetics,i.e."Scienceconcernedwiththestudyofsystemsofanynaturewhichare
capableofreceiving,storingandprocessinginformationsoastouseitforcontrol".[citationneeded]Fromthis
perspectivemechatronicsareconsideredtechnicalcyberneticsorengineeringcybernetics.

Seealso

[ edit ]

Artificial
life
Automation
Autopoiesis
Brain
computer
interface
Chaos
theory
Connectionism
Cyborg
Decision
theory

References

Family
therapy
Earth
system
science
Gaia
hypothesis
Industrial
Ecology
Intelligence
amplification
Management
science
Perceptual
control
theory
Principia
Cybernetica

Project
Cybersyn
Viable
System
Model
Semiotics
Superorganisms
Synergetics
Variety
(cybernetics)
Viable
Systems
Approach

[ edit ]

1.^Mller,Albert(2000)."ABriefHistoryoftheBCL" .sterreichischeZeitschriftfrGeschichtswissenschaften11(1):
930.
2.^Wiener,Norbert(1948).Cybernetics,orControlandCommunicationintheAnimalandtheMachine.Cambridge:MIT
Press.
3.^HeinzvonFoerster(1981),'ObservingSystems",IntersystemsPublications,Seaside,CA.OCLC263576422
4.^Kenny,Vincent(15March2009)."TheresNothingLiketheRealThing".RevisitingtheNeedforaThirdOrder
Cybernetics" .ConstructivistFoundations4(2):100111.Retrieved6June2012.
5.^Tange,Kenzo(1966)"Function,StructureandSymbol".

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6.^StuartUmpleby(2008)."DefinitionsofCybernetics".TheLarryRichardsReader19972007

(PDF) .pp.911."I

developedthislistofdefinitions/descriptionsin198788andhavebeendistributingitatASC(AmericanSocietyfor
Cybernetics)conferencessince1988.Iaddedafewitemstothelistoverthenexttwoyears,andithasremained
essentiallyunchangedsincethen.Myintentwastwofold:(1)todemonstratethatoneofthedistinguishingfeaturesof
cyberneticsmightbethatitcouldlegitimatelyhavemultipledefinitionswithoutcontradictingitself,and(2)tostimulate
dialogueonwhatthemotivations(intentions,desires,etc.)ofthosewhohaveproposeddifferentdefinitionsmightbe."
7.^"Lacyberntiqueestlartdelefficacitdelaction"originallyafrenchdefinitionformulatedin1953,lit."Cyberneticsis
theartofeffectiveaction"
8.^Leary,Timothy."TheCyberpunk:theindividualasrealitypilot"inStormingtheRealityStudio.DukeUniversityPress:
1991.
9.^H.S.TsienEngineeringCybernetics,Prefacevii,1954McGrawHill
10.^NorbertWiener,CyberneticsorControlandCommunicationintheAnimalandtheMachine,1948MITPress
11.^ a bKelly,Kevin(1994).Outofcontrol:Thenewbiologyofmachines,socialsystemsandtheeconomicworld.Boston:
AddisonWesley.ISBN0201483408.OCLC221860672

12.^Couffignal,Louis,"Essaidunedfinitiongnraledelacyberntique",TheFirstInternationalCongresson
Cybernetics,Namur,Belgium,June2629,1956,GauthierVillars,Paris,1958,pp.4654
13.^CYBCONdiscusstiongroup20September200718:15
14.^Johnson,Barnabas."TheCyberneticsofSociety" .Retrieved8January2012.
15.^http://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S043.htm
16.^Cariani,Peter(15March2010)."ontheimportanceofbeingemergent" .ConstructivistFoundations5(2):89.
Retrieved13August2012."artificialintelligencewasbornataconferenceatdartmouthin1956thatwasorganizedby
McCarthy,Minsky,rochester,andshannon,threeyearsaftertheMacyconferencesoncyberneticshadended(Boden
2006McCorduck1972).Thetwomovementscoexistedforroughlyadecade,butbythemid1960s,theproponentsof
symbolicaigainedcontrolofnationalfundingconduitsandruthlesslydefundedcyberneticsresearch.Thiseffectively
liquidatedthesubfieldsofselforganizingsystems,neuralnetworksandadaptivemachines,evolutionaryprogramming,
biologicalcomputation,andbionicsforseveraldecades,leavingtheworkersinmanagement,therapyandthesocial
sciencestocarrythetorch.ithinksomeofthepolemicalpushingandshovingbetweenfirstordercontroltheoristsand
secondordercrowdsthatiwitnessedinsubsequentdecadeswasthecumulativeresultofashiftoffunding,
membership,andresearchfromthe"hard"naturalsciencesto"soft"sociopsychologicalinterventions."
17.^ a bJeanPierreDupuy,"Theautonomyofsocialreality:onthecontributionofsystemstheorytothetheoryofsociety"
in:EliasL.Khalil&KennethE.Bouldingeds.,Evolution,OrderandComplexity,1986.
18.^PeterHarriesJones(1988),"TheSelfOrganizingPolity:AnEpistemologicalAnalysisofPoliticalLifebyLaurent
Dobuzinskis"in:CanadianJournalofPoliticalScience(Revuecanadiennedesciencepolitique),Vol.21,No.2(Jun.,
1988),pp.431433.
19.^ a b c KennethD.Bailey(1994),SociologyandtheNewSystemsTheory:TowardaTheoreticalSynthesis,p.163.
20.^Feinstein,C.H.(September1969).Socialism,CapitalismandEconomicGrowth:EssaysPresentedtoMauriceDobb.
CambridgeUniversityPress.p.175.ISBN9780521049870."Atsomefuturedateitmayappearasajokeofhistorythat
socialistcountrieslearnedatlonglasttoovercometheirprejudicesandtodismantleclumsyplanningmechanismsin
favourofmoreeffectivemarketelementsjustatatimewhentheriseofcomputersandofcyberneticslaidthe
foundationforgreateropportunitiesincomprehensiveplanning."
21.^AllinCottrell&W.PaulCockshott,Towardsanewsocialism (Nottingham,England:Spokesman,1993).Retrieved:17
March2012.
22.^Note:thisdoesnotrefertotheconceptofRacialMemorybuttotheconceptofcumulativeadaptationtoaparticular
niche,suchasthecaseofthepeppermothhavinggenesforbothlightanddarkenvironments.
23.^"WhyPhysicsIsNotaDisciplineIssue35:BoundariesNautilus" .Nautilus.Retrieved20160424.
24.^McClelland,KentA.,andThomasJ.Fararo(Eds.).2006.Purpose,Meaning,andAction:ControlSystemsTheoriesin
Sociology.NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan.
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25.^"SSCC(SinaiSustainabilityCyberneticsCenter)" .MITEnterpriseForum,PanArabRegion.
26.^"SSCC(SinaiSustainabilityCyberneticsCenter)"the46thteamtoqualifyforthisyear'sMITsemifinalistround
Naharnet

.Naharnet.com(20130425).Retrievedon20131102.

27.^"SSCC,Oneminutemovie" .
28.^"TVInterviewontheproject(Arabic)" .
29.^"CYSPI,thefirstcyberneticsculptureofart'shistory" .Leonardo/OLATSObservatoireLeonardodesartsetdes
technosciences.
30.^BruceClarkeandLindaDalrympleHenderson,ed.(2002).FromEnergytoInformation:RepresentationinScience,
Technology,Art,andLiterature.Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress.pp.255277.
31.^Ascott,Roy(2003).EdwardA.Shanken,ed.TelematicEmbrace:VisionaryTheoriesofArt,Technology,and
Consciousness.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.
32.^Schellnhuber,H.J.,Discourse:EarthsystemanalysisThescopeofthechallenge,pp.3195.In:Schellnhuber,H.J.
andWenzel,V.(Eds.).1998.Earthsystemanalysis:Integratingscienceforsustainability.Berlin:Springer.
33.^Schellnhuber,H.J.,EarthsystemanalysisandthesecondCopernicanrevolution.Nature,402,C19C23.1999.

Furtherreading

[ edit ]

Medina,Eden(2011).Cyberneticrevolutionaries:technologyandpoliticsinAllende'sChile.Cambridge,
Mass.:MITPress.ISBN9780262016490.
Pickering,Andrew(2010).Thecyberneticbrain:sketchesofanotherfuture([OnlineAusg.]ed.).Chicago:
UniversityofChicagoPress.ISBN9780226667898.
Gerovitch,Slava(2002).Fromnewspeaktocyberspeak:ahistoryofSovietcybernetics .Cambridge,Mass.
[u.a.]:MITPress.ISBN0262072327.
Johnston,John(2008).Theallureofmachiniclife:cybernetics,artificiallife,andthenewAI.Cambridge,MA:
MITPress.ISBN9780262101264.
HeikkiHytyniemi(2006).NeocyberneticsinBiologicalSystems .Espoo:HelsinkiUniversityofTechnology,
ControlEngineeringLaboratory.
FrancisHeylighen,andCliffJoslyn(2002)."CyberneticsandSecondOrderCybernetics

",in:R.A.Meyers

(ed.),EncyclopediaofPhysicalScience&Technology(3rded.),Vol.4,(AcademicPress,SanDiego),p.155
169.
CharlesFranois(1999)."Systemicsandcyberneticsinahistoricalperspective

".In:SystemsResearchand

BehavioralScience.Vol16,pp.203219(1999)
HeinzvonFoerster,(1995),EthicsandSecondOrderCybernetics .
Heims,SteveJoshua(1993).ConstructingasocialscienceforpostwarAmerica:thecyberneticsgroup,1946
1953(1sted.).Cambridge,Mass.u.a.:MITPress.ISBN9780262581233.
Pangaro,Paul."CyberneticsADefinition" .
StuartUmpleby(1989),"Thescienceofcyberneticsandthecyberneticsofscience" ,in:Cyberneticsand
Systems",Vol.21,No.1,(1990),pp.109121.
Arbib,MichaelA.(1987).Brains,machines,andmathematics(2nded.).NewYork:SpringerVerlag.ISBN978
0387965390.
Patten,BernardC.Odum,EugeneP.(December1981)."TheCyberneticNatureofEcosystems".The
AmericanNaturalist(TheUniversityofChicagoPress)118(6):886
895.doi:10.1086/283881 .JSTOR2460822? .
HansJoachimIlgauds(1980),NorbertWiener,Leipzig.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics

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Beer,Stafford(1974).Designingfreedom.Chichester,WestSussex,England:Wiley.ISBN9780471951650.
Pask,Gordon(1972)."Cybernetics" .EncyclopdiaBritannica.
Helvey,T.C.(1971).Theageofinformationaninterdisciplinarysurveyofcybernetics.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:
EducationalTechnologyPublications.ISBN9780877780083.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics

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