AMARC - Community Radio Social Impact Assessment

COMMUNITY RADIO
SOCIAL IMPACT
ASSESSMENT
REMOVING BARRIERS
INCREASING
EFFECTIVENESS
Challenges, Findings, Reflections,
Experiences, Lines of Action
for Community Radio stakeholders
AMARC Global Evaluation
2007
World Association of
Community Radio
Broadcasters
Contents
Foreword................................................................................................................5
PART I.................................................................................................................... 6
Chapter 1. Overview. AMARC CR Impact Assessment: Removing Barriers, Increasing
Effectiveness.................................................................................................................... 6
Key findings on the Community Radio Global Review:............................................. 6
Key findings on the Social Impact of Community Radio............................................ 8
Key findings on Community Radio Social Impact...................................................... 9
Removing Barriers, Increasing Effectiveness............................................................ 10
Chapter 2. Methodology Highlights of the Evaluation Process..................................... 12
Methodology Assumptions........................................................................................ 12
Methodology Concept and Process............................................................................ 14
Participants in the Evaluation Process....................................................................... 17
Strategies and Resources............................................................................................18
Description of the Activities...................................................................................... 19
PART II. Global Challenges to Community Radio........................................... 21
Chapter 3 Global Review of Community Radio: Barriers and Opportunities............... 21
Key findings on Community Radio Global Review.................................................. 24
Chapter 4 Regional Perspectives................................................................................... 26
African Perspectives.................................................................................................. 26
Asia Pacific Perspectives........................................................................................... 26
Latin American and Caribbean Perspectives............................................................. 27
North American perspectives..................................................................................... 28
European Perspectives............................................................................................... 29
Chapter 5: The Amman Declaration.............................................................................. 31
Part III Community Radio Social Impact...........................................................36
Chapter 6 Findings on Community Radio Social Impact.............................................. 36
The Assessment of CR Social Impact........................................................................ 37
Key Findings on criteria for measuring CR Social Impact........................................ 38
The Social Impacts of CR.......................................................................................... 40
Chapter 7: The Impact of Community Radio................................................................ 45
Measuring Impact...................................................................................................... 45
Impact on social change............................................................................................. 46
The role of AMARC.................................................................................................. 47
Chapter 8: Why Assess Community Radio? It Works, Doesn’t It?.............................. 49
Arguments for Assessing Community Radio Effectiveness...................................... 50
Recommended Methods.............................................................................................52
Principles of Assessment........................................................................................... 55
PART IV. Community Radio Practitioners Perspectives................................ 56
Chapter 9: Community Radio and Empowerment......................................................... 56
Introduction................................................................................................................ 56
Poverty and freedom of expression............................................................................58
The role of community media.................................................................................... 59
The development impact of community media......................................................... 61
Obstacles to community broadcasting....................................................................... 62
Recommendations...................................................................................................... 63
Chapter 10: Community Media by and for Women a Challenge to Fulfil the Promise 65
How to address discrimination against women in community media ...................... 67
Chapter 11: What role did community media play in helping to restore democracy in
Nepal? Interview with Raghu Mainaly.......................................................................... 69
Chapter 12: Community Radio in the 21st century: perspectives and experiences from
Eastern and Southern Africa.......................................................................................... 74
Introduction................................................................................................................ 74
Opportunities and Challenges.................................................................................... 75
New Technologies and the Future............................................................................. 75
Conclusion................................................................................................................. 76
Chapter 13: Women as Producers of Information. Indonesia Experience..................... 78
Women as Producers of Information......................................................................... 78
Women Voice Radio in Pariaman, West Sumatra..................................................... 78
Women Journal Radio Program................................................................................. 80
Chapter 14: Community Radio and Media Context...................................................... 81
Mass Media: A Decline in Credibility and Diversity................................................ 82
Community Radio Social Impact............................................................................... 83
Community Radio: The Challenges .......................................................................... 84
Part V. Challenges to Community Radio Stakeholders: Increasing the
effectiveness of CR.............................................................................................86
Chapter 15: How can CR stakeholders and AMARC make a Difference?................... 86
Challenges.................................................................................................................. 86
AMARC Evaluation: A Network, a Movements or an NGO?.................................. 87
Recommendations on objectives and Lines for action.............................................. 88
Advocating for Community Radio: .......................................................................... 88
Sharing Knowledge and experiences of the CR Movement ..................................... 90
Amplify the voices of the poor and marginalized ..................................................... 91
Promote Gender equality and Women’s rights ......................................................... 91
Strengthening networking of CR and AMARC......................................................... 92
Chapter 16: AMARC Strategic Plan 2007-2010........................................................... 94
Objective 1 - Advocacy and policy research............................................................. 94
Objective 2 – Knowledge sharing and capacity building ......................................... 95
Objective 3 – Content exchange and social action campaigns.................................. 96
Objective 4 - Gender equality and women’s rights ................................................. 97
Objective 5 - Network development and communication......................................... 98
Chapter 17: AMARC Structure, Functioning and Effectiveness................................. 100
Background.............................................................................................................. 100
Vision and Priority-Setting..................................................................................... 100
Strategic Planning.................................................................................................... 101
Governance and Financial Management.................................................................. 101
Monitoring and Evaluation...................................................................................... 102
Part VI : Annexes.............................................................................................. 103
Annexe 1: Essential Bibliography............................................................................... 103
Annexe 2: Participants Recommendations on Information Resources........................ 122
Annex 3. Questionnaire: Survey on the Impact of Community Radio........................ 126
International Board (elected in Amman November 2006) Asia Pacific Boards Of Directors
Steve Buckley President Ashish Sen President
Aleida Calleja Deputy president Sonia Randhawa Deputy President
Elizabeth Robinson Treasurer Shane Elson Treasurer
Marcelo Solervicens Network Secretary General Gwendolyne Longid VP South East Asia
Mavic Cabrera Balleza VP Women International Network Raghu Mainali VP South Asia
Maria Pia Matta VP Latin America & Caribbean Bianca Miglioretto VP WIN representative
Ashish Sen Vice President for Asia-Pacific Matsuura Tetsuo VP East Asia
Mariano Sanchez Vice President for Europe Sharon Bhagwan-Rolls VP Pacific
Grace Githaiga Vice President for Africa Suman Basnet Coordinator AMARC AP
Daoud Kuttab Vice President
Oumar Seck N'diaye Vice President Latin America & Caribbean Regional Board
Sony Eusteus Vice President María Pía Matta Vice-president
Jim Ellinger Vice President Argentina Olivas WIN Representative
Daniel Iván García Mexico Sub Region
Manríquez
AMARC Women’s International Network Representatives Ricardo Sandoval Central America Sub Region
Mavic Cabrera-Balleza VP Women International Network Carlos Rivadeneyra Andes Sub Region
Sr. Therese Ana Viera Eastern & Southern Africa Cleber Silva Brasil Sub Region
Doris Deny Western & Central Africa Mónica Giordano Cono Sur Sub Region
Bianca Miglioretto Asia-Pacific Sony Esteus Caribbean Sub Region
Argentina Olivas Latin America and Caribbean Ernesto Lamas Regional coordinator
Margaretta D'arcy West Europe Representative
Mary Rose Jones North America representative Europe Boards Of Directors
Tamara Aqrabawe Middle East & North Africa Mariano Sanchez President
Agota Kovacks Deputy President
African Board of Directors Agus Hernan Treasurer
Grace Githaiga VP for East and Southern Africa Margaretta D'arcy WIN Representative
Fily Keita VP West and Central Africa Nadia Bellardi Board Member
Oumar Seck Ndiaye Training and Capacity Building Alexandru Dorogan Board Member
Kizito Mushizi Technology Officer Rustal Aliev Board Member
Sr Teresa Ana Vieira WIN East and Southern Africa Francesco Diaisio Regional Coordinator
Doris Dery WIN West and Central Africa
Franklin Huisies Organizational Development
International secretariat Staff World Association of

Marcelo Solervicens, Secretary General Community Radio
Sonia Hudon, Administrative Assistant Broadcasters
Jean-Philippe Théberge, ICT Officer International Secretariat
Nick Fillmore, Project Development Officer 705 Bourget, suite 100
Dominique Legendre, Accountant Montreal (Québec) Canada, H4C 2M6
Zoe Plaugher, Internship Telephone: (1+514) 982 0351 Fax: (1-514) 849-7129
Secretariat@si.amarc.org http://www.amarc.org
COMMUNITY RADIO SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT Editorial Committee. Marcelo Solervicens, Zoe Plaugher
REMOVING BARRIERS INCREASING EFFECTIVENESS Contributors: Steve Buckley, Mavic Cabrera Balleza, Aleida
Challenges, Findings, Reflections, Experiences, Lines of Calleja, Paula Castello, James Deane, Francesco Diasio,
Action for Community Radio stakeholders. Grace Githaiga, Denise Gray-Felder, Alfonso Gumucio,
AMARC Global Evaluation Elizabeth Robinson, Marcelo Solervicens, Ade Tanasia,
May 2007, Montréal (Québec) Canada
Foreword
The World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters, AMARC conducted in
a 2006 a long-range participatory action research seeking to identify the barriers
that limit the potential positive impact of community radio and explore ways to
increase the effectiveness of community radio in achieving poverty reduction,
development objectives, inclusiveness and democracy building in local
communities.
The evaluation process highlighted that communities have sought in community

radio a means to express their own issues, concerns, cultures and languages.
Community ownership of the media and participation in programming has led to
communication processes that are effectively empowered local actors to achieve
poverty reduction, forward development objectives, encourage inclusiveness and
participation, peace building, good governance and accountability. AMARC and
other stakeholders have contributed strongly to the expansion of scattered CR
experiences into a dynamic and diverse global sector of broadcasting that has
become an alternative to commercial and state owned media, which often
neglect representation of the poor, the marginalized particularly women.
The evaluation process has pointed to the lack of proper enabling legislation as
the single most important barrier to increased effectiveness of CR social impact.
It has also revealed the rich experience of CR movement and the need to
encourage exchanges of best experiences in order to better highlight CR social
impact. There is need for appropriate tools and indicators to evaluate CR social
impact that go beyond information dissemination indicators or small project
impact in individuals. Some specific experiences point to the need for further
research on how to increase the effectiveness of CR. To do so, the most
important challenge is to embed participatory monitoring and evaluation across
the CR network
AMARC plays a leading role in the worldwide CR movement for its perception of
what CR should be, for its accumulated expertise and the extension of its
network of more than 3000 members from 110 countries. The last AMARC 9
World Conference of Community Radio Broadcasters held in Amman Jordan in
November 2006, received the first findings of the evaluation process and defined
strategic lines of action for 2007-2010 seeking to reinforce the CR movement by
removing barriers and establishing conditions for increasing its effectiveness.
This book seeks to share the evaluation process findings and contribute to
increased debate and awareness of CR social impact.
Marcelo Solervicens
Secretary General, AMARC
Project responsible
AMARC Community Radio Social Impact Assessment 2007 Page 5 of 128

PART I
Chapter 1. Overview. AMARC CR Impact Assessment: Removing Barriers,

Increasing Effectiveness.
This book brings together the principal findings, reflections, lines of action and
documentation arising from the global assessment of Community Radio (CR)
conducted by the World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters (AMARC)
in 2006 entitled “Community Radio Impact Assessment: Removing Barriers,
Increasing Effectiveness”.1 This overview is a synthesis of the key findings of the
AMARC evaluation process. The reader can also consult http://www.amarc.org
for further information.
The Goal of CR impact assessment was to contribute to the reduction of poverty

by highlighting the barriers that hinder Community Radio (CR) social impact and
seek to better define the interventions that can increase the effectiveness of
community radio sector and of AMARC in achieving social and development
goals.
The global assessment was a participatory action-research process that involved

927 CR stakeholders of 96 countries in regional Roundtables, in a survey, an
electronic Forum, in AMARC decision–making bodies meetings, and the AMARC
9 World Conference held in Amman, Jordan 11-17 November 2007. The Global
Evaluation process was the first phase of a participatory monitoring & action
research process. It counted on the participation of two groups: a core group
community radio stakeholders including AMARC members and partners; a larger
universe of community radio stakeholders including participants from community
radios, academicians, donors and communication for development stakeholders.
It was an open monitoring and evaluation process that combined the appropriate
use of ICTs and face-to-face meetings. It was facilitated by the web publication of
the outputs of the different phases of the process. In that perspective the
evaluation process respected the basic epistemological principles of action-
research methodology, allowing for external analysts to review the building of
consensus among the participants.
Key findings on the Community Radio Global Review:

The themes of the assessment process included: a Community Radio Global
Review assessing common challenges, the diversity of situations and best
experiences; Community Radio Social Impact in poverty reduction, development
and democracy building and finally; AMARC Effectiveness Assessment as a
global network and leading institution of the CR movement. The participatory
1
The project “Community Radio Social Impact Assessment: Removing Barriers, Increasing
Effectiveness” was supported by the Open Society Foundation, Ford Foundation, Swiss
Development Cooperation (SDC) and Swedish International development Agency (SIDA).

monitoring and research process was oriented by the following principles: To
increase effectiveness of CR in achieving Millennium Development Goals;
Recognize voicelessness and powerlessness as key dimensions of poverty;
Address the contribution of CR to accountability, equity and civil rights; Ensure
the full and effective participation of women; Be participatory and inclusive of
marginalized groups; Explore weaknesses and threats as well as strengths and
opportunities. What follows is a synthesis of the key findings in the themes.
The lack of proper enabling legislation is the single principal barrier to CR social
impact. The absence of a friendly legislation; the existence of media oppression
and military threats are a generalized barrier to the development of community
radio. On varying degrees, these factors hinder CR capacity to develop its
positive impact in giving voice to the marginalized, in developing inclusive and
democratic societies where governments are accountable and people are
empowered to achieve development objectives. Likewise, the absence of
appropriate legislation recognizing the social contribution of CR creates financial
sustainability challenges that hinder the possibility for scaling up good models of
sustainable CR. In spite of this hindering factors CR development is deeply
rooted in local communities worldwide increasing the importance of social
sustainability as the key aspect of good models of CR.
Community Radio is a new worldwide tier of radio broadcasting. Community radio

is a distinct media sector and a vital alternative to state owned public broadcaster
and commercial private media. Communities have sought in community radio a
means to express their own issues, concerns, cultures and languages. The
expansion of CR is the result of the reduction of diversity of voices that
accompany the formation of media conglomerates that accompanies the
globalization processes.
Community Radio is a new media that properly mixes old and new ICTs. The
rapid development of CR worldwide that accompanies the expansion of new ICTs
shows the existence of a positive link between ICT & CR. Community Radios
properly highlight that the key communication processes underlying the
information society are related to communication rights of people. CR shows the
benefits in mixing old and new technologies with CR. With appropriate capacity
building CR are able to circumvent restrictive media legislation thus
strengthening the CR movement. It also shows that the key element in the
information society is that beyond technology the key element is people
communicating.
Community Radio Sustainability is a global challenge. In spite of increasing

positive experiences of socially sustainable CR, financial and technological
sustainability remain a challenge that often distract CR practitioners from
dedicating themselves to ameliorate radio production, increase community
participation and pertinence of programming. Community radio faces important
sustainability challenges regarding capacity building, and in enhancing local

ownership. Knowledge sharing on best experiences across regions as well as
increased use of new ICTs can make a difference.
Community Radio is part of a political non-partisan communication process.

Community radio is a social actor of the development process. Community radio
can initiate or accompany social change and carries responsibility to be effective
in facilitating civil society development and democratic processes. The
participation of community radio practitioners and stakeholders in social action
and social movements was indicated as an important challenge facing
community radio and a key factor in achieving increased social impact.
Exclusion and marginalisation particularly of women The participants identified

exclusion of women as a key social challenge that can be confronted by
community radio. Gender equality is a societal challenge that needs to be tackled
if we want to achieve poverty reduction. Gender stereotypes carried by traditional
media are obstacles to women rights and empowerment. Community radio can
effectively facilitate women’s inclusion and the recognition and exercise of
women’s rights. CR can be a key factor in fighting exclusion and marginalisation
through engendering community radio both in terms of content and access to
radio management and technology use.
Community Radio Networks and knowledge sharing are weak. Even though
community radio has become a global sector, interaction and exchange between
regions is weak and systematic impact assessment is rare. A multifaceted
challenge for community radio is the need to strengthen its own networks and
communications. There is need to embed appropriate assessment tools, to
document and disseminate good practice and to strengthen network
development through institutional capacity building and communications.
Key findings on the Social Impact of Community Radio

Community radio achievements are not properly highlighted and/or
disseminated. One general perspective arising from the evaluation process is
that in spite of a large body of evidence on community radio social impact, CR
practitioners and stakeholders have not taken the time and the efforts needed to
present systematically the achievements of community radio worldwide.
Measurements of Community Radio Social Impact must be people centred

Community Radio practitioners and stakeholders agree that measurement of
Community radio social impact should be people–centred and based on multi
dimensional understanding of poverty. In this perspective the key indicators of
community radio social impact are related to voice, empowerment and local
ownership of communication processes.
Quantity indicators don’t tell the whole story. Community Radio participants
insisted on the fact that quantity indicators such as measurement of audience,
number of hours of programming dedicated to an specific topic, number of

organizations interviewed tell only part of the story of the social impact of
community radio. This said, it becomes clear that in absence of sufficient
knowledge sharing, relationship between CR and the donor community tend to
make them respond to donor pre-established indicators instead of clarifying the
need for more appropriate indicators to render CR impact.
Quality indicators are needed to measure the impact of the communication

process facilitated by CR. For the CR practitioners the main characteristic of CR
is to initiate and facilitate a communication process that allows for interaction and
interchange ability between the listener and the producer. Quality indicators such
as life stories of individual and collective social change can render the process
on how this communication process has a social impact. The main
recommendation is on the use of participatory monitoring & evaluation process.
Time is a key factor when measuring CR social Impact. CR experiences show

that CR social impact is dependent on the time factor. The longer the period the
more easily it is to measure the social impact of CR. Good examples of this is the
experience of CR in Nepal, that after 10 years of experiences, became a
contributing factor in the return of democracy after the Royal Coup of February
2005;
The need to use the tools for measurement that correspond to the social impact
we are evaluating. For peace building and conflict resolution for instance the
Listeners clubs, feedback and letters measurements need to be fine-tuned. The
main indicators for CR social impact can be drawn from the use of Audience
research, phone-in, letters, SMS feedback, listeners clubs, focus groups to the
measurement through official statistics on the political, social and economic
changes in the communities. It can consider the increased participation of
citizens in setting the public agenda to the resolution of existing problems
through collective action facilitated by the communication processes initiated by
CR.
Key findings on Community Radio Social Impact

The main social Impact of Community Radio is Voice for the poor and
marginalized. For most community radio practitioners, the social impact of
community radio is evidence on itself. The sole existence of community radio has
a positive impact in the communities. CR allows local communities to experience
alternative experiences through their access to a proximity media. For some
participants this explains the lack of understanding on some stakeholders on
what is the impact of CR: they have difficulties in differentiating between mass
media (They see CR as a lower example of mass media), and the participatory
and communication rights perspective of CR, the essential medium to allow the
voices of the poor and marginalized be heard.
Community radio is effective in poverty reduction. Access to voice, information,

and knowledge are vital factors in facilitating the achievement of poverty

reduction and sustainable human development. Voicelessness is a key
dimension of poverty and exclusion.
CR is effective in ensuring proper governance. Community radio can contribute

to rendering governments accountable by enabling ordinary people to question
their leaders on matters such as the use of public resources.
CR is effective in achieving development goals. Community radio is effective in

facilitating communication for key development sectors such as health, education
and livelihoods;
CR is effective in empowering Women. Community radio is effective in

empowering women to actively participate in their communities and to become
citizens whose voices are heard;
CR is effective in ensuring inclusion of the marginalized. Community

broadcasting plays a specific and crucial role in encouraging public participation,
facilitating community level debate, facilitating inclusion and cultural diversity.
The influence of community and independent radios in Nepal’s return to
democracy are good examples. Rural community radios in Latin America and
Africa, show the importance of CR in democratic processes and in ensuring
salvage of local languages and knowledge;
CR is effective in conflict resolution. Community radios in countries in conflict are

known to have an important social impact in conflict resolution and peace
building. The examples of RDC, Nepal, Sri Lanka, El Salvador are some key
examples on how radio can have a positive impact in addressing this issue;
CR has an effective impact in disaster prevention/relief. CR has proven very

effective in prevention or in confronting disaster relief following natural disaster.
The examples go from the Tsunami in Asia, the Katrina disaster in New Orleans,
in Sub-Saharan regions radios are effective in confronting consequences of
desertification.
Removing Barriers, Increasing Effectiveness

It is clear that even though the sector has become a world tier of broadcasting
the challenges are enormous. The individual most important factor hindering CR
social impact is the lack of recognition of its legal existence by many
governments or the inappropriateness of legislation in other cases. Amplifying
the voices of the poor and the marginalized, particularly women, is a key
challenge for CR as it become increasingly recognized for its social impact in
poverty reduction, addressing development objectives and democracy building.
Sustainability, increased effectiveness and social impact are challenges that
need to be addressed through proper knowledge sharing and capacity building,
and harmonization of the different bodies of AMARC.

The Roundtables, the electronic Forum and the survey on CR social impact
consistently indicated key lines of action for the Community radio stakeholders
and specifically for AMARC. The goal of AMARC as defined by CR stakeholders
is to combat poverty, exclusion and voicelessness and to promote social justice
and sustainable, democratic and participatory human development. In the pursuit
of this goal AMARC purpose is to amplify the voices of the excluded and
marginalized through community media and new ICTs, to support popular access
to communication, and to defend and promote the development of CR worldwide.
In order to remove barriers and increase its effectiveness the CR sector needs to:
(1) Advocate and do policy research to achieve improvement in the policy, legal
and regulatory environment for community media and of the right to communicate
as the recognition of CR is the single most important factor hindering CR positive
social impact; (2) Increase knowledge sharing and capacity building in the CR
sector to strengthen the sustainability, effectiveness and relevance of community
media facilitating the appropriation of community media by excluded and
marginalized communities to better identify, discuss, articulate and voice their
development concerns; (3) Develop content exchange and social action
campaigns in order to amplify the voices of the excluded and marginalized in
sustainable development and to strengthen south-centered perspectives; (4)
effectively support gender equality, women rights and voices to combat gender
based discrimination and to strengthen women’s participation in community
media at all levels; (5) Reinforce the CR Network and communications and to
strengthen alliances between community media and other networks and social
movements, as well as by strengthening and harmonizing AMARC international
and regional bodies functioning,.
On the other hand, and following the assessment of lack of consistency by the
AMARC network in the Synthesis Meeting of AMARC decision-making bodies, a
proposal was tabled for the AMARC 9 General Assembly. Regarding AMARC
structures and functioning the AMARC 9 General Assembly carried a resolution
seeking better integration and harmonization between the works of AMARC
bodies. This would avoid the repetition of situations like the one of AMARC Africa
and increase the effectiveness of AMARC as a global network. (See resolution
22 of the AMARC 9 General Assembly).

Chapter 2. Methodology Highlights of the Evaluation Process
The current book describes the findings of the first phase in a wider strategic
objective leading to embed systematic iterative and comparative monitoring and
evaluation methodologies throughout the AMARC community radio network.
AMARC consists of distinct legal and operational entities within a common
political framework and accountable to a membership base of 3000 in 110
countries.
The methodology of the AMARC “Community Radio Impact Assessment:

Removing Barriers, Increasing Effectiveness” builds on the evaluation
methodology based in theories and practices of the communication for
development community particularly action research2 that were part of the
building of the community radio movement more the 30 years ago in Latin
America, starting with the works by Paulo Freire3 and practitioners’ such as
Ramiro Beltran,4 and others.
The assessment proceeds in tandem with related work in the framework of the
Building Communication Opportunities initiative (BCO) and internal AMARC
project evaluations. It also draws recognition to the results of a recent on-line
conference on community radio organized by the Institute for Development
Studies (Jan-Feb 2006).5 This Email discussion demonstrated the current interest
and the wide range of topics being debated on CR by development professionals
and scholars and not only community media practitioners and activists.
The synthesis of the AMARC Community Radio Impact Assessment: Removing

Barriers, Increasing Effectiveness evaluation process were brought to the
AMARC 9 World Conference held in Jordan in November 2006. It helped CR
stakeholders to assess the situation of community broadcasting and the
environment in which it evolves and helped define procedures, mechanisms and
strategies to increase the effectiveness of community radio in helping local
communities to achieve social and development objectives including the
millennium development goals (MDGs). It served as groundwork for defining
AMARC’s Strategic Plan for 2007–2010.
Methodology Assumptions
The project is directly connected to the reinforcement of grassroots community
radios effectiveness in achieving social change and development objectives.
Community radio aims to empower communities to speak by themselves, to give
a voice to the voiceless and to be a dynamic social actor for social and economic
2
This methodological presentation is based in Action Research literature. Among others: Rory O’Brien. An
Overview of the methodological Approach of Action Research. Faculty of Information Studies, U of
Toronto, 1998. Also see action research documentation at www.idrc.ca
3
Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, New York, Herder . 1970
4
R. Beltran, Communication for Development in Latin America. A Forty Year Appraisal, In Cultural Expression in the
Global Village, Southbound, 1993.
5
See http://www.id21.org/communityradio/finalreport.html

good. It did not involve a traditional AMARC institutional assessment in itself,
except the evaluation of the effectiveness of its contribution to the development
of the community radio movement.6
The review, impact assessment and evaluation of AMARC effectiveness aimed at

identifying barriers and increasing the effectiveness of community radio
movement social impact through proper planning, by grounding a
consultation/reflection process in the following principles:
• Oriented to increase effectiveness in achieving Millennium
Development Goals;
• Recognize voicelessness and powerlessness as key dimensions of
poverty
• Ensure the full and effective participation of women;
• Be participatory and inclusive of marginalized groups;
• Address the contribution of CR to accountability, equity and civil rights
• Reflect on the mission of AMARC and General assembly decisions;
The project closely involved AMARC members in both design and

implementation. It contributed to clarify the situation in which community radio
evolves and the challenges and perspectives it faces. The process will help
develop tools for proper assessment of community radio social impact in poverty
reduction, democratic governance and Human rights and; how can AMARC
better support and defend the community radio movement building the conditions
for scaling-up the community radio sector.
It is clear that projects imposed from the outside are less likely to tap into existing
communication networks, there is then need to understand the context. The
assessment process “seeks to overcome any separation between research and
project development, placing the evaluation of project practice, making that
assessment at the same time both more relevant and more useable.”7 Douglas
Horton8 considers that this is controversial among some evaluation theorists,
because it challenges the research principle that the measurement of something
should be independent of the thing measured, but viewing evaluation as an
intervention turns the table on this classic threat to validity and looks at how the
collection of data can be built into program processes in ways that enhance
program and organizational outcomes.
Furthermore, we consider research-action transforms the evaluation process in a

capacity development mechanism, supporting increased organizational
effectiveness. This can make the evaluation more cost beneficial to a significant
extent. For example, an evaluation interview or survey that asks about various
objectives of a program can affect awareness of what the objectives or intended
6
Charles Lusthaus, Gary Anderson, and Elaine Murphy, Institutional Assessment. A Framework for Strengthening
Organizational Capacity for IDRC's Research Partners, IDRC, 1995, 88 pp.
7
Jo Tacchi, Evaluating Community Based Media Initiatives: An Ethnographic Action Research Approach.
8
Douglas Horton et al. Evaluating Capacity Development, Experiences from Research and Development
Organizations around the World, ISNAR/IDRC/CTA, 2003, 188 pp

outcomes of the program are. In that sense, the evaluation is an intervention in
that it can reinforce what the program is trying to do. The basic questions that
need to be addressed throughout the life of projects:
1. What are we trying to do?
2. How are we trying to do it?
3. How well are we doing?
4. How can we do it differently/better?
These four questions must be asked periodically during the assessment process.
Answering them in the ways suggested produces a systematic yet adaptable
method for effectively developing and evaluating projects. The idea is to
“develop a research culture within the community radio movement. If action
research means a way of thinking about the relationship between knowledge and
action (rather than specific research methods), then it can be part of the culture
of a project or organization. That is to say, people can routinely think about what
they need to know, what they do know, what knowledge their activities produce,
how they can go about knowing more, and how they relate their knowledge to
planning future activities.”9
Methodology Concept and Process

The methodology of the project “Community Radio Impact Evaluation: removing
barriers, increasing effectiveness”, is Action Research. Action research is a
systematic form of inquiry that is collective, collaborative, self-reflective, critical,
and undertaken by the participants of the inquiry.10 Action research, sometimes
called "practitioner research," is a reflective investigation of a personal interest,
problem or challenge. Communication for development11 and social change
measurements are included in this perspective.12
Ground-based
The first characteristic is that the importance given to praxis and the importance
of context permits participatory and ground-based evaluation. The process
begins with the development of questions, which may be answered by the
collection of data. Action implies that the practitioner will be acting as the
collector of data, the analyst, and the interpreter of results. Action research leads
to re-frame a problem; then experiments are performed to bring about outcomes
that are subjected to further analysis. Reflection-in-action recognizes that there is
little or no separation of research from practice, little or no separation of knowing
and doing.13 This methodology results in learning by doing developing
9
Jo Tacchi, Evaluating Community Based Media Initiatives: An Ethnographic Action Research Approach. Paper for
OUR Media III conference, Baranquilla, Colombia (19-21 May 2003)
10
McCutcheon, G. & Jung, B. (1990). Alternative perspectives on action research. Theory into Practice 29 (3): 144-
151
11
See among others: Paolo Mefalopoulos and others Participatory Communication Strategy Design, FAO, Rome,
2004.
12
Maria Elena Figueroa and others, Communication for Social Change. An Integrated Model for Measuring the Process
and Its Outcomes, The Communication for Social Change Working Paper Series: No 1, 2002.
13
Schon, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner : How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.

capabilities for monitoring, impact assessment and evaluation by the CR
practitioners and stakeholders. The methodology is open to realities in the
ground as it recognizes the importance of context and its influence on
institutional performance.
Process approach
The second aspect is that Action Research is iterative and cyclical and is similar
in nature to the numerical computing technique known as successive
approximation - the idea is to close in upon a final goal or outcome by repeated
iterations. This characteristic allows for process intervention through knowledge
sharing leading to deeper understanding. Action research starts with
understanding of a problem leading to an intervention plan that brings the
Action.14 During the action, pertinent observations are collected in various forms.
(Monitoring the implementation by Observation.) The new interventional
strategies are carried out, and the cyclic process repeats, continuing until a
sufficient understanding of (or implement able solution for) the problem is
achieved (Reflection and Revision). A representation of an AR protocol by
Kemmis is provided in Figure 115.
Empowerment approach
A third characteristic of Action Research is the degree of empowerment given to
all participants and thus to the movement of community radio practitioners itself.
Involvement is of a knowing nature, with no hidden controls or preemption of
direction by the researcher. All participants negotiate meaning from the data and
contribute to the selection of intervention strategies, the need for communication
between all participants to be of paramount importance. The Action Research
14
Taken fromAn Introduction to Action Research- by Dan MacIsaac
15
Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (Eds.). (1990b). The action research reader. Victoria: Deakin University.

refers to using evaluation logic and processes to help people in programs and
organizations learn to think evaluatively. This is distinct from using the
substantive findings in an evaluation report. It’s equivalent to the difference
between learning how to learn versus learning substantive knowledge about
something. Learning how to think evaluatively is learning how to learn. Learning
to think and act evaluatively can have an ongoing impact, especially where
evaluation is built into ongoing organizational development. Values are the
foundations of goals. By providing a mechanism and process for clarifying values
and goals, evaluation has an impact even before data are collected. Likewise,
the process of designing an assessment often raises questions that have an
immediate impact on program implementation. Such effects can be quite
pronounced, as when the process of clarifying the program’s logic model or
theory-of-action leads to changes in delivery well before any evaluative data are
ever collected.
The context and institutional assessment approach

The action research methodology allows for an assessment on the legal and
cultural context and its dynamic influence on the existence and development of
community radios in different regions of the world. Precisely one of the key
AMARC objectives is to contribute to the creation of enabling environments fir
community radio. Thus, Lusthaus and others closely link the performance of
Organizations to the environment conditions as suggested.16
The key dimensions of the external environment influencing organizations are the
administrative, legal, political, socio-cultural, economic, technological, and
stakeholder contexts.
16
Charles Lusthaus, Marie-Hélène Adrien, Gary Anderson, and Fred Carden Enhancing Organisational Performance. A
Toolbox for Self-assessment, IDRC 1999, 140 pp.

Each of these components of the external environment can also influence the
efficiency of community radios as individual organizations as well as the
community radio movement as a global network. In this perspective the existence
of unfriendly legal environments that do o not carry recognition for CR become
barriers to be removed with local or global interventions so to increase the
potentially positive influence of community radio in poverty alleviation.17
Participants in the Evaluation Process

The participants in the evaluation process were relevant actors of the
communications for development and community radio sector, Multilateral
Organizations, NGOs, Donor Community and academics. They consist on two
main groups of participants – the Core group (AMARC decision making and
operational bodies, external advisors and partners among CR stakeholders); and
the Stakeholders Group (formed by CR members, communication and
development stakeholders and academics).
The Core Group

The Core Group consisted of relevant communication for development partners,
CR stakeholders and the decision-making structures and operational staff of
AMARC (International Board, Regional Boards and partners at regional level
(roughly 200 participants). This group, consisting on relevant actors of the
community radio, community media and NGO movements interacted in face-to-
face roundtables and electronic discussions and meetings. It acted as the forum
for knowledge gathering and critical review to define specific lines of action to
remove barriers and increase the effectiveness of CR social impact.
The Stakeholders Group

The Stakeholders Group is formed by people interested in community radio
including grass-roots members of AMARC, community radio practitioners,
communication for development practitioners, NGO officials, donors, government
officials, private sector partners. Their participation in the first instance will consist
in participating in the roundtables, electronic discussions, in the survey as well as
in the AMARC 9 world conference held in Amman, Jordan 11-17 November.
Their purpose is to validate and critique and serve as equilibrium to the Core
Group.
C4D projects and Community Radio Targeted Research

Besides the discussions by the Core and stakeholders group, there was specific
impact assessment research on AMARC chosen projects together with
community radios and C4D practitioners at community, country, and international
levels. Some of the selected articles included in this book are part of that
research, related to good experiences. It also involved review of some Emails list
debates as the one conducted by Id2118; they are also linked to the Workshop
organized by AMARC SDC and UNESCO for the World Congress for
17
Kanchan Human, Community Radio in India: A Study, School of Communication, University of Hyderabad, 2005
18
See http://www.id21.org/communityradio/finalreport/pdf.html

Communication for Development held in Rome, Italy in October 2006.19 It
involves also the specific discussion on the impact assessment being carried by
Building Communications Opportunities (BCO) Alliance.20 It also includes a
review of the impact assessment literature and research papers prepared by
external advisors as knowledge sharing tools for community radio practitioners.
Strategies and Resources

The methodology of the “Community Radio Social Impact Assessment:
Removing Barriers Increasing Effectiveness” project involves resources and
strategies leading to ensure a participatory action-oriented research process,
centered in learning by doing thus developing monitoring, impact assessment
and evaluation capacities of the CR practitioners and stakeholders. It also looks
for supporting the larger Communication for Development community; donors
and other stakeholders to better understand development processes. The first
phase of the consultation, review and evaluation process included resources and
strategies consisting on the following:
Participation & Knowledge sharing: Built on the experience of the participants

taking into account the empowering effect of knowledge sharing between
community radio practitioners, communications for development community and
donors;
Diversity recognition Considered the diversity of experiences of community radio,

each community requires an approach adapted to their needs in an specific
social, economic, political and cultural environment. It will seek to develop
models for impact assessment that can be used in the future;
Interactivity It made extensive use of interactive face-to-face and on-line
mechanisms such as Roundtables, teleconferences, electronic discussions,
websites;
Cumulative knowledge It reviewed, reflected and shared existing evaluative

material that has been produced in recent years of qualitative and quantity
nature;
External Support and Screening. The methodology also included support from
external advisors on evaluation process. They were mainly from the
Communication for Social Change Consortium.
Definition of goals purpose, objectives and strategic lines of action guiding the
collective knowledge accumulated during the global assessment permitting to
further develop monitoring and evaluation tools from the actions to remove
barriers and increase the effectiveness of CR.
19
See: http://www.amarc.org/index.php?p=World_Congress_on_Communication_for_Development&l=EN
20
See: www.bcoalliance.org

Description of the Activities
The three themes (CR global review, CR social impact evaluation and AMARC
and CR movement effectiveness) organized the participatory action research
process engaged 927 CR stakeholders of 96 countries. First of all in discussions
and knowledge sharing activities (Round Tables, Electronic Forum, Survey, and
research) leading to the production of documents intended to embed evaluation
processes leading to remove barriers and increase the efficiency of the
Community Radio Movements and of AMARC in poverty reduction and
development challenges. Secondly in the debates on the results of the CR Social
Impact assessment process and in policy definitions on how to remove barriers
and increase the effectiveness of CR at the AMARC 9 World Conference of CR
Broadcasters held in Amman from 11-17 November 2006. The activities of the
project were:
(a) Roundtables. The project engaged 232 CR practitioners and
stakeholders in face to face to face regional Roundtables where there was
discussion on CR review in the region; social impact of CR and what can
AMARC do? (The roundtables were attended by external advisors from
the Communication for Social Change Consortium):
a. The Asia pacific Roundtable was held in Colombo Sri Lanka on
May 5, 2006 in combination with The World Press Freedom Day. 43
participants including community radio practitioners and
stakeholders attended the Roundtable. The participants
contributed consistently in the three themes through workshops.
b. The Latin America and Caribbean Roundtable “Community
Radios and Social Change in Latin America & the Caribbean” was
held in the headquarters of the National Coordination of Radios,
Lima, Peru, Wednesday 24 and Thursday 25, May 2006. There
were 48 participants from 19 countries between community radio
practitioners and stakeholders. The Latin American region is one of
the oldest of AMARC and the nature of challenges proved to be
particular.
c. The African Roundtable “Community radio social impact:
removing barriers, increasing effectiveness” was held in Abuja,
Nigeria on July 5, was followed by a workshop on advocacy for
Community radio in Nigeria. 52 community radio practitioners, and
stakeholders from 14 countries participated. Among others, there
were contributions from Uganda, Benin, Mali, Kenya, South Africa,
Ghana, Senegal, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Nigeria.
d. The European Roundtable “Community Media Social Impact:
Removing barriers, increasing effectiveness” was held in Brussels,
in European Parliament on July 12. 41 participants attended it, from
12 European countries.
e. The North America Roundtable was held July 31 in Madison,
Wisconsin, with the Grassroots Radio Conference with participation
of 38 CR representatives from Canada and the United States.

(b) Electronic Forum. 196 CR practitioners and stakeholders participated in
interactive and multilingual discussions articulated around the reactions to
the synthesis documents produced from the Roundtable face-to-face
phase. There were three consecutive discussions on the same three
topics of the Round tables.
a. CR review in the region;
b. Social impact of CR and;
c. What can AMARC do?
(c) Community Radio Social Impact survey. 149 CR practitioners and
stakeholders from 76 countries answered the questionnaire on the three
themes discussed in the Roundtables.
a. Research activities on Best experiences, CR practitioners’
presentations were selected and some of them were included in
this book (See Part 3).
b. Bibliography and evaluation tools. The external advisors
contributed to the action research process with documents on
social impact evaluation of CR including, overview, methodologies
and bibliography.
(d) Synthesis Meeting of AMARC decision-making bodies on the results
of the project “Community Radio Social Impact Assessment:
Removing Barriers, Increasing Effectiveness”. 38 members of
decision-making bodies of AMARC (including the International board and
the regional boards of AMARC) met on November 10 in Amman, Jordan,
to discuss the results of the Evaluation process and to explore policies for
better governance of AMARC structures and the need for better
harmonization between the different bodies of AMARC in order to increase
AMARC effectiveness;
(e) AMARC 9 World Conference of Community Radio Broadcasters 312

CR stakeholders from 94 countries (besides the AMARC decision making
bodies) participated in the 9th world gathering of CR broadcasters. The
participants analyzed in several workshops the synthesis of the global
evaluation process and decided on policies and the strategic plan 2007-
2010 arising from the global evaluation. There were important remarks on
how to embed the evaluation process throughout the AMARC and CR
network.

PART II. Global Challenges to Community Radio21
Chapter 3 Global Review of Community Radio: Barriers and Opportunities.
Under globalization, the world has become a “village” characterized by an

economic, social and cultural divide in the North as well as in the South that
translates itself into a democratic deficit, inequitable public policies, acute
development challenges, inadequate distribution of wealth and opportunities,
exclusion of women and the poor, cultural tensions, migrations and a series of
open or latent conflicts. Concentration and corporate ownership of media,
including the existence of large conglomerates, has lead to prioritize customer
and profit interest resulting in the dilution of the critical role of media in informing
citizens and holding governments and economic entities accountable.
These challenges of globalization tend to present themselves affecting in varying

degrees regions, countries and local communities. The communication
processes facilitated by CR show new and dynamic responses to these
challenges that arise from the communities themselves and, through networking
with social movements, at the regional and international levels. Communities
have sought in community radio a means to express their own issues, concerns,
cultures and languages. The continuous struggle for more democratic systems of
governance and accountability, globally and particularly in Latin America, Africa
and Asia have paved the way for the proliferation of community radios worldwide.
CR has become a new tier of communications and has become a new social
actor for development that is contributing specifically to empowerment of women
and the excluded as well as social change conducing to democracy building,
good governance and accountability, poverty reduction and the achievement of
development goals.
Community Radio contributes to communication political processes that foster

social change. Community radio’s fundamental role in poverty reduction and
democratization is evidenced in the multiplicity of voices aired, the numbers of
public service announcements and programs that are provided at little or not
cost; reporting by and on underserved communities; in depth coverage of political
events including those by small parties; serious discussion of issues neglected by
corporate media such as labor movements; low and full power stations in rural
communities and urban neighborhoods; and lobbying for a more democratized
media generally
21
Part 1, presents the key findings and documentation on the situation of Community Radio worldwide
formulated and used by CR stakeholders during the World Evaluation of Community Radio: Removing
Barriers, Increasing Efficiency activities, including Regional Roundtables, Electronic Forum Discussions,
electronic Survey and AMARC 9 World Conference.

Community Radio suffers, everywhere and in varying degrees depending on the
region or country, either situations of oppression, of military threats or censorship
and associates itself to social movements and builds coalitions for
communication rights and freedom of expression with other media and/or with
human rights activists. In spite of increasing positive evidence on the positive
impact of CR, a common barrier to the development of Community Radio
worldwide is, either the absence, shortcomings or inadequacy of legislation and
regulation for community radio at all levels (spectrum allocation, frequency
allocation, community radio definition in law, support to community radio).
Unfriendly legal frameworks are a constant challenge to the sector so that the
main characteristics of community radio need to be constantly highlighted and
developed.
Thus, CR political, social & cultural recognition and performance varies from
region to region leading CR and community media practitioners to reinforce
diverse social movements and country agenda, including on development issues,
civil society reinforcement, women rights, cultural diversity, peace building among
others. But, in spite of differences due to legal frames and regulations and the
challenges of country environment, community radio is universally built along not
for profit objectives, local community ownership, participatory and progressive
programming driven by community challenges.
What is Community Radio? Not the media moving into community but the
community moving into the media. We (Community Media) are not the media but
the facilitators of social movements, the voice of civil society. Furthermore, local
ownership and appropriation of CR are closely linked to participation in decision-
making processes and the needs of the community deserved. One of the
strengths of community radios, is their horizontality and diversity, which shows
that they are built from the bottom up, thus reflecting a network of multiple
languages, and the expression of differences. This diversity actualizes the
representation of the excluded, the survival of historic memories, of cultural
diversity and an equitable approach to development.
Community radio can initiate or accompany social change and carries

responsibility to be effective in facilitating civil society development and
democratic processes. The participation of community radio practitioners and
stakeholders in social action and social movements was indicated all along the
global assessment of CR as an important challenge facing community radio and
a key factor in achieving increased social impact.
After decades and centuries, and several women’s conferences, in many parts of
the world, women’s rights have been recognized and opportunities for women
have expanded. However, gender equality is far from being achieved. CR is a
key instrument in advocating women’s rights and practicing gender equality. The
participants identified the exclusion of women as a key social challenge for

if we want to achieve poverty reduction. Gender stereotypes carried by traditional
media are obstacles to women rights and empowerment. Community radio can
effectively facilitate women’s inclusion and the recognition and exercise of
women’s rights. Engendering community radio both in terms of content and in
access to radio management and technology is a fundamental development and
democratic challenge.
Community radio is about politics, in terms of democratization of societies but not

in terms of partisan politics, as CR must maintain their independence and
autonomy from governments and political parties. The role of community radio in
good governance, accountability and democratization was highlighted in relation
to several experiences.
Common opportunities being used by community radios are the benefits that
come from mixing “old” and “new” information technologies. The people centered
approach leads to the use of the appropriate combination of technologies
allowing capacity building and knowledge sharing conducing to voice for the
excluded, marginalized and building citizenship. It also shows that the crorner
stone in a democratic and inclusive information society is goes well beyond
technology, it about people communicating.
The sustainability of local and specific CR is a recurrent challenge in all

continents, to the point that it may hinder CR social impact. Social sustainability
of community radio is a reality closely linked to local ownership, but social
sustainability also raises issues about capacity building and knowledge sharing
to ensure community participation in the survival of community radio experiences.
The sustainability of local and specific CR is related to its capacity to have
relevant, participatory and creative programming that attracts the audience and
encourages access to the media in their own language, and is alternative and
distinct from commercial and public broadcasting. Sustainability is also
dependent on financial support otherwise it distracts CR practitioners from
participation and pertinence of programming. The proposal is, as it is done in
some countries, the unconditional public funding justified by the social nature of
community radios, ensures CR basic financial sustainability. Sustainability is also
related to curtailing specific geographical and technological challenges to
broadcasting and to access to the media including the necessary capacity
building to facilitate local communities ownership of the media.
CR experiences, notably good experiences are not highlighted and suffer from
their local and specific characteristics rendering scaling up more difficult.
Furthermore and even though community radio has become a global sector, the
interaction and knowledge sharing between regions is weak and systematic
impact assessment is rare. A multifaceted challenge for community radio is the
need to strengthen its own networks and communications. There is need to
embed appropriate assessment tools, to document and disseminate good

practice and to strengthen network development through institutional capacity
building and communications. One general perspective arising from the
evaluation process is that in spite of a strong body of evidence on community
radio social impact, CR practitioners and stakeholders have not taken the time
and the efforts needed to present systematically the achievements of community
radio worldwide
Key findings on Community Radio Global Review

The lack of proper enabling legislation is the single principal barrier to CR social
impact. The absence of a friendly legislation; the existence of media oppression
and military threats are a generalized barrier to the development of community
radio. On varying degrees, these factors hinder CR capacity to develop its
positive impact in giving voice to the marginalized, in developing inclusive and
democratic societies where governments are accountable and people are
empowered to achieve development objectives. Likewise, the absence of
appropriate legislation recognizing the social contribution of CR creates financial
sustainability challenges that hinder the possibility for scaling up good models of
sustainable CR. In spite of this hindering factors CR development is deeply
rooted in local communities worldwide highlighting the importance of social
sustainability as the key aspect of good models of CR.
Community Radio is a new worldwide tier of radio broadcasting. Community radio

is a distinct media sector and a vital alternative to state owned public
broadcasting and commercial private media. Communities have sought in
community radio a means to express their own issues, concerns, cultures and
languages. The expansion of CR is the result of the reduction of diversity of
voices that accompany the formation of media conglomerates that accompanies
the globalization processes.
Community Radio is a new media that properly mixes old and new ICTs. The
rapid development of CR worldwide that accompanies the expansion of new ICTs
shows the existence of a positive link between ICT & CR. Community Radios
properly highlight that the key communication processes underlying the
information society are related to communication rights of people. CR shows the
benefits in mixing old and new technologies with CR. With appropriate capacity
building CR are able to circumvent restrictive media legislation thus
strengthening the CR movement.
Community Radio Sustainability is a global challenge. In spite of increasing

positive experiences of socially sustainable CR, financial and technological
sustainability remain a challenge that often distract CR practitioners from
participation and pertinence of programming. Community radio faces important
sustainability challenges regarding capacity building and enhancing local
ownership. Knowledge sharing on best experiences across regions as well as
increased use of new ICTs can make a difference.

Community Radio is part of a political non-partisan communication process.
Community radio is a social actor of the development process. Community radio
can initiate or accompany social change and carries responsibility to be effective
in facilitating civil society development and achieving development objectives and
democracy building. The participation of community radio practitioners and
stakeholders in social movements was indicated as an important factor in
achieving increased social impact.
Exclusion and marginalizing, particularly of women The participants identified

exclusion of women as a key social challenge that can be confronted by
specifically in Community radio if we want to achieve poverty reduction and
facilitate the achievement of development objectives. Gender stereotypes carried
by traditional media are obstacles to the exercise of women rights and
empowerment and CR can effectively facilitate women’s inclusion and the
recognition and exercise of women’s rights. CR needs to fight exclusion and
marginalizing by engendering CR both in terms of content and access to radio
management and in the use of technology.
Community Radio Networks and knowledge sharing practices are rare. Even
though community radio has become a global sector, interaction between regions
is rare and exchanges between CR are rare. Furthermore, systematic impact
assessment across borders is almost non existent CR need to strengthen their
own networks and communications and to embed appropriate assessment tools,
to document and disseminate good practices and to strengthen network
development through institutional capacity building and communications.

Chapter 4 Regional Perspectives
This Chapter presents a synthesis of the debates and findings from Africa, Latin
American, Asia Pacific, European and North American perspectives on the
different activities held during the global evaluation process (roundtables,
electronic forum, survey, exchanges at the AMARC 9 World Conference).
African Perspectives22
In the African regional debates, there was strong consensus on the need to
“optimise the limitless potential of Community Radio in expanding the geography
of the democratic space.”
Some of the key specific elements raised was that Community Radio is for the
people/by the community; It is differently run and managed, and differently
regulated by different legislation in the various countries; CR should be expanded
and allowed to grow – governments must create an enabling environment for this
important tool to strive; CR is about empowering communities by redistribution of
power because “Participation is the engine of democracy and community radio is
a tool for participation”
Some of the specific challenges related to CR in the African context were also
raised. They are related, first of all, to the difficulty of maintaining the
independence of CR political role from governments, political parties or religious
denominations. There is also de issue of gaining respect for the role of CR for
promoting good governance and accountability. Specific challenges of CR are
similar to other regions and they relate to ensure local ownership of Cr, content
development, issues of financial sustainability and challenges to ensure gender
equity within CR.
In the African context CR has proven its positive influence in poverty reduction
and in facilitating sustainable development as well as good governance and
accountability. CR needs to be driven by the needs of the community it serves
As said bt Fr. Patrick Tor Alumuku’s book Community Radio for Development
which says somewhere that, “freedom of expression is significant because
human life depends on communication, and to be fully human, people must
communicate.” We all work towards the development of community radio in our
various countries and all through the world.
Asia Pacific Perspectives23

The main challenges for CR in the Asia Pacific region are, first of all the lack of
appropriate CR legislation accompanied by constant oppression of media,
22
The African Roundtable notes were compiled by Doris Dery, Women’s representative, West
and Central Africa. Resume of Electronic Forum by Grace Githaiga, President AMARC Africa.
23
These are exerts from the notes from the Asia Pacific roundtable taken by Suman Basnet,
AMARC AP Coordinator

freedom of expression and military threats. There also exist difficulties related to
the sustainability of CR, increased by geographic isolation (Maldives).
The use of mixed technology was considered as a clear opportunity allowing

exchanges that reinforce CR programming and permitting to circumvent
oppressive media legislation. CR has proven to be a unique tool as early warning
system in natural disaster prevention as well as after the Tsunami in facilitating
reconstruction and solidarity building. CR has proven in the region to be an
effective tool for peace building and democracy building as in the democratic
experience of Nepal. The role model of women in CR and engendering CR
programming are effective possibilities to promote gender equality and women’s
rights in the region. Networking and capacity building is important.
It is important to articulate the values and social objectives in the CR sector. CR

can serve for Protection in terms of security and safety against danger,
particularly disaster that can be predicted and prevented; for the role of media in
conflict prevention by encouraging the dialogue before the conflict becomes
violent. CR also serves for the well-being of local communities by facilitating to
achieve millennium development goals and things like education and health, it
involves also issues such as happiness, self esteem and quality of life. CR also in
terms of recognition on how individuals have been improved by CR, because
they have not only been able to speak out but also to be heard and make an
impact. It’s about being able to participate in political processes and having one’s
point of view recognized and actually making a difference. This is what others
would call good governance, accountability and participation. CR is also about
information on shared cultures and values that can impact on individual rights.
Particularly for situations of women in society that need to challenge particular
cultural values that are damaging to women; on attitudes towards young women
and the ways in which they can be abused; attitude towards women in relation to
their relation with men in society. At the same time it should respect cultural and
linguistic diversities rather than promoting one culture. CR encourages
socialization that includes solidarity, social inclusion, and rights of people to
speak about their lives and identify inequalities in society.
Latin American and Caribbean Perspectives24

Although the electoral processes seem to be consolidated in many countries in
Latin America and the Caribbean, there is still a democratic “deficit” in the region.
In spite of the changes, it seems that “everything changes to stay the same”. The
arrival of progressive sectors to the government has not conduced to any
significant gains in the democratic culture, the distribution of wealth and the
access to public policies for all. In this context, CR have played an
Important role: in denouncing the neoliberal model; in explaining the situation in a
simple way and; by opening the microphones to the marginalized sectors of the
population.
24
These are exerts from the notes taken by Paula Castello, Project Officer of AMARc LAC

This context limits communicational practices financially and legally. There are
progressive legislations, but the specific rulings contradict them and make the
existence of community radios very difficult. There is the need for recognition and
to build a collective identity; to exist requires to be recognized by the media.
In this context there is need for more clarity on what community radio and there is
still a lack of agreement with other social movements to increase their
influence/impact, in order to become a counterbalance of factual power. There is
coexistence of several models of community radio. It is necessary to strengthen
CRs’ internal evaluation processes and work, to be coherent between what
community radios preach and stand for and their internal functioning, which
should be ideally democratic and equitable. At present, there are excellent radios
that must be “demarginalized” or in other words, stop being only directed to the
“poor”
All community radios in the region are socially sustainable; otherwise they would
not be on the air. Nonetheless, financial sustainability is a problem for many of
them.
CR have horizontality and diversity, being and undergoing bottom-up process,

diversity , recognition of differences and keeping historical memory to rescue
cultures and identities and foster a commitment in community radios to equity, for
the sake of the excluded.
Legal frameworks vary from country to country, from government recognition by

the government of Bolivia to lack of mainstream recognition as in Chile. CR has
not been able to set up the agenda for the recognition of communication righta.
There is also the danger of loosing autonomy with “friendly” governments such as
the Venezuelan government.
North American perspectives25

North American community radio are diverse and dynamic parts of the CR
movement – rural and urban, low power (100 watts or lower) and full power, from
various regions of the US and Canada. Participants consider that the context is
marked by increasing militarization, unilateralism and unresponsiveness to their
polities accompanied by a growth in poverty and income. Social services,
healthcare, education and both child and elder care are in decline and persistent
racism, sexism and homophobia exacerbate those problems. Access to
information and knowledge is limited by on-going consolidation of media
ownership and is further threatened by the possible enclosure and privatization of
the internet.
There is Politicizing of national regulation of the airwaves. Rather than focusing

on spectrum allocation and interference issues, the FCC (US regulatory body)
25
These are exertas from the notes taken by Elizabeth Robsinson, AMARc Treasurer

has abandoned those responsibilities and replaced them with concerns about
‘indecency’. The regulators in both countries also indicate support for the
community radio sector, but fail to require any support for the sector and allow
the commercial sector free reign.
Financial sustainability remains a critical issue for most community broadcasters.

Most stations have few paid staff and rely on volunteers for the creation of
programming as well as the functioning of the station. Again, national funding, in
the limited arena in which it exists, has been politically manipulated. Corporate
ownership of the vast majority of media and a plethora of commercial media
result in the persistent marginalization of community radio and community media
generally. In the US, the majority of the non-commercial spectrum has now been
given over to religious broadcasters.
While there is a growing threat of censorship, there is a concomitant desire to

know among the populace and a growing skepticism about corporate media. The
political crises, then present opportunities for making common cause with other
social sectors, for providing service to communities.
Success is a challenge – economic success can lead to loss of credibility and

loss of mission. There are also concerns with mission drift in the face of funders’
needs versus our own, pressures to ‘professionalize’, building new audiences,
and maintaining continuity with high volunteer/staff turnover. The sector also
needs better means of measuring impact rather than simply via money raised
and numbers of listeners.
Community radio’s fundamental role in poverty reduction and democratization is

evidenced in the multiplicity of voices aired, the numbers of public service
announcements and programs that are provided at little or not cost; reporting by
and on underserved communities; in depth coverage of political events including
those by small parties; serious discussion of issues neglected by corporate
media such as labor movements; low and full power stations in rural communities
and urban neighborhoods; and lobbying for a more democratized media
generally.
European Perspectives.26
Community media has recently grown in Europe. AMARC is aware of the
increasing complexity and challenges arising from mainstream acceptance of
community media.
The needs and challenges vary within European regions. For example, the
Spanish network is very young. Its main challenges include bringing together
different experiences into a new legislation. In Austria, a concentration and
commercialization trend has cut out a lot of local content and local media in
26
The European Round Table was held during the Community Media Meeting that took place in Brussels
from the 9-12th of July 2006.

general. Therefore, an increasingly important function (and challenge) for
community media is to become the local supplier of content in many places
including the need to develop multilingual programming and intercultural dialogue
(involving linguistic minorities). This has become more important as official
borders are being abolished but traditional borders remain in the minds of local
communities and local media needs to recognize the need for local content.
There are organizational problems in Sweden that make access to community
media difficult. Three organizations dealing with community media exist: two for
community radio and one for community television. Their survival is largely
dependant on governmental and municipal funds. Ireland is a recent example of
how training in Community Media can be integrated in a national education
system contributing to strengthen social and communicative skills of its
practitioners and trainees. This potential could be developed in a much wider
scale if these capacities and the potential of Community Media were recognized
and supported on the European level. This potential could also help to close the
Digital Divide, which is especially relevant on the local level and for
disadvantaged or marginalized groups and communities.
CR in Europe thrives for recognition as the third media sector as a public sector
arising from below community media workers should be fully recognized as
journalists, community media should be involved in all consultations related to
our field of activity, access to frequency, broadcasting capacities, sufficient
frequencies reserved, funding: one model would be European Community Media
Fund management. Recognize CR as media literacy tool

Chapter 5: The Amman Declaration27
We, the participants in the 9th World Congress of the World Association of
Community Radio Broadcasters (AMARC 9) held in Amman, Jordan, from 11
to17 November 2006;
Recalling Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which states

that "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right
includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and
impart information and ideas through any media, and regardless of frontiers;”
Recalling United Nations General Assembly Resolution 59 (I) of 14 December

1946, which states that freedom of information, is a fundamental human right,
and General Assembly Resolution 45/76 A of 11 December 1990 on information
in the service of humanity;
Acknowledging the Declarations of Windhoek (1991), of Alma-Ata (1992), of

Santiago (1994), of Sana’a (1996), and of Sofia (1997) resulting from the
UNESCO-sponsored seminars which assert the establishment, maintenance and
fostering of an independent pluralistic and free press is essential to the
development and maintenance of democracy and economic development;
Considering Article 9 of the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights which
reaffirms the right that every individual shall have the right to receive information;
Considering that the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS)

Declaration of Principles reaffirms the principles of freedom of the press and
freedom of information, as well as those of the independence, pluralism and
diversity of media are essential to the Information Society;
Noting that the WSIS Plan of Action calls for the provision of “support to media
based in local communities and support projects combining the use of traditional
media and new technologies for their role in facilitating the use of local
languages, for documenting and preserving local heritage, including landscape
and biological diversity, and as a means to reach rural and isolated and nomadic
communities;”
Recognizing the powerful role that community radio plays in the achievement of
the Millennium Development Goals by raising awareness of the key development
challenges across the world and promoting peoples’ participation in and
ownership of development process;
27 Drafted and ratified by participant community radio broadcasters members of AMARC during its 9th General Assembly in Amman, Jordan, November 16, 2006

Recalling that the women and media section of the Beijing Platform for Action
calls for the increased participation and access of women to expression and
decision-making in and through the media and new technologies of
communication and urges governments, NGOs and the media itself to promote a
balanced and non-stereotyped portrayal of women in the media;
Recalling the AMARC Declaration of Principles adopted at the founding

conference of AMARC in Managua (1988), the European Charter for Community
Radios adopted at the founding conference of AMARC Europe in Slovenia
(1994), and the AMARC International Charter of Community Radios (2003) and
their expression of the organization’s commitment to represent the interests of all
communities;
Declare that:
1. The promotion and protection of peoples’ communication rights are crucial in

the free flow of information and ideas, which are the pillars of a functioning
democracy;
2. Communication rights are based on a vision of the free flow of information and
ideas, which is interactive, egalitarian and non-discriminatory and driven by
human needs, rather than commercial or political interests;
3. Respect for pluralism, culture, language, and gender diversity should be

reflected through all the media as a fundamental factor in a democratic society;
4. Communications media that help sustain the diversity of the world’s cultures
and languages should be supported through legislative, administrative, and
financial measures;
5. Women’s access to and participation in decision-making in the media should

be guaranteed at all level,
6. Media plays an important role in highlighting and promoting women’s role in

conflict transformation, peace building and reconstruction and in expediting
national, regional and international peace processes;
7. Community media plays an important role in strengthening cultural rights, and

in particular, the rights of linguistic and cultural minorities, indigenous peoples,
migrants and refugees by providing access to the means of communication;
8. The rights of indigenous peoples should be respected in their struggles for

access and participation in communications media;
9. People with disabilities should be portrayed realistically and their disabilities be

explained accurately while at the same time promoting their access to media;

10. Independent media can play a significant role in achieving sustainable peace
and promoting social development in the Middle East and North African region;
11. The continued expansion of transnational corporate media conglomerates

and the concentration of ownership increasingly threatens plurality, including the
existence of independent and community broadcasters;
12. New digital broadcast systems have led to re-planning existing frequency
allocation and new approaches to regulation risk further marginalization of
communication services run by and for citizens, communities and social
organizations;
13.While the growing convergence between telecommunications, computing and

broadcasting is increasing the number of potential users, the digital divide is also
continuing to widen and within that divide exists a gender digital divide;
We call for:
1. All social actors including governments, NGOs and other members of civil
society, the United Nations and other intergovernmental agencies to contribute in
efforts to ensure just and equitable access to all communications media by all
people;
2. The growth of local, community-based and independent media initiatives that

promote pluralism, cultural, language, and gender diversity by instituting policy
and legislation and providing administrative, financial and technical assistance;
3. The full implementation of the women and media section of the Beijing
Platform for Action including the media provisions in the 2005 Outcome
Document by governments, media industry bodies and civil society;
4. Support by governments, corporations and international institutions for the

promotion of communication rights including the formulation and enforcement of
telecommunications regulation in favor of the development of South-South
communications infrastructure;
5. Allocation of a percentage of public funds for development projects should be

dedicated to the enhancement of local communications capacity;
6. Rules to prevent concentration of media ownership and the take-over of

community broadcasting services by commercial companies and reservation of a
portion of any new digital spectra for community broadcasters;

7. Establishment of standards, norms and measures at national, regional and
international levels, to enable and assist the development of independent
community broadcasting services;
8. Support for the development of digital systems, which are appropriate to the
needs of community broadcasting services, assessment and monitoring of the
impact of technological convergence and regulatory change on the community
media sector, measures to assist adaptation of community broadcasters to media
convergence and appropriate forms of new technology;
9. Preservation of existing analog frequencies used by community broadcasters

until such time as a digital replacement is available; and allocation of part of the
broadcast spectrum for self-regulated use by microbroadcasters;
10. The International Telecommunication Union to ensure that frequency

planning, technical standards for telecommunications and radio, and
development resources give a high priority to the needs of local communities and
civil society;
11. International financial institutions to dedicate a percentage of loans and

bonds to supporting community-based and independent media;
12. Recognition of the crucial role of community media in disaster relief and
management and in emergency preparedness;
13. All governments that have jailed journalists for the practice of their profession
to release them immediately and unconditionally. Journalists who have had to
leave their countries should be free to return and to resume their professional
activities. Those who have been dismissed unlawfully should be allowed to
regain their positions.
14. Continue condemnation of the continued physical assault, threats, arrest,

detention and other forms of harassment, against community radio broadcasters
and other journalists.
We call on the community media sector to:
• Monitor transnational corporations (TNCs) and launch international

campaigns to raise consciousness about and develop strategies to halt the
increasing control TNCs on our communications systems and structures;
• Lobby for national and international measures to ensure new information
and communication technologies provide affordable access to citizens and
communities to establish new community media service;
• Develop community media program exchanges and build solidarity and
support for community struggles for human rights and social justice;

• Promote and support the training of journalists, broadcasters, engineers
and other media professionals, especially those working in rural and
marginal urban areas; and
• Educate civil society organizations, governments and regulators, and the
general public on the policy issues of regulation, the importance of a
sustainable and pluralist broadcasting environment, and the benefits of
community media.
We, the members of the General Assembly of AMARC gathered here in Amman
are firmly convinced that community media plays a specific and crucial role in
enabling public participation towards a just and equitable information and
knowledge society that includes the voices of the poor and marginalized. We
recognize that the lack of proper enabling legislation is the single principle barrier
to the further development of community radio. We call for community
broadcasting to be recognized as a distinct media sector as a vital alternative to
state owned public broadcasters and commercial private media. We assert the
existence of a positive link between information communication technologies and
community radio. We recognize that community radio sustainability is a global
challenge and the in spite of the increasing positive experience of socially
sustainable community radio; financial and technological sustainability remains
challenges for community radio organizers. We view community radio as an
initiator or accompaniment to social change that carries responsibility to be
effective in facilitating the civil society development in democratic processes. We
recognize the role community radio can play in facilitating women’s inclusion and
the recognition of women’s rights, the reduction of poverty and promotion of
sustainable development.
We are committed to the realization of our demands in this declaration and we

pledge to continue our work for the promotion and protection of people’s
communication rights and all rights embodied in the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights. We call on the international community and all independent and
community media advocates to contribute to the same.

Part III Community Radio Social Impact.28
Chapter 6 Findings on Community Radio Social Impact
The goal of the AMARC Community Radio Impact Evaluation: Removing

Barriers, Increasing Effectiveness was to understand the communication
processes facilitated by CR, to highlight the effects of CR as well as finding ways
to increase the social impact of CR in achieving poverty reduction and
development objectives in democracy building, inclusiveness, good governance
and accountability.
An essential part of understanding of CR effects is the systematization of the

social impact of Community Radio, the criteria for measuring that impact , the
ways to measure or to assess the influence of CR and the areas where CR
makes a difference. This evaluation process belongs to the larger objective of
critical reflection on our work as a framework to reinforce CR relations with civil
society movements and CR stakeholders to ensure their support and partnership.
The participants in the evaluation process see the role of community radio not as
a technical one, but rather ontological, we are evaluating the social impact of
communication processes. The evaluation of community radio needs to be seen
as part of communication process of a political but not partisan nature. The
existence of individuals in the public sphere depends on the access to media.
The participants highlighted the need to incorporate the values and social
objectives of the CR sector in the impact evaluation process. We are talking of
evaluating a communication process so, the indicators of what we are evaluating
need not only to be of quantity or quality, they have also to be process and time
related. We must create our own tools to measure the impact of community radio
in order that the assessments clearly reflect what community radio is set to do.
The participants considered necessary to consider specific evaluation contexts in

measuring community radio social impact. Among others: the Capacity to
measure social impact is not equally distributed everywhere, particularly in the
case of the Asia Pacific Region; The legal frameworks have a specific influence
on the impact of community radio; the level of articulation between
local/national/regional and global citizenship agendas influences the evaluation
of CR social impact.
To increase CR impact there is a need to create the conditions for such an

impact through a strategy for capacity building in radio language and
28
Part II, presents the key findings and documentation on the social impact of Community Radio
worldwide formulated and used by CR stakeholders during the World Evaluation of Community Radio:
Removing Barriers, Increasing Efficiency activities, including Regional Roundtables, Electronic Forum
Discussions, electronic Survey and AMARC 9 World Conference.

communication strategies within the CR themselves. In order to maximize the
impact of community radio, we must ensure that it meets the needs of its
listeners and there is local ownership through participation in the CR;
Externally there is need to create conditions to have an impact in the academic

agenda, in the definition of legal frameworks, in setting the public citizen agenda,
the media agenda, the cooperation agencies agenda. For this, coalition building
is essential. It allows abandoning a corporatist discourse, it permits the
expression of social minorities rights, to decentralize AMARC network, to link
community radio objectives to the larger process of democratization of societies.
In order to increase the impact of community radio there is a need to place

community radios as an expression of right and not to separate communication
rights from other rights or challenges. This will allow having an impact in the
relation with governments without loosing autonomy and maintaining the
legitimacy in the communities. There is need to have an impact in the global
agendas, with multilateral organizations and with cooperation agencies to give a
global scope to community radio movement.
We are measuring social change resulting from communication processes. There

is need for measurement tools in order to measure how things are changing, not
on how large our audiences are but what the audiences contain, or ethnographic
details that show the role community radio is playing.
The Assessment of CR Social Impact.

The participants considered that the evaluation process consisting in
participatory monitoring & evaluation by CR practitioners, and stakeholders was
the appropriate one. The evaluation must be seen as part of a continuous
process leading to an increasingly participatory process.
In terms of how to evaluate, the time of measurement is vital; the real

measurements of community radio impact assessment should be longer than
months or years. In that regard testimonials powerfully document the impact of
community radio as long as they come from a variety of experiences and
backgrounds. In that perspective, mere Statistics are not good for measuring CR
impact, specially if CR has 2,5 Km reach and serves a small community. An
example by a participant illustrated this: In Thailand they measure CR impact by
the sales of FM radios, but the real impact of CR is not the sale of radio
apparatus but the feeling of dignity that comes from it. There is also a matter of
context; the impact of CR is more easily measured in emergency situations as
when there is an earthquake.

Community radio social impact should be people –centred and based on multi

ownership of communication processes;
Community Radio participants insisted on the fact that quantity indicators such as
measurement of audience, number of hours of programming dedicated to an
specific topic, number of organizations interviewed tell only part of the story of the
social impact of community radio. This said, it becomes clear that in absence of
sufficient knowledge sharing, relationship between CR and the donor community
tend to make them respond to donors pre-established indicators instead of
clarifying the need for more appropriate indicators to render CR impact
For the CR practitioners the main characteristic of CR is to initiate and facilitate a

communication process that allows for interaction and interchange ability
between the listener and the producer. Quality indicators such as life stories of
individual and collective social change can render the process on how this
communication process has a social impact. The main recommendation is on the
use of participatory monitoring & evaluation process;
CR experiences show that CR social impact is dependent on the time factor. The
longer the period the more easily it is to measure the social impact of CR. Good
examples of this is the experience of CR in Nepal, that after 10 years of
experiences, became a contributing factor in the return of democracy after the
Royal Coup of February 2005;
Key Findings on criteria for measuring CR Social Impact.

Community radio achievements are not properly highlighted and/or
disseminated. One general perspective arising from the evaluation process is
that in spite of a large body of evidence on community radio social impact, CR
practitioners and stakeholders have not taken the time and the efforts needed to
present systematically the achievements of community radio worldwide.
Measurements of Community Radio Social Impact must be people centred

Community radio social impact should be people–centered and based on multi
ownership of communication processes.
Quantity indicators don’t tell the whole story

Community Radio participants insisted on the fact that quantity indicators such as
measurement of audience, number of hours of programming dedicated to an
specific topic, number of organizations interviewed tell only part of the story of the
social impact of community radio. Measurements based on statistical data only
do not apply to community radios. We have to be creative in measuring the
impact rather than counting the quantity of people listening to the radio.
Statistical measurement does not work for community radios with 2.5 km reach.

This said, it becomes clear that in absence of sufficient knowledge sharing,
relationship between CR and the donor community tend to make them respond
to donor pre-established indicators instead of clarifying the need for more
appropriate indicators to render CR impact. What does it to people when they get
involved into CR? It empowers people. Bridging digital divide is not just a
technical matter, giving people experiences in the media allows them to have a
new vision of themselves. The experience changes peoples lives, generates self-
confidence. How can we measure that kind of impact?
Quality indicators are needed to measure the impact of the communication

process facilitated by CR For the CR practitioners the main characteristic of CR
is to initiate and facilitate a communication process that allows for interaction and
interchange ability between the listener and the producer. In the northeast of
Thailand they have been measuring the impact of community radio from the sale
of FM radios as another possible way of evaluating the impact. But the real
impact is not the sale of the sets but the feeling and dignity that the people have.
One, which is more easily measurable, is the role of community radios in
emergency situations or there could be an earthquake. It’s a very nebulous thing
to measure how people are integrating the community radio not only in terms of
their listening patterns but also the way that they are interacting with the people
of their community. Likewise, it’s a very difficult thing to measure how
comfortable people are to talk on the radio and about the radio particularly in
situations where there has been a conflict. Likewise, quality indicators arising
from life stories of individual and collective social change can render how the
communication process initiated by CR has a social impact. The main
recommendation is on the use of participatory monitoring & evaluation process.
Time is a key factor when measuring CR social Impact CR experiences show

that CR social impact is dependent on the time factor. Community radio cannot
be measured in a time space of months or a couple of years but it has to be
much more long lived. Testimonials are very powerful way of documenting how
people feel about the impact of community radio to them and in the wider space
of their community as long as they come from a wide variety of experiences and
backgrounds. The longer the period the more easily it is to measure the social
impact of CR. Good examples of this is the experience of CR in Nepal, that after
10 years of experiences, became a contributing factor in the return of democracy
after the Royal Coup of February 2005;
The need to use the tools for measurement that correspond to the social impact
we are evaluating. For peace building and conflict resolution for instance the
Listeners clubs, feedback and letters measurements need to be fine-tuned. In
many countries in the world the background infrastructure for measuring impact
does not exist. What is the basis for claiming that a community radio has reached
a certain number of people? How do you prove that the community is actually
listening to you programs? How can you have an objective figure that says that

this is the impact you are having in terms of ordinary listeners? The main
indicators for CR social impact can be drawn from the use of the following list:
• Audience research, phone-in, letters, SMS feedback, listeners clubs, focus
groups;
• Increased access & participation of the community, citizens and excluded
in radio programs and activities and events;
• Political, social and economic changes in the communities (socially tested
indicators);
• Content analysis of program broadcasting;
• Increased participation of citizens in setting the public agenda and
democracy: political impact of the radio as intermediary of the community
with the political power;
• Empowerment of individuals and the excluded (examples of election of
indigenous representative; number of local organizations, etc.)
• Increasing number of CR and radio projects;
• Increased participation in electoral processes;
• Life stories of members and listeners of the CR;
• Resolution of specific existing problems through social or collective action
(water sanitation, AIDS prevalence, etc.)
• Government statistics related to territory of coverage by the CR.
The Social Impacts of CR.

The existence of CR is a measure of the level of democracy, Good Governance
and accountability in a society. For most community radio practitioners, the social
impact of community radio is evidence on itself. The sole existence of community
radio has a positive impact in the communities because it allows the access to a
media and alternative experiences for local communities. This situation explains
the lack of understanding on stakeholders on what is the impact of CR, for they
have the difficulty to differentiate between CR as a mass media (or a lower
example of mass media) and the participatory and communication rights
perspective of community radio as being the essential medium to let the voices
heard of the poor and marginalized. Advocating for the recognition of community
radios within the wider struggle for the democratization of societies is part of the
democratization of societies and the existence of CR is a measure of the
democratization reached but that society. CRs are entitled to be protected by the
law. We must stop separating communication from other social problems.
Community radio is effective in ensuring inclusion of the marginalized.

Community radios have played a role in all regions opening the microphones to
the dispossessed and marginalized. The inclusion that results brings added value
to information on shared cultures and values and also in recognition of individual
rights especially for women. CR facilitates building of communities’ socialization,
including solidarity, social inclusion, and rights of people to speak. (South Africa)
Community radio is (or should be) an accessible form of communication which
can ensure a voice for our people’s marginalized communities and sectors, such

as rural black women, impoverished children and workers in the informal
economy, contributing to their democratic development and helping them to
organize and struggle for change and for improvements to their socio-economic
and political status. “For a Mapuche, written words and numbers carry no real
value. We have an oral tradition and the measure of the impact of the community
radio is related to reinforcing the cultural Lafquenche way of life and the self
determination it reinforces in the communities”. Participant from Southern Chile
Community radio is effective in poverty reduction. Access to voice, information,

and knowledge are vital factors in facilitating the achievement of poverty
reduction and sustainable human development, as voicelessness is a key
dimension of poverty and exclusion. Radio Ada (Ghana), Radio Oxyjeunes
(Senegal) are good examples. The strength of Community Radio is to restore the
capabilities the poor to participate in development. As said by Amartya Sen:
“...poverty must be seen as the deprivation of basic capabilities rather than
merely as lowness of incomes, which is the standard criterion of identification of
poverty” Participant from India.
CR is effective in ensuring good governance and accountability. Community radio

can contribute to rendering governments accountable by enabling ordinary
people to question their leaders on matters such as the use of public resources.
“Community Radio has made possible for ordinary people to have powers to
summon their leaders and make them accountable hoe they are using public
resources. This instills accountability, transparency and good governance and
strengthens societies bringing sustainable development and leaders do what
people want and according to their priorities for example they can debate
whether they want a school instead of a clinic or a hammer mill instead of a
borehole.” Participant from Zambia;
CR is effective in achieving development goals. Community radio is effective in

facilitating communication for key development sectors such as health, education
and livelihoods. “Uganda has seen the emergency of community radios
specializing in various avenues from health, HIV-AIDS, youth matters, education
and gender affairs (women). This has brought a positive economic growth and a
reduction in the HIV-AIDS rate due to empowering information thanks to
community radios. Let as all rise and make this noble cause more effective.”
(Participant from Uganda). Provide service to the community, with programming
of a high pedagogical, cultural and informational content. That it offer its
audience a personal and community-based development alternative. They
should be guiding lights to the community they serve (Participant from
Venezuela).
Community Radio is effective in Disaster Prevention/Relief. Community Radio

has proven a key actor when it comes to natural disaster prevention and relief in
Asia by allowing access to information and voice at the local level contributing to
the protection, security and safety of communities against danger. We need to

document the role played by CR is disaster and relief management. The
experiences from India, Indonesia, Thailand, Japan and Pakistan need to be
documented. Our own preparedness to face this disaster will depend on how
much we learn from this. Following hurricane Katrina, in the USA, community
radio practitioners petitioned the FCC for and received Low Power FM licenses to
be used at locations where evacuees were housed. They set up transmitters and
began broadcasting. FM radios were distributed to evacuees and emergency
announcements as well as simple logistics information needed to reconnect
families were broadcast
Community radio is effective in Peace Building. Community Radio facilitates

communication processes facilitating dialogue for conflict resolution and Peace
Building in Asia, in Africa and Latin America. There is the need for measuring the
role of community radio in peace building and conflict resolution. Particular ways
in which impact is measured such as through listeners club and feedback and
letters need to be further explored and fine tuned. Some of them are measuring
how things are changing, some of them are measuring how large our audiences
are and what are audiences contain and some are ethnographic details that
showed us what role community radio is playing. Community radios are known as
messengers of development, peace, social knowledge and the socio-economic
and cultural tools of empowerment. They extend a bridge between politics and
community action. Conflict reconstruction and peace building are areas where
the CR sector can work best. There is a need to do lot of documentation in this
matter. Many countries have been in conflict and community radios have been
playing a particular role and people have generated experiences.
Community Radio is effective in empowering Women. Community Radio has

proven a key component in addressing women empowerment by facilitating
access to information and Voice for women in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
“After decades and centuries, and several global women’s conferences, in many
parts of the world women’s rights have been recognized and opportunities for
women have expanded. However gender equality is far from being achieved.
Community radio is key instrument in advocating women’s rights and practicing
gender equality” Participant from the Philippines. Calling it women’s participation
in community radio is more realistic than using the word ‘gender.’ A woman
behind a microphone handling the studio on her own is a sign of involvement of
women in this sector. When a woman says that she is a housewife and has come
to the station from time to time, that is the indication that the station has come
upfront. Just by taking women’s feedback on programs does not mean women’s
participation.
Community Radio is effective in ameliorating quality of life and cultural diversity.

CR facilitates the amelioration of quality of life, self-esteem and facilitating
achieving the millennium development goals in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
(Cameroon) Programs are inspired by people’s life experiences. Radio deals with
local problems, especially economic, social and cultural life. It uses local and

national languages. “For several cultural and linguistic minorities, the community
radio is the only place where their language is spoken and their music being
heard and their culture is celebrated. Community radio a social impact in
preserving languages and cultural expressions, giving additional value to them,
and leading to the amelioration of the self esteem of the community and to large
recognition people outside the community” Participant from Bolivia. For instance
in one station there was a question on how to look after the children in the village
better? The children in the village seemed healthier and better looked after.
There weren’t as many deaths as before. This outcome could be traced right
back to the messages and programmes that were broadcasted earlier on.
Community Radio is effective in building citizenship. CR contributes through

communication processes to building citizenship and individual participation in
the public sphere. This can be measured by the recognition of individuals whose
lives have been improved by community radio. The issue being not only to hear,
but also to be heard and participate in political processes by having one’s point of
view recognized. “Only radio with the magic of sound can help the survival of
local knowledge and reinforce solidarity in the communities, because it attracts
the listeners in their own language and can send their message as the people of
the community is producing the programs, it builds ownership that a commercial
media could have. This is very positive.” (Participant from Colombia.)
Community Radio is effective in extending Communication Rights. The impact of

community radio has been in extending the communication rights, including the
right to be heard and not only to be informed. There is an impact from the
existence in itself of community radio, in the democratization of communication
and in the establishment of the public agenda by civil society organizations. The
right to the information is placed in political context and not only as a problem of
journalists. There is need for more coordination with social movements to
increase the impact of CR if we want to counteract factual powers. An indicator of
this is that governments have recognized AMARC as an interlocutor, when it
comes to community radio.
Community Radio helps citizens to influence the local public agenda setting. The
impact of community radio is stronger at the local level especially in making
possible for citizens to participate in setting the public agenda. Community radios
propose a change against the belief that the world cannot be changed. This is
being done by re-appropriating political spaces. Politics is not solely the right of
politicians. It is a dynamic and dialogic process of collective construction which
can not be quantitatively measured but must be looked at qualitatively. This
permits to recover the sense of politics and the democratization agenda: Politics
not as the space of politicians but including citizens. Community media has a role
in the representation of civil society organizations and in building of a type of
politics that is collective, dynamic and in dialogue that can only be measured in
quality and not in terms quantity. “Some general indicators of social impact of
community radio can be seen in the increase of participation and collective action

to solve problems that affect the community as a whole, the strengthening of
local community voices to increase the dialogue with other communities and with
external agents of development, the rise of cultural identity, the appropriation of a
share of the public space for active citizen’s participation, and the growth of
awareness of the concept of national citizenship or ethnic universe. Impact can
be recognized if, for example, groups of women have bettered their positions in
terms of being heard and contributing to decisions.” Participant from Guatemala.
Community Radio empowers local communities. Likewise, the increase in impact

is related to empowerment, to decentralization, to the establishment of citizenship
agendas, and the content of strategies directed to the radios and to the networks
with clear concepts and goals. (Mali) The vision, objectives, management and
programming are adapted for communication with a view to community
development.
CR supports the development of a democratic and inclusive information society.

Community radios introduce in their practice the subject of communications and a
promise of appropriation of new technologies by society. Possibilities exist of
shortening the gap but there are no public policies (in place to guide the
process). Governments see the subject of NICT from the economic point of view.
It is necessary to find ways to convince others that NICT is a question of rights.
We must also reflect on how these technologies would affect radios, their content
(programming), not only the replacement of old with new technologies/
equipment, but the political, social and economic impact on societies. This
discussion is important to prepare us for the change.
The Survey on Community Radio Social Impact indicated that the perceived
order of social impact of CR is as follows. (1) Access to a media for excluded; (2)
Promote democratization of society and of communications; (3) Accountability of
governments; (4) Inform and broadcast on local issues; (5) Solidarity and
community development; (6) Women empowerment; (7) Poverty reduction; (8)
Health prevention & relief; (9) Conflict resolution & peace building; (10) Source of
employment;

Chapter 7: The Impact of Community Radio29
Measuring Impact
In spite of the pressure from mechanist theories and practices that reduce
knowledge to statistics, it is now clear that social progress and social change
cannot only be measured in numbers. Well being is not a matter of productivity or
higher income alone, but relates to education, health, culture, knowledge, ethics
and human values. Social development and social change relate to a wider
spectrum of goals; a horizon of freedom that includes the right to communicate
and a better understanding of human development.
This is why the traditional western approaches to measuring development are of

little use, and alien to local culture and values. In the first place, institutional
agendas are often alien to the needs of the community. External measuring
systems usually pay little attention to local needs and are designed and applied
by specialists who often know little about the human universe in which they
intervene. Often they do not speak the language, nor are they able to recognize
social and political traits within the communities they visit. The kind of information
that is researched may not be the information that is more important for the
community. The manner in which measurements and evaluations are done often
reflect pressures (short time availability, that is overly demanding on the
communities) and bias (cultural, political), and are often the result of
manipulation, both at the stage of collecting information and at the stage of
interpreting the data.
The above explains why so many programmes rated as successful when

evaluated –usually at their peak of effectiveness and under intensive inputs --
easily collapse after a couple of years. Most of these evaluations are also “self-
evaluations”, which do not involve truly independent evaluators (e.g. universities,
research centers), and if they do, they may be conducted by companies that earn
their living by crafting positive results.
Participatory monitoring and evaluation (PM&E) is growing as a concept and as a

demand from communities to be involved in the process of being evaluated.
Communities usually know better about the horizon of their expectations, the kind
of goals they want to reach and the kind of life they want to live. Having
communities as full partners in the design, development, application and analysis
of evaluation data is the right way to go, even if the results may not be
satisfactory for external partners or for the community itself. Evaluations should
be seen as a mechanism to learn and do better, not just as collecting information
to build another best practice example. There is also much to learn from bad
practices.
29
by Alfonso Gumucio Dagron, Managing Director, Programmes, Communication for Social
Change Consortium, 29 September 2006

Evaluation that is based on qualitative indicators rather than quantitative
indicators, and takes advantage of life stories of social change, provides a better
sense of what may be needed at the planning stage. Community members
themselves can work hand-in-hand with researchers, as they did in Colombia30,
to establish evaluation indicators and methodologies. Participatory evaluations of
communication initiatives that have not been participatory usually reveal that
community ownership should have happened from inception of a community
media project.
Qualitative indicators are flexible because they are indicators of social processes
and speak of real people and of individual and collective stories of social change.
Quantitative indicators are often like an outsider’s picture which is taken at a
given time and doesn’t reflect the before and the after. The snapshot approach
to quantitative indicators will only tell about a precise moment in the process, but
little about the process itself. 31
Impact on social change

When we inquire about the impact of community media (radio, Internet, or other),
what do we mean by that?
The main concern of communities in terms of their well-being is self-

determination, the increase of participation and collective action to solve
problems that affect the community as a whole, the strengthening of local
community voices to increase the dialogue with other communities and with
external agents of development, the rise of cultural identity, the appropriation of a
share of the public space for active citizens participation, and the growth of
awareness of the concept of national citizenship or ethnic universe.
The main impact on social change, identifiable in community radio stations that
are truly participatory and democratic, is on voices. The fact itself of being able to
communicate is a qualitative indicator of the highest relevance. Communities
that never had the opportunity to express themselves, or social sectors within a
particular community that were placed under the shadow of silence, now have
voices of their own. The importance of having a voice that is heard through a
community radio station indicates social change underway within that community
and in relation to any external stakeholders. Communities that seize their right to
communicate and not just their right to access information are taking a great step
forward in acting together for the betterment of their lives.
The importance of voice and the ability to exert the right to communicate may not
seem so important for those who have that right insured, but it can be the most
30
The systematization of the community radio network (AREDMAG) in the Magdalena Medio region was
a joint effort of three universities and the local radio stations.
31
The Communication for Social Change Consortium has developed a set of publications on Participatory
Monitoring and Evaluation (PM&E) which can be found at: http://www.cfsc.org/publications-
resources.php?id=283

meaningful social change indicator in communities that have never been heard.
For example, the community audio towers in the Philippines have changed the
landscape of relations between small communities and local governments. In
Tacunan, à Barangay in Mindanao, members of the Community Media Council
(CMC) emphasize that electricity, potable water and a new road were a result of
the community being empowered through the community audio tower to
communicate its demands to the authorities.
Participation and ownership, which allow for the appropriation of the

communication process, are indicators of impact because they are the result of
social transformation within the community. For participation to take place and
evolve towards ownership, social changes have to happen in the relations of
power within the community. Ownership of the communication process can only
take place if the various sectors within a community can participate
democratically, through their representatives or directly as citizens whose rights
are fully recognized in the community. Impact can be documented if, for example,
groups of women have bettered their positions in terms of being heard and
contributing to decisions.
The issue of horizontal communication is relevant not only for a radio station
establishing a dialogue with other communities, but also the horizontal dialogue
that is established within the community, among various social sectors, to be part
of the process of ownership.
Collective action is another key indicator of impact. Communities able to

collectively strengthen their capacity to respond to the needs of development and
social change through dialogue, through participation and through collective
action, are in a position to make decisions about the present and the future.
Capacity or capability (reflection, analysis, learning from each other, problem
solving, and empowerment) is essential for development of freedom, or
development as freedom.32
The role of AMARC

AMARC has been the main network representing the movement of community
radio worldwide. Its growth has encompassed the development of thousands of
community and local radio stations in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the
Caribbean, and other regions of the world where community radio exists. AMARC
is an association and at the same time a social movement with a political
perspective, as stated in its main documents. It aims to “contribute to the
expression of different social, political and cultural movements and to the
promotion of all initiatives supporting peace, friendship among peoples.” .
Through their programming, radio stations affiliated with AMARC are guided by
principles reflecting respect: “the sovereignty and independence of all peoples;
32
“In this perspective, poverty must be seen as the deprivation of basic capabilities rather than merely as
lowness of incomes, which is the standard criterion of identification of poverty.” Amartya Sen:
Development as Freedom (1999) Alfred A. Knopf, Random House Inc. New York.

solidarity and non-intervention in the internal affairs of other countries;
international cooperation based on the creation of permanent and widespread
ties based on equality, reciprocity, and mutual respect; non-discrimination on the
basis of race, sex, sexual preference or religion; and respect for the cultural
identity of peoples.”
The importance of AMARC as facilitator of impact needs to be stressed. As an

organization that represents an extended social movement, spread in all regions
of the world, AMARC has a responsibility in leading the movement and
strengthening it by increasing participation and ownership from its affiliates. The
network democratically responds to its constituency, not as a service provider,
but as representative of the struggle for the right to communicate.
Impact is not only circumscribed to the area of influence of each community radio
station. Through AMARC, the influence of community radio now covers all
regions. The fact that community radio has been incorporated in the language of
development and social change is already a demonstration of impact of
community radio. The notions that community radio represent in terms of
dialogue, debate, participation, ownership and collective action have been
deployed by AMARC and other regional networks and organizations over the
worldwide public space. That is certainly a significant indicator of impact of
communication strategies that transcend local scenarios.
Community radio cannot be perceived any longer as the sum of local, isolated
and marginal experiences, but as a social movement that keeps growing and
reflects the lives and struggles for freedom of millions of people around the world.
Its impact is now recognized by large development organizations that are
reviewing their policies and strategy papers to accommodate an updated notion
of communication for development and social change, which is not narrowly
focused on dissemination of information and access to information, but on the
exercise of the right to communicate through the strengthening of community
media.
The work of AMARC across regions has had impact in the recognition of
community radio and the legislation that many governments are reviewing to
accommodate the right to communicate of communities. In Latin America and
The Caribbean, AMARC has notably influenced the Inter-American Commission
for Human Rights, which held audiences with government officials of various
countries, to open or maintain and enhance the dialogue and negotiation with
civil society organizations and representatives from community radio networks.
This has had effect in Mexico and Guatemala, among other countries, in spite of
political difficulties to achieve immediate results in the latter country.

Chapter 8: Why Assess Community Radio? It Works, Doesn’t
It?33
Volumes of text have been written about community radio: how it builds
community participation and local ownership, how it offers alternative
programming and showcases indigenous cultures, how it can help preserve “lost”
languages and societies. Dozens of organizations during the past 15 years have
studied and written about the power of community radio. Ranging from Unesco
to OSI and other foundations, to universities, regional radio associations and
AMARC itself, there seems to be universal consensus that community radio is an
effective tool for development.
During its Amman, Jordan world assembly in November 2006, AMARC delegates
will discuss the next steps in the organization’s future. Key to that future will be
the ability to prove the continued contributions of community radio to
development, and to make that case to a variety of stakeholders including station
managers and local management committees, donors, government
policymakers, listeners, programme producers and community leaders.
Many of the arguments about the power of community radio are still anecdotal
and episodic. That is, one can argue for the value of community radio based on
what he or she has observed with a particular issue at a particular station at a
particular time. For example, the organizing power of community radio is
demonstrated clearly by case stories of Bolivian miners’ radio or Radio Zibonele’s
role in organizing taxi drivers. More recently, there seems to be causal evidence
that Nepal community radio helped restore democratic government in that
country or that Radio Magdalena has increased dialogue and problem-solving
about peace and conflict resolution in Columbia.
Yet, there remains a need to “make the case” more systematically of how
community radio stations – over sustained periods of time – have moved
development forward in their coverage areas, are contributing to shifts in
community values and norms, and are positively impacting people and societies.
A key distinguishing factor setting community radio apart from commercial radio
is its participatory process nature. Community radio is not just about producing
good radio programmes. It is a social process, more than a series of products or
programmes. Community radio stations spring up and survive because they can
make positive contributions to societies, often to societies in turmoil or during
periods of growth.
Thus, we need methods of measurement and assessment that analyze the

volatile process nature of community radio. We assume in this paper that
adequate instruments already exist to measure community radio programming, or
33
Written by Denise Gray-Felder, CFSC Consortium, for AMARC 6 November 2006

that existing radio programming assessment tools can be adapted to community
radio.
This executive report, prepared for delegates to the AMARC Amman assembly,
does three things:
1) Summarizes the arguments for assessing the effectiveness of
community radio, as a process
2) Outlines forms of assessment that may be useful to AMARC stations
3) Proposes ways of documenting community radio effectiveness and
assessment processes in the coming year.
Arguments for Assessing Community Radio Effectiveness

In a sense, the growth and spread of community radio stations throughout the
world can be considered a movement of social ideas and processes of
development. Community based radio stations, when effectively managed by
local committees, can demonstrate key principles of local ownership, elevating
local voices, community participation in decisions affecting them and collective
decision-making. Each of these is essential for good government and democratic
values to flourish.
Community radio stations provide venues for less frequently heard small voices
to be heard in larger big media. They provide ways of organizing people living
together in the same defined geographic area – or community of interest --
around their common values and beliefs.
Most people affiliated with community radio – either as station management,

programmers, listeners, or donors – believe that community radio works.
Programming is generally interesting, and offers viable alternatives to mass-
market commercial radio in most license areas. The public interest is often
served with programme offerings in health, education, agriculture, culture, politics
or financial management, to name a few.
Listeners seem to like and appreciate community radio stations especially when
subjects that they care about are aired.
In short, within the development field, community radio is widely viewed as a

successful approach. How do we prove such views?
During its Amman assembly, AMARC delegates will be asked to consider a

sustained way of assessing community radio throughout its regions. Some call
this “effectiveness.” Others talk about “impact” of community radio, or “evidence”
that community radio works. We do not believe these words are
interchangeable. The type of analysis and review that we reference in this paper
should be termed “effectiveness and impact.” For we encourage AMARC
members to undertake processes that will help them understand how they are

doing the work they are chartered to do (effectiveness) and what influence that
work has on the people they represent and the communities they serve (impact).
The first task, therefore, is to clearly state what we want to assess. We favor the
term “assess” instead of “measure.” As community radio is a participatory
process that aids development and social progress, we do not recommend that
purely quantitative efforts be used. We favor participatory means of assessment
in which people from the affected community are involved in recommending,
putting together the plans, and using the assessment tools.
At this juncture, we recommend that any AMARC system of assessment contain

two components:
a) Assessment of the effectiveness of the process of delivering

community radio (station management, operation and programming),
and
b) Assessment of the effectiveness of community radio stations in
contributing to social progress of the communities in which they are
broadcasting, and analysis of the impact of such contributions.
Currently, those community media organizations that undertake assessments,

(often termed evaluations) primarily look at the perceived impact of community
radio programming on listeners and the perceived views of their listeners. In
principle, we support such means of gathering feedback from the beneficiaries.
What is most often lacking, however, is a systematic look at the entire process of
delivering community radio and its programming – an analysis that must be done
with the heavy involvement of the intended beneficiaries or those from the
affected communities.
This perspective sees assessment as a central component of accountability to

the communities, which community radio stations serve. Unless such systems
are well developed, accountability can be compromised.
Why assess community radio’s effectiveness now? There are several reasons:
Because there is enough history and available data to make analysis of short-
term and long-term outcomes sensible. Because there has been significant
financial investment by donors ranging from large bilateral and multilateral
institutions to individual donors who have built community stations in Latin
America, Africa and Asia, such donors need to know if their money has been put
to good use.
Also, because competition can only increase, due in part to rapidly exploding
communication technology which can drive costs down, more community radio
stations may spring up in those parts of the world with favorable broadcast
legislation. On the flip side, we are already seeing dramatic growth of
commercial radio stations within developing countries.

Assessments create knowledge that can be used to make the community radio
process – and its individual station offerings – better. No institution, whether from
the community or not, can afford to stagnant and take its mission or its
stakeholders for granted.
We also need to undertake more systematic assessment of community radio

because liberalization of media may ultimately result in more favorable legislative
and policy climates for community radio, in many parts of the world. Solid
assessment reports can help show regulators and legislators that community
radio is indeed contributing to social progress of a nation.
Community radio is a system that influences public and private values, helps
shape public opinion and public will, “rescues” lost cultures and languages, and
informs citizens who may be harder to reach about issues of importance to them.
As such, this system is essential to governments and civil society. In order to
attract and sustain community radio networks within and across national
boundaries we need concrete, defendable information on what the community
radio movement has done.
As an organization, AMARC can only benefit from cementing its base and
demonstrating to all its constituents that the community radio process not only
works but is essential to the movement of development goals. Community radio
contributes in numerous ways to shaping public attitudes and beliefs, informing
citizens, catalyzing dialogue, increasing community participation in decisions that
affect them, promoting local ownership of communication processes, and
mobilizing members of the affected community. Systematic and regular
assessments of both the process of community radio and the impact of
community radio on moving societies should be required oversight.
And finally, regular assessments of the community radio process will lead to
better radio programming.
Recommended Methods
Our review of available literature on community media, community radio, and
participatory evaluation revealed no single vehicle or tool that can be
automatically adapted to the type of systemic assessment of the community radio
process that we’re recommending. However, there is a myriad of available
sources of assessment tools for development or for media, parts of which can be
adapted to the challenge of community radio.
As suggested above, we suggest a two-tiered approach to any assessment:
A. looking at the effectiveness of the total process of delivering

community radio for a defined geographic or franchise area (system
effectiveness)

B. Assessing the effectiveness of community radio in bringing about shifts
in public values and social norms leading to social progress; and
analyzing the impact of such contributions to a given society. (impact
or social influence)
In both cases, we prefer participatory approaches in which the people involved in

the systems or in the processes determine what will be assessed and why, what
the indicators of change are, how they will be quantified or qualified, what the
data means for their community, and how the knowledge garnered will be
presented and shared.
A. System view of community radio effectiveness
This type of assessment can take a short-term or longer-term view. The

emphasis is on station delivery, not just programming, with evidence of
movement. Indicators can be determined and monitored by people of and from
the affected community, with results shared broadly within the community. The
vehicle can be written questionnaires or face-to-face individual or group
meetings. We prefer a combination of means.
Among the type of issues that can be asked, on a short –term basis are:
What do you like or dislike about the station? About how it operates? About the
personnel? About management?
• What is the purpose of this station? Is it meeting its stated purpose? Why
or why not?
• What works well? What doesn’t work well?
• What do you think has been the station’s greatest accomplishment in the
past year? In the past two years?
• What has been the greatest failing?
• Is the station responsive to your needs? To your interests?
• How do you give feedback to the station? Do they seem to act upon your
suggestions?
• Do you see any evidence of change in your community this year that can
be attributed to the station? If so, what?
• Is this station making a positive contribution to your community? To your
culture?
• Which issues seem to be of greatest importance to this station?
• When has the station failed you or failed your community? How?
Program-related: (audience or listener specific to determine reach and reactions)

• Which programs do you listen to regularly and why?
• Which shows do you never miss? Why?
• Which do you always miss and why?
• Where are you, physically, most often when listening to this station?
• What would you like to hear more of?

• What would you like to hear less of and why?
• How often do you listen to this station (days, times, frequency)
• How long do you listen each day and why? Who do you listen with?
• Do you recall a time when the programming was not on the air, as
anticipated? What happened? What did the station do as a result?
• Are you involved in station operation? Why not? Do you know anyone
who is? Who and what does he/she do? Would you like to be involved in
the station?
• Who are your favorite presenters and why? Your favorite programs and
why? Least favorite?
• What have you learned in the past 3 months from listening? What do you
expect to learn in the next 3 months?
B. Impact or Social Influence (Outcome assessment)
This form of assessment is looking at longer-term change, or indicators of

change. Those within the community define change. These same community
members can also be involved in determining the indicators of progress or the
critical factors needed to bring about social change. Among the methods that
can be used are elements of participatory monitoring and evaluation (see the
Consortium publication “Who Measures Change?”) and Most Significant Change
methodology.
Types of questions explored might include:

• What are people saying about this community radio station within this
community? What stories are most frequently told? How have these
stories changed over the past year, past two years?
• Is this station contributing to how people think (about a stated issue)?
How? Why do you think that is?
• Is this station influencing the way people act in this community? How?
What signs or evidence do you have of such change?
• Do you see changes in public beliefs? Opinions? Values? (these should
be issue specific with definitions of these terms) Examine how and why
you think this is happening.
• What is the purpose or mission of this station? Do you think it is living up
to its stated purpose? Why or why not?
• How is this station contributing to local culture, local society, your country?
• What is important for you to change in this community? How can the
station play a role? Is it playing such a role now, and if so, how? If not,
why not?
• What are you learning from listening regularly? What have you learned in
the past year? Before then?
• If you could set guidelines for how the station should operate, what would
they be?
• What do you know about how the station is managed? Are you satisfied?

• How do you participate in this station? If you do not, have you ever been
approached to do so?
Principles of Assessment
The review of existing literature done for AMARC suggests that although there
are few specific guidelines for evaluating the impact of community radio, there
are several useful reference several publications.
The nature of community radio itself, being participatory and adapted to the
cultural, social and political context of each region, country and community, calls
for approaches to impact assessment, and even systems assessment, that are
consistent with the philosophy of participation and local ownership.
Any assessment should serve the needs and interests of the community radio
constituencies, this is, the people from the community where the station
operates. Assessments should be done in a participatory manner involving all
stakeholders and constituents such as listeners, station personnel, affiliated
community groups, NGOs and universities.
If we accept these principles, then it is counter-intuitive for us to recommend a

single manual, or single tool, be used for assessing community radio.
AMARC may need to develop a resource publication on assessing community

radio. The resource book should explain participatory approaches, their value,
and provide examples from other efforts.

PART IV. Community Radio Practitioners Perspectives.34
Chapter 9: Community Radio and Empowerment35
Introduction
Two years ago, UN agencies and leading NGO specialists in the field of
communications for development, gathered in Rome for the Ninth United Nations
Round Table on Communications for Development. In their final Declaration they
stated:
“Governments should implement a legal and supportive framework

favoring the right to free expression and the emergence of free and
pluralistic information systems, including the recognition of the
specific and crucial role of community media in providing access to
communication for isolated and marginalized groups.”36
This is just one of several authoritative statements in recent years that have
recognized the particular role of community media in poverty reduction and
development. Similar statements can be found in reports of several bilateral
donors and of UN specialist agencies including The World Bank37, United Nations
Development Programme38, UNESCO39 and FAO.40
Community media can be understood as referring to media projects and

organizations which are independent, civil society based and operate for social
objectives rather than for private financial gain. They are normally operated by
community-based organizations, local NGOs, workers organizations, educational
institutions, religious or cultural organizations, or by associations of one or more
of these forms of civil society organization.
34
Part III, presents some presentations by CR practitioners on challenges and experience of CR and
AMARC during the World Evaluation of Community Radio: Removing Barriers, Increasing Efficiency
activities, including Regional Roundtables, Electronic Forum Discussions, electronic Survey and AMARC
9 World Conference.
35
Presentation of Steve Buckley, President of AMARC in Colombo, May 1st 2007.
36
Ninth United Nations Round Table on Communications for Development, Rome, September 2003
37
The World Bank has said: “Community radio stations can be critical enablers of information, voice and
capacities for dialogue”, in Social accountability and public voice through community radio programming,
Social Development Notes No 76, The World Bank April 2003
38
UNDP has said: “Legal and regulatory frameworks that protect and enhance community media are
especially critical for ensuring vulnerable groups freedom of expression and access to information”, in
Access to Information: Practice Note, UNDP October 2003
39
UNESCO has said: “Community radio is one of the most effective and least costly means of
communication for development, especially in rural communities” in Communication for Development,
Report to the 58th Session of the United Nations General Assembly, May 2003
40
FAO has said: “Community radio activities can help in bridging the rural digital divide facilitating the
link with new information and communication technologies” in A Brief about FAO Communication for
Development, FAO Communication for Development Group, 2004

While community media can take many forms – for example, using cassette tape,
video, public address systems and print – it is community radio which has
particularly come to the fore as a medium which is accessible, low cost and,
often, both popular and participatory. Today community radio is not only well
established in Europe and the Americas. It is widespread across Africa; it has
become a growing force in Asia and the Pacific; and it has entered the
mainstream discourse of development professionals and agencies.
The growth of community radio is a story of people and communities striving to

speak out and to be heard. Community radio has provided a means of
empowerment and of self-reliance. It has enabled people to engage in dialogue
about their conditions and their livelihoods. And it has contributed to the defence
of cultural and linguistic diversity. It is a story in which the pursuit of social and
development goals has been deeply entwined with the struggle for human and
political rights and particularly the right to freedom of expression.41
Over the last twenty years, as the global network of community broadcasters has
grown it has been paralleled by the emergence of new communication
technologies - technologies that enable access to information globally and
instantaneously. The emergence of new information and communication
technologies has rightly been compared to the industrial revolution. It has
contributed to economic globalization and has enabled new international social
movements to proliferate. But it also threatens to amplify the gross asymmetry in
people’s access to information and communication. While enthusiasm for the
41
Mexico: Radio Jën Poj and Radio Uandarhi: On 6 December 2004, Radio Jën Poj in Santa
Maria Tlahuitoltepec, Oaxaca and Radio Uandarhi of Uruapan, Michoacán became the first
indigenous groups in Mexico to be granted broadcast licences to operate their own community
radio stations. The move by the Mexican government followed three years of negotiations and
lobbying by community media activists, human rights organisations and the Inter-American
Commission of Human Rights. When President Vicente Fox’s Partido Acción Nacional won the
Mexican election of 2000 one of the essential demands of citizen’s groups was reform of the
Radio and Television Act, guarantees of the right to freedom of expression and the need for limits
on private media concentration in the hands of corporations such as Televisa.
At first it seemed there were good reasons to be optimistic but behind the scenes lobbying of the
federal government by commercial broadcast proprietors produced a new radio and television
decree weighted strongly in their favour together with renewed persecution of the community
radio stations. Community broadcasters, including Radio Jën Poj, reported military raids and
violently implemented closures. In 2003 both the United Nations Human Rights Commission and
the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights intervened with recommendations to the
Mexican government to cease the persecution of community radio and to provide proper licences
to operate.
In March 2004, at a hearing of the Inter-American Commission of Human Rights, the Mexican
government gave undertakings to establish a process for legal recognition of not-for-profit
community radio stations serving indigenous people and farming communities. Despite last-ditch
efforts by commercial broadcasters to persuade President Vicente Fox to abandon the licensing
plans, the first two licences were awarded in December 2004 and more have been awarded
since. The newly licensed community radios have said they will emphasise indigenous languages
and culture and will seek to address the social and economic problems of the communities they
serve.

liberating potential of the Internet rose alongside its stock market success – and
perhaps waned with it too – it has also brought a wider awareness of the
importance of access to knowledge and information which has in turn brought a
renewed interest in traditional media such as radio.
Poverty and freedom of expression

In recent years there has also been a significant shift in the thinking of
development professionals and development institutions from an excessive
emphasis on market driven economic growth and technology transfer to a more
people-centered discourse.42
In this perspective voicelessness and powerlessness have come to be seen as

key dimensions of poverty while democracy, equity and civil rights are seen as
not only intrinsically desirable but as directly contributing to the realization of
human security, well-being and opportunity.43 Amartya Sen, the Nobel Prize
winning economist, has argued consistently and forcefully that no substantial
famine has ever occurred in any independent country with a democratic form of
government and a relatively free press.44
Sen has offered four reasons why media freedom is important.
First he argues that freedom of speech and the ability to communicate is

intrinsically desirable for well-being and the quality of human life. The
suppression of people’s ability to communicate directly reduces quality of life
even if the authoritarian country that imposes such a constraint happens to
provide other social and economic protections.
Second, it can have an important protective function in giving voice to the

neglected and the disadvantaged. The means to speak out can contribute greatly
to human security. Political elites faced with public criticism in the media have a
strong incentive to take timely action to avoid crises and to counter inequity in
access to resources.
Third, the media have an informational function in disseminating knowledge and

allowing critical scrutiny. This function is crucial to empowerment and holding
elites to account.
Fourth the media have a crucial role to play in value formation enabling public
adaptation to change and the local appropriation of knowledge and information.
42
Balit, Sylvia, Communication for Isolated and Marginalised Groups, Blending the Old and the
New, Paper for Ninth United Nation Round Table on Communications for Development, FAO,
Rome 2004
43
Chapter 6, World Development Report 2000/2001, Attacking Poverty, New York: Oxford
University Press http://www.worldbank.org/wdr
44
See, for example, Sen, A. (1981) Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and
Deprivation. Oxford: Clarendon Press; and Sen, A.(2000) Development as Freedom. New York:
Anchor Books

From this perspective, communication policies that guarantee the rights to
freedom of expression and access to information can contribute directly to the
achievement of development goals. Policies that suppress these rights can have
a detrimental effect.
Without access to voice poor people are unable to participate in debate or to

express their opinions on public policies that affect them directly. Without access
to information poor people are unaware of their rights and entitlements, are
unable to challenge decisions and lack the knowledge to take effective action to
improve their conditions.
Nobody hears the poor. It is the rich who are being heard.45
The groundbreaking study, Voices of the Poor, set out to listen to poor people’s
own voices on the experience of poverty. It started from a recognition that poor
people’s own views have rarely part been part of the policy debate. The study
noted that poor men and women are themselves acutely aware of their lack of
voice, their lack of information and their lack of contacts to access information
and, from interviews across the world, they discuss how this puts them at a
disadvantage in dealings with public agencies, NGOs, employers and traders.
People living in poverty face particular barriers to voice and access to information
that are directly associated with the conditions in which they live46. These include
barriers of cost, for example for the purchase or rental of communications
services and equipment. They include social barriers including discrimination in
access to services, lack of education including illiteracy, and lack of provision in
appropriate languages. They include lack of basic infrastructure including
electricity and transportation. They include political obstacles including repression
and lack of will of states to allow democratic access to information and voice for
the most marginalized groups as well as direct forms of censorship and lack of
information about knowledge and information systems. This asymmetry is
frequently called the “digital divide” but it is more accurately understood as a
“communications divide” that pre-dates the new digital technologies. It is a divide
rooted in poverty and one whose effects are to sustain poverty through lack of
access to voice, information, knowledge and power.
The role of community media

Local and community-based media have become recognized as having a
particular role to play for people and communities facing poverty, exclusion and
marginalization. They can assist in providing access to information and voice,
including in local and vernacular languages. They can reinforce traditional forms
45
Participant, discussion group of men and women, Borg Meghezel, Egypt, in Narayan, Deepa,
Robert Chambers, Meera Kaul Shah and Patti Petesch (2000) Voices of the Poor: Crying Out for
Change, New York: The World Bank/Oxford University Press
46
From the Statement of the Bellagio Symposium on Media, Freedom and Poverty (2002)

of communication such as storytelling, group discussion and theatre and they
can enable grassroots participation in policy-making and democracy. They use
technologies which are appropriate and affordable. In doing so, they reach out to
the most remote communities and to people from all walks of life.
The most widespread and accessible communications technologies remain the

traditional media, particularly radio – an oral medium, one that is low cost and
that is already receivable by 90 per cent of the world’s population. For just a few
thousand dollars worth of equipment, a community of 100,000 people or more
can be served by a community radio station.47
To understand the particular role of community radio we have to recognize the

two dominant broadcasting forms in the world today, differentiated by public or
private ownership.
There are some good models of publicly owned broadcasting with independent
governance and editorial arrangements and a range of public interest
programming. But many state owned public media are still not sufficiently
independent of the government. Instead of truly serving the public interest they
remain the instrument of the government in power. Instead of dialogue with their
audience they maintain a one-way mode of communication.
There is almost no country in the world today that is not, by one means or
another, also reached by private commercial media whether through the
liberalization of broadcast licensing or through the rapid growth of satellite
services. Private commercial media can contribute to the plurality of choice but
they tend to pay little attention to the needs and concerns of the poorer sections
of society. In many countries growing concentration of ownership has had the
effect of reducing the diversity of private media. Media concentration has allowed
powerful media corporations to emerge that wield enormous political influence
while remaining accountable only to their private owners and the marketplace.
Today, however, in most countries and all of the regions of the world, a third form
of media, community broadcasting, has emerged from civil society to find a place
alongside the established public and private media. Community broadcasting can
be considered a third sector of the media landscape - independent, with social
and not commercial objectives.
Community broadcasting has developed in response to the needs of grassroots

social movements and community-based organisations to find an accessible and
47 Indonesia: Radio Angkringan: Just outside Yogyakarta, Indonesia, in the village of Timbulharjo, there is a community owned and volunteer run radio station called
Radio Angkringan. It is named after the informal pavement food stalls where people sit to eat, drink and talk – a kind of popular meeting space. Broadcasts are in the
evenings because in daylight hours people are too busy working their living from the land. The station has just one computer with an audio bank of Indonesian music,
together with microphones, a small mixing unit, a low power transmitter and antenna. This, together with the voices of volunteers, local listeners and guests, provides the
broadcast service. The volunteers at Radio Angkringan gather news from the Internet but connectivity is unreliable and expensive. They have acquired a motorcycle and
a portable recording kit so they can now make field recordings in the neighbouring local villages.

affordable means to express their own issues, concerns, cultures and languages,
and to create an alternative to the state-owned public broadcaster and the growth
of private commercial media.
The existence and the practice of community broadcasting is an expression of a

more participatory attitude to democracy and the growth of strong and dynamic
civil society organizations. It can be considered a form of public service
broadcasting, but this is a public service broadcasting not from the top-down, but
rather from the grassroots-up.
The development impact of community media

Despite widespread acceptance that the media can make a positive contribution
to development, this is by no means assured. Media, in the hands of
governments have been used as instruments of propaganda and indoctrination.
In the hands of private oligarchs they have become vehicles in the service of elite
interests. In the hands of political organizations they have been tools for division
and sometimes conflict. In the hand of religious institutions they have been used
to evangelize. Even where it is possible to show correlation between
development goals and media activity, proving causality can be more difficult.
There are many case examples where community media has been linked directly
to the pursuit of the Millennium Development Goals – improved livelihoods,
promotion of gender equality, better health and education, combating HIV/AIDS,
malaria and other diseases, contributing to environmental awareness and
sustainability – however it is not always helpful to think of community media only
in instrumental terms or to assess impact against a narrowly defined set of
quantitative indicators. The most frequently stated benefit of community
broadcasting is its impact in empowering poor people to speak for themselves.
Empowerment of people through community media is directly measurable

through participation but its consequences for development are neither easy to
measure nor possible to predict. There are in the region of 10,000 community
broadcasters in the world today, many of them in Latin America, Europe and
North America but with growing numbers in Africa, Asia and the Pacific. Most of
them broadcast to rural communities or poor urban neighbourhoods. They
regularly have hundreds of direct participants – staff, volunteers, guests and
listeners who phone-in – and audiences measured in the 10,000s and 100,000s.
Empowerment through community media can contribute to good governance by

identifying corruption and holding leaders to account and it can contribute to
sustainable development by enabling people to take control over their own
livelihoods, identifying their needs and problems and providing access to
knowledge and information to enable informed choices. By giving people voice,

community media can also have important but less tangible impacts on quality of
life, sense of community, shared culture and values and perceived security.48
In times of political turbulence and transition community media can provide a

voice for ordinary people when state or commercial media are prepared to look
the other way. In Nepal community broadcasters have been at the forefront of the
defence of democracy in the face of an autocratic King while the state media has
continued to relay government propaganda. In Venezuela community
broadcasters were among the first to report on a military coup that was
suppressed from the screens of mainstream commercial media.
Obstacles to community broadcasting

Despite the growing recognition of community broadcasting there remains a need
to raise awareness and acceptance of the idea that communities have the right to
own and operate their own community media. There is still much to be done in
many countries, to establish policies, laws and regulations that enable and
encourage community broadcasting.
Alongside the laws and regulations that enable community broadcasting there is
a need to build capacity among community-based organizations to develop
sustainable models of community media that contribute to the social and
economic well-being of communities.
It is the policy, legal and regulatory framework that remains the single most
persistent obstacle. It should not be so. There is worldwide experience today of
legislating and regulating community media from which we can see what works
and what does not.
Twenty years ago there was almost no broadcast community media outside the
Americas, a few Western European countries and Australia. State monopolies
were the norm in Eastern Europe, Africa, Asia and the Pacific. Today that
situation has changed dramatically. In the last ten years community broadcasting
has gained a presence across the African continent, in most European Union
countries and in many countries of Asia and the Pacific. Throughout the world
governments are reforming their media laws to recognize community media.
In the last few years we have seen countries as diverse as Argentina, Bolivia,
Uganda, India, South Korea and the United Kingdom, adopting reforms that
assist community media.
48
Senegal: Radio Ndef Leng: In Dakar, Senegal, Radio Ndef Leng is operated by a Sérère
cultural association. It broadcasts in 14 languages and is the most important radio service for the
Sérère speaking community. For much of the day Radio Ndef Leng programming consists of an
on-air dialogue among its listeners. Sometimes a topic is chosen for discussion while at other
times the audience defines the conversation of the day. Listeners phone in through a call-centre
which assures that part of the cost of the call goes to sustaining the radio station. There is a
constant queue of listeners waiting to speak. The role of the radio presenter is to act as a
facilitator, to guide the discussion and to prevent abuse of the air time.

At the same time there is growing recognition in the international human rights
system of the value of community media, including in reports or statements of the
Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission
of Human Rights49, the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights50 and
the Council of Europe.51
Recommendations
From the countries in which community broadcasting is successfully established
some common characteristics of good practice can be quickly identified.
1. There should be clear and explicit recognition of community broadcasting as a

distinct sector. The distinct character of community broadcasting can be
summarized as follows: It should not be run for profit but for social gain and
community benefit; it should be owned by and accountable to the community that
it seeks to serve; and it should provide for participation by the community in
programme making and in management.
2. There should be a straightforward and transparent process for the allocation of

spectrum and the licensing of community broadcasting. It should be responsive
to demand from community-based organizations that meet the essential
characteristics; there should be no unnecessary obstacles that would exclude or
deter communities from seeking authorization; and the process should be
independent of political interference.
3. The regulatory framework for community broadcasting should have regard to

the sustainability and resourcing of the sector. Licence fees should be set at a
nominal level so as not exclude communities with few resources. There should
be no unreasonable restrictions on sources of revenue. Community broadcasters
should be encouraged to develop economic support from within their own
community but assistance should also be provided through independently
administered public funding mechanisms.
4. Reform of the legal and regulatory environment should be supported by

capacity building to assure the sustainability of community broadcasting
initiatives. This includes training in production and management, technical advice
and guidance, investment in social and development content, and support for
49
The Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
stated in his Annual Report 2002: "Given the potential importance of these community channels for freedom
of expression, the establishment of discriminatory legal frameworks that hinder the allocation of frequencies
to community radio stations is unacceptable."
50
The Africa Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights has stated: “Community broadcasting shall be
promoted given its potential to broaden access by poor and rural communities to the airwaves” Declaration
of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa, Principle V, Adopted at 32nd Session of the Africa
Commission on Human and People's Rights, 17-23 October 2002.
51
A report adopted by the Council of Europe Steering Committee on the Mass Media stated: "Member
States should encourage the development of the contribution of Community Media in a pluralistic media
landscape." Transnational Media Concentrations in Europe, Council of Europe 2004

country level associations that can speak on behalf of community broadcasters
and provide a forum for sharing of experience and best practice.
Taken together, in countries that are receptive to media pluralism and

empowerment of the poor, these measures can contribute to the further growth of
community broadcasting and strengthen its unique contribution to equitable and
sustainable development.

Chapter 10: Community Media by and for Women a Challenge to
Fulfil the Promise52
For more than three decades now, the global women’s movement has confronted
two key issues in the media: the negative and stereotypical portrayal of women in
the media and the lack of women’s representation and participation in decision-
making positions within media organizations.
Community media, independent media, radical media, participatory media,

medios libres, peoples’ media, grassroots media, social movement media and all
their different configurations are touted to be the utmost instrument that women
can use to reclaim their rightful spaces within media systems and structures.
However, research and anecdotal evidence point out to the fact that this is not
entirely the case. The discrimination that women face within government and
corporate media are sometimes also reproduced in community media. This panel
discussion seeks to find out not only how gender inequalities in community media
can be stopped but how to effectively use this type of media as a tool in
promoting women’s decision-making roles and political participation.
While I am inclined not to delve into how mainstream media marginalizes women
because there is already more than enough evidence to prove this, I cannot
avoid citing two media monitoring initiatives that to me reveal very interesting
findings. These two are the 2005 Global Media Monitoring Project (GMMP)
coordinated by the World Association for Christian Communication and the
“Mirror on the Media, Who Talk on Talk Shows” conducted by Gender Links and
the Gender and Media Network in Southern Africa (GEMSA) in 2006. Both
studies found out that of all the media, it is in radio where women and women’s
issues are most underrepresented.
The GMMP which analyzed media content in 76 countries revealed that women
and women’s issues make up only 17 percent of news subjects as opposed to 83
percent men as news subjects in radio broadcasts. The Mirror on the Media
project which monitored 11 radio talk shows in four Southern African countries –
Lesotho, Malawi, South Africa, and Zimbabwe states that “if radio talk shows are
a barometer of citizenship, then women barely exist–as host, as guests or as
callers. Most shows also don’t cover many of the topics that women would like to
talk more about.”
The same project showed that women only make up 25 percent of all callers to
radio talk shows in Lesotho, Malawi, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. As talk show
guests, women made up only 36 percent and as hosts, women constituted only
52
by Mavic Cabrera-Balleza, AMARC Women’s International Network and the International
Women’s Tribune Centre (presented at the Our Media 6th International Conference (Sydney,
Australia; April 9-13, 2007).

32 percent. Meanwhile, on gender as a topic, only nine (9) percent of the talk
shows focused specifically on gender-related concerns.
Why am I focusing on radio when the situation in all other forms of media is just
as bad? It is because radio is said to be the women’s medium. It is accessible
and affordable; it transcends literacy barrier; it is the medium that has the
broadest reach in poor rural and urban areas where there is little media presence
and media access. Radio therefore is a potentially powerful tool in enabling
women’s participation in decision-making on matters that impact to their
communities, on matters that impact to their families and to them personally.
Women’s participation in radio can potentially lead to their broader political
participation.
Let’s look at the situation in community radio. In 2006, AMARC Asia-Pacific and
Isis International-Manila conducted a survey of 23 community radio stations and
production groups in Asia-Pacific to examine women’s programming and
women’s participation in community radio. The survey brought the good news
that almost all of the community radio stations (21) have between one to five
hours of weekly programs by and for women. These programs cover issues such
as women’s rights, health care, violence against women, literacy, and success
stories of women in society.
Now the disappointing news: women make up only 28% of leadership positions—
however, this is still comparatively better than in mainstream media where
women occupy only 3 to 5% of leadership positions, as reported by the
International Federation of Journalists in 2001. In technical positions, women
make up only 28% as well. Not surprisingly, there were considerably more
women administrative staff and producers at 44% each. Evidently, women are
also stereotyped within community radio. Women also lack access to decision-
making in the community radio sector.
A study of how gender issues are played out in Indy Media Centers (IMC)
conducted by Gabriele Hadl and Lisa Brooten using the various list serves and
discussion spaces within the network showed similar patterns of gender-based
domination. Some of these are:
• Work is often distributed and valued along traditional lines of gender: e.g.
technical work is mostly reserved for men, and is valued more highly than
other forms of contributions, given priority in discussions, etc. (the tech-
arrogance phenomenon)53;
• Meetings, though at their best well-facilitated and democratic, were noted
to be often dominated by those who talk “long, loud[ly], first and often”54.
53
Though this problem appears to have become less prevalent than it was in the 1999-2002 phase when
many new IMCs were established.
54
Spalding, D. (2002, December 14). An open letter to other men in the movement. Newswire posting to
IMC-DC. Retrieved December 14, 2006 from
http://web.archive.org/web/20030615093541/http://internal.indymedia.org/front.php3?article_id=779&group=
webcast

Tallies from meetings showed that even if more women were present at a
meeting, men talked more.
• A rhetoric of harassment, a feature common in online communication,
characterized by flaming, trolling and cyber-stalking was reported as a
normal part of everyday life in certain IMC spaces, and even condoned in
face-to-face situations.
• Lack of diversity, time and energy: Even if a collective is aware of gender
issues, it may give addressing them a low priority. This is sometimes
justified by the old Marxist “revolution first, justice later” argument. Also,
the precarity55of most IMCs, with a small group of volunteers battling
rightists, spammers, tech problems, police surveillance, lack of funds and
space, etc. exacerbates existing inequalities.
How to address discrimination against women in community media

Participants in IMC gender debates have suggested ways the issues can be
tackled, which Hadl and Brooten summarized as follows:
• Acknowledging existing hierarchies: The inequalities in the wider culture
do not of their own accord stop at the door of IMCs -- this is nothing to be
ashamed of. Rather than trying to deny them, they should be seen as an
opportunity for dissecting and moving beyond them;
• Creating a safe and welcoming environment, if possible from the get-go,
as it is harder to change engrained structures later– e.g. inviting more
women to join a long-established all-male collective or changing an
aggressive communication culture to a less combative one;
• Improving meetings by providing attentive and fair facilitation, outreach
and encouraging different kinds of communication modes. One example of
this is the traditional practice in some African tribes where a baton is
passed around and whoever holds the baton gets the chance to speak;
• Rethinking the value certain kinds of work are assigned according to the
gender traditionally associated with them.
In AMARC, we’re planning to conduct a comprehensive gender audit among our

members to examine the nature and extent of women’s involvement in
programming and management of community radio. At the same time, we also
hope to come up with models of organizational structures that would best
guarantee women’s meaningful participation in community radio. We will also
identify areas for capacity building. The AMARC Asia-Pacific survey, for example,
indicates that women want to be trained in technical areas of radio production.
AMARC is committed to responding to this expressed need but we also want to
underscore that in addressing the gender inequalities through training or capacity
building, we will be training the men as well. Such training efforts will focus on
sensitizing them on women’s issues and how and why such issues also impact
on men; how men are also stereotyped like women; the gender-based power
55
‘Precarity’ is a neologism of an international movement around the working and living conditions created
by neoliberalist policies. The term here emphasizes that the instability is at least partly caused by the
enclosing social and political system

relations and the ways by which such power relations play out in the operations
of community radio as well as in their programming. In addition, we hope to
produce and distribute creative and visual tools such as a checklist for gender-
sensitive programming, score cards that illustrate women’s participation in
decision-making, and other visual indicators.
We do know that men in supposedly progressive sectors like community media

are aware of gender inequalities and gender injustices. Why this awareness has
not changed their everyday political practice—the way they conduct themselves
and carry out their work is mind-boggling for most of us. Many attribute it to the
socialization process we [women and men] undergo. Perhaps because we are
just beginning to address this issue more concretely and more systematically, we
are ready to accept the reasoning that not unlike the women, men are just as
trapped in a patriarchal and hierarchical socialization process. But we also need
to keep in mind that we need not go easy on our male comrades. We should
demand the same if not greater responsibility for them to monitor their own
behavior. At some point, we will have to say enough! The patriarchal and
hierarchical socialization process is no longer an acceptable excuse. We are
aware of the problem, we know what to do with the problem—all we have to do is
operationalize the solution.
We also need to realize that women also need sensitizing. I don’t want to sound
preachy –especially to sisters in the women’s movement and the community
media sector but as community media practitioners, we have a greater
responsibility to break the boundaries set by our socio-political and cultural
contexts. If we are to equate community media and women’s media with
women’s progress, we need to go out of our way and take extra effort so that
community media will truly become an instrument that allows, encourages and
empowers women to speak in their own authentic voice.
References
Global Media Monitoring Project. 2005.. World Association for Christian
Communications. London, UK. Retrieved from
http://www.whomakesthenews.org/ on April 10, 2007.
Hadl, G and Brooten, S. 2007. Talking Gender at Indymedia. Gender and
Hierarchy: A case study of the Independent Media Center Network.
Miglioretto, B. 2006. Asia –Pacific Women Demand Equal Access to Leadership
in Community Radio. AMARC Asia–Pacific and Isis International-Manila.
Mirror on the Media, Who Talk on Talk Shows. 2006. Gender Links and the
Gender and Media Network in Southern Africa. Retrieved from
http://www.genderlinks.org.za/page.php?p_id=301 on April 10, 2007.

Chapter 11: What role did community media play in helping to
restore democracy in Nepal? Interview with Raghu Mainaly.56
In April 2006, Nepal saw the culmination and resolution of a profound political
crisis during which the country’s king seized absolute power in February 2005,
disbanded democratic parties and closed down many media outlets and imposed
censorship. In April 2006, when large parts of the population took to the streets in
mostly peaceful protest, democracy has been restored and the Maoist rebels
have called a ceasefire and entered the political process.
James Deane. let’s start by talking about Nepal. Now, in my country, England,
whenever Nepal is mentioned on the news, the newscasters tend to dismiss
Nepal as “a tiny Himalayan kingdom.” This patronizing term suggests that Nepal
is an inconsequential country. Is that right? Why should anyone take what
happens in this country seriously?
Raghu Mainaly: It’s not so tiny and is, in fact, bigger than your country and has
higher mountains!
JD: A lot happened in Nepal in 2005 and 2006. Raghu, tell us about the events
leading up to April 2006 and the seismic political change that has happened
there in the last year or so.
RM: Something happened in Nepal this year that has never happened before in
our history. About four million people out of a total population of 22 million came
out onto the streets. (…) In February 2005, our king took over all political power
in the country. He started governing through direct rule, and this was a situation
that we never imagined would happen. His forces cut off all Internet connections,
phone lines and transport links. They even sealed off our international airport.
The army deployed to all media houses and either arrested political leaders or
placed them under house arrest.
JD: So this is a mass seizure of power by the king. We are talking about
effectively undoing any semblance of democracy in the country?
RM: Yes, and all of us lived in fear, in fact, in a kind of state of terror. (…)This
time, this year, the situation became very different. Previously, professionals—
media professionals, lawyers, doctors, engineers and civil society leaders—led
much [of the resistance to the king]. And political parties led the democratic
56
An interview with Raghu Mainaly, a founder of Nepal’s Association of Community Radio
Broadcasters and AMARC South Asia representative. The interview was carried in October 2006
by James Deane, managing director of strategy for the Communication for Social Change
Consortium at a panel at the World Congress on Communication for Development, which took
place in Rome. The panel focused on the role of community media in development. The panel’s
organisers were AMARC (the World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters), SDC (the
Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation) and UNESCO. In this interview, he explains the
critical role of community media in encouraging democratic principles.

movement. But the political parties lost their faith in the people. Every time the
people went out onto the streets, the political leaders told them to go back and
not come to the rally.
JD: Are you suggesting here that this was a crisis of legitimacy of a whole
political class?
RM: Yes, that class lost their faith in the people and had no moral grounds on
which to appeal to the people. (…) the main cause for that was that all political
leaders were corrupt and irresponsible, in terms of listening to and acting on
behalf of the people. Instead, they exercised a lot of power for their own personal
benefit.
JD: Can you make connection between this extraordinary event of four million
people coming out onto the streets in generally peaceful protest and community
media in Nepal?
RM: Yes, there is a direct correlation. From the very beginning, community media
programmes went out telling people that freedom of speech and freedom of
expression were the people’s rights, not just a media person’s rights. We
educated people from the beginning about their rights, using programmes very
strategically to attract the attention of people, arranging a lot of unique events
that would get onto the front pages of the newspapers and international media
also. Then we tried to involve all the professionals and called for solidarity and
did many events with the people.
JD: Who is “we” here?
RM: Basically the radio broadcasters who had constituted an independent radio
movement in Nepal that involved all community and commercial radio
broadcasters in the country.
JD: How many radio stations are there in Nepal?
RM: More than 50 radio stations across the whole of Nepal. These cover more
than 65 percent of the total population.
JD: Does this radio network reach the majority [geography] of the country?
RM: Yes. And this network started working together as soon as the king began
banning the news. In fact, we were told, “don’t broadcast anything except music!”
So then we started singing the news!
Deane: You sang the news?

RM: [LAUGHS.] So we sang the news, because government had not banned the
content, only the form in which it could be delivered.
JD: So just to be clear, this was not just one radio station, but a whole network of
radio stations who were using very imaginative ways of continuing to report on
the crisis?
RM: Yes, and then we started to read the constitution to people, particularly
those articles with most relevance to poor people. We read these in Nepali and
more than 20 local languages.
JD: So this was a process of really informing people about their constitutional,
legal rights within the context of this political crisis?
RM: Yes, both of the rights of the people and the role and duties of the
government. The king had said he had taken these steps to resolve the political
crisis. But, instead of dealing with the threat of the Maoist terror, his actions were
leading to more fear, ignorance and terror. And looking at situations in other
countries, we could not find any examples of where the kinds of steps he had
taken had worked. Every hour, we broadcast music to all the stations, the content
of which was: “From every village and every home, wake up and defend the
interests of the country. If you have a pen, wake up with a pen. If you have an
instrument, wake up with an instrument. And if you have nothing in your hand,
raise your voice.” We broadcast that music every hour.
JD: Why was protest peaceful? Was there anything this radio network was doing
that made this protest a forceful, mass response of four million people, but one
that was, nevertheless, a largely peaceful one on the streets?
RM: We broadcast a lot of interviews with civil society leaders, doctors,

engineers, lawyers, university teachers and others and we tried to turn all these
interviews into a peaceful situation, so all these people requested the people to
act peacefully. We were creating a forum for a range of people to come and
appeal to the people to protest but to do so peacefully.
JD: But were you not yourselves also broadcasting messages warning of the
dangers of violence?
RM: Yes, when there were four million people out on the street, and some of us
were in jail, we broadcast every half-hour—a short spot urging peaceful protest.
JD: Saying what?
RM: These spots were about one minute long, and the content was that the
country had suffered greatly from violence for many years, and that more conflict

is not the way to get freedom and peace. “Please,” we said, “follow the peaceful
way.”
JD: So, here you are, there are four million people out on the streets, a
community media movement reaching 65 percent of the population, and your
claim is that an awful lot of that protest—and the peaceful manner of that protest
—is substantially attributable to what the community media movement was doing
in the country?
RM: Yes, we believe that, and we believe that communication is the fuel for
everything—for democracy, for development and for many other things. Without
fuel, the light was very dim. We poured the fuel, and the light became very bright.
JD: For those who are looking at supporting community media, how long has it
taken to get to where you are now? What needed to happen to get to where you
are now as a movement within the country?
RM: For this particular movement it took about 15 months. For the community
media movement as a whole, it’s been a decade-long struggle. (…) we got a lot
of support. This was not an individual, or even just an organizational effort, but a
national effort and an international effort with so many organizations involved.
First, we have to name UNESCO, which helped support us from the very
beginning. We heard about community radio and FM through UNESCO’s Mr.
Wijananda Jayaweera, who suggested many things to us. As a result of his
advice, we started Radio Sagarmatha as a project. And, I should point to
AMARC, which was our backbone during the time of crisis. The international
media mission to Nepal was another major source of strength.
JD: And what was the role of technology in all this? What was the role of the new
technologies, in terms of Internet, mobile telephony, satellite and so on?
RM: The role was very important, but the role of technology is always auxiliary. If
we want to do something, then the technology supports and enables us.
JD: But weren’t these radio stations linked across the country?
RM: Yes an independent production house helped enable that.
JD: And what was the policy and legislative environment like for community
media in Nepal? And can you bring us up to date on what is happening now?
RM: Before, there was legislation for community media. Then, for a time, even
the constitution was effectively suspended. That meant we had no space to talk
about particular legislation. Now, the new democratic government is very liberal
and positive. Within two months, the new government granted more than 30
licences for community radio. They have also constituted a high-level media

commission, tasked with developing conditions for a healthy, vibrant local and
pluralistic media. The government is being careful not to give the monopoly of
media to any one company, either economically or ideologically.
JD: So let’s be clear about what is being said here. We are at the World
Congress for Communication for Development, and we are often asked about the
impact of our work and for evidence that it makes a difference. You’re saying that
it took a long time. It took 10 years to get to where we are now? That perhaps the
impact after three or five years was quite difficult to discern, but, after 10 years,
you’re not talking about a few thousand or even a few hundred thousand people
being educated. You’re talking about a society fundamentally being transformed?
You’re saying that transformation would not have taken place without community
media? Is that the claim being made here?
RM: Yes. We are trying to produce an act of communicating. We are not

manufacturing consent. We are not manufacturing the news. We are trying to
develop discussion and consensus about common issues.
JD: Raghu, thank you very much, indeed.

Chapter 12: Community Radio in the 21st century: perspectives
and experiences from Eastern and Southern Africa57
Introduction
Community Radio has increasingly been used as a tool to further democratic
developments in the East and Southern Africa region. A lot of these radio stations
have partly been initiated by grassroots movements as a means to have a
communication channel and a voice. They have also been initiated within
development projects as a means of furthering local participation in development
processes. The overall objective has been to arrive at some sort of social change
and development.
The definition of community radio in these two regions has been drawn from
South African legislation that defines a community either as a geographic
community or a community of interest. Over the past eight years, the practitioners
have reached an agreement that community broadcasting is local, non-profit,
participatory broadcasting with a development agenda (What is Community
Broadcasting by AMARC and Media Institute of Southern Africa [MISA] Advocacy
packs).
Africa's first form of community radio was the Homa Bay Community Radio
Station established in the western part of Kenya in May, 1982. This station in
essence was not only an experiment in decentralization of structures and
programming but also an effort to gain experience in the utilization of low-cost
technology for broadcasting. It was an initiative by the Kenyan government and
UNESCO, and was closed down by the Kenyan government in 1984.
However the concept of community radio has always been recognised in one
form or another through radio clubs, radio listening groups, rural radio and/or
radio forums. In Africa, community radio has arisen under a range of regulation --
from very loose regulation (Mali) to much defined regulation (South Africa). The
majority of African countries are somewhere in between with South Africa being
seen as having the most favourable legal framework for community radio.
Organised community media national networks exist in Namibia, Mozambique,

Kenya and South Africa. These countries and others that include Zambia,
Tanzania and Uganda have seen the mushrooming of community radio stations
and projects in the late 1990s.
It is important to mention that the ideas of free broadcasting, media pluralism and
promotion of democracy through local radio programming are mainly a common
vision adopted and shared by SADC (SPELL OUT) governments.
57
By Grace Githaiga, Executive Director, Econews Africa

Most of the Eastern African countries are in a process of re-working the
broadcast and telecommunications environment. It is hoped that the
recommended legislation will favor community broadcasting aimed at promoting
social goals and influencing the market conduct of the commercial stations.
In spite of certain political difficulties, the idea that community radio can
contribute to enhance the participation of communities in efforts aimed at
improving communities’ living conditions is dependent heavily on decision
makers in the region who contribute to making of different legislations. Limited
steps are being taken in terms of airwaves liberalisation but the concept of
community radio needs to be popularised.
It is the feeling of practitioners that a stable, secure and positive framework has
to be created before the community radio can expand and fulfil its function of
promoting human rights and democratic values.
Opportunities and Challenges

Community radios have facilitated an improved livelihood through information in
different important areas such as trading and business development, breaking
myths on HIV/Aids, improving health, agriculture etc.
The sector continues to grow phenomenally in this region both in actual terms
and in popularity. However there are still many challenges. These include:
• Legislative framework at country level which is generally a major obstacle
to the growth of community broadcasting;
• Issues of institutional and financial sustainability;
• ICTs which present new opportunities but in the same light bring in new
difficulties due to affordability;
• Diversity of adaptation to the commercial environment;
• Actual sustainable impact that community radios have produced is lacking
and experiences have not been recorded systematically; and
• Lack of strategic plans, just to mention a few.
New Technologies and the Future

Despite the challenges, the emergence of new technologies and, in particular,
mobile telephony is contributing to audiences participating in programming.
Mobile telephony has exploded in the region and there is coverage even in very
remote areas that have not benefited from telephony before. Audiences are able
to call during call-in programmes or even text messages giving their opinions.
Access to Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) such as Internet,
e-mail and CD-ROM has an important role to play in rural contexts to reduce
poverty and enhance social-economic development by providing and improving
flows of information and communication.
Community radios, in combination with new technologies, are likely to be
increasingly useful in removing barriers and increase effectiveness in terms of
knowledge sharing. The convergence between radio and the Internet will provide

new strength to community radio. Not only will community radios get empowered
to reach new latitudes, but also Internet users will learn from a participatory
experience, which is expected to contribute much to social change. This will allow
a nexus between digital and traditional media, as well as establish a linkage
between the radio station and Internet.
Some of the envisaged benefits that ICTs could bring to community radio in the
Eastern and Southern Africa region include: excellent new technologies for
recording, mixing, editing and transmission. The digital audio recorder and the
audio computer editing on computers, as well as the sending of sound
programmes electronically as attachments, will be part of the new way forward.
Another benefit will be that of creating awareness of research findings in diverse
areas of interest to the community. Others are mobilizing community for best
practices, simplifying research findings, translating into user languages, and
providing radio with additional tools to serve the information needs of the
community.
Community radio’s potential for enabling local people to relay local content in
locally-used languages can be linked to the provision of computer training,
access to Internet and other digital resources.
The use of the Internet will enhance communities’ knowledge base, which can be
incorporated into the radio programmes hence enriching them with diverse
information.
It is anticipated that in this process of appropriating new technologies, the local

users will have the capacity to invent their own words and to rename the
hardware. In other words, ICTs will give a new dimension to the bottom-up flow of
information. The community radio stations will have access to much more
information than those based on transmission only.
Community radio is leading to real change in people’s lives. Experiences from the
region demonstrate that it is playing a significant role in facilitating community
and national ownership of development agendas. Firstly it registers the extent
and experiences of a community (be they of poverty or marginalization) in a
community’s own words. Through community media’s familiarity with the local
articulation of rights and demands, it also enforces accountability among
stakeholders.
Conclusion
Experiences from East and Southern Africa demonstrate community radios as
excellent tools for facilitating participation, empowerment, stabilization and
positive development through widening of horizon of listeners.
The radio stations have provided choices to the listening community who have
become subjects of their own development. However the community stations

need to constantly be guided by asking whether the stations are serving the
purpose of giving the voice, are they demand-driven and whether programming
address community issues.
Community radio can generate the changes necessary in development. After all it
is not exactly money that creates development. People do!

Chapter 13: Women as Producers of Information. Indonesia
Experience.58
Women as Producers of Information

Since 1998 Indonesia has entered the reformation era and liberated itself from
the repressive authoritarian New Order Regime. Reforms have also occurred in
the world of media in Indonesia as shown by the emergence of many media in
various forms such as print, audio and audiovisual. However, have these media
given access to the public's voice? In reality, most media have not
accommodated the public's voice. Hence, what is required is to let the society
become the producers of information.
Medium like a community radio becomes the most appropriate media to

broadcast public's interest. In Indonesia, there are about 600 community radios.
However, the question remains whether community radios have been fully used
by groups of people, including women, which are always marginalized. The
result of questionnaire distributed to a number of community radios has showed
that women's involvement in the management of community radios is still
insufficient. The same condition is found in their program; only a few numbers of
programs are dedicated purposely for women. In most cases, the programs are
more about recipes, health and beauty problems than about issues on women's
rights.
Nevertheless, a group of women now has the initiative to use radio as a medium
to disseminate issues on women's rights, among other Women Voice Radio in
Pariaman, West Sumatra and Women Journal Radio Program. The former is a
community radio; the later is a producer of mini feature program broadcasted
through all radio networks in Indonesia. Women Journal Radio Program
currently has been broadcasted weekly on 183 radio stations in Indonesia.
Women Voice Radio in Pariaman, West Sumatra

Radio Suara Perempuan (Women Voice Radio) in Pariaman, West Sumatra, was
founded by Nurhayati Kahar. At the beginning, she was concerned about a lot
number of violence cases happened to women in her region. Therefore, she
founded Institution for Victims of Violent Acts to Women and Children, which has
been legally registered since 2002. To spread the campaign to against that
violence, they choose community radio as their way.
She thinks that violence to women never comes to surface because the culture of
shame is still very strong. For instance, there are many cases of rape that all this
58
Presentation to AMARC 9 World Conference. Jordania, November 14, 2006. Ade Tanasia (Program
manager (Media) at the Combine Resource Institution, Indonesia

time are settled with custom law, in which the solutions are made up with peace
or fine. Yet, if the rapist is a prominent figure in society, the case is often covered
up. In fact, the blame is plotted deceptively on the victimized woman.
Hence, Women Voice Radio encourages women to fight for justice. She insists
that a violence case shall not be settled with custom law because it often
disadvantages women, but it shall be processed with criminal law.
Women Voice Radio uses local language, namely Minang language. Its targeted
listeners are not only women but also men. It is very important for men need to
know about the law on violence to women, so that they will not consider women
unintelligent anymore.
The Women Voice Radio program encompasses themes concerning health,

religion, children education, sex matter, and also information around the city. In
addition, it is also planning to give information on economy (like prices of goods
and tips of marketing) because almost 95% women have home industries like
making woven clothes and embroidery.
It is interesting that every Sunday night the radio broadcasts radio drama called
Carito Minang (Minang story). The stories are taken from everyday occurrence
involving women. There is a drama entitled “Maha Bana Baliajo” which tells
about the resistance against custom marriage in Pariaman. In this region, there is
a custom in which if a woman wants to marry a man, the woman’s family must
pay some money as dowry to the man’s family. The price is various and it can be
bargained. The higher the education of the man is, the higher price the woman’s
family must pay. This practice is now getting more excessive because there is
tendency to take up again the custom. In fact, the women feel proud if they can
buy men with high price. Through this drama, Women Voice Radio actually wants
to break this dowry practice so that there will be no tradition of buying man.
The Radio will never quit fighting for information and communication access for
women in Pariaman. Progressively such change has begun to happen. Now
there are many women willing to speak out their problems on the radio although
they still use pseudonyms. If they need further consultation, they can come
directly to the institution. Every Sunday afternoon, listener gathering is held. In
that occasion, Women Voice Radio gives everyone opportunity to be a
broadcaster. Despite seeking talented broadcasters, it can improve people’s
participation.

Women Journal Radio Program
The Women Journal Radio began its activity in 1999, renting airtime of radio
stations in Jakarta like Delta FM, MS 3 and Pesona FM. For four months, these
three radio stations had got recorded discussions made by Women Journal
Radio. At that time, the discussions were very conventional by inviting some
speakers to Delta FM studio to discuss actual topics on women.
In order to maximize the program making, the Women Journal Foundation got
aids in the form of sufficient equipments and studio construction. In 2000,
Women Journal Radio succeeded in making cooperation with 30 radio stations
across Indonesia. In 2001, with support from Netherlands Embassy, the number
of radio stations broadcasting Women Journal Radio program increased to 50
radio stations and in 2002 increased to 100 ones. With full support from Ford
Foundation, since 2003 Women Journal Radio has had 162 partners across
Indonesia. Local radio stations recognize the importance of information for their
listeners so that Women Journal Radio program has become the most
anticipated program and one of their favorite programs. As a result, Women
Journal Radio program is free from paying airtime cost in most local radio
stations.
Women Journal Radio program is favored mostly by housewives of middle and
lower classes in society. Topics that are brought up by the program vary, for
instance, violence against women, female reproduction health, women
representatives in politics, profile of local women, labor, women’s rights, etc. One
of advantages of the program is that it raises women’s daily problems, which all
this time have been ignored by media as information.
In the arrangement of program, Women Journal Radio always considers the

development of radio, from the duration, use of sound byte and form of program.
The arrangement is not only informative but also entertaining. Until February
2006, Women Journal Radio had produced 334 programs in the format of mini
feature. At the first time, the program had duration of 20 minutes, but since
October 2003, the program has been shortened to 10 minutes. This reduction is
a response of Women Journal Radio to its listeners who prefer program in short,
compact and informative format.

Chapter 14: Community Radio and Media Context59
Traditionally the role of the media is perceived as one of informing, providing a

public service and entertaining audiences. Some, with a somewhat wider
perspective, consider that the two dominant forms of radio, public and
commercial, also play an important role in rendering governments accountable,
thus supporting democracy and good governance. In the last decades,
community radio has evolved into a new radio sector worldwide, as a natural
result, both of the evolution of civil societies and the breakthroughs in
communications technologies.
Radio is the most widespread electronic communication device in the world and a
unique mean of reaching the world’s poorest communities. Community radio in
particular puts the tools of communications into the hands of communities for
cultural expression, news and information, dialogue and development.
The specificity of community radio is that it facilitates the empowerment of local
communities, inclusiveness, and cultural diversity. In that sense, community radio
is closer to what is called "new media", as it erases the boundary between those
who receive and those who impart information.
In spite of recent technological developments, radio remains the most

widespread and accessible communication technology. It is an oral medium; one
that is low cost and that is already receivable by 90 per cent of the world’s
population. For just a few thousand dollars worth of equipment, a community
radio station can serve a community of 100,000 people or more.
The ideal model for sharing the radio spectrum is one that reflects the diversity of
society’s communication needs. In the North as well as in the South, democratic
societies need public (not state), commercial and community radios if they want
to reflect the diversity and the needs of their societies. In Nepal for instance, the
alliance between community and independent radios in the Save the
Independent Radio Movement (SIRM) shows that both can effectively work
together in the struggle for press freedom, freedom of expression and
democracy. Also in conflict or post-conflict situations the media landscape needs
to build a plurality of voices. This is even more important when it is a question of
giving voice to the voiceless and addressing the development agenda.6039
Community radio has had to advocate strongly in the past for a place in the radio
spectrum but there is increasing recognition of the importance to include
community radio as a specific radio sector.
The existence and the practice of community broadcasting are an expression of

a participatory attitude to democracy and the growth of strong and dynamic civil
society organizations. It can be considered a form of public service broadcasting,
59
Marcelo Solervicens, Secretary General of AMARC
60 See: International Mission on Press Freedom and Freedom of Expression in Nepal in www.nepal.asiapacific.amarc.org

but this is public service broadcasting not from the top - down, but rather from the
grassroots - up.
The development of community radio is closely linked to the needs of local

communities that were not being addressed by traditional media in terms of
media outreach or audience access to the media. Community radio is
characterized by its social objective and by benefiting the community it serves; its
aim should not encompass the creation of financial wealth and it should be
owned by and be accountable to the community. Community radio should
encourage participation in its programming and management, and support a
strong democratic and dynamic civil society.
Technological breakthroughs and social demands for access to the media

encouraged the birth and expansion of community radio in the fifties, sixties and
seventies in the Americas and Europe, and in the last twenty years in Africa and
Asia.
There has been a legitimacy crisis of the traditional mass media since the 1970s
as they abandoned the minority and local issues whilst global social trends
showed an increased interest in them. This trend started with the first community
radio, known as "people’s radio", built in the 1950s by Bolivian coal miners
angered by traditional media coverage.
Mass Media: A Decline in Credibility and Diversity

Media control by civil society and not only by the media industry is linked to the
need for community empowerment in a non partisan manner. The shortcomings
of traditional media outlets that consider themselves neutral or consider that
"journalists are not social agents" are at the heart of old academic discussions
that have recently been revived with the interactive capacity emerging from ICTs
and "new citizen media". Community media has been reinforced by this trend,
becoming the media of the poor and an ideal communication tool for
development work.
In the eighties and nineties, there was also a process of liberalization of the
airwaves and the end of state monopolies in Eastern Europe, Africa and Asia.
In some places, these processes have increased media plurality. In most cases
however, large foreign conglomerates have absorbed them. In the context of
dominant neo-liberal globalization, a small number of multimedia conglomerates
have reshaped the global commercial mass media environment, leading to a
small number of major groups owning most of the world’s media.6140
In this context what has become "digital" information in radio, television, press or
Internet, is just another piece of merchandise, which circulates in accordance
with the rules governing the market of supply and demand. The establishment of
a few dominating media conglomerates results in the paradox of having a greater
number of media outlets with a reduced diversity of sources of information. The
61 Vivendi Universal, AOL Time Warner,Disney, News Corporation, Viacom andBertelsmann, General Electric, Microsoft, Telefonica, France Télécom.

ensuing global imbalance in information flows, the lack of cultural diversity, and
the absence of any regulatory role by the state, are all factors that have,
ironically, fomented the development of community media.
The second aspect involved in the development of community radio as a global

sector is the technological breakthroughs in the communications field, such as
transistors, FM transmitters, satellite technology and finally the Internet.62
All these developments have reduced costs and increased inter - activeness of
the media facilitating proximity radio.
Community radio has emerged connected to people - centered social

movements that use appropriate technologies to share knowledge, developing
alternatives to the major means of communication. They inspired counter-
information programmes and interactive social communication run by
communities from community radio stations, for example in rural areas.63 These
new players multiplied media outlets and created national, regional, and finally
international networks such as the World Association of Community Radio
Broadcasters, AMARC.
The emergence of these new information and communication technologies has

contributed to economic growth and has brought social, cultural and political
benefits to a great many people. But it also threatens to amplify a gross
asymmetry, the so-called "digital divide", in poor people’s access to information
and communication.64 Therefore community radio is at the heart of the
possibilities of an "Information Society" that is people-centred, inclusive and
development oriented; where everyone can create, access, utilize and share
information and knowledge, enabling individuals, communities and people to
achieve their full potential in promoting and improving their quality of life.6544
Community Radio Social Impact

The growth of community radio is a story of people and of communities striving to
speak out and to be heard. Community radio has provided many with a means of
empowerment and of self - reliance. It has enabled people to engage in dialogue
about their conditions and their livelihoods. And it has contributed to the defense
of cultural and linguistic diversity.66 In that perspective, community radio is an
important factor in achieving the Millennium Development Goals.
First, community radio is gaining recognition as the new information technology

of the poor and marginalized.67 Furthermore, the combination of community
broadcasting with digital production and Internet access has brought new
62 Bruce Girard, The one to watch: Radio, new ICTs and interactivity (2003) FAO, Roma.
63 Manuel Castells,La era de la información, economía, sociedad y cultura, 1999, México, Siglo XXI.
64 Alfonso Gumucio-Dragón, Right to Communicate. From the Summit to the People, I4d, in http://www.i4donline.net/july05/rightcomm.Asp
65 Declaration of Principles (World Summit on the Information Society, 12 December 2003, Geneva.)
66 46 Steve Buckley, Giving Voice to Local Communities. CR and related policies, UNESCO. March, 2006

opportunities and approaches to community media that have contributed to
sustainability and the enlargement of the services provided.
Second, community media is a key element needed for sustainable development:

voicelessness and powerlessness are considered key dimensions of poverty.
Democracy, equity and civil rights contribute directly to human security, well
being and opportunity.68 By reaching out to local communities facing poverty,
exclusion and marginalization; by encouraging them to access media in order to
be heard even in vernacular languages, community radio contributes to achieving
the MDGs. Community radio can also reinforce traditional forms of
communication such as storytelling, group discussion and theatre and can
enable grassroots participation in policy-making and democracy.
Radio also transcends the literacy barrier, which is a problem in many southern
countries. Radio is also considered a "women’s medium" because it doesn’t
require the full, undivided attention of its audience the way newspapers or
television do; meaning, women who must work continuously at one given time
like farmers and labourers, can perform their tasks even as they listen to the
radio.69
Moreover as a proximity medium that addresses and is received by each

individual listener, community radio can address particularly difficult themes such
as gender violence and stigmatized health issues among others.
Fourth, community radio is the media sector that is better placed for development
goals. Some public owned broadcasters have independent governance and
editorial arrangements and a range of public interest programming. But they
often fail to ensure audience access because of a top-down approach to
information dissemination. Other state owned public media tend to remain the
instrument of the government in power. Instead of dialogue with their audience
they maintain a one-way mode of communication. Private commercial media can
also contribute to the plurality of voices but they tend to pay little attention to the
needs and concerns of the poorer sections of society and remain accountable
only to their private owners and the marketplace.
Community Radio: The Challenges

Even as community broadcasting is gaining legitimacy it is also facing new
challenges. How can its specific contribution to a pluralistic media landscape be
further recognized in law and country regulations? How can its social and
economic sustainability be assured? How can it interface with the new media
67 47 See, for example, Declaration of the Ninth United Nations Round Table on Communications for Development (2004) Rome: Food and
Agriculture Organization
68 48 Chapter 6, World Development Report 2000/2001, Attacking Poverty, New York: Oxford University Press
http://www.worldbank.org/wdr
69 49 Women and Community Radio: Opportunities, Challenges, and Responses* By Mavic Cabrera-Balleza, AMARC Women’s
International Vice President

platforms and technologies? How can its contribution to the public good be
demonstrated?
How can it provide a voice for critical and alternative perspectives and not be co-
opted by government agendas or assimilated into the marketplace?
There are barriers that distract community broadcasters from their social purpose
hindering their ability to empower communities to speak for themselves, to give a
voice to the voiceless and to be a force for social and economic good. As
community broadcasting gains mainstream recognition, its greatest challenge will
be to demonstrate its immediate social impact and significance - its contribution
to culture, education, good governance and citizens’ participation - its influence in
facilitating development processes when the latter can only be measured over
longer periods of time. In responding to this challenge, however, it must avoid
being turned simply into an instrument of public service delivery. It must
vigorously defend its independence, its right to challenge those in authority and
to hold leaders to account.
There remains a need to raise awareness on the fact that communities have the
right to own and operate their own community media. There is still much to be
done in many countries to establish policies, laws and regulations that enable
and encourage community broadcasting. There needs to be formal recognition of
community broadcasting as a distinct sector. This should result in a transparent
and straightforward process for the allocation of radio spectrum and licensing for
community broadcasters without political interference.
Finally, alongside the laws and regulations that can help build community
broadcasting, there is a need to build capacity among community-based
organizations to develop sustainable models of community media that contribute
to the social and economic well being of communities. This should include
capacity building for journalists in issues related to development goals.
Furthermore, the regulatory framework should consider sustainability and
resourcing of community radio, including a nominal level for licence fees,
encouraging support from their communities with proper assistance.

Part V. Challenges to Community Radio Stakeholders:
Increasing the effectiveness of CR.70
Chapter 15: How can CR stakeholders and AMARC make a

Difference?
Challenges
The Roundtables, the electronic Forum, the survey on CR social impact and
AMARC 9 World Conference debates consistently discussed on CR Network and
AMARC challenges and indicated key lines of action for CR stakeholders and
specifically for AMARC.
It is clear that even though the sector has become a world tier of broadcasting
increasingly recognized by multilateral organizations and the human rights
system. This said, the lack of proper enabling legislation is the single principle
barrier to the further development of community radio. In order to actualize its full
potential. Community broadcasting still needs to be universally recognized as a
distinct media sector, as a vital alternative to state owned public broadcasters
and commercial private media. As the main international organization embracing
the CR movement worldwide AMARC is in a unique position to promote and
defend CR but needs to increase its effectiveness by proper harmonization of its
different bodies and actions
Community radio sustainability is a global challenge and in spite of the increasing

positive experience of socially sustainable community radio; financial and
technological sustainability remains challenges for community radio organizers.
Knowledge sharing and capacity building are central for CR sustainability.
There is increasing evidence for CR social impact in poverty reduction, in

addressing development objectives and in democracy building. A key aspect of
the communication process initiated by CR is giving and amplifying the voices of
the poor and the marginalized, particularly women. Furthermore, the positive link
between information and communication technologies and community Radio
needs to be further implemented in order to increase the effectiveness of CR
interventions.
70
Part IV, presents the key findings and documentation on the challenges and lines of action discussed and
formulated and adopted by CR stakeholders during the World Evaluation of Community Radio: Removing
Barriers, Increasing Efficiency activities, including Regional Roundtables, Electronic Forum Discussions,
electronic Survey and AMARC 9 World Conference.

CR should increase its role in facilitating women’s inclusion and the recognition of
women’s rights, the reduction of poverty and promotion of sustainable
development.
Community Radio contributes to social change by initiating or accompanying

communication processes and should carry responsibility for being effective in
facilitating civil society development in democratic processes. CR alone cannot
address these challenges. Alliances with social organizations and movements
are essential. We are a movement in relation to others. They need to be
addressed through coalition building, networking and increased communications
and harmonization of the different bodies of AMARC.
AMARC Evaluation: A Network, a Movements or an NGO?

One of the key challenges that came out of the evaluation of AMARC is that it
has effectively contributed to the development of the CR movement worldwide by
developing basic principles and sharing experiences and expertise and has
become a diverse and international movement with members on all the
continents. But AMARC is increasingly challenged by the existence of diverse
practices and definitions of CR arising from the very different political, social and
religious contexts where their members evolve. The World Assemblies help to
integrate the differences and set up the policies and definitions for the sector. In
Latin America and the Caribbean AMARC members have decided not to be an
ONG that serves radios but to recognize the entire social movement of
community radio, whereas in other regions members perceive AMARC not only
as part of CR movement but also as an NGO essential in giving birth to new
projects and giving service to member stations. In other regions AMARC is
considered as a space where members can share ideas, define policies and
exchange on best practices. The key recommendation of members is to consider
AMARC as an NGO, a network and part of various social movements.
Alliances with social organizations and movements are essential to advocate for
the recognition of community radios within the wider struggle for the
democratization of societies. We must stop separating communication from other
social problems. We are convinced that AMARC cannot face the processes of
change that it set out to bring about in solitude. The participants on the survey
confirmed that among the most valuable contributions of AMARC is the
articulation and building of links in order to strengthen the CR movements and
the fact that it institutionalizes and gives legitimacy and visibility to the
international CR movement. Among more specific interventions is (1) the defense
of CR and its contribution to the struggle for legal recognition of CR; (2) support
in training and exchange of experiences and knowledge; (3) support for the birth
of new projects; (4) expressing the interests of the communities; (5) promoting
women’s empowerment and (6) as a source of information and advice on running
a radio station..

The specific evaluation of AMARC structure, functioning and effectiveness dealt
with AMARC’s vision ands priority setting, its strategic planning process, its
mechanisms for ensuring good governance and sound financial management
during implementation of its strategic plan, and its monitoring and evaluation
mechanisms of both immediate outcomes and long term impact. The key
recommendations insisted in facilitating dialogue among the regional, sector and
global bodies. First of all, it is clear that AMARC’s impact – as well as that of its
members – is strongest when its actions are oriented towards belonging to and
participating in various social movements, especially human rights and social
justice movements and the women’s movements. It is also clear that AMARC has
an orientation towards advocacy, mobilization and network development, with
service provision being subsidiary to and facilitated by its conception as a
network. Secondly, it is necessary to harmonize strategic planning cycles at the
international, regional and of the Women International Network in order to
increase the coherence and the effectiveness of our interventions. Thirdly,
reinforce good governance and financial management mechanisms through
capacity building and capacity building of the political and operational structures.
Finally, there is need to document and systematically report in the outcomes and
impact of advocacy and solidarity efforts, disseminate evaluation findings and
ensure systematic programme and project monitoring.
Recommendations on objectives and Lines for action

In order to remove barriers and increase its effectiveness the CR sector needs to:
(1) Advocate and do policy research to achieve improvement in the policy, legal
and regulatory environment for community media and of the right to communicate
as the recognition of CR is the single most important factor hindering CR positive
social impact; (2) Increase knowledge sharing and capacity building in the CR
sector to strengthen the sustainability, effectiveness and relevance of community
media facilitating the appropriation of community media by excluded and
marginalized communities to better identify, discuss, articulate and voice their
development concerns; (3) Develop content exchange and social action
campaigns in order to amplify the voices of the excluded and marginalized in
sustainable development and to strengthen south-centered perspectives; (4)
effectively support gender equality, women rights and voices to combat gender
based discrimination and to strengthen women’s participation in community
media at all levels; (5) Reinforce the CR Network and communications and to
strengthen alliances between community media and other networks and social
movements, as well as by strengthening and harmonizing AMARC international
and regional bodies functioning,.
Advocating for Community Radio:

The participants in the global evaluation process recommended strong advocacy
and policy research for more inclusive, interactive and pluralistic media systems
and including national, regional and international advocacy and solidarity action;

Clarifying the nature of Community Radio. The existence of unfriendly legal and
regulatory frameworks for Community radio creates an identity crisis of what is
community radio, expressed in different models of “doing” community radio. This
requires from AMARC constant work to put forward the key characteristics of the
sector and publicize international standards and national best experiences.
Increasing lobbying and advocacy for CR. More generally, AMARC should use its
links with international forums to support lobbying and advocacy in the region in
defence of freedom of expression, in encouraging the participatory nature of
community radio and support women empowerment.
Advising governments on CR legislation: AMARC should also use its global

experience and serve as a consultation body to advice governments on how to
further legislation favourable to community radio. Lowing the licenses fees for
community radios to ensure an equitable access to frequencies by communities
is a key aspect of specific pressure put on governments.
Making the voices of CR heard in international forums. The participation of CR

practitioners and stakeholders in international forums and multilateral institutions
gatherings, will improve policy level understanding and support to CR.
Establishing coalitions to support recognition of CR. The participants insisted

also in the need to build bridges with the Human rights and multilateral sector
and the Asia Pacific Human rights system to support the efforts for the
recognition of community radio in the region.
Monitor & research on CR best experiences. Monitor and report on the policy
environment for CR at country, regional and international levels with publications
for lobbying and reforms of legislation.
Document CR experiences. Conflict reconstruction and peace building are areas

where the CR sector can work best. There is a need to do lot of documentation in
this matter. We need to document the role played by CR is disaster and relief
management. The experiences from India, Indonesia, Thailand, Japan and
Pakistan need to be documented. Our own preparedness to face this disaster will
depend on how much we learn from this. In the area of conflict there is a great
deal to learn from the experiences in Nepal, Indonesia, Philippines and
elsewhere. Many countries have been in conflict and community radios have
been playing a particular role and people have generated experiences
Support CR under repression. Engage the CR network and stakeholders in

response to urgent calls for solidarity from CR threatened with closure or other
interference and set country solidarity missions. Short action alerts which is an
extremely important system that AMARC uses but people need to know how to
use it and when to use it. If you know of a radio that has been threatened or
journalist has been threatened or a law that is to be passed we have mechanism

for immediate action that can bring international forces into play to change the
situation and we know it will be effective. This is one of most measurable actions
that AMARC can do. AMARC works together with 71 other freedom of expression
organizations in a global network called the Freedom of Expression expressed
which circulates the alerts of each organization to every other organization and to
journalist and other newspapers worldwide to provide services to freedom of
expression activist and defenders, human right defenders worldwide. It gets to
thousands of people.
Ensuring the independence of CR. There is need to be working with the

governments but maintain independence and keep lobbying the ministers
especially on issues for licenses
Sharing Knowledge and experiences of the CR Movement

Key recommendations for action by CR stakeholders and particularly AMARC
include knowledge sharing and capacity building to facilitate the access of the
poor and marginalized to community radio and to increase community radio
impact;
Increasing the exchanges among members and stakeholders. Putting theory into
practice. Deepen the theory and document the theory for communication for
development for others to be able to use. Increase social sustainability of CR by
organizing seminars and exchanges on best experiences and impact
assessment studies.
Documenting the best experiences. One of the main priorities was to properly
document experiences where CR can work best, mainly in peace building and
conflict resolution, as well as in natural prevention/disaster relief management.
Increasing capacity building as an empowerment process. Community radios

introduce a communication approach and allow for grassroots appropriation of
new technologies. The government’s approach on ICTs, is business oriented. We
need to transform it into a rights approach. The contemporary question of the
convergence of media, of the contents, is not only a matter of changing
equipments it is a matter of communication rights in the information society.
Embed social impact assessment in community radio. In order to increase CR

social Impact, embed social impact participatory & monitoring techniques within
the network and document it.
Ensure technical guidance & support. In order to ensure proper confrontation of

technology challenges (digital radio, etc) develop capacity within the network
through knowledge sharing.

Amplify the voices of the poor and marginalized
Developing information and thematic content exchange and joint social action
broadcasting campaigns to reinforce the effectiveness and the impact of
community radio;
Giving voice to the excluded There is need for raising awareness of marginalized
voices, including women and peoples of the global south, through shared audio
resources and programming
Organizing Broadcast campaigns. Ensure participation of CR broadcasters in

social action campaigns on HIV/AIDS, health issues, food security, water &
sanitation, racism & discrimination etc.
Covering civil society perspectives in international Forums. Ensuring participation

of CR correspondents at international for a and events in order to report on civil
society perspectives and challenges (World Social Forum, World Trade
Organization, UN International Conferences, etc.)
Support CR information flows. Support internet-based information and

programming exchanges strengthening civil society and south centered
perspectives including key issues on democratic & sustainable development.
Recovering historical memory through programming. The participants also

highlighted the need to support the role of community radios in recovering
historical memory and to show some aspects on how history has been told.
Promote Gender equality and Women’s rights

The Global evaluation process participants recommended action for gender
equality, women rights and to reinforce the AMARC Women International
network. This includes the need to go to the individual community radio station
and find out who are the participants in the radio? How can the number of
women participants be improved? How can women be more empowered through
the community radio? Also what are the needs in terms of training, in terms of
decision-making? Training for women does not only mean by making the radios.
But also how do you lobby within the radio station to get women in decision-
making positions and not just those who are cooking tea and coffee. Therefore,
it’s very important to review the situation of women community radio and get full
potential of women at community radio stations.
Promote Women’s rights. Amplify women’s voices and promote women rights in
order to combat gender based discrimination. Ensure participation and advocacy
on media and gender meetings on the UN and other events.
Promoting Gender equality Promoting gender equity both in management and

governance and programme production in community radio at all levels.

Ensure knowledge sharing and capacity building Ensure training and knowledge
sharing on gender evaluation methodologies, in radio techniques, production and
management.
Reinforce Women Networks Strengthening regional and international Women

Network through web-based tools and electronic conferences
Strengthening networking of CR and AMARC

Networking and communication implemented to strengthen country, regional and
international networks, to build partnership with other development actors and
social movements.
Clarifying the nature of AMARC. Further clarify the nature of AMARC as

movement, and NGO or associations in order to better define its political impact.
Establish a global review of AMARC structure and functioning and effectiveness
in order to further good experiences and avoid old mistakes.
Organizing AMARC service to members. Strengthen networks, ensuring proper

governance mechanisms in order to be effective in delivering services to its
members. AMARC could support increasing membership participation to
reinforce awareness in the network of community radios.
Recognizing National Representations of AMARC. The increasing impact of

AMARC in its relations with governments rise the need that the national
representations will be legally incorporated by changing the consequently the
statutes of AMARC. In the case of Bolivia for instance where AMARC has
received the mandate to define what and which is a community radio, but does
not have a legal status. This national recognition would consolidate the
decentralization.
Increase network communications. Further develop interactive websites,

electronic forums and publications to ensure experience sharing in the network.
Increase exchanges of Cr practitioners within the network;
Reinforce partnerships for development. Reinforce partnership activities with

international stakeholders and NGOs and FoE organizations and social
movements.
Monitoring and evaluation of CR: Ensure systematic crosscutting programme

monitoring and evaluation feeding into management framework with indicators of
process to highlight CR social impact and effectiveness.
Disseminate and embed CR impact evaluation in the network. Ensure

dissemination of CR global evaluation through the network as well as the use of
process indicators and participatory monitoring & evaluation.

Harmonize AMARC bodies and structures. Following the evaluation of lack of
consistency by the AMARC network in the Synthesis Meeting of AMARC
decision-making bodies, a proposal was tabled for the AMARC 9 General
Assembly. Regarding AMARC structures and functioning the AMARC 9 General
Assembly carried a resolution seeking better integration and harmonization
between the works of AMARC bodies. This would avoid the repetition of
situations like the one of AMARC Africa and increase the effectiveness of
AMARC as a global network. (See resolution 22 of the AMARC 9 General
Assembly).

Chapter 16: AMARC Strategic Plan 2007-2010
AMARC’s goal is to combat poverty, exclusion and voicelessness and to promote social justice and sustainable, democratic and
participatory human development
In pursuit of this goal AMARC’s purpose is to amplify the voices of the excluded and marginalized through community media and new ICTs,
to support popular access to communications, and to defend and promote the development of community radio worldwide
Objectives and
Outputs Global Activities Regional Activities
Objective 1 - Advocacy and policy research
To achieve improvement in the policy, legal and regulatory environment for community media and for the right to communicate
Outputs Global activities Latin America & Caribbean Africa Asia Pacific
(a) Advocacy for Making community media Visibility of legal challenges Make community radio Access and Intervene in
community practitioners voices heard in in diverse events. practitioners voices heard regional & sub regional
media at the international forum including Lobbying governments in regional forums. political platforms/institutions
national, participation in the World Press international organizations, Visibility of Community such as ASEAN, SAARC,
regional and Freedom Day, UN Roundtable on parliaments and experts. Radio in country Forums to Pacific Islans Forum
international Communications for Development; Solidarity networks for improve policy and Secretariat related meetings
level WSIS follow-up of Action Lines on threatened media and legislation. (World Press and others.
Media and Cultural Diversity; ITU journalists. Freedom day and Access to Commonwealth
(World Radio communications International telecoms day.) Secretariat as lobbying
Conference); Global Alliance on Lobby work in countries platform.
ICT4D: participating in GAID that are yet to establish Develop a framework for
Strategy Council; follow-up of legislation favorable for media process freedom.
WCCD; UNCSTD,WSIS follow-up) community radio.
(b) Policy (i) Monitoring and reporting on the Up-dating of comparative Monitor and reporting for Update existing 15 Country
research, policy environment for community legislative frameworks advocacy. profiles/reports and develop
monitoring and media at all levels; Systematization of best Documentation and new profiles of other countries;
knowledge (ii) Publications for lobbying on practices, both on legislation dissemination of new Draft model legislation for
exchange communications reform; programs and website initiatives/emerging models broadcasting and develop
Production of annual review of the of community radio in Africa advocacy and lobbying skills
enabling environment for CR Document CR legislations
56 country reports updated; from around the world;
Models of CR legislation are made Advocating & lobbying for CR
available for knowledge sharing; legislation by assisting
(iii) Knowledge sharing supported by governments parallel to
http://obsmedia.amarc.org respect of principles and
autonomy of CRs.

(c) Solidarity (i) 50 international solidarity action Presentation of cases in the Solidarity activities with Strengthen regional advocacy
activities alerts per year; Inter American court community radios suffering helping to protect and
including (ii) 5 international missions with Solidarity Network with repression empower the CR movement
response to partner organisations to selected media and persecuted through alerts and statements,
urgent calls from countries; journalists links to useful resources,
community (iii) Lobbying and representation of Missions to country with advocacy tools, capacity
radios concerns in selected countries in hostile legal environments building tools are added to the
threatened with front of international human rights website
closure or other institutions including UN Human
interference and Rights Council, UN special
country solidarity rapporteur on freedom of
missions. expression, regional Rapporteurs on
FoE (OAS, OSCE, AU).
Objective 2 – Knowledge sharing and capacity building
To strengthen the sustainability, effectiveness and relevance of community media and to increase the appropriation of community media by
excluded and marginalized communities to better identify, discuss, articulate and voice their development concerns.
Outputs Global Activities Latin America & Caribbean Africa Asia Pacific
(a) Training of (i) Producer training on thematic Training for trainers in thematic Reorganize the AMARC Initiate need assessment
trainers, managers content (health, rights, areas (management, production , Africa training and for training at sub regional
and producers environment); gender, environment capacity building program levels;
(ii) Training for trainers on Training for trainers
broadcast production and new ensuring gender equality
ICTs; Document CR experiences
(iii) Training for managers on and good practices.
participation and sustainability Prepare a handbook on
setting up CR, technology
and sustainable
management.
(b) Knowledge (i) Production of learning Knowledge sharing through Support content
sharing and materials and guidance notes; cooperation exchanges between Facilitate knowledge development at sub
research (ii) Action research into radios and medias sharing on best practices. regional levels:
sustainability and good practice; Organization of seminars and Action research and its Initiate discussion in the
(iii) Establishment of an impact regional workshops documentation and existing sub regional \e-list
assessment study; Follow-up processes of up dating dissemination. of Indonesia and Nepal.
(iv) Knowledge sharing seminars communication processes Support content
and workshops development and new

(v) Production of a manual on country web pages:
Women empowerment and good Generate relevant material
governance in English, Nepal and
Bahasa Indonesia for the
related web pages;
(c) Technical (i) Technical assessments, advice
guidance and and guidance;
support (ii) Micro-finance to accelerate
take-up of new ICTs;
Objective 3 – Content exchange and social action campaigns
To amplify the voices of the excluded and marginalized on key issues in sustainable democratic development and to strengthen south-
centered perspectives.
(a) Regional news Supporting a network of Development of Information Reorganize the news Explore the establishment
and features community correspondents in agency Pulsar Agency in Africa (Simbani of news and featuring
services in Latin Latin America (Pulsar) and in Africa) and its network of services for Asia Pacific
America, Africa and Africa (Simbani) providing Further develop the network of correspondents. region
Asia Internet-based radio news and national correspondents
features;
Support the establishment of a
network of community radio
correspondents in Asia Pacific
(b) Community (i) Pulsar, Simbani and other Special coverage for WSF, Participate in regional
media reporting from AMARC correspondents summits, thematic forum, and world coverage
international fora participation and reporting from
and events World Social Forum, WTO, UN
international conferences etc.
(c) Social action (i) Voices Without Frontiers anti- Radio Voices without Frontiers Participate in global Participate in global
campaigns racism campaign on 21 March; Special coverage thematic forum, campaigns broadcast campaigns.
broadcasting: (ii) HIV/AIDS awareness and Conferences Voices Without Frontiers
HIV/AIDS, health, prevention campaign, including Regional campaigns by electronic anti-racism campaign on 21
environment, World AIDS Day, 1 December; mail March; HIV/AIDS, including
migration, racism, (iii) Broadcast campaigns on World AIDS Day;
food security, water environment, food security, environment, food security,
& sanitation; water & sanitation. water & sanitation

(d) Interactive (i) Development of on-line audio Share/exchange
platform for content management system; programmes, once
programme (ii) User interface for easy Simbani Africa has been
exchange. upload/download of material reorganized.
(iii) Knowledge sharing on
program & news exchanges and
wireless networks;
Objective 4 - Gender equality and women’s rights
To promote women’s voices and rights, to combat gender-based discrimination and to strengthen women’s participation in community media
at all levels.
(a) Joint (i) Women’s rights on Participate and develop Radio Participate in the joint Increase the participation of
international International Women’s Day; campaigns international campaigns. WIN AP in coordinated
broadcast (ii) 16 Days Campaign against World Women’s Day, 16 broadcasts & campaigns by
campaigns gender violence days campaign against WIN;
gender violence.
(b) Advocacy on (i) participation and advocacy on Make Latin American women Articulate Africa women’s Make women voices heard.
media and gender media and gender at meetings of voices heard voices on media.
the UN Commission on the Status
of Women (UNCSW) and other
international events
(c) Training and (i) Training on gender evaluation Seminars to think the role of the Reorganize the training Proactively build women's
capacity building methodologies; board and analyze what we and capacity building skills and guarantee their
(ii) Training in the use of new ICT understand by “gender activities full and constructive
tools; perspective” participation in the
(iii) Training for women institutional development of
community radio managers AMARC AP
(d) Networking and (i) Strengthening the regional and Reorganize the Women Reorganize/strengthen Ensure at least 50%
knowledge sharing international networks of the International network the Women International Women’s representation,
AMARC Women International Profile the successful experiences network in Africa. and that their contributions
Network (WIN); of radios managed by women are taken into account and
(ii) international and regional WIN made visible/audible in all
meetings; AMARC AP activities,
(iii) publication of Manual on programs, training
Women empowerment and Good workshops, campaigns and
Governance and a directory publications.

Objective 5 - Network development and communication
To strengthen AMARC structure and functioning, to strength country, regional and international networking and communication within the
community media sector and to strengthen alliances between community media and other networks and social movements.
(a) Network (i) Interactive website and Develop AMARC LAC website Develop AMARC Africa Develop support
communications electronic lists for exchanges and Publication of Cara y Senal website mechanisms for CR:
and meetings knowledge sharing; (bulletin & magazine) Identify key needs on the
(ii) Publication of InteRadio basis of the deliberations
annual review; made in the regional
(iii) Publication of monthly assembly;
AMARC Link e-newsletter Development of emergency
(iv) Decision making structures of support funds, soft loans for
the AMARC network meet to take CRs, technical back-up
decisions and coordinate the support, sharing of content;
community radio movement. Publication of online
newsletter with
contributions from
members;.
(b) Partnerships for (i) Partnership with other freedom Participate in initiatives of social Reinforce partnership Regular reporting to Exec.
development of expression organizations movements, incorporating the activities with organized Com., Reg. Board and
through IFEX, including AMARC communications dimension. country networks. International General
LAC section hosting of IFEX Reorganize/reinforce Secretary;
Annual Assembly in Uruguay – relationships with Prepare and present
October 2007; stakeholders financial reports;
(ii) Reinforcing partnership Develop proposals on the
activities with GKP including basis of the priorities set out
support for and participation in by the e-list discussion
GK3 2007; groups
(iii) Participate in joint impact
assessment with BCO alliance;
(iv) Participation in Global Forum
for Media Development;
(v) Engagement with social
movements through the WSF
process at all levels.
(c) Monitoring and (i) Systematic and crosscutting Develop monitoring and Prepare and present

evaluation programme M&E feeding into the evaluation consistent with financial reports;
management framework, annual participatory approaches Develop proposals on the
review and overall learning basis of the priorities set out
processes. Results oriented by the e-list discussion
approach with process, impact groups
and effectiveness indicators.
(d) Dissemination (i) Promoting and disseminating Reinforce links with international Disseminate and discuss Roundtable on CR Social
of results tools for CR impact assessment; and regional offices the evaluation process Impact: Removing Barrier,
(ii) Publication of papers and Up date the constitution of Disseminate tools for Increasing Efficiency
reports on community radio AMARC LAC evaluation
development including a PLA Ensure participation and
Journal special edition on coordination of member
community radio; radio stations and partners
(iii) Presentations at key participate on on-line
international events to discussions/fill
governments, policy makers and questionnaires.
the development community
(e) Organizational (i) Development of joint planning, Articulation with other regions of Reorganize AMARC
development M&E and control; AMARC Africa operational
(ii) Training and capacity building capacity/structure
to embed M&E, including impact
assessment, into AMARC
activities at all levels;
(iii) Regional meetings in Asia,
Africa, Latin America, Middle East
and Europe;
(iv) International meetings to
coordinate the Strategic plan
(f) AMARC (i) The Tenth AMARC World Organize the AMARC LAC Organize the Pan-African The 2nd regional conference
Regional and World Conference of Community Radio regional conference Conference of AMARC Asia Pacific to
Conferences of Broadcasters (AMARC 10) will be be held in 2009 at location
Community Radio held in 2010 at a location to be to be determined by the
Broadcasters. determined by the IBOD regional board.

Chapter 17: AMARC Structure, Functioning and Effectiveness71
Background
In 2006, AMARC commenced on a process to evaluate the impact of its
membership’s work on development and social justice as well as the
contributions of AMARC to that process. The process was assisted by the
Communications for Social Change Consortium (CFSC) and carried out through
a membership survey, the convening of an electronic discussion forum and the
holding of regional consultations. Key outcomes of the process are to be found in
the following documents:
• AMARC Community Radio Impact Evaluation: removing barriers,

increasing effectiveness;
• Why Assess Community Radio: it works, doesn’t it?
• Global Review of Community Radio;
• Evaluation of Community Radio Social Impact;
• The Impact of Community Radio;
• How AMARC Can Make a Difference; and
The programmatic recommendations arising from the process have been

captured in the draft strategic plan presented to the AMARC 9 General
Assembly. But institutional recommendations remain to be addressed. Thus, to
carry the process forward into and beyond AMARC 9’s deliberations, a further
consultation process was developed for internal reflection and review on
AMARC’s structure, functioning and effectiveness. Key among those steps was
the convening of a consultation among AMARC’s International and Regional
Boards of Directors and Secretariats held just prior to AMARC 9 and further
workshop consultation with members at AMARC 9.
The consultation addressed AMARC’s vision and priority-setting; its strategic

planning process; its mechanisms for ensuring the good governance and sound
financial management during implementation of its strategic plans; and its
monitoring and evaluation mechanisms of both immediate outcomes and long-
term impact. The aim was to move towards a more coherent and integrated
approach on these four fronts by AMARC within and across its regional and
sectoral sections, as well as globally. The following resolution sets out the key
recommendations:
Vision and Priority-Setting

Dialogue among AMARC’s regional and sectoral sections must be facilitated
around AMARC conceived and acting as a non-governmental organisation, a
network and a part of various social movements. Currently membership
71
Resolution adopted by AMARC members at AMARC 9 World Conference of Community Radio
Broadcasters, 16 November 2006
expectations of AMARC relate to all three conceptions and different
communication and mobilisation strategies pertain to each three. It is, however,
clear that AMARC’s impact—as well as that of its members—is strongest when
its actions are oriented towards belonging to and participating in various social
movements, especially human rights and social justice movements and the
women’s movements. It is also clear that AMARC has an orientation towards
advocacy, mobilisation and network development, with service provision being
subsidiary to and facilitated by its conception as a network.
In this respect, AMARC should:
• Reformulate its presentation to bring greater emphasis on this social

movement orientation
• Build the visibility of its networking potential (including through website
development that enables contacts to be made as and when necessary).
Strategic Planning
AMARC should:
• Incorporate regional strategic planning processes and cycles into account

in the preparation of the international strategic plan in order to build a
coherent global strategic planning framework;
• Ensure all international and regional strategic planning processes
proactively involve the international and regional Women’s International
Network (WIN);
• Ensure regular consultation within among the International and Regional
Boards of Directors between the annual meetings of the former or
orgsanising meetings of cross regional programmatic groups, for example,
legal advocacy, gender.
Governance and Financial Management

AMARC should:
• Provide orientations and capacity building for the International and

Regional Boards of Directors on their roles and responsibilities, including
financial, legal responsibilities and relationships between the Boards of
Directors and staff;
• Find appropriate ways, consistent with labour and non-discrimination
standards, to address staff performance questions raised by persistent
illness;
• Ensure that necessary personnel costs are worked into all fundraising
proposals for programmes and projects to avoid overtaxing regular staff;
• Adopt transparency standards for its International and Regional
Secretariats both as a matter of ethics and principle as well as of
practicality (to avoid, for example, competition for funding and enable joint
fundraising across regions on matters of common concern) through, for
example, creating a common depository for all fundraising proposals and
confirmed grant agreements in AMARC’s name;
• Develop standardized accounting and financial reporting policies,
procedures and practices to apply to its International Secretariat and its
regions and sections;
• Ensure these accounting and financial reporting policies, procedures and
practices address issues such as joint fundraising, fundraising authority
and processes, spending only against contracted budgets, spending only
within contracted budget lines and spending only with appropriate
authorization, involvement and oversight by the relevant Board of
Directors;
• Ensure that legal requirements for annual external audits at international
and regional levels conform with standard legal requirements and
procedures;
• Implement regular internal audits across AMARC International and
regional sections for increased coherence and transparency;
• Explore avenues to decentralize executive powers and responsibilities
from the International to the Regional Secretariats as well as among the
membership (for example, through decentralizing publications and
translation work);
• Document the governance and financial management challenges
experienced by AMARC International Secretariat and its regional sections
and strategies adopted to surmount these challenges to ensure that
history does not repeat itself.
Monitoring and Evaluation

AMARC should:
• Document and systematically report on the outcomes and impact of all

advocacy and solidarity efforts, through the AMARC website and
publications;
• Disseminate the findings and outcomes of the evaluation process;
• Test the participatory monitoring and evaluation tools developed during
the evaluation process within all of its regions;
• Develop systematic programme and project monitoring and evaluation
tools and strategies common to all regions and International Secretariat;
• Build resources and capacity for monitoring and evaluation into all
programme and project proposals at all levels.
Part VI : Annexes
Annexe 1: Essential Bibliography72
Sources of information for this bibliographic review on the impact of community

radio are varied; they include a number of books and articles of evaluation of
community radio, but also a few resources on evaluation, which are not specific
to community radio, but to communication and to participatory projects and
experiences.
The importance of including resources on Participatory Monitoring and

Evaluation is to be highlighted, particularly because most evaluations on the
impact of community radio are poor in terms of describing the methodologies that
were used. Most of the bibliography on evaluation of community radio provides
the results of the research, and little on the research approach that was used.
There are many articles and books evaluating community radio stations, and
even more evaluating specific programming that was sponsored by development
agencies, however we have included here mainly those that, in our view, provide
better insights on the process of evaluation or describe the instruments that were
used. Many studies only look at particular aspects of impact, such as changing of
attitudes towards health or environmental issues, or the spread of information
through specific radio programming.
The bibliography is organized as a table, that can be listed either by subject, by

author or by year. Each entry has a brief commentary on its relevance to
research on impact. When available, we have included a note on the research
methodology.
This compilation has been possible with the contribution from The
Communication Initiative, and using the database of the Communication for
Social Change Consortium, particularly the Body of Knowledge. Staff at the
Consortium researched the web as well as printed resources. Although most
entries are of publications in English, we decided however to include a few in
Spanish and French when we thought they were important contributions with no
parallel in English.
In final analysis, we may conclude by recognizing that the bibliography on impact

of community radio seldom develops the methodological aspects, which is why it
may be important to use methods of participatory monitoring and evaluation that
have been developed to assess the impact of communication programmes in
general, or even those that are used to evaluate social change in participatory
processes. There is a wealth of manuals and handbooks, not specific to
72
Alfonso Gumucio Dagron. Managing Director, Programmes, Communication for Social Change
Consortium
community radios, that provide guidance for participatory monitoring and
evaluation methodologies.
1. Laney, Megan L., (2004). Advocacy Impact Assessment Guidelines. From

Communication & Information Management Resource Centre. [Electronic Version]
Website: http://www.cimrc.info/pdf/news/Impactassess.pdf
It is hard to find concrete evidence of the contributions that advocacy makes towards
poverty eradication. This paper provides guidelines for an approach that many NGOs
take to assess advocacy impacts. Being clear about the changes means that you can
develop measurable advocacy objectives. Designing indicators that act as milestones
towards the achievement of your objectives provides a basis in your search for evidence.
There are different types of advocacy impacts, known as different dimensions of change.
This paper describes some indicators for the following dimensions: changes in policies
and their implementation, private sector change, strengthening civil society, aiding
democracy and improving the material situation of individuals. Participatory monitoring
and evaluation asks the people being affected by a project whether it has made a
difference.
2. Jallov, Birgitte (2005). Assessing Community Change: Development of a ‘Bare

Foot’ Impact Assessment Methodology. From The Communication Initiative.
Website: http://www.comminit.com/pdf/ImpactAssessment-
FinalRadioJournalVersion.pdf
Barefoot impact assessments of eight of Mozambique's community radio stations
revealed both positive results and potential problems.
The impact assessment focused on three sets of questions:
-Is the radio station working effectively internally and do the volunteers have contracts,
rights and clearly defined duties?
-Do the programmes respond to the interests of the public? Are they well researched,
using culturally relevant formats such as story telling, songs, proverbs and music? Are
they considered good and effective by listeners?
-Does the radio station create desired development and social change (determined by
the original baseline research) within the community?
3. Johnston, Jerome & Barker Linda Toms eds. (2002). Assessing the Impact of
Technology in Teach and Learning: A Sourcebook for Evaluators. Institute for
Social Research at the University of Michigan. [Electronic Version] Website:
http://www.rcgd.isr.umich.edu/tlt/TechSbk.pdf
This sourcebook was developed as a resource for the community of evaluators involved
in evaluating the more than 100 projects funded by the Star Schools and the Technology
Innovation Challenge Grants (TICG). The sourcebook provides an overview of
measurement issues in seven areas as well as examples of measures used in current
projects.
The detailed methodology of this sourcebook could be used to evaluate impact of
community radio, particularly the learning processes.
Community Broadcasting Association of Australia (n.d.) CBAA Handbook. [Electronic
Version] Website: http://www.cbaa.org.au/download.php?id=123
This an online handbook, with dozens of chapters organized in alphabetical order,
covering all issues relating to the operation of community radio stations, from legislation
to programming.
Methods
One of the chapters is on “Programme Evaluation”, however the handbook does not
cover specifically impact evaluations.
4. Sood, Suruchi , SenGupta Manisha, Mishra, Pius Raj, & Jocoby, Caroline.
Examination of Radio Listening Groups in Fulbari, Nepal. [Electronic Version]
Gazette: The International Journal For Communication Stuides, Vol 66(1): 63-86.
Website: http://gaz.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/66/1/63
The authors seek to answer the following research question: "Do members of listening
groups have higher levels of correct knowledge, approval, intention to practice, current
use and personal advocacy related to family planning compared to those who are not
members of the listening groups?" In general, evidence from their research in Nepal
reveals that they do. The authors believe that the findings suggest that media exposure
and interpersonal communication are correlates of behavioural change that results in the
adoption of modern methods of family planning. They conclude by arguing that in order
to achieve sustainable change in behaviour, "audience members need to be viewed
more as collaborators than as passive receptors of expert information and advice.”
Exposure to the radio programmes and to listening groups was positively related to
knowledge about modern methods of family planning. Group 2 respondents were 3.5
times more likely and Group 1 respondents over 8 times more likely than those who
were exposed to neither to spontaneously recall at least five modern methods of family
planning. Women and those engaged in agricultural occupations were somewhat less
likely.
The combination of radio programmes with listening groups appears to be associated
with higher levels of knowledge, current usage and discussion about contraceptive
methods, and are significant even after age, gender, education, caste and gender
composition of surviving offspring are taken into account.
5. Olorunnisola Anothony A. (2005). Community Radio as Participatroy

Communication in Post-Apartheid South Africa. Website:
http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/a/x/axo8/Joburg/manuscript.htm
This paper evaluates the evolution of community radio in post-apartheid South Africa
where a three-tier broadcasting system - public, commercial, and community has
replaced the monopoly of the state-run South African Broadcasting Corporation.
6. Fraser, Colin & Restrepo, Restepro Estrada, Sonia. Community Radio

Handbook. UNESCO. [Electronic Version] Website:
http://www.unesco.org/webworld/publications/community_radio_handbook.pdf
This handbook covers most issues relevant to the emerging movement of community
radio in Third World countries, including: the general broadcasting scene, features and
functions, legal aspects, technical aspects, setting a station, programme policies, the
community broadcaster code of conduct and several case studies.
Chapter 5 on “Getting Started” includes practical steps on involving the community, a
methodology which could also be used for assessing impact; and Chapter 6 on
“Programme Policies” specifically addresses a section on “Participation in Evaluation of
Programming”.
7. O’Connor, Alan ed. (2004). Community Radio in Bolivia: The Miners’ Radio
Stations. The Edwin Mellen Press.
For the first time in English, a collection of texts that trace the history and development
of miners’ radio stations of Bolivia, which have been a seminal experience for community
radio worldwide.
Although the book does not include a chapter on methodology related to impact, all
chapters are key to understand the role of participation and ownership in the social
change process, which is not measured from the outside, but through political and social
changes in the community.
8. Kuma, Kanchan. (2005) Community Radio in India: A Study . From The

Communication Initiative Website:
http://www.comminit.com/evaluations/eval2005/evaluations-110.html
Case studies of 4 grassroots-level projects using community radio for development: the
Kutch Mahila Vikas Sangathan-KMVS project in Bhuj (Gujarat); the Alternative for India
Development-AID project in Daltongunj (Jharkhand); the Deccan Development Society-
DDS project in Pastapur (Andhra Pradesh), and the Voices project in Budhikote
(Karnataka). Kumar's paper sets the stage for studying community radio by suggesting
what types of questions to ask broadcasters and others - to the end of getting a sense of
how they conceptualise public access to airwaves and where this movement lies within
the context of globalisation of communication technologies.
Kumar shares her methods for evaluating community radio initiatives, by detailing
specific interview exchanges (conducted with project management and the
representatives of the facilitating NGO) and focus group discussion questions. The latter
conversations were conducted in the local language and in comfortable settings where
the members would normally gather to hold discussions in their villages. The report
includes the list of critical questions that were used to steer the focus group discussions
with the help of a moderator. Fieldwork involved collection of policy-related documents,
as well as interviews and focus group discussions.
9. Fairbairn, Jean. (1999). Community Radio Manual. Open Society Foundation

for South Africa (OSF-SA). [Electronic Version] Website:
http://www.osf.org.za/File_Uploads/pdf/CRM-1-
prelims.pdf#search=%22manuals%20on%20community%20radio%20evaluation%22
A handbook rather than a manual, this one has chapters on the new challenges of
community radio for South Africa, the situation in the rest of the world, issues of
legislation and community participation, and several chapters on how to set-up a new
radio station, including licensing, programming, equipment, marketing, fundraising,
formats, etc.
Chapter 12, on research, includes sections on audience research and evaluation.
10. Population Foundation of India. (2002). Community Radio Programmes –

India From: The Communication Initiative Website:
http://www.comminit.com/experiences/pdskdv42002/experiences-1279.html
The Population Foundation of India developed two community radio programmes in July,
2001. Kusumale airs in the Mysore district of Karnataka state and Ujala airs in the
Sonbhadra district of Uttar pradeshare. The radio programmes are designed to teach the
customs and practices of the tribal community (Soligas) to provide information, to instill
an understanding of rural life, and to eliminate erroneous beliefs among rural people.
11. Population Foundation of India. (2002). Community Radio Programmes –

India. From: The Communication Initiative Website:
http://www.comminit.com/evaluations/idkdv2002/sld-2364.html
The Population Foundation of India developed two community radio programmes in July,
2001. Kusumale airs in the Mysore district of Karnataka state and Ujala airs in the
Sonbhadra district of Uttar pradeshare. The radio programmes are designed to teach the
customs and practices of the tribal community (Soligas) to provide information, to instill
an understanding of rural life, and to eliminate erroneous beliefs among rural people.
12. Buckley, Steve. Community Radio: The New Tree of Speech. (2000)
http://imfundo.digitalbrain.com/imfundo/web/tech/documents/kb19/kb19.pdf?verb=view
The paper demonstrates how radio can act as a gateway to the Internet. The author
concludes that community radio has a unique role to play in bridging the digital divide.
As an interface with the Internet it can connect people into a global dialogue while
providing the means to place that in a local context. For the community radio participant
it can provide access to information technologies as tools for creative communication in
which traditional barriers of literacy and of perception are, if not removed, at least
significantly reduced.
13. Developing and Using Indicators of ICT Use in Education (2003). UNESCO,
Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education.
In evaluation studies, indicators are used as evidence or signs by which we can assess
or evaluate materials, methods, an intervention, a programme or a project. Indicators are
measuring devices. They define concepts in terms of the measurements and data it is
possible to collect and analyse. They define what data to collect and at what time
intervals.
This booklet contains leads for identifying indicators for assessing impact of ICTs.
Though not specifically on community radio, the methodology includes useful
consideration on collecting indicators.
14. Sander, Cerstin. (1998). Development Research Impact: REACH. IDRC.

[Electronic Version] Website: http://www.idrc.ca/uploads/user-
s/10504282450reach_e.pdf
The author outlines issues in accountability and development research impact
assessment; introduces ‘reach’ as impact of development research; illustrates reach
assessment with findings from impact studies; and concludes with suggestions for
impact assessment as learning accountability and reach as a concept to facilitate
assessing and designing for research impact.
Though not specific on communication, the paper is important for its approach to
accountability and outreach assessment. Impact assessment that explores reach as well
as aggregate developmental impact and the factors that facilitate or inhibit them provides
performance feedback to stakeholders that demonstrates a realistic cognizance of
factors and can identify actions towards solutions. It also helps to expand and inform
issues lists for assessment. ‘Best practices’ and other types of recipe books are hard to
come by in a work environment where variables change, often dramatically, within and
between projects.
15. Warnock, Kitty. (2001). DTR Radio Listening Clubs, Zambia Impact
Evaluation Report. Panos. [Electronic Version] Website:
http://www.comminit.com/pdf/zambiaDTR.pdf
The aim of this evaluation was to assess the development impact of the project – for the
club members, their communities, and at national level.
16. McKay, Blythe. (2003). Enhancing Community Over the Airwaves:

Community Radio in a Ghanaian Fishing village. From: The Communication
Initiative Website: http://www.comminit.com/evaluations/eval2005/thinking-1408.html
An exploratory analysis of the role that Radio Ada plays in fishers’ livelihoods and lives
in Anyakpor, a fishing village in southeast Ghana. The study's findings reveal that fishers
rely on Radio Ada alongside other media for livelihood information. Radio Ada is also
enabling fishers to learn about their livelihoods from each other, providing them with
useful information for their work; promoting culture, identity, and community; providing
access to news; creating opportunities for voice/dialogue; and establishing a level of
trust. Fishers indicated that in the future they would like to further integrate Radio Ada
into their community.
The researcher conducted in-depth interviews, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)
activities, semi-structured interviews, participant observation, and document analysis
17. Tacchi, Jo, Slater, Don & hearn, Greg. (2003). Ethnographic Action Research:
A user’s handbook developed to innovate and research ICT applications for
poverty eradication. UNESCO. [Electronic Version]
http://unescodelhi.nic.in/publications/ear.pdf
Ethnographic action research is considered to be one of the innovative research
approaches to study the impact of information and communication technologies. This
handbook explains the approach and the methods employed particularly for projects
using information and communication technologies related to poverty alleviation.
The book contains detailed methodology (participant observation, field notes, in-depth
interviews, group interviews, diaries, questionnaires, etc.) and analysis on the proposed
research process. Though not dealing directly with community radio, the approach to
ICTs is also valid for any other communication tool.
18. Douglas Horton, Anastasia Alexaki, Samuel Bennett-Lartey, Kim Noele Brice,
Dindo Campilan, Fred Carden, Jose de Souza Silva, Le Thanh Duong, Ibrahim
Khadar, Albina Maestrey Boza, Imrul Kayes Muniruzzaman, Jocelyn Perez, Matilde
Somarriba Chang, Ronnie Vernooy and Jamie Watts. (2003). Evaluation Capacity
Development – Experiences from Research and Development Organizations
around the World. ICRC. [Electronic Version] Website:
http://www.idrc.ca/openebooks/111-6/
The perspective that informs this important book is that every evaluation of a capacity
development effort should
itself contribute to the capacity development effort and ultimately to the organization’s
performance. This book has been written for managers and evaluators in research and
development organizations as well as in the agencies that support them—international
development agencies, management development institutes, and educational
institutions.
Chapter 6 outlines approaches and methods for evaluating organizational capacity
development. It discusses the importance of evaluation principles as well as issues
related to the preparation and the carrying out of evaluations. Chapter 7 discusses how
to utilize evaluation processes and results to advance capacity development and
performance in an organization. Potential users and uses of evaluation are identified and
some strategies for enhancing use are provided. The ideas and information presented in
these chapters are based on six evaluation studies carried out by participants in the
ECD Project.
19. Creech, Heather et al. (2005) Evaluation of UNESCO’s Community Multimedia

Centres Final Report. UNESCO International Institute for Sustainable
Development.
http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/files/22129/11477736959CMC_Evaluation_Final.pdf/CMC+
Evaluation_Final.pdf
This evaluation assesses what can be learned from the pilot phase that will both
strengthen the CMC model and improve UNESCO’s programming for future CMCs, in
particular through the scale-up initiative. It was conducted by the International Institute
for Sustainable Development between April and October 2005. An evaluation framework
was approved by the UNESCO Internal Oversight Service. In addition to a review of
CMC documentation, site An additional 26 in person or phone interviews were
conducted with UNESCO stakeholders, donors, partners and peers active in the field of
ICTs for development (ICT4D).
20. S. Batchelor, P Norrish ed. (2005). Framework for the Assessment of ICT
Piolent Prodects: beyond Monitoring and Evaulation to Applied Research.
InvoDev. Website: http://www.infodev.org/en/Document.4.aspx
This handbook, commissioned by infoDev and prepared by a team at GAMOS, reviews
the experience of infoDev and others in supporting ICT pilot projects in developing
countries, and proposes a framework for assessing the effectiveness of these pilot
projects. It provides guidance not only on how to design effective monitoring and
evaluation (M&E) components of ICT pilot projects, but also on how to go "beyond"
traditional M&E to develop more forward-looking evidence of the potential broader
impact of such pilot projects if taken to a larger scale.
Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) at the project level is not enough, there is a need for
applied research. Undertaking M&E during and after an ICT pilot project
is standard good practice and is used for accountability and learning. This is a
comprehensive and detailed methodological proposal to evaluate ICTs, that can be
used for impact assessment of community radio stations.
21. Cinco, Cheekay. (2005). Gender Evaluation Methodology For Internet and
ICTs a Learning Tool for Change and Empowerment. Association for Progressive
Communications (APC). Website: http://www.apcwomen.org/gem/
The evaluation model pays special attention to self and social change – understanding
the dynamic relationship between an ICT initiative on both self and social change.
Learning for Change uses “self” to mean individuals, organisations and communities
involved in an ICT initiative. Evaluation that focuses on self-change examines the
dynamic relationship between ICT initiatives and the way individuals, organisations and
communities operate.
The evaluation model, “Learning for Change”, is developed along the book. This
important publication draws from a wealth of experiences in Asia, Central Europe, Africa
and Latin America. GEM is not only a tool for gender evaluations. Nor is it just a guide or
a manual that breaks down gender concepts and makes it relevant for ICT projects.
22. Mytton, Graham. (1999). Handbook on Radio and Television Audience

Research. UNESCO. [Electronic Version] Website:
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001242/124231Eo.pdf
Very strong in methodology of audience research, however this manual does not
consider community radio specifics, such as participation, ownership and evaluation
research that involves communities in the decision-making process.
The manual describes in a comprehensive manner the methodology for audience
research, with detailed chapters on: audience measurement or quantitative research;
audience opinion and reaction; qualitative research; desk research; data analysis, etc.
23. Institute of Development Studies. (2006). Id21 Community Radio for
Development Email Discussion Report. [Electronic Version] Website:
http://www.id21org/communityradio/summaries.html
The discussion was meant to be an opportunity for community media practitioners and
activists from around the world to share their experiences and views on the role of
community radio in development processes. To make the most of progress so far,
discussants felt that community radio activists need to consider the following issues:
Learning, Participation, Networking, Evaluation, Language.
24. Institute of Development Studies. (2006). Id21 Community Radio for

Development Email Discussion Report. [Electronic Version] Website:
http://www.id21org/communityradio/finalreport.pdf
The discussion was meant to be an opportunity for community media practitioners and
activists from around the world to share their experiences and views on the role of
community radio in development processes. To make the most of progress so far,
discussants felt that community radio activists need to consider the following issues:
Learning, Participation, Networking, Evaluation, Language.
The method of a four-week long email discussion with hundreds of subscribers and
different themes each week, brought to the list a number of approaches to community
radio evaluation and impact and surfaced many personal experiences and ideas that
may not yet be published elsewhere. The success of this email discussion is directly
related with the management of the list and the themes.
25. Coe, Jim, Luetchford, & Kingham, Tess. (2002) Id21: Tracking Routes
Towards Impact.
The report seeks to indicate how id21could take innovative steps in developing
methodologies to assess the impact of development research on policy in a measurable
way. If these steps are taken it could help to further establish id21as a leader in the field
of web-based research dissemination – and remove the bracketed ‘if possible’ from its
stated goal.
Part Four of the report is on id21 “methodology and contribution”, and includes aspects
of web research and evaluation of internet impact.
26. John Hopkins University Center for Communication Programming. (2001).

Impact data – Akumwera Nechuchera. From The Communication Initiative Website:
http://www.comminit.com/evaluations/idmay15/sld-2271.html
Evaluation of a radio drama targeting men and promoting male motivation to adopt
effective family planning practices. The objectives of the project were to increase
knowledge of family planning methods among men of reproductive age, change attitudes
regarding family planning, increase modern family planning methods usage between
men and their partners, and to promote male involvement and joint decision-making
between spouses on family planning issues.
27. (1999) Impact Data – Capital Doctor From The Communication Initiative
Website: http://www.comminit.com/experiences/pds07-11-99/experiences-244.html
Capital Doctor is a call-in radio show that began in 1994 and gives advice to local
Ugandan callers and writers on sexual and reproductive health issues under the broader
context of advising on all health issues.
28. Myers, Mary (2001). Impact Data- Radio Douentza From The Communication
Initiative Website: http://www.comminit.com/evaluations/idmay15/sld-2298.html
Radio Douentza was one of the first independent community radios in Mali, operating on
a very small budget, but creating impressive achievements and impact on the local
communities. Those exposed to the radio were much better informed about AIDS than
other regions, 70% of those claimed radio as their main source of information. After
broadcasts which recommended marking and conserving naturally occurring trees, it
was found that the number of farmers doing this increased from 6% to 43% in the
sample.
29. Faye, Martin & Kessler, Roy (2006). INFORMO(T)RAC Programme – Joint
Review Mission Report: A Review of the INFORMO(T)RAC (Initiative for Mobil
Training of community Radio) Programme. [Electronic Version] Website:
http://www.informotrac.org/downloads/informotrac_mission_report.pdf
The mission fully supports RNTC’s belief that Community Radio Stations (CRS) could
play an important role in a structural approach to fight poverty from the bottom up by
stimulating active participation in social processes. As the mission saw, CRS do
contribute to Civil Society Development (CSD), and as such, the INFORMO(T)RAC
programme (IP) certainly (indirectly) contributes to poverty alleviation, especially in
societies where previous war situations have destroyed various bases of the society.
30. Jackson, Edward T. & Kassam, Yusuf (1998). Participatory Evaluation in

Development Cooperation. IDRC. Website: http://www.idrc.ca/openebooks/868-6/
This book provides readers with a variety of articles covering such critical themes as
ethics, techniques, case studies, historic reflections, and invitations to action. Further,
this anthology brings together some of the best-known specialists from many parts of the
world.
Who has the right to evaluate whom? If evaluation is, as Kamla Bhasin notes in this
collection, "reflection on action," why is the literature of evaluation so monopolized by the
writings of those who serve the dominant interests? Why does the evaluation literature
so seldom reflect the direct concerns of the majority of the poor? Chapter 4 is on
“Participatory Impact Assessment as a Tool for Change”. The second part of the book is
a collection of case studies.
31. Geerts, Andrés, Van Oeyen, Victor, & Villamayor, Claudia. (2004). La Práctica
Inspira – La Radio Popular y Comunitaria frente al Nuevo Siglo. ALER-AMARC.
The most comprehensive report on sustainability of community radio in Latin America,
covering 32 radio stations from the perspective of social, institutional and financial
sustainability. The book (406 pages), includes chapters on the methodology that was
used for the studies, which involved a group of 24 researchers.
The methodology included fieldwork at the community level, extensive interviews in each
radio station with journalists and staff, with members of the audience, as well as
personal observation, analysis of programming, and review of documentation and
archives.
32. Ana Lucía Gonzalez Paz, La Radio comunitaria: El Camino hacia una
Democracia Participativa. (Unpublished).
This research focuses on community radio in Colombia. It includes several case studies
and chapters on legislation, conceptual framework of community radio, participation and
evaluation.
Although not specifically on impact, this report includes important contribution towards
analyzing and conceptualizing community radio. The two case studies are built on
interviews, field work and observation.
33. Cornejo, Ines. (2002). La Radio Indigenista en Mexico. Fundación Manuel
Buendia.
This books analyses the development of indigenous radio in Mexico, focusing on the
Yucatan region.
It offers numerous indications about the impact of indigenous radio in social change,
through a research methodology that includes quantitative and qualitative information,
both from questionnaires and from field work, interviews and observation.
34. Geerts, Andrés, & Van Oeyen, Victor. (2001). La Radio Popular frente al
Nuevo Siglo: Estudio de Vigencia e Incidencia. ALER.
This book is the result of a research report on impact of community radio in Latin
America. No less than 74 radio stations in 12 countries were consulted by a team of 16
researchers that visited the stations.
The first chapter of the book describes the methodology that was used during the
research process, mainly field work and interviews with staff and audience of the
community radio stations. The Annex 2 includes a detailed list of the instruments that
were applied to gather information.
35. Prieto Castillo, Daniel. (1994) La Vida Cotidiana: Fuente de Produccion

Radiofónica. UNDA-AL
This is a classic manual for distance education through radio. Although it is not
specifically addressed to assess impact of community radio, the core of it is about
working with people and helping to strengthen their voices, through participation and life
stories.
36. Camacho Azurduy, Carlos A. (2001). Las Radios Populares en la

Construcción de la Ciudadanía – Enseñanzas de la Experiencia de ERBOL en
Bolivia. Universidad Andina Simón Bolivar (UASB).
This book analyses the role of mediation of community radio stations affiliated to
ERBOL, the main Bolivian network of community radio, in the search of public space for
democratic participation. An exhaustive compilation of information and analysis of the
discourse, are central to the study.
Chapter IX specifically analyses the impact of radios in the ERBOL network on public
opinion, and the forms of participation of the audience. The book also has a
comprehensive annex on methodology, including qualitative and quantitative techniques.
37. Taylor, Peter, Deak, Andrew, Pettit, Jethro, & Vogel, Isabel. (2006). Learning
for Social change; Exploring Concepts, Methods and Practice. Institute of
Development Studies (IDS). http://www.pnet.ids.ac.uk/docs/FLASC.pdf
This document is an outcome of a dialogue on facilitating learning for social change
(FLASC) which took place through e-fora and an international workshop in the Spring of
2006. In this report, social change is described as “a process of dialogue, debate and
action resulting in major shifts in social norms, and is generally characterised by the
highlighting and legitimation of discordant voices, particularly of those marginalised in
society, and leading to improvements in their rights, entitlements and living conditions".
This report is important for what it contributes to the notion of dialogue in the learning
process. Though not specific on impact assessment, or community radio, it helps to
understand the process of social change.
38. Querre, Francois. (1991). Les Mille et un Mondes—Manuel de Radio Rurale.
FAO.
This book, which has also been published in English, is a handbook, more than a
manual, on community radio in the rural context, focusing on the experience of Africa. It
covers various formats of programming that can be used in community radio.
The manual does not include chapters on audience research or impact research.
However, it contains useful hints on how to work from the community level, with the
people, and taking into account the local cultural context.
39. Slim, Hugo & Thompsoon, Paul. (1993). Listening for a Change – Oral
testimony and development. PANOS UK.
Although not specifically on community radio, this book is an essential contribution on
the importance of voices and spoken words of ordinary people in development.
In terms of research methodology, this book is an important resource for evaluating
impact. Individual and group interviews as the “art of collecting oral testimony” are the
basis of the research that resulted in the book. They include: life story interviews, family
tree interviewing, single-issue interview, diary interviewing, group interviews and focus
groups.
40. Gumucio-Dagron, Alfonso. (2001). Making Waves: Stories of Participatory

Communication for Social Change. The Rockefeller Foundation. Website:
http://www.comminit.com/making-waves.html
Among the 50 case stories that are included in this book, half of them deal with
community radio experiences in Africa, Asia and Latin America.
Each chapter or experience described in the book briefly discusses the impact of
community radio on social change and development within the community. Information
was retrieved through interviews with community members and staff at the radio
stations.
41. McDaniel Drew O. & Brown, Duncan H. (2001) Manuel for Media Trainers – A
learner-centered approach. UNESCO. Website:
http://www.unesco.org/webworld/publications/media_trainers/manual.pdf
Those who are already familiar with training methodology will find this manual a source
of material available to them with conceptual approaches and the human element of
delivery they bring with them. Aspiring trainers and many others who use this manual
are likely to encounter challenging new approaches to conceptual structures of adult
learning and practice and to the evaluation of their own perceptions.
Chapter 7 of the manual deals with evaluation, however, evaluation on the training
programme, not evaluation on social impact. Nevertheless, some of the methods
suggested may be valuable for impact evaluation, such as “evaluating learning
outcomes” or preparing questionnaires and interviews for evaluation purposes.
42. Menou, Michel J. ed., Measuring the Impact of Information on Development.

IDRC. [Electronic Version] Website: http://www.idrc.ca/openebooks/708-6/
The extent to which information services actually contribute to the empowerment of
people and the accountability of the institutions concerned are subjects of controversy
and concern. Logic dictates that information is an essential resource for the social and
economic development of Third World countries, but how can this be demonstrated?
Information can be a powerful catalyst to transform society, but how tangible is the
linkage between information investments and the achievement of specific development
goals?
Chapter 4, on Indicators and Assessment Methods, includes: Characteristics of
indicators, Describing constituencies, Building impact assessment into information
projects, Assessing information benefits for organizations, Assessing the impact of
information on specific constituencies, Assessing the information richness of the
environment, Using anecdotes, and Assessing information impact through the market.
43. Matewa, Chido E.F. (2002). Media and the empowerment of communities for
Social Change. http://www.comminit.com/evaluations/idmatewa/sld-2241.html
The question addressed is to what extent participatory radio production contributes to
the empowerment and advancement of women and the marginalised communities. It
also looks at how community interests, needs and concerns are served by this media.
The way traditional media and video are used determines their impact. A process that
enables the target groups to participate in both the production of content and
dissemination should be encouraged. This would give communities an opportunity to set
their own agenda as well as enable them to set priorities of what issues are dealt with.
The case study of the Development Through Radio Project (DTRP) is based on
information collected during unstructured in-depth interviews with the project personnel,
the founder member, board members, participants of the project, observations of four
radio listeners clubs, articles, documents, annual and general reports
AMARC Africa, Panos Southern Africa, Pronatura-chiapasMexico, and Open Society
Foundation, South Africa. (2004). Media for Sustainable Development content Survey-
A Baseline Study Report on Sustainable Devleopment Content/Themes for Community
Radio Stations in Africa and Central America.
http://www.id21.org/insights/insights58/art08.html
and
http://africa.amarc.org/files/M4SDStudyMay04l.pdf
The aim of the study was to assess the level at which community radio stations in Africa
are involved in programming of content on sustainable development themes/ topics. The
report finds that "Community radio stations are not doing enough to ensure that local
communities participate in the selection and production of programmes regarding
sustainable development issues, especially in deciding what themes or topics to cover.
The focus groups discussions (FGDs) highlighted the potentially significant role that
community media can play in facilitating community and national ownership of
development agendas, particularly when programming is conducted in local languages.
44. Ofir, Zenda ed. (2006). Monitoring and Evaluation. Capacity.Org Issue 29,
Sept. 2006. [Electronic Version] Website:
http://www.capacity.org/en/content/download/5769/97948/file/EBR+07-29_ENGLISH-
opmaaK+FINAL_11_Septlowres.pdf
This issue of Capacity.org offers an overview of the different methods and techniques
that add new dimensions to results-based M&E. Some allow, for example, the
observation of changes over a longer period of time, and offer ways to make such
changes more tangible. Other innovative forms of M&E can themselves contribute to
capacity building. In this issue, practitioners who have developed such methods describe
and explain how they have used them.
Includes a number of articles on different approaches to participatory evaluation, such as
video, for building a shared vision of change. A very useful resource in terms of bringing
together the ideas of participatory monitoring & evaluation.
45. Wagner A. Daniel, Day, Bob, James, Tina, Kozma, Robert B. Miller, Jonathan
& Unwin, Tim (2005). Monitoring and Evaluation of ICT in Education Projects: A
Handbook for Developing Countries. Info Dev. Website:
http://www.infodev.org/en/Document.9.aspx
Information and communication technologies (ICT) are widely believed to be important
potential levers to introduce and sustain education reform efforts. Despite evidence of
increasingly widespread use of ICTs in education initiatives around the world, however,
there is little guidance available for policy makers and donor staff specifically targeted at
countries contemplating the use of ICTs to help countries meet the education-related
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
The short handbook provides guidance for policymakers struggling with two key issues: -
What is the impact on student achievement of introducing ICTs in educational settings in
developing countries? - How should this impact be measured, and what are the related
issues, especially as they relate to Education For All and other Millennium Development
Goals?
46. DANIDA. (2005). Monitoring and Indicators for Communication for

Development. [Electronic Version] Website:
http://webzone.k3.mah.se/projects/comdev/_comdev_PDF_doc/Danida_ComDevt.pdf
This a technical note developed by DANIDA for the Danish cooperation managers
overseas. What is communication for development about? In this brochure it applies to
a strategic communication process that promotes social changes through dialogue,
knowledge sharing, and participation.
Chapter 3, on Communication Monitoring and Indicators provides general guidelines for
monitoring and indicators on communication for development, and analyses the process
of identifying indicators in programmes (1) where communication in itself is a vehicle for
social change (media development), and (2) where communication is an integral part of
a sector/development program
47. Mata, Maria Cristina ed. (1995). Mujer y Radio Popular. ALER.
The book analyses the role of women and the representation of gender issues in
community radio. It doesn’t cover evaluation or impact assessment, however it describes
the potential of community radio in changing women’s lives.
48. Everitt, Anthony (2003). New voices: An Evaluation of 15 Access Radio

Projects.
http://www.comminit.com/evaluations/steval/sld-2165.html
http://www.comminit.com/experiences/pdskdv112003/experiences-957.html
Evaluation of different approaches to the concept of community radio, to inform the
future radio regulator how Access Radio might be licensed, regulated, funded, promoted,
and organised.
- The pilot projects gave hundreds of local volunteers the chance to become
broadcasters, and produced real social gains for their communities as well as some
lively radio
- The author recommends that Access Radio be introduced as a third tier of radio
broadcasting in the UK.
- The most important developments among the Access Radio stations have been the
growth of their community role and the rapid extension of the work of staff beyond the
business of broadcasting to wider concerns for social and individual empowerment
A growing demand for issue-based programmes (at the expense of music) has been
detected among audiences.
The responses to Community Questionnaires, sent out to organisations that have
worked with the pilot projects, reveal an enthusiastic welcome for community radio and
evidence of widespread collaboration.
When asked to identify the kinds of benefit that community radio can confer on a
community, respondents’ preferences were widely spread and tended to reflect a
respondent’s particular area of interest - implying that the medium appears well placed
to address a wide range of concerns.
There is a trend towards the accreditation of radio training.
There is a growing recognition among the pilot projects of the need for reliable listener
surveys and more effective marketing (including a national ‘brand-awareness’ campaign)
The staging of, or participation in, live events has become a significant component of a
community radio station’s work.
A trend is emerging of broadcasting home-produced drama.
49. Church, Madeline editor et al. (2002). Participation, Relationships and

Dynamic Change: New Thinking on Evaulatinig the Work of International
Networks. Development Planning Unit University College London. [Electronic
Version] Website: http://networkedlearning.ncsl.org.uk/knowledge-base/research-
papers/participation-relationships-and-dynamic-change-madeline-church-2002.pdf
This document aims to highlight the monitoring and evaluation challenges inherent in
working in a networked way, to reveal some of the ways in which networks have started
to monitor and evaluate their work and to develop and work with some monitoring and
evaluation tools that may ‘fit’ better with the kind of work a network does.
Section One reviews the main ideas and methodology, while Section Four focuses on
Participation & Evaluation. A very useful resource. The focus on networking can be of
relevance when evaluating the impact of community radio networks.
50. Sayce, Kay & Norrish, Patricia (2006). Perceptions and Practice: An
Anthology of Impact Assessment Experiences. Technical Centre for Agricultural
and rural Cooperaction (ACP-EU). [Electronic Version] Website:
http://www.anancy.net/uploads/file_en/impact%20assessment.pdf
For most people in the development community, however, the term ‘impact assessment’
still represents a myth or at best an illusion. Like many famous mythical or imaginary
characters, it has a strong appeal that may dip now and again, but never seems to
disappear. Every section of the development community — researchers, project
managers, trainers, information and communication specialists, and donors — has to
grapple, at one time or another, with the demand to measure the impact of their
activities, be they projects, services or funding.
This book is a collection of eleven stories on impact assessment, in countries of Asia,
South Pacific, Africa and Latin America. Annexes include methodological tools, such as
guidelines for interviewers.
51. Kjeiser, Niels . (2005). Pelican Initiative: Platform for Evidence-based

Learning & Communications for Social Change. International Development
Research Centre (IDRC), European Centre for Development Policy Management
(ECDPM),Exchange, Bellanet, UNICEF East Africa. Website:
http://www.dgroups.org/groups/pelican/index.cfm?CookieTested=TRUE
This platform seeks to bring together development practitioners from different
disciplines, specialists and policy makers to explore this question, share experiences,
and to push the agenda further on three themes: Evidence and learning for policy
change; Learning in organisations and among partners; Society-wide learning among a
multitude of stakeholders.
The Pelican discussion, which has been going on since January 2005, contains a wealth
of reports, information, experiences, on evaluating participatory and communication
programmes all over the world. The materials are organized as follows:
a. Pelican Initiative key documents]
[b. Cases]
[c. Theoretical documents & discussion papers]
[d. Methods and toolkits]
[e. Multi-case/ comparative studies]
[f. Links to relevant M&E and Communications Networks]
[g. Other links]
[h. Summaries of the discussions]
52. (1993). Prender para Aprender – Uso de la Radio en la Educación. ALER

This book is not specifically on community radio, but on distance “educational radio”.
However, it contains 10 case stories, each one with small section on evaluation and
social impact.
53. S.T. Kwame Boafo, editor. (2000) Promoting Community Media in Africa.
UNESCO. Website: http://www.unesco.org/webworld/publications/community_media/
The gradual liberalisation of media and a growing phenomenon of community media in
African countries has not been accompanied by solid steps. Many of the existing or
emerging community media do not possess the economic, technical and human
resources required for sustainability. This book is the result of an international workshop
where concepts and experiences about community radio in Africa, but also Asia and
Latin America, were exchanged among participants.
Although the book does not contain specific chapters on evaluation or impact
assessment, it presents various case studies and considerations about the role of
community participation in social change.
54. Adam, Gordon & Harford, Nicola. (1999) Radio and HIV/AIDS: making a
Difference—The Essential Handbook. UNAIDS. Website:
http://data.unaids.org/Publications/IRC-pub05/JC429-Radio_en.pdf
The handbook examines the importance that broadcasting still has in promoting
prevention for HIV/AIDS. Although it is not specifically addressing participatory radio and
mostly addresses commercial and public service broadcasting, some of the chapters are
relevant to evaluation research.
Section 9 of the handbook is specific on monitoring and evaluation, on how to research
the progress and impact of programming and campaigns related to HIV/AIDS. The
handbook is available in Spanish, English and Portuguese.
55. Willum, Bjørn (2003). Radio Maendeleo and the regional peace process in
Eastern Congo. Website: http://www.i-m-
s.dk/media/pdf/Radio%20Maendeleo%20and%20the%20regional%20peace%20process
%20in%20Eastern%20Congo%20by%20Bjrn%20Willum%2014%20October%202003.p
df
This report analyses the role played by Radio Maendeleo (RM), a local community radio
station based in the town of Bukavu, in the regional peace process in South Kivu. RM
plays a positive role in informing the local population in and around Bukavu about
development issues, local politics as well as coordinating NGO work. However, the
limited footprint of the radio prevents is from playing a significant role in the regional
peace process.
56. Chaparro Escudero, Manuel (1998). Radio Pública Local. Fraguga Editorial.
This is an in depth analysis of local and community radio in Europe, focusing on Spain
and the local public radio in the Andalucia region. The main thrust of the study is the
democratization of telecommunications, and the decentralization of media to
communities, through municipal radio stations.
Chapter 8 of the book specifically addresses issues of audience research within the
network of municipal radio stations of Andalucia. It does not cover issues of impact, but
it includes considerations on methodology.
57. Quarmyne, Wilna W. Radios communautaires: Apprendre a Participer – Un

manuel de Formation. PANOS Afrique de l’Ouest. http://www.panos-
ao.org/spip.php?article3385
The explosion of local radio in West Africa (about 500 private local stations by 2001),
created enormous need for training radio staff. This is a training manual addressed to
young radio workers.
The methodology of this training manual includes chapters on community radio research
on community social actors and participation, using Participatory Action Research
(PAR).
58. Overseas Development Institute. (2004). Research and Policy in Development:

Does Evidence Matter? [Electronic Version] Website:
http://www.odi.org.uk/RAPID/Publications/Documents/Monograph_all_web.pdf
Why is evidence important in policy making?
What sort of evidence? How do you get it? Is the current emphasis on evidence-based
policy in government resulting in better policies? Minutes of the discussion. Not a
manual or handbook on how to assess impact, but a very useful discussion on issues of
evidence as input for policy making.
59. Search for Common Ground (SFCG). (2004). Sierra Leone – Key Findings
from 2004 External Evaluation. Website:
http://www.sfcg.org/sfcg/evaluations/summary_sl.pdf#search=%22Community%20radio
%20evaluation%22
Search for Common Ground (SFCG) began operations in Sierra Leone in June 2000 by
creating Talking Drum Studio (TDS) and the Community Peace Building Unit (CPU).
Using print, radio and video as tools, these interconnected programmes integrate multi-
media programming and community outreach to target a diverse population on a broad
range of issues central to the consolidation of peace. Independent evaluators Paul
Everett, Tennyson Williams, and Mary Myers conducted the evaluation of SFCG
activities in July/August 2004.
The objectives of this evaluation were to study: 1. The role of information in social
change; 2. The effectiveness, impact and ramifications of alliance-building; 3. How the
work of SFCG contributed to four broad programme themes important to society. The
team used an unstructured approach to interview stakeholder focus groups,
representatives of organisations, and individuals. Throughout the evaluation, the team
took particular care to ensure that a representative view was gained from women, youth,
children, and other disadvantaged groups.
60. Gutierrez, Hernán & Matta, María Cristina editors. (2001). Siguen vigentes las
Radios Populares? ALER.
Through the opinions of 30 communication specialists working in Latin America, the
book traces the itinerary of popular (community) radio in the region.
Though there is no specific chapter on evaluation, the book contains important
indications on the impact of community radio on social change over the years.
61. Vargas, Lucila. Social Uses & Radio Practices: The use of Participatory Radio
by Ethnic Minorities in Mexico. International communication and Popular culture
—Westview Press.
The author specifically emphasizes how and why the politics of race, ethnicity, class and
gender shape the extent and quality of people’s participation in development efforts.
The inquiry leads to a method for analyzing the cultural subtleties and social intricacies
of the practices that emerge from participatory radio. Chapter 2 of the book addresses
the methodology, which includes qualitative techniques and interviews for the analysis of
five domains: institution, staff, programming, users and audiences.
62. United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and Population Media Center (PMC).
(2002). Strengthening Partnerships among Local FM Radio Networks and
Reproductive Health Agencies on HIV/AIDS - A Review of the Effectiveness of
Local FM Radio in Promoting Reproductive Health, HIV/AIDS Prevention and
Gender Equity. Website:
http://www.unfpa.org/upload/lib_pub_file/486_filename_157_filename_commmunityradio
.pdf
This paper provides an overview of how local FM radio has been used around the world
to promote health and development goals. It is intended to inform UNFPA country
representatives of the potential use of local and community radio to achieve UNFPA
objectives worldwide. The authors stress that community radio stations should be
viewed, first and foremost, as autonomous. Radio stations should focus on building
alliances with local institutions, who may be able to provide information and resources.
63. Hovland, Ingie Successful Communication: A Toolkit for Researchers

andCcivil Society Organisations. Overseas Development Institute (ODI).
http://www.odi.org.uk/publications/rapid/tools2.pdf
This toolkit builds on the previous work and experience of the Overseas Development
Institute (ODI), especially its Research and Policy in Development (RAPID) programme.
RAPID aims to improve the use of research and evidence in development policy and
practice through research, advice and debate.
The toolkit offers a description of the main methods used to evaluate social impact of
communication programmes, thus, it can be applied to community radio. Among the
monitoring and evaluation methods described: Most Significant Change (MSC),
Outcome Mapping, Researcher Checklist and CFSC Integrated Model.
64. Davies, Rich & Dart, Jess. (2005). The ‘Most Significant Change’ (MSC)
Technique – A Guide to Its Use. [Electronic Version] Website:
http://www.mande.co.uk/docs/MSCGuide.pdf
This publication is aimed at organisations, community groups, students and academics
who wish to use MSC to help monitor and evaluate their social change programs and
projects, or to learn more about how it can be used. The technique is applicable in many
different sectors, including agriculture, education and health, and especially in
development programs. It is also applicable to many different cultural contexts. MSC has
been used in a wide variety of countries by a range of organisations.
This is one of the most relevant qualitative methods for assessing social change.
Though not specifically related to communication, the methodology can apply to
community radio impact assessment. Chapter Five discusses MSC within a Monitoring
and Evaluation (M&E) Framework
65. AMARC Africa. The African Community Radio Manual for Managers: a Guide
to Sustainable Radio
Across Africa, more and more people are involved in community radio. This workbook is
meant to describe the process of community radio as precisely and simply as possible.
This manual has no specific chapters on impact evaluation, however it deals with issues
of sustainability through community participation.
66. Girard, Bruce ed. (2003). The One to Watch – Radio, New ICT’s and
Interactivity. FAO.
Although not specifically on impact of community radio, this book includes a number of
chapters that relate to sustainability and community participation as key aspects of social
impact.
67. Acevedo, Jorge ed. (2006). Voces y Movidas Radiociudadanas –

Experiencias, Itinerarios y Reflexiones desde la Coordinadora Nacional de Radio.
CNR. [Electronic Version] Website: http://www.cnr.org.pe/voces.pdf
The Coordinadora Nacional de Radio is the main educational and community radio
network in Peru, and the largest in Latin America, with more than one thousand
members. This book gathers a number of reflections on radio as a tool for democratic
participation and human development.
The chapters of this book do not specifically address issues of impact of community
radio, however, through the case studies and first-hand accounts on the experience of
those that have been involved in community radio, the general impact of community
radio in social change can be traced.
68. Mtimde, Lumko, Bonin, Marie-Helene, Maphiri Nikopane & Nyamaku Kodjo.
(1998). What is Community Radio? A Resource Guide. AMARC Africa, PANOS
Southern Africa. Website: http://africa.amarc.org/files/english.doc
The booklet discusses the role of community radio stations in building participatory
democracy and development in Africa – and offers ideas on how such stations can be
established and the problems they may encounter.
It does not contain any chapters or sections on monitoring and evaluation, or impact
assessment.
69. Mostert, Adele & van Zyl Prof John. (2004). When the Broadcast Ends, the
Programme is not Over: Maximising the Effectivness of EE Programmes at
Community Radio Level. http://www.ee4.org/Papers/EE4_Mostert.pdf
This paper shares the experience of ABC Ulwazi in creating educational and
developmental radio programmes for community radio stations in South Africa. The
paper states that it is time for a re-think - to move away from a blind faith in a single
medium (the curse of media determinacy) to consider the entire social, economic,
cultural and psychological context of the consumption of a medium and the ability of
consumers to act.
70. Parsk, Will ed. (2005). Who Measures change? Communication for Social
change Consortium. http://www.cfsc.org/pdf/who_measures_change.pdf
and
http://www.cfsc.org/pdf/measuring_change.pdf
and
http://www.cfsc.org/pdf/communities_measure_change.pdf
This report is an introduction to establishing a Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation
(PM&E) process to assist in the measurement of Communication for Social Change
(CFSC) initiatives. It is based on the premise that CFSC practitioners should facilitate
the development of Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) questions, measures and methods
with those most affected and involved rather than apply predetermined objectives,
indicators and techniques to measure CFSC on those most affected and involved.
Methods
The publication details a proposal on how to measure process and outcomes of
community based communication programmes. Step by step it builds on participation to
monitor and to evaluate social impact of communication. The methodology can be
applied to community radio evaluations of impact. A set of three publications, the other
two with less detail, are offered.
Annexe 2: Participants Recommendations on Information
Resources
Survey Question 5. Please name books, reports web pages and other publications that
may inform on the situation of CR in your country
Country Publication
Afghanistan  www.internews.org
 www.equalaccess.org
 www.impacs.org
 www.benawa.com
 www.tolafghan.com
 www.baheer.com
Argentina  La Práctica Inspira (AMARC-ALER)
Algeria  El espacio radiofónico argelino: el caso de la radio local
 Restructuring radio broadcasting in Arab countries
Australia  www.cbonline.org.au
 www.cbf.com.au
 www.radio.adelaide.edu.au
 www.cbaa.org.au
 www.nembc.org.au
 www.aica.asn.au
Bangladesh  National Consultatiuon on Community Radio in
Bangladesh.BNNRC & MMC, Dhaka.
 Our air waives! our right! Open up air waves for commonity radio.
BNNRC, Dhaka.
Benin  Media Advisory and Regulatory Organisation, ODEM
Bolivia  www.crisbolivia.net
Brazil  http://bocc.ubi.pt/pag/peruzzo-cicilia-radio-comunitaria-br.pdf
http://www2.metodista.br/unesco/agora/pmc_forum_iluminando_r
adios_comunitarias.pdf
 Rádios comunitárias, Dr. Paulo Fernando Silveira.
 Trilha apaixonada do que é de como fazer rádios comunitárias na
intenção de mudar o mundo.
Burkina  Repère méthodologique pour l étude de l auditoire des radios
Faso rurales
Cameroon  Mujeres sobre las ondas, Oficina UNESCO Yaundé
Canada  www.ncra.ca
 www.arcq.qc.ca
Central  Democratizando la palabra. Informe regional sobre los marcos
America que regulan la radiodifusión en Centroamérica
Ivory Coast  Rapport d-activités du Conseil National de la Communication
Audiovisuelle (CNCA) 2003
 www.cnca.ci.net
United Arab  www.arnonline.com/arnnew
Emirates  www.mebjournal.com/arabic/index.php
 www.dubaimediacity.com
Spain  www.medioscomunitarios.net
 www.urcm.net
United  Grassroots Radio conferences
States  www.radio4all.org
 www.prometheusradio.org
 www.nfcb.org
Philippines  How to do Community Radio, a primer for community radio
operators; Louie N. Tabing
France  La Lettre des Radios Libres, bulletin du SNRL
 www.snrl.org
Guinea  L-avenir de la radio communautaire en Guinée. Marcel SOW,
AMARC-AFRIQUE
Hungary  www.kka.hu/civilradio
 www.pusztaradio.hu
 www.szolaradio.hu
 www.remeteradio.hu
 www.radioc.hu
India  Community Radio- Step by Step
 Our World, Our Voice, Our Media
 www.communityradionetwork.org
 www.media4community.com
 Seminar on Development communication; Deptt of Jlsm and
Mass Communication
Indonesia  www.siar.or.id
 www.arrnet.or.id
Ireland  www.bci.ie
 www.craol.ie
Jamaica  www.mustardseed.com
 www.homeviewjamaica.cm
Jordan  www.devcomm.org/worldbank
Kenya  www.econewsafrica.org
 Up in the Air: the state of broadcasting in east Africa.
Liberia  Irin radio helping your station make better programmes, a guide
for liberian broadcasters www.irinnews.org
Malaysia  Article 19/ Suaram report on Freedom of Expression and the
Media in Malaysia. www.suaram.net.
México  Con permiso, la radio comunitaria en México
 www.etcetera.com.mx
 www.revistazocalo.com.mx
 www.mexico.amarc.org
Nepal  www.raddiosagarmatha.org
 www.kirdarc.org
 www.nefej.org
 www.equalacess.org
 Reports published by Action Aid Nepal, Equal Access, Antenna
Foundation Nepal.
 Nepali Nepalma Samudaik
 Radio Karyakrum
 Radio Bachan Samudaik
 Radio Prasaran Nirdesika Community
 Samaj Paribartanka lagi Community Radio
Nicaragua  Diagnóstico de las Radios Comunitarias de Nicaragua, AMARC
Nicaragua y URACCAN
Nigeria  Community Radio Briefing Document. Jummai Umar,
AbdulHakeem Ajijola, John Dada
 Road Map to Building a Sustainable Community Radio Sector in
Nigeria: The Stakeholders Charter, en Building Community
Radion in Nigeria.
 Survey on Design of Model community Radio for Nigeria
 www.apc.org
Netherlands  www.wereldomroep.nl
Pakistan  www.pemra.gov.pk
Czech  Publicaciones de PANOS PARIS
Republic
Senegal  Directorio Radios Comunitarias de Senegal, África.
 www.ipao.org
 www.walf.sn
Sénégal  Radio communautaire aujourd’hui au Sénégal: réalités,
contraintes et perspectives. Alymana Bathily/AMARC, July 2004.
 www.panos-ao.org/article
Sri Lanka  Mahaweli community radio
South Africa  AMARC Africa publications.
 Community Radio in South Africa. Open Society Foundation S.A.
 www.ncrf.org.za
 www.icasa.org.za
 www.mdda.org.za
 www.osfsa.org.za
 www.iaj.org.za
 www.abculwazi.org.za
 www.nabsa.org.za
 www.wwrp.org.za
 www.idasa.org.za
Switzerland  Media policy
 Community radio country network constitution
 Community radio Issue Paper
 www.unikomradios.ch
 www.frequencebanane.ch
 www.meyrinfm.ch
Uganda  How to get started and keep going, A guide to Community
Multimedia Centres. http://www.unesco.org
http://www.wougnet.org/documents.html
Uruguay  www.uruguay.amarc.org
Venezuela  www.conatel.gob.ve
 www.gobiernoenlinea.ve
 www.mci.gob.ve/noticieromedios
 www.medioscomunitarios.org
 www.vive.gob.ve
 Proceso Histórico de los Medios Comunitarios en Venezuela:
Aportes Vivénciales, Juan Manuel Fernández Castillo
 www.mci.gov.ve
Zimbabwe  So this is democracy? Media Institute of Southern Africa
Annex 3. Questionnaire: Survey on the Impact of Community
Radio
The Situation of Community Radio Challenges, Barriers and Opportunities

What is your country of residence?
Please describe briefly the landscape and characteristics of community radio in your
country? (number of community radios, social and economic base)
Is Community Radio recognised in your country's media law and regulation?
If YES, please explain briefly the legal and/or regulatory provision:
What are the main barriers to community radio development in your country?
Please list any important recent books, reports, websites and other publications that can
provide further information about the state of community radio in your country.
How would you describe the main characteristics of community radio? (please describe
in not more than 50 words)
The Social Impact of Community Radio

What would be the most important of the following area(s) of social impact of community
radio (Please indicate in order of importance, #1 being the most important)
Democratization processes
Rendering government accountable
Citizen participation in setting public agenda
Peace building and conflict resolution
Empowering women
Giving access and voice to the excluded
Developing social inclusiveness and solidarity
Poverty reduction
Defending/promoting language diversity
Defending/promoting cultural diversity
Natural disaster prevention/relief
Health prevention/relief (HIV/AIDS, Avian flu, etc.)
Informal education
Access to Communication medias
Other areas (Specify)
Based on your response above, please give a case demonstrating your first area of
community radio impact.
Please indicate how this impact could be measured
Based on your response above, please give a case demonstrating your second area of
Based on your response above, please give a case demonstrating your third area of
How can AMARC make a difference?

AMARC has been defending, supporting, networking and representing the global
community radio since 1983. What, in your opinion is the most valuable contribution
AMARC has given to the community radio movement?
Please describe what you consider to be the three most important objectives that
AMARC should seek to achieve in order to make a difference in the next five years.
What would be the most effective of the following area of activities and intervention for
AMARC? (Please indicate an order of importance, #1 being the most important)
Building the Community radio movement

Providing Service to members
Representation, lobbying & advocating
Training and capacity building
Information and awareness rising
Research and development
Coalition with other social movement
Promoting social action program content
Women's Networking and exchange
Other (Specify)
Is there anything that you consider important to the community radio movement and its
sustainability that was not included in this questionnaire? Please specify.
Surname, Name:
Gender:
Age Group:
Postal address
Email:
Telephone
Language most frequently used:
Please tell us about your organization

Organisation name:
Type of Organisation:
Your relation to AMARC:
Will you be coming to AMARC9 in Amman, Jordan, November 2006?:

AMARC - Community Radio Social Impact Assessment

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AMARC - Community Radio Social Impact Assessment

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COMMUNITY RADIO

International secretariat Staff World Association of

The evaluation process highlighted that communities have sought in community

AMARC Community Radio Social Impact Assessment 2007 Page 5 of 128

Chapter 1. Overview. AMARC CR Impact Assessment: Removing Barriers,

The Goal of CR impact assessment was to contribute to the reduction of poverty

The global assessment was a participatory action-research process that involved

Key findings on the Community Radio Global Review:

AMARC Community Radio Social Impact Assessment 2007 Page 6 of 128

Community Radio is a new worldwide tier of radio broadcasting. Community radio

Community Radio Sustainability is a global challenge. In spite of increasing

AMARC Community Radio Social Impact Assessment 2007 Page 7 of 128

Community Radio is part of a political non-partisan communication process.

Exclusion and marginalisation particularly of women The participants identified

Key findings on the Social Impact of Community Radio

Measurements of Community Radio Social Impact must be people centred

AMARC Community Radio Social Impact Assessment 2007 Page 8 of 128

Quality indicators are needed to measure the impact of the communication

Time is a key factor when measuring CR social Impact. CR experiences show

Key findings on Community Radio Social Impact

Community radio is effective in poverty reduction. Access to voice, information,

AMARC Community Radio Social Impact Assessment 2007 Page 9 of 128

CR is effective in ensuring proper governance. Community radio can contribute

CR is effective in achieving development goals. Community radio is effective in

CR is effective in empowering Women. Community radio is effective in

CR is effective in ensuring inclusion of the marginalized. Community

CR is effective in conflict resolution. Community radios in countries in conflict are

CR has an effective impact in disaster prevention/relief. CR has proven very

Removing Barriers, Increasing Effectiveness

AMARC Community Radio Social Impact Assessment 2007 Page 10 of 128

AMARC Community Radio Social Impact Assessment 2007 Page 11 of 128

The methodology of the AMARC “Community Radio Impact Assessment:

The synthesis of the AMARC Community Radio Impact Assessment: Removing

AMARC Community Radio Social Impact Assessment 2007 Page 12 of 128

The review, impact assessment and evaluation of AMARC effectiveness aimed at

The project closely involved AMARC members in both design and

Furthermore, we consider research-action transforms the evaluation process in a

AMARC Community Radio Social Impact Assessment 2007 Page 13 of 128

Methodology Concept and Process

AMARC Community Radio Social Impact Assessment 2007 Page 14 of 128

AMARC Community Radio Social Impact Assessment 2007 Page 15 of 128

The context and institutional assessment approach

AMARC Community Radio Social Impact Assessment 2007 Page 16 of 128

Participants in the Evaluation Process

The Core Group

The Stakeholders Group

C4D projects and Community Radio Targeted Research

AMARC Community Radio Social Impact Assessment 2007 Page 17 of 128

Strategies and Resources

Participation & Knowledge sharing: Built on the experience of the participants

Diversity recognition Considered the diversity of experiences of community radio,

Cumulative knowledge It reviewed, reflected and shared existing evaluative

AMARC Community Radio Social Impact Assessment 2007 Page 18 of 128

AMARC Community Radio Social Impact Assessment 2007 Page 19 of 128

(e) AMARC 9 World Conference of Community Radio Broadcasters 312

AMARC Community Radio Social Impact Assessment 2007 Page 20 of 128

Chapter 3 Global Review of Community Radio: Barriers and Opportunities.

Under globalization, the world has become a “village” characterized by an

These challenges of globalization tend to present themselves affecting in varying

Community Radio contributes to communication political processes that foster

AMARC Community Radio Social Impact Assessment 2007 Page 21 of 128

Community radio can initiate or accompany social change and carries