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Contents
Articles
Iron Man

Richard Branson

16

Nelson Mandela

27

Rhode Island

57

Kolkata

83

References
Article Sources and Contributors

100

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

105

Article Licenses
License

108

Iron Man

Iron Man
Iron Man
Promotional art for The Invincible Iron Man vol. 5, #25 (second printing) (June 2010) by Salvador Larroca.
Publication information
Publisher

Marvel Comics

First appearance Tales of Suspense #39 (March 1963)

Created by

Stan Lee
Larry Lieber
Don Heck
Jack Kirby
In-story information

Alter ego

Anthony Edward "Tony" Stark

Species

Human

Place of origin

Earth

Team affiliations Avengers

Department of Defense
Force Works
New Avengers
Guardians of the Galaxy
Illuminati
The Mighty Avengers
S.H.I.E.L.D.
Stark Industries
Stark Resilient
Thunderbolts
West Coast Avengers
Partnerships

War Machine
Rescue

Abilities

Genius-level intellect
A cyberpathic link with a prior version of his powered armored suit
Superhuman strength and durability
Supersonic flight at Mach 3
Energy repulsors
Missiles
Regenerative life support (sometimes powered by solar power)

The Invincible Iron Man

Cover for The Invincible Iron Man #1 (May 1968). Art by Gene Colan and Mike Esposito.
Series publication information
Schedule

Monthly

Format

Ongoing series

Genre

Superhero

Iron Man

2
Publication date

(vol. 1)
May1968 September1996
(vol. 2)
November1996 November1997
(vol. 3)
February1998 December2004
(vol. 4)
January2005 January2009
(vol. 5)
July2008 February2011
(vol. 1 cont.)
March2011 December2012
(vol. 6)
January2013 Present

Number of issues (vol. 1): 332

(vol. 2): 13
(vol. 3): 89
(vol. 4): 35
(vol. 5): 33
(vol. 1 cont.): 29 (#500-527 plus #500.1)
(vol. 6): 19 (as of February 2014 cover date)
Creative team
Writer(s)
Penciller(s)
Inker(s)
Colorist(s)

Iron Man is a fictional character, a superhero that appears in comic books published by Marvel Comics. The
character was created by writer-editor Stan Lee, developed by scripter Larry Lieber, and designed by artists Don
Heck and Jack Kirby. He made his first appearance in Tales of Suspense #39 (March 1963).
An American billionaire playboy, industrialist, and ingenious engineer, Tony Stark suffers a severe chest injury
during a kidnapping in which his captors attempt to force him to build a weapon of mass destruction. He instead
creates a powered suit of armor to save his life and escape captivity. He later uses the suit and successive versions to
protect the world as Iron Man. Through his corporation Stark Industries Tony has created many military
weapons, some of which, along with other technological devices of his making, have been integrated into his suit,
helping him fight crime. Initially, Iron Man was a vehicle for Stan Lee to explore Cold War themes, particularly the
role of American technology and business in the fight against communism. Subsequent re-imaginings of Iron Man
have transitioned from Cold War themes to contemporary concerns, such as corporate crime and terrorism.
Throughout most of the character's publication history, Iron Man has been a founding member of the superhero team
the Avengers and has been featured in several incarnations of his own various comic book series. Iron Man has been
adapted for several animated TV shows and films. The character is portrayed by Robert Downey, Jr. in the live
action film Iron Man (2008), which was a critical and box office success. Downey, who received much acclaim for
his performance, reprised the role in two Iron Man sequels and The Avengers (2012), and will do so again in
Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015). Iron Man was ranked 12th on IGN's Top 100 Comic Book Heroes in 2011.[citation
needed]

Iron Man

Publication history
Premiere
Iron Man's Marvel Comics premiere in Tales of Suspense #39 was a collaboration among editor and story-plotter
Stan Lee, scripter Larry Lieber, story-artist Don Heck, and cover-artist and character-designer Jack Kirby. In 1963,
Lee had been toying with the idea of a businessman superhero. He wanted to create the "quintessential capitalist", a
character that would go against the spirit of the times and Marvel's readership. Lee said,
I think I gave myself a dare. It was the height of the Cold War. The readers, the young readers, if there
was one thing they hated, it was war, it was the military....So I got a hero who represented that to the
hundredth degree. He was a weapons manufacturer, he was providing weapons for the Army, he was
rich, he was an industrialist....I thought it would be fun to take the kind of character that nobody would
like, none of our readers would like, and shove him down their throats and make them like him....And he
became very popular.
He set out to make the new character a wealthy, glamorous ladies' man, but one with a secret that would plague and
torment him as well.[1] Writer Gerry Conway said, "Here you have this character, who on the outside is invulnerable,
I mean, just can't be touched, but inside is a wounded figure. Stan made it very much an in-your-face wound, you
know, his heart was broken, you know, literally broken. But there's a metaphor going on there. And that's, I think,
what made that character interesting." Lee based this playboy's looks and personality on Howard Hughes, explaining,
"Howard Hughes was one of the most colorful men of our time. He was an inventor, an adventurer, a
multi-billionaire, a ladies' man and finally a nutcase."[2] "Without being crazy, he was Howard Hughes," Lee said.
While Lee intended to write the story himself,[1] a minor deadline emergency eventually forced him to hand over the
premiere issue to Lieber, who fleshed out the story. The art was split between Kirby and Heck. "He designed the
costume," Heck said of Kirby, "because he was doing the cover. The covers were always done first. But I created the
look of the characters, like Tony Stark and his secretary Pepper Potts." Iron Man first appeared in 13- to 18-page
stories in Tales of Suspense, which featured anthology science fiction and supernatural stories. The character's
original costume was a bulky gray armored suit, replaced by a golden version in the second story (issue #40, April
1963). It was redesigned as sleeker, red-and-golden armor in issue #48 (Dec. 1963) by that issue's interior artist,
Steve Ditko, although Kirby drew it on the cover. As Heck recalled in 1985, "[T]he second costume, the red and
yellow one, was designed by Steve Ditko. I found it easier than drawing that bulky old thing. The earlier design, the
robot-looking one, was more Kirbyish.[3]
In his premiere, Iron Man was an anti-communist hero, defeating various Vietnamese agents. Lee later regretted this
early focus. Throughout the characters comic book series, technological advancement and national defense were
constant themes for Iron Man, but later issues developed Stark into a more complex and vulnerable character as they
depicted his battle with alcoholism (as in the "Demon in a Bottle" storyline) and other personal difficulties.
From issue #59 (Nov. 1964) to its final issue #99 (March 1968), the anthological science-fiction backup stories in
Tales of Suspense were replaced by a feature starring the superhero Captain America. Lee and Heck introduced
several adversaries for the character including the Mandarin in issue #50 (Feb. 1964),[4] the Black Widow in #52
(April 1964)[5] and Hawkeye five issues later.[6]
Lee said that "of all the comic books we published at Marvel, we got more fan mail for Iron Man from women, from
females, than any other title....We didn't get much fan mail from girls, but whenever we did, the letter was usually
addressed to Iron Man."
Lee and Kirby included Iron Man in The Avengers #1 (Sept. 1963) as a founding member of the superhero team. The
character has since appeared in every subsequent volume of the series.
Writers have updated the war and locale in which Stark is injured. In the original 1963 story, it was the Vietnam
War. In the 1990s, it was updated to be the first Gulf War, and later updated again to be the war in Afghanistan.

Iron Man
Stark's time with the Asian Nobel Prize-winning scientist Ho Yinsen is consistent through nearly all incarnations of
the Iron Man origin, depicting Stark and Yinsen building the original armor together. One exception is the
direct-to-DVD animated feature film The Invincible Iron Man, in which the armor Stark uses to escape his captors is
not the first Iron Man suit.
Themes
The original Iron Man title explored Cold War themes, as did other Stan Lee projects in the early years of Marvel
Comics. Where The Fantastic Four and The Incredible Hulk respectively focused on American domestic and
government responses to the Communist threat, Iron Man explored industry's role in the struggle. Tony Stark's
real-life model, Howard Hughes, was a significant defense contractor who developed new weapons technologies.
Hughes was an icon both of American individualism and of the burdens of fame.
Historian Robert Genter, in The Journal of Popular Culture, writes that Tony Stark specifically presents an idealized
portrait of the American inventor. Where earlier decades had seen important technological innovations come from
famous individuals like Nikola Tesla, Thomas Edison, Alexander Graham Bell and the Wright brothers, the 1960s
saw new technology, including weapons, being developed mainly by corporate research teams. Little room remained
in this environment for the inventor who wanted credit for, and control of, his or her own creations.
Issues of entrepreneurial autonomy, government supervision of research, and ultimate loyalty figured prominently in
early Iron Man storiesand all were issues then affecting American scientists and engineers. Tony Stark, writes
Genter, is an inventor who finds motive in his emasculation as an autonomous creative individual. This blow is
symbolized by his chest wound, inflicted at the moment he is forced to invent things for the purposes of others.
Stark's transformation into Iron Man represents his effort to reclaim his autonomy, and thus his manhood. The
character's pursuit of women in bed or in battle, writes Genter, represents another aspect of this effort. The pattern
finds parallels in other works of 1960s popular fiction by authors such as "Ian Fleming, Mickey Spillane, and
Norman Mailer who made unregulated sexuality a form of authenticity."

First series
After issue #99 (March 1968), the Tales of Suspense series was renamed Captain America. An Iron Man story
appeared in the one-shot comic Iron Man and Sub-Mariner (April 1968), before the "Golden Avenger" made his solo
debut with The Invincible Iron Man #1 (May 1968).[7] The series' indicia gives its copyright title Iron Man, while the
trademarked cover logo of most issues is The Invincible Iron Man. Artist George Tuska began a decade long
association with the character with Iron Man #5 (Sept. 1968). Writer Mike Friedrich and artist Jim Starlin's brief
collaboration on the Iron Man series introduced Mentor, Starfox, and Thanos in issue #55 (Feb. 1973).[8] Friedrich
scripted a metafictional story in which Iron Man visited the San Diego Comic Convention and met several Marvel
Comics writers and artists. He then wrote the multi-issue "War of the Super-Villains" storyline which ran through
1975.
Writer David Michelinie,[9] co-plotter/inker Bob Layton, and penciler John Romita, Jr. became the creative team on
the series with Iron Man #116 (Nov. 1978). Micheline and Layton established Tony Stark's alcoholism with the story
"Demon in a Bottle", and introduced several supporting characters, including Stark's bodyguard girlfriend Bethany
Cabe;[10] Stark's personal pilot and confidant James Rhodes, who later became the superhero War Machine;[11] and
rival industrialist Justin Hammer,[12] who was revealed to be the employer of numerous high-tech armed enemies
Iron Man fought over the years. The duo also introduced the concept of Stark's specialized armors[13] as he acquired
a dangerous vendetta with Doctor Doom. The team worked together through #154 (Jan. 1982), with Michelinie
writing three issues without Layton.
Following Michelinie and Layton's departures, Dennis O'Neil became the new writer of the series and had Stark
relapse into alcoholism. Jim Rhodes replaced Stark as Iron Man in issue #169 (April 1983) and wore the armor for
the next two years of stories.[14] O'Neil returned Tony Stark to the Iron Man role in issue #200 (Nov. 1985).[15]

Iron Man
Michelinie and Layton became the creative team once again in issue #215 (Feb. 1987). They crafted the "Armor
Wars" storyline beginning in #225 (Dec. 1987)[16] through #231 (June 1988). John Byrne and John Romita, Jr.
produced a sequel titled "Armor Wars II" in issues #258 (July 1990) to #266 (March 1991). The series had a
crossover with the other Avengers related titles as part of the "Operation: Galactic Storm" storyline.

Later volumes
This initial series ended with issue #332 (Sept. 1996). A second volume, written primarily by differing teams of the
trio Jim Lee, Scott Lobdell, and Jeph Loeb, and drawn primarily by Whilce Portacio and Ryan Benjamin
successively, took place in a parallel universe[17] and ran 13 issues (Nov. 1996 - Nov. 1997).[18] Volume 3, whose
first 25 issues were written by Kurt Busiek initially[19] and then by Busiek and Roger Stern, ran 89 issues (Feb. 1998
- Dec. 2004). Later writers included Joe Quesada, Frank Tieri, Mike Grell, and John Jackson Miller. Issue #41 (June
2001) was additionally numbered #386, reflecting the start of dual numbering starting from the premiere issue of
volume one in 1968. The final issue was dual-numbered as #434.[20] The next Iron Man series, The Invincible Iron
Man vol. 4, debuted in early 2005 with the Warren Ellis-written storyline "Extremis", with artist Adi Granov.[21] It
ran 35 issues (Jan. 2005 - Jan. 2009), with the cover logo simply Iron Man beginning with issue #13, and Iron Man:
Director of S.H.I.E.L.D., beginning issue #15. On the final three issues, the cover logo was overwritten by "War
Machine, Weapon of S.H.I.E.L.D.",[22] which led to the launch of a War Machine ongoing series.
The Invincible Iron Man vol. 5, by writer Matt Fraction and artist Salvador Larroca, began with a premiere issue
cover-dated July 2008. For a seven-month overlap, Marvel published both volume four and volume five
simultaneously.[23] Volume five jumped its numbering of issues from #33 to #500, cover dated March 2011, to
reflect the start from the premiere issue of volume one in 1968.
Many Iron Man annuals, miniseries, and one-shot titles have been published through the years, such as Age of
Innocence: The Rebirth of Iron Man (Feb. 1996), Iron Man: The Iron Age #1-2 (Aug.-Sept. 1998), Iron Man: Bad
Blood #1-4 (Sept.-Dec. 2000), Iron Man House of M #1-3 (Sept.-Nov. 2005), Fantastic Four / Iron Man: Big in
Japan #1-4 (Dec. 2005 - March 2006), Iron Man: The Inevitable #1-6 (Feb.-July 2006), Iron Man / Captain
America: Casualties of War (Feb. 2007), Iron Man: Hypervelocity #1-6 (March-Aug. 2007), Iron Man: Enter the
Mandarin #1-6 (Nov. 2007 - April 2008), and Iron Man: Legacy of Doom (June-Sept. 2008). Publications have
included such spin-offs as the one-shot Iron Man 2020 (June 1994), featuring a different Iron Man in the future, and
the animated TV series adaptations Marvel Action Hour, Featuring Iron Man #1-8 (Nov. 1994 - June 1995) and
Marvel Adventures Iron Man #1-12 (July 2007 - June 2008).[24]

Fictional character biography

Tales of Suspense #39 (March 1963): Iron Man debuts. Cover art by Jack Kirby and Don Heck.
Tales of Suspense #48 (Dec. 1963), the debut of Iron Man's first red-and-gold suit of armor. Cover art by Jack Kirby
and Sol Brodsky.

Origins
Anthony Edward Stark, the adopted[25] son of wealthy industrialist and head of Stark Industries, Howard Stark, and
Maria Stark, is born on Long Island. A boy genius, he enters MIT at the age of 15 to study electrical engineering and
later receives Master's degrees in electrical engineering and physics. After his parents are killed in a plane accident,
he inherits his father's company.
Tony Stark is injured by a booby trap and captured by the enemy led by Wong-Chu, who then orders him to design
weapons. Stark's injuries are dire and shrapnel is moving towards his heart. His fellow prisoner, Ho Yinsen, a Nobel
Prize-winning physicist whose work Stark had greatly admired during college, constructs a magnetic chest plate to
keep the shrapnel from reaching Stark's heart, keeping him alive. In secret, Stark and Yinsen use the workshop to

Iron Man
design and construct a suit of powered armor, which Stark uses to escape. But during the escape attempt, Yinsen
sacrifices his life to save Stark's by distracting the enemy as Stark recharges. Stark takes revenge on his kidnappers
and heads back to rejoin the American forces, on his way meeting a wounded American Marine fighter pilot, James
"Rhodey" Rhodes.
Back home, Stark discovers that the shrapnel fragment lodged in his chest cannot be removed without killing him,
and he is forced to wear the armor's chestplate beneath his clothes to act as a regulator for his heart. He must
recharge the chestplate every day or else risk the shrapnel killing him. The cover for Iron Man is that he is Stark's
bodyguard and corporate mascot. To that end, Iron Man fights threats to his company, such as Communist opponents
Black Widow, the Crimson Dynamo and the Titanium Man, as well as independent villains like the Mandarin, who
eventually becomes his greatest enemy. No one suspects Stark of being Iron Man as he cultivates an image as a rich
playboy and industrialist. Two notable members of Stark's supporting cast at this point are his personal chauffeur
Harold "Happy" Hogan and secretary Virginia "Pepper" Potts, to both of whom he eventually reveals his dual
identity. Meanwhile, James Rhodes finds his own niche as Stark's personal pilot, revealing himself to be a man of
extraordinary skill and daring.
The comic took an anti-Communist stance in its early years, which was softened as opposition rose to the Vietnam
War. This change evolved in a series of stories with Stark profoundly reconsidering his political opinions and the
morality of manufacturing weapons for the military. Stark shows himself to be occasionally arrogant and willing to
let the ends justify the means. This leads to personal conflicts with the people around him, both in his civilian and
superhero identities. Stark uses his personal fortune not only to outfit his own armor, but also to develop weapons for
S.H.I.E.L.D. and other technologies such as the Quinjets used by the Avengers, and the image inducers used by the
X-Men. Eventually, Stark's heart condition is discovered by the public and treated with an artificial heart transplant.

1970s and early 1980s

Later on, Stark expands on his armor designs and begins to build his arsenal of specialized armors for particular
situations such as for space travel and stealth. Stark develops a serious dependency on alcohol in the "Demon in a
Bottle" storyline. The first time it becomes a problem is when Stark discovers that the national security agency
S.H.I.E.L.D. has been buying a controlling interest in his company in order to ensure Stark's continued weapons
development for them. At the same time, Stark's business rival Justin Hammer hires several supervillains to attack
Stark. At one point, the Iron Man armor is even taken over and used to murder a diplomat. Although Iron Man is not
immediately under suspicion, Stark is forced to hand the armor over to the authorities. Eventually Stark and Rhodes,
who is now his personal pilot and confidant, track down and defeat those responsible, although Hammer would
return to bedevil Stark again. With the support of his then-girlfriend, Bethany Cabe, his friends and his employees,
Stark pulls through these crises and overcomes his dependency on alcohol. Even as he recovers from this harrowing
personal trial, Stark's life is further complicated when he has a confrontation with Doctor Doom that is interrupted by
an opportunistic enemy sending them back in time to the time of King Arthur. Once there, Iron Man thwarts Doom's
attempt to solicit the aid of Morgan Le Fay, and the Latverian ruler swears deadly vengeance - to be indulged
sometime after the two return to their own time. This incident was collected and published as Doomquest.
Some time later, a ruthless rival, Obadiah Stane, manipulates Stark emotionally into a serious relapse. As a result,
Stark loses control of Stark International to Stane, becomes a homeless alcohol-abusing vagrant and gives up his
armored identity to Rhodes, who becomes the new Iron Man for a lengthy period of time. Eventually, Stark recovers
and joins a new startup, Circuits Maximus. Stark concentrates on new technological designs, including building a
new set of armor as part of his recuperative therapy. Rhodes continues to act as Iron Man but steadily grows more
aggressive and paranoid, due to the armor not having been calibrated properly for his use. Eventually Rhodes goes
on a rampage, and Stark has to don a replica of his original armor to stop him. Fully recovered, Stark confronts Stane
who has himself designed a version of armor based around designs seized along with Stark International, dubbing
himself 'Iron Monger'. Defeated in battle, Stane rather than give Stark the satisfaction of taking him to trial, commits

Iron Man
suicide. Shortly thereafter, Stark regains his personal fortune, but decides against repurchasing Stark International
until much later; he instead creates Stark Enterprises, headquartered in Los Angeles.

Late 1980s and 1990s

In an attempt to stop other people from misusing his designs, Stark goes about disabling other armored heroes and
villains who are using suits based on the Iron Man technology, the designs of which were stolen by his enemy
Spymaster. His quest to destroy all instances of the stolen technology severely hurts his reputation as Iron Man.
After attacking and disabling a series of minor villains such as Stilt-Man, he attacks and defeats the government
operative known as Stingray. The situation worsens when Stark realizes that Stingray's armor does not incorporate
any of his designs. He publicly "fires" Iron Man while covertly pursuing his agenda. He uses the cover story of
wanting to help disable the rogue Iron Man to infiltrate and disable the armor of the S.H.I.E.L.D. operatives known
as the Mandroids, and disabling the armor of the Guardsmen, in the process allowing some of the villains that they
guard to escape. This leads the United States government to declare Iron Man a danger and an outlaw. Iron Man then
travels to Russia where he inadvertently causes the death of the Soviet Titanium Man during a fight. Returning to the
U.S., he faces an enemy commissioned by the government named Firepower. Unable to defeat him head on, Stark
fakes Iron Man's demise, intending to retire the suit permanently. When Firepower goes rogue, Stark creates a new
suit, claiming that a new person is in the armor.
Stark's health continues to deteriorate, and he discovers the armor's cybernetic interface is causing irreversible
damage to his nervous system. His condition is aggravated by a failed attempt on his life by a mentally unbalanced
former lover which injures his spine, paralyzing him. Stark has a nerve chip implanted into his spine to regain his
mobility. Still, Stark's nervous system continues its slide towards failure, and he constructs a "skin" made up of
artificial nerve circuitry to assist it. Stark begins to pilot a remote-controlled Iron Man armor, but when faced with
the Masters of Silence, the telepresence suit proves inadequate. Stark then designs a more heavily armed version of
the suit to wear, the "Variable Threat Response Battle Suit", which becomes known as the War Machine armor.
Ultimately, the damage to his nervous system becomes too extensive. Faking his death, Stark places himself in
suspended animation to heal as Rhodes takes over both the running of Stark Enterprises and the mantle of Iron Man,
but using the War Machine armor. Stark ultimately makes a full recovery by using a chip to reprogram himself and
resumes the Iron Man identity. When Rhodes learns that Stark has manipulated his friends by faking his own death,
he becomes enraged and the two friends part ways, Rhodes continuing as War Machine in a solo career.
The story arc "The Crossing" reveals Iron Man as a traitor among the Avengers' ranks, due to years of manipulation
by the time-traveling dictator Kang the Conqueror. Stark, as a sleeper agent in Kang's thrall, kills Marilla, the nanny
of Crystal and Quicksilver's daughter Luna, as well as Rita DeMara, the female Yellowjacket, then Amanda Chaney,
an ally of the Avengers. The Avengers Forever limited series later retcons these events as the work of a disguised
Immortus, not Kang, and that the mental control had gone back only a few months.
Needing help to defeat both Stark and the ostensible Kang, the team travels back in time to recruit a teenaged
Anthony Stark from an alternate timeline to assist them. The young Stark steals an Iron Man suit in order to aid the
Avengers against his older self. The sight of his younger self shocks the older Stark enough for him to regain
momentary control of his actions, and he sacrifices his life to stop Kang. The young Stark later builds his own suit to
become the new Iron Man, and, remaining in the present day, gains legal control of "his" company.
During the battle with the creature called Onslaught, the teenaged Stark dies, along with many other superheroes.
Franklin Richards preserves these "dead" heroes in the "Heroes Reborn" pocket universe, in which Anthony Stark is
once again an adult hero; Franklin recreates the heroes in the pocket universe in the forms he is most familiar with
rather than what they are at the present. The reborn adult Stark, upon returning to the normal Marvel Universe,
merges with the original Stark, who had died during "The Crossing", but was resurrected by Franklin Richards. This
new Anthony Stark possesses the memories of both the original and teenage Anthony Starks, and thus considers
himself to be essentially both of them. With the aid of the law firm Nelson & Murdock, he successfully regains his

Iron Man
fortune and, with Stark Enterprises having been sold to the Fujikawa Corporation following Stark's death, sets up a
new company, Stark Solutions. He returns from the pocket universe with a restored and healthy heart. After the
Avengers reform, Stark demands a hearing be convened to look into his actions just prior to the Onslaught incident.
Cleared of wrongdoing, he rejoins the Avengers.

2000s
At one point, Stark's armor becomes sentient despite fail-safes to prevent its increasingly sophisticated computer
systems from doing so. Initially, Stark welcomes this "living" armor for its improved tactical abilities. The armor
begins to grow more aggressive, killing indiscriminately and eventually desiring to replace Stark altogether. In the
final confrontation on a desert island, Stark suffers another heart attack. The armor sacrifices its own existence to
save its creator's life, giving up essential components to give Stark a new, artificial heart. This new heart solves
Stark's health problems, but it does not have an internal power supply, so Stark becomes once again dependent on
periodic recharging. The sentient armor incident so disturbs Stark that he temporarily returns to using an
unsophisticated early model version of his armor to avoid a repeat incident. He dabbles with using liquid metal
circuitry known as S.K.I.N. that forms into a protective shell around his body, but eventually returns to more
conventional hard metal armors.Wikipedia:Citing sources
During this time, Stark engages in a romance with Rumiko Fujikawa (first appearance in Iron Man (vol. 3) #4), a
wealthy heiress and daughter of the man who had taken over his company during the "Heroes Reborn" period. Her
relationship with Stark endures many highs and lows, including an infidelity with Stark's rival, Tiberius Stone, in
part because the fun-loving Rumiko believes that Stark is too serious and dull. Their relationship ends with Rumiko's
death at the hands of an Iron Man impostor in Iron Man (vol. 3) #87.
In Iron Man (vol. 3) #55 (July 2002), Stark publicly reveals his dual identity as Iron Man, not realizing that by doing
so, he has invalidated the agreements protecting his armor from government duplication, since those contracts state
that the Iron Man armor would be used by an employee of Tony Stark, not by Stark himself. When he discovers that
the United States military is again using his technology, Stark accepts a Presidential appointment as Secretary of
Defense instead of confronting them as he did before. In this way, he hopes to monitor and direct how his designs are
used.
In the "Avengers Disassembled" storyline, Stark is forced to resign after launching into a tirade against the Latverian
ambassador at the United Nations, being manipulated by the mentally imbalanced Scarlet Witch, who destroys the
Avengers Mansion and kills several members. Stark publicly stands down as Iron Man, but actually continues using
the costume. He joins the Avengers in stopping the breakout in progress from the Raft and even saves Captain
America from falling. Tony changes the Avengers base to Stark Tower. The Ghost, the Living Laser and Spymaster
reappear and shift Iron Man from standard superhero stories to dealing with politics and industrialism.
New Avengers: Illuminati #1 (June 2006) reveals that years before, Stark had started participating with a group of
leaders including the Black Panther, Professor X, Mister Fantastic, Black Bolt, Doctor Strange, and Namor. The goal
of the group (dubbed the Illuminati by Marvel) was to strategize overarching menaces, in which the Black Panther
rejects a membership offer. Stark's goal is to create a governing body for all superheroes in the world, but the beliefs
of its members instead force them all to share vital information.
"Civil War"
In the "Civil War" storyline, after the actions of inexperienced superheroes The New Warriors result in the
destruction of several city blocks, including the elementary school, in Stamford, Connecticut, there is an outcry
across America against super-humans. Learning of the Government's proposed plans, Tony Stark suggests a new
plan to instigate a Superhuman Registration Act. The Act would force every super-powered individual in the U.S. to
register their identity with the government and act as licensed agents. The Act would force inexperienced
super-humans to receive training in how to use and control their abilities, something in which Tony strongly

Iron Man
believes. Since his struggle with alcoholism, Stark has carried a tremendous burden of guilt after nearly killing an
innocent bystander while piloting the armor drunk. Reed Richards of the Fantastic Four and Dr. Henry "Hank" Pym
both agree with Stark's proposal; unfortunately, not everyone does. After Captain America is ordered to bring in
anyone who refuses to register, he and other anti-registration superheroes go rogue, coming into conflict with the
pro-registration heroes, led by Iron Man. The war ends when Captain America surrenders to prevent further
collateral damage and civilian casualties, although he had defeated Stark by defusing his armor. Stark is appointed
the new director of S.H.I.E.L.D., and organizes a new government-sanctioned group of Avengers. Shortly
afterwards, Captain America is assassinated while in custody. This leaves Stark with a great amount of guilt and
misgivings about the cost of his victory and he states that "it wasn't worth it". He serves as one of the pallbearers at
the memorial service for Captain America, along with Ben Grimm, Ms. Marvel, Rick Jones, T'Challa and Sam
Wilson.
"Secret Invasion"
To tie into the 2008 Iron Man feature film, Marvel launched a new Iron Man ongoing series, The Invincible Iron
Man, with writer Matt Fraction and artist Salvador Larocca. The series inaugural six-part storyline was "The Five
Nightmares", which saw Stark targeted by Ezekiel Stane, the son of Stark's former nemesis, Obadiah Stane.
In the "Secret Invasion" storyline, after Tony Stark survives an encounter with Ultron taking over his body, he is
confronted in the hospital by Spider-Woman, holding the corpse of a Skrull posing as Elektra. Becoming keenly
aware of the upcoming invasion of the Skrulls, Tony gathers the Illuminati and reveals the corpse to them, declaring
that they are at war. After Black Bolt reveals himself as a Skrull and is killed by Namor, a squadron of Skrulls attack,
forcing Tony to evacuate the other Illuminati members and destroy the area, killing all the Skrulls. Realizing that
they are incapable of trusting each other, the members all separate to form individual plans for the oncoming
invasion.Wikipedia:Citing sources
Stark is discredited and publicly vilified after his inability to anticipate or prevent a secret infiltration and invasion of
Earth by the shape-shifting alien Skrull race, and by the Skrull disabling of his StarkTech technology, which had a
virtual monopoly on worldwide defense. After the invasion, the U.S. government removes him as head of
S.H.I.E.L.D. and disbands the Avengers, handing control of the Initiative over to Norman Osborn.
"Dark Reign"
With his Extremis powers failing, Stark uploads a virus to destroy all records of the Registration Act, thus preventing
Osborn from learning the identities of his fellow heroes and anything that Osborn could possibly exploit, including
repulsor generators. The only copy of that database remaining is in Stark's brain, which he is trying to delete bit by
bit while on the run in one of his extra armors. As Norman Osborn has him hunted as a fugitive, Stark travels
worldwide on his quest to wipe out his mental database, going so far as to inflict brain damage on himself in order to
ensure that the relevant information is wiped as a suicide attempt could damage the wrong parts of his brain while
leaving Osborn with enough material to salvage the right information. When Osborn personally catches up to the
debilitated Stark and beats him savagely, Pepper Potts broadcasts the beatings worldwide, costing Osborn credibility
and giving Stark public sympathy. Stark goes into a vegetative state, having previously granted Donald Blake (alter
ego of the Norse-god superhero Thor) power of attorney. A holographic message stored in Pepper's armor reveals
that Stark had developed a means of 'rebooting' his mind from his current state prior to his destruction of the
database, with Blake and Bucky resolving to use it to restore him to normal despite Stark's offer in the message to
stay in his current state if it would make things easier and Pepper's own uncertainty about the fact that Tony can
come back when so many others cannot. Meanwhile, in Stark's subconscious, he is trapped in a scenario where
figments of his own mind are preventing him from moving on and returning to the waking world. When the
procedure fails to work, Bucky calls in Doctor Strange, who attempts to and succeeds in restoring Stark back to
consciousness. It turns out the backup Stark created was made prior to the Civil War, and as such he does not
remember anything that took place during the event, although he still concludes after reviewing his past actions that

Iron Man
he would not have done anything differently. His brain damage means that he is now dependent on an arc reactor to
sustain his body's autonomous functions such as breathing, blinking and a heartbeat due to the brain damage he
sustained rendering it impossible for him to do those himself.

2010s
"Siege"
In the "Siege" storyline, Tony Stark is seen under the care of Dr. Donald Blake and Maria Hill. When the two spot
the attack on Asgard, Blake tells Maria to run away with Stark. Hill leaves Stark to assist Blake, now as Thor, after
his ambush by Osborn and his attack dog the Sentry. Hill rescues Thor and brings him back to Broxton to recuperate.
When Osborn declares martial law and unleashes Daken and the Sentry on Broxton to root out Thor and Hill, Thor
reveals himself to defend the town. Hill returns to Tony Stark's hiding place to move him to a safer location and are
joined soon after by Speed of the Young Avengers, who holds a certain indestructible suitcase that Edwin Jarvis had
given Captain America earlier. Hill orders Speed to surrender when Stark stops her and asks Speed to give him the
case. While Osborn is battling the New Avengers, Stark appears in a variant of his MK III armor and proceeds to
disable Osborn's Iron Patriot armor. Osborn orders the Sentry to annihilate Asgard, rather than allow the Avengers to
have it, which the Sentry does, practically leveling the city before the horrified eyes of Thor. After Asgard falls,
literally, Stark stands alongside his fellow heroes, as the now armor-free Osborn exclaims they are all doomed and
he 'was saving them from him' pointing up towards a Void-possessed Sentry hovering over them. As the Void tears
apart the teams, Loki gives them the power to fight back through the Norn Stones. When the Void kills Loki, Thor's
rage-fueled blows rattle the creature. Tony then tells Thor to get the Void away from Asgard, which he does. Tony
then drops the commandeered H.A.M.M.E.R. Helicarrier 'as a bullet', subduing the Void. When Robert Reynolds
begs to be killed, Thor denies the request, but is forced to when the Void resurfaces. Sometime later, the
Super-Human Registration Act is repealed and Tony is given back his company and armory. As a symbol for their
heroics and their new unity, Thor places a remaining Asgardian tower on Stark Tower where the Watchtower once
stood.
"Heroic Age"
In the 2010-2011 "Stark: Resilient" storyline, Tony builds a new armor, the Bleeding Edge, with the help of Mister
Fantastic. This new armor fully utilizes the repulsor tech battery embedded in his chest to power Tony's entire body
and mind thus allowing him access to extremis once more. Furthermore, the battery operates as his "heart" and is
predominantly the only thing keeping him alive. Later, Tony announces that he will form a new company, Stark
Resilient. He states that he will stop developing weapons, instead, he plans to use his repulsor technology to give
free energy to the world. Justine and Sasha Hammer create their own armored hero, Detroit Steel, to take Stark's
place as the Army's leading weapons-builder. Stark's plan consists of building two repulsor-powered cars. The
Hammers try to foil his efforts. The first car is destroyed by sabotage, while Detroit Steel attacks Stark Resilient's
facilities while Tony tests the second car. Through a legal maneuver, Tony is able to get the Hammers to stop their
attacks and releases a successful commercial about his new car.
"Fear Itself"
In the 2011 "Fear Itself" storyline, Earth is attacked by the Serpent, an evil Asgardian. In Paris, Iron Man fights Grey
Gargoyle, who has become Mokk, Breaker of Faith and one of the Serpent's Worthy. Mokk leaves Iron Man
unconscious and transforms Detroit Steel into stone. When Iron Man awakens, he sees that Mokk has turned all the
people in Paris into stone and left. To defeat the Serpent's army, Tony drinks a bottle of wine - thus 'sacrificing' his
sobriety - to gain an audience with Odin, who allows Tony to enter the realm of Svartalfheim. There, Tony and the
dwarves of Svartalfheim work to build weapons the Avengers can use against the Worthy. Tony upgrades his armor
with uru-infused enchantments and delivers the finished weapons to the Avengers, who use them for the final battle

10

Iron Man
against the Serpent's forces. Iron Man watches as Thor kills the Serpent, but dies in the process. After the battle is
over, Tony melts down the weapons he created and repairs Captain America's shield, which had been damaged in the
battle, and gives it back to Captain America, telling him that the shield is now stronger. During a subsequent
argument with Odin about the gods' lack of involvement in the recent crisis, Odin gives Tony a brief opportunity to
see the vastness of the universe the way he sees it, before, as thanks for Tony's role in the recent crisis, he restores all
the people that the Grey Gargoyle killed during his rampage.
Return of the Mandarin and Marvel NOW!
In the storylines "Demon" and "The Long Way Down", Stark is subpoenaed by the U.S. government after evidence
surfaces of him using the Iron Man armor while under the influence of intoxicants. Mandarin and Zeke Stane
upgrade some of Iron Man's old enemies and send them to commit acts of terrorism across the world, intending to
discredit Iron Man. General Bruce Babbage forces Stark to wear a tech governor, a device that allows Babbage to
deactivate Stark's armor whenever he wants. To fight back, Tony undergoes a surgical procedure that expels the
Bleeding Edge technology out of his body and replaces his repulsor node with a new model, forcing Babbage to
remove the tech governor off his chest. He announces his retirement as Iron Man, faking Rhodey's death and giving
him a new armor so that he becomes the new Iron Man. This leads into the next storyline, "The Future", in which the
Mandarin takes control of Stark's mind and uses him to create new armored bodies for the alien spirits inhabiting his
rings, but Stark allies himself with some of his old enemies, who have also been imprisoned by Mandarin, and
manages to defeat and escape him. The final issue of this storyline concluded Matt Fraction's series.
In the 2012 ongoing Marvel NOW! relaunch, Tony Stark has hit a technological ceiling. After the death of Dr. Maya
Hansen and destroying all of the Extremis Ver. 2 kits which were being sold to the black market, Tony decides that
the Earth is not safe without him learning more from what's in the final frontier. He takes his new suit, enhanced with
an artificial intelligence named P.E.P.P.E.R. and joins Peter Quill and The Guardians of the Galaxy after helping
them thwart a Badoon attack on Earth.

Powers and abilities

Armor
Iron Man possesses powered armor that gives him superhuman strength and durability, flight, and an array of
weapons. The armor is invented and worn by Stark (with occasional short-term exceptions). Other people who have
assumed the Iron Man identity include Stark's long-time partner and best friend James Rhodes; close associates
Harold "Happy" Hogan; Eddie March;[26] and (briefly) Michael O'Brien.
The weapons systems of the suit have changed over the years, but Iron Man's standard offensive weapons have
always been the repulsor rays that are fired from the palms of his gauntlets. Other weapons built into various
incarnations of the armor include: the uni-beam projector in its chest; pulse bolts (that pick up kinetic energy along
the way; so the farther they travel, the harder they hit); an electromagnetic pulse generator; and a defensive energy
shield that can be extended up to 360 degrees. Other capabilities include: generating ultra-freon (i.e., a freeze-beam);
creating and manipulating magnetic fields; emitting sonic blasts; and projecting 3-dimensional holograms (to create
decoys).
In addition to the general-purpose model he wears, Stark has developed several specialized suits for space travel,
deep-sea diving, stealth, and other special purposes. Stark has modified suits, like the Hulkbuster heavy armor. The
Hulkbuster armor is composed of add-ons to his so-called modular armor, designed to enhance its strength and
durability enough to engage the Incredible Hulk in a fight. A later model, designed for use against Thor, is modeled
on the Destroyer and uses a mystical power source. Stark develops an electronics pack during the Armor Wars that,
when attached to armors that use Stark technologies, will burn out those components, rendering the suit useless. This
pack is ineffective on later models. While it is typically associated with James Rhodes, the War Machine armor

11

Iron Man
began as one of Stark's specialty armors.
The most recent models of Stark's armor, beginning with the Extremis Armor, are now stored in the hollow portions
of Stark's bones, and the personal area networking implement used to control it is implanted in his forearm, and
connected directly to his central nervous system.

Powers
After being critically injured during a battle with the Extremis-enhanced Mallen, Stark injects his nervous system
with modified techno-organic virus-like body restructuring machines (the Extremis process). By rewriting his own
biology, Stark is able to save his life, gain an enhanced healing factor, and partially merge with the Iron Man armor,
superseding the need for bulky, AI-controlled armors in favor of lighter designs, technopathically controlled by his
own brain. His enhanced technopathy extends to every piece of technology, limitless and effortlessly due to his
ability to interface with communication satellites and wireless connections to increase his "range". Some components
of the armor-sheath are now stored in Tony's body, able to be recalled, and extruded from his own skin, at will.
During the "Secret Invasion" storyline the Extremis package is catastrophically shutdown by a virus, forcing him
again to rely on the previous iteration of his armor, and restoring his previous limitations. Furthermore, Osborn's
takeover of most of the few remaining Starktech factories, with Ezekiel Stane systematically crippling the others,
limits Tony to the use of lesser, older and weaker armors.
After being forced to "wipe out" his brain to prevent Norman Osborn from gaining his information, Tony Stark is
forced to have a new arc reactor, of Rand design installed in his chest. The process greatly improves his strength,
stamina and intellect. The procedure left him with virtually no autonomic functions: as his brain was stripped of
every biological function, Tony is forced to rely on a digital backup of his memories (leaving him with severe gaps
and lapses in his long-term memory) and on software routine in the arc reactor for basic stimuli reaction, such as
blinking and breathing. The Bleeding Edge package of armor and physical enhancement is now equal in power, if not
a more advanced, version of the old Extremis tech.

Skills
Tony Stark is an inventive genius whose expertise in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, and computer
science rivals that of Reed Richards, Hank Pym, and Bruce Banner, and his expertise in electrical engineering and
mechanical engineering surpasses even theirs. He is regarded as one of the most intelligent characters in the Marvel
Universe. He graduated with advanced degrees in physics and engineering at the age of 17 from Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) and further developed his knowledge ranging from artificial intelligence to quantum
mechanics as time progressed. His expertise extends to his ingenuity in dealing with difficult situations, such as
difficult foes and deathtraps, in which he is capable of using available tools, including his suit, in unorthodox but
effective ways. He is well respected in the business world, able to command people's attention when he speaks on
economic matters, having over the years built up several multi-million dollar companies from virtually nothing. He
is noted for the loyalty he commands from and returns to those who work for him, as well as for his business ethics.
Thus he immediately fired an employee who made profitable, but illegal, sales to Doctor Doom. He strives to be
environmentally responsible in his businesses.
At a time when Stark was unable to use his armor for a period, he received some combat training from Captain
America and has become physically formidable on his own when the situation demands it. In addition, Stark
possesses great business and political acumen. On multiple occasions he reacquired control of his companies after
losing them amid corporate takeovers.
Due to his membership in the Illuminati, Iron Man was given the Space Infinity Gem to safeguard. It allows the user
to exist in any location (or all locations), move any object anywhere throughout the universe and warp or rearrange
space. As with the other members of the lluminati and their respective gems, Iron Man has vowed not to use it on
any occasion, even after the Secret Invasion and his fugitive status.

12

Iron Man
It was later discovered that Stark's intelligence is the result of an experiment by a Rigellian Recorder called Recorder
451 after his mother almost loses him while pregnant, in exchange of saving his life.

In other media
In 1966, Iron Man was featured in a series of cartoons. In 1981, Iron Man guest appeared in Spider-Man and His
Amazing Friends, but only as Tony Stark. He went on to feature again in his own series in the 1990s as part of the
Marvel Action Hour with the Fantastic Four; Robert Hays provided his voice in these animated cartoons. Iron Man
makes an appearance in the episode "Shell Games" of Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes. Apart from comic
books, Iron Man appears in Capcom's "Vs." video games, including Marvel Super Heroes, Marvel vs. Capcom:
Clash of Super Heroes as either a Gold War Machine or Hyper Armor War Machine, Marvel vs. Capcom 2: New
Age of Heroes, Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds, and Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3. Iron Man is a
playable character in Iron Man, the 1992 arcade game Captain America and the Avengers, Marvel: Ultimate Alliance
and its sequel, and Marvel Nemesis: Rise of the Imperfects, as well as being featured as an unlockable character in
X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse and Tony Hawk's Underground. In the 2009 animated series, Iron Man:
Armored Adventures, most of the characters, including Tony Stark, are teenagers. An anime adaptation began airing
in Japan in October 2010 as part of a collaboration between Marvel Animation and Madhouse, in which Stark,
voiced by Keiji Fujiwara, travels to Japan where he ends up facing off against the Zodiac.
In 2008, a film adaptation titled Iron Man was released, starring Robert Downey, Jr. as Tony Stark and directed by
Jon Favreau. Favreau explained that Elon Musk was the inspiration for his depiction of Stark. Iron Man received
very positive reviews from film critics, grossing $318 million domestically and $585 million worldwide. Its video
game adaptation met generally negative reviews. The character of Tony Stark, again played by Robert Downey, Jr.,
appeared at the end of the 2008 film The Incredible Hulk. Downey reprised his role in Iron Man 2 (2010), Marvel's
The Avengers (2012), and Iron Man 3 (2013), and will appear in Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), and a third
Avengers film (TBA).

Cultural influence
The rapper Ghostface Killah, a member of Wu-Tang Clan, titled his 1996 debut solo album Ironman, and has
since continued to use lyrics related to the Iron Man comics and samples from the animated TV shows on his
records. He has adopted the nickname Tony Starks as one of his numerous alter-egos and was featured in a scene
deleted from the Iron Man film.
Paul McCartney's song "Magneto and Titanium Man" was inspired by the X-Men's nemesis and the original
version of the Iron Man villain. Another Iron Man villain, the Crimson Dynamo, is mentioned in the lyrics to this
song.
The British band Razorlight mentions Tony Stark in a verse of their song, "Hang By, Hang By".
The character of Nathan Stark on the television show Eureka is inspired by Tony Stark.
Forbes has ranked Iron Man among the wealthiest fictional characters on their annual ranking, while
BusinessWeek has ranked him as one of the ten most intelligent characters in American comics.
In 2011, IGN ranked Iron Man 12th in the Top 100 Comic Book Heroes.
Two Iron Man-themed trucks compete in the Monster Jam monster truck racing series. Debuted in Atlanta on 9th
of January 2010, they are driven by Lee O' Donnell and Morgan Kane.[27]

13

Iron Man

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]

Lee, Son of Origins of Marvel Comics pp. 46-48

Lee, Stan (December 1997). "Stan's Soapbox" from "Bullpen Bulletins" Marvel Comics.
Heck, quoted in
DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 99: "Following the tradition of Sax Rohmer's Fu Manchu and Atlas' own Yellow Claw, the Mandarin
first appeared in Tales of Suspense #50 in a story written by Stan Lee and illustrated by Don Heck."
DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 100: "The Black Widow was a Russian spy assigned to capture American industrialist Tony Stark...Her
story was plotted by Stan Lee, written by...Don Rico, and drawn by Don Heck."
DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 101: "A case of mistaken identity led the police to assume [Hawkeye] was part of [a criminal] gang.
The Black Widow saved him from capture but also tricked him into fighting Iron Man"
DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 128: "Hailing 1968 as the beginning of the 'Second Age of Marvel Comics,' and with more titles to play
with, editor Stan Lee discarded his split books and gave more characters their own titles."
Sanderson, Peter "1970s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 158: "In this issue, scripted by Mike Friedrich, plotter and penciler Jim Starlin introduced a
miniature mythos of his creations."

[9] David Michelinie's run on Iron Man (http:/ / www. comics. org/ search/ advanced/ process/ ?target=sequence& method=icontains&
logic=False& keywords=& order1=date& order2=series& order3=& start_date=& end_date=& title=& feature=& job_number=& pages=&
script=David+ Michelinie& pencils=& inks=& colors=& letters=& story_editing=& genre=& characters=& synopsis=& reprint_notes=&
story_reprinted=None& notes=& pub_name=& pub_notes=& brand=& brand_notes=& indicia_publisher=& is_surrogate=None&
ind_pub_notes=& series=Iron+ Man& series_year_began=& series_notes=& tracking_notes=& issue_count=& is_comics=None& format=&
color=& dimensions=& paper_stock=& binding=& publishing_format=& issues=& volume=& issue_title=& variant_name=& issue_date=&
indicia_frequency=& price=& issue_pages=& issue_editing=& isbn=& barcode=& issue_notes=& issue_reprinted=None& is_indexed=None)
at the Grand Comics Database
[10] Sanderson "1970s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 187: "In December [1978], co-plotters David Michelinie and Bob Layton, and penciler John Romita,
Jr....came up with Bethany Cabe, a highly capable professional bodyguard and a different sort of leading lady."
[11] Sanderson "1970s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 188: "Writer David Michelinie and artists John Byrne and Bob Layton introduced James Rhodes
Tony Stark's best friend and future super hero War Machine in The Invincible Iron Man #118."
[12] Sanderson "1970s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 189: "Tony Stark's billionaire nemesis Justin Hammer made his first appearance in The Invincible
Iron Man #120 by writer David Michelinie and artist John Romita, Jr. and Bob Layton. "
[13] DeFalco "1980s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 202: "In The Invincible Iron Man #152, Iron Man unveiled his all-black stealth armor."
[14] DeFalco "1980s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 211: "Jim was the natural choice to replace [Stark] as Iron Man when Tony's problem's with alcohol
prevented him from doing the job. Jim continued in his role until The Invincible Iron Man #199 (Oct. 1985)."
[15] DeFalco "1980s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 223
[16] DeFalco "1980s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 233: "Although actually called 'Stark Wars', the story arc that became known as 'Armor Wars began in
this issue and ran until June 1988."
[17] Manning, Matthew K. "1990s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 280: "Part of the 'Heroes Reborn' event, Iron Man was relaunched into a new universe
courtesy of writer Scott Lobdell and Jim Lee, with pencils by Whilce Portacio."
[18] The Invincible Iron Man (II) (http:/ / www. maelmill-insi. de/ UHBMCC/ ironman4. htm#S387) in the Unofficial Handbook of Marvel
Comics Creators
[19] Manning "1990s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 289: "Tony Stark returned in style...in this new ongoing series by writer Kurt Busiek and artist Sean
Chen."
[20] The Invincible Iron Man (III) (http:/ / www. maelmill-insi. de/ UHBMCC/ ironman3. htm#S476) in the Unofficial Handbook of Marvel
Comics Creators
[21] Manning "2000s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 325: "Writer Warren Ellis teamed up with illustrator Adi Granov to create a new spin on Iron Man
that would have long-lasting effects."
[22] The Invincible Iron Man (IV) (http:/ / www. maelmill-insi. de/ UHBMCC/ ironman5. htm#S4745) in the Unofficial Handbook of Marvel
Comics Creators
[23] The Invincible Iron Man (V) (http:/ / www. maelmill-insi. de/ UHBMCC/ ironman7. htm#S8305) in the Unofficial Handbook of Marvel
Comics Creators
[24] Iron Man titles (http:/ / www. comics. org/ search/ advanced/ process/ ?target=series& method=icontains& logic=False& keywords=&
order1=date& order2=series& order3=& start_date=& end_date=& title=& feature=& job_number=& pages=& script=& pencils=& inks=&
colors=& letters=& story_editing=& genre=& characters=& synopsis=& reprint_notes=& story_reprinted=None& notes=& pub_name=&
country=us& pub_notes=& brand=& brand_notes=& indicia_publisher=& is_surrogate=None& ind_pub_notes=& series=Iron+ Man&
series_year_began=& series_notes=& tracking_notes=& issue_count=& is_comics=None& format=& color=& dimensions=&
paper_stock=& binding=& publishing_format=& issues=& volume=& issue_title=& variant_name=& issue_date=& indicia_frequency=&
price=& issue_pages=& issue_editing=& isbn=& barcode=& issue_notes=& issue_reprinted=None& is_indexed=None) at the Grand Comics
Database
[25] Iron Man vol. 5, #17
[26] Sanderson "1970s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 144: "Boxer Eddie March was the first African-American to wear Iron Man's armor."

14

Iron Man
[27] http:/ / www. monsterjam. com/ Bios/ Trucks/ Iron_Man/

Further reading
DeFalco, Tom (2005) Avengers: The Ultimate Guide, Dorling Kindersley, ISBN 978-0756614614

External links

Iron Man (http://marvel.com/universe/Iron_Man) at the Marvel Universe wiki

Iron Man (Tony Stark) (http://comicbookdb.com/character.php?ID=203) at the Comic Book DB
Iron Man (http://www.coverbrowser.com/covers/iron-man) at Cover Browser
"Stark Reality: A Different Hero for Different Times" by Ian Chant (http://www.popmatters.com/pm/feature/
60999/stark-reality-a-different-hero-for-different-times/) - PopMatters.com
Advanced Iron (http://www.advancediron.org/) (fanzine)
Iron Man Library (http://www.ironmanlibrary.com/)

15

Richard Branson

16

Richard Branson
Sir Richard Branson

Branson at the Time 100 Gala, 5 May 2010

Born

Richard Charles Nicholas Branson

18 July 1950
Blackheath, London, England, UK

Residence

London, England

Occupation

Founder of Virgin Group

Yearsactive 1966present
Networth

US$4.6billion (2013)

Religion

None (Atheist)

Spouse(s)

Kristen Tomassi (m.197279)

(divorced)
Joan Templeman (m.1989)

Children

2 daughters (1 deceased), 1son

Parents

Eve Branson

[1]

Sir Richard Charles Nicholas Branson (born 18 July 1950) is an English business magnate and investor. He is best
known as the founder of Virgin Group, which comprises more than 400 companies.
His first business venture was a magazine called Student at the age of 16. In 1970, he set up a mail-order record
business. In 1972, he opened a chain of record stores, Virgin Records, later known as Virgin Megastores. Branson's
Virgin brand grew rapidly during the 1980s, as he set up Virgin Atlantic and expanded the Virgin Records music
label.
Branson is the 4th richest citizen of the United Kingdom, according to the Forbes 2012 list of billionaires, with an
estimated net worth of US$4.6 billion.

Richard Branson

Early life
Branson was born in Blackheath, London, the son and eldest child of barrister Edward James Branson (10 March
1918 19 March 2011) and Eve Huntley Branson (ne Flindt).[2] His grandfather, the Right Honourable Sir George
Arthur Harwin Branson, was a judge of the High Court of Justice and a Privy Councillor.[3] Branson was educated at
Scaitcliffe School (now Bishopsgate School) until the age of thirteen. He then attended Stowe School until the age of
sixteen. Branson has dyslexia and had poor academic performance as a student, but later discovered his ability to
connect with others. On one of Bransons last days at school, his headmaster, Robert Drayson, told him he would
either end up in prison or become a millionaire. Bransons parents had a significant impact on his life. He had very
talented parents who had an abundance of love for their children and were supportive of his endeavors from an early
age. For example, when 15-year old Richard decided to breed budgies and persuaded his father to build a huge
aviary, his father built it. They always encouraged him to go ahead and do what he wanted. His parents always
treated him and his two sisters as equals. Bransons parents always encouraged them to have their own opinions and
rarely gave them advice unless they asked for it.

Career
Record business
Richard Branson started his record business from the crypt of a church where he ran The Student magazine. Branson
advertised popular records in The Student and it was an overnight success. Trading under the name "Virgin", he sold
records for considerably less than the "High Street" outlets, especially the chain W. H. Smith. Branson once said,
"There is no point in starting your own business unless you do it out of a sense of frustration." The name "Virgin"
was suggested by one of Branson's early employees because they were all new at business.[4] At the time, many
products were sold under restrictive marketing agreements that limited discounting, despite efforts in the 1950s and
1960s to limit so-called resale price maintenance.[5] In effect, Branson began the series of changes that led to
large-scale discounting of recorded music.
Branson eventually started a record shop in Oxford Street in London. In 1971, Branson was questioned in connection
with the selling of records in Virgin stores that had been declared export stock. The matter was never brought before
a court and Branson agreed to repay any unpaid tax and a fine. Branson's mother, Eve, re-mortgaged the family
home to help pay the settlement.
Earning enough money from his record store, Branson in 1972 launched the record label Virgin Records with Nik
Powell and bought a country estate, in which he installed a recording studio. He leased out studio time to fledgling
artists, including multi-instrumentalist Mike Oldfield, whose debut album Tubular Bells (1973) was Virgin Records'
first release and a chart-topping best-seller.
Virgin signed such controversial bands as the Sex Pistols, which other companies were reluctant to sign. It also won
praise for exposing the public to such obscure avant-garde music as Faust and Can. Virgin Records also introduced
Culture Club to the music world. In the early 1980s, Virgin purchased the gay nightclub Heaven. In 1991, in a
consortium with David Frost, Richard Branson had made the unsuccessful bid for three ITV franchisees under the
CPV-TV name. The early 1980s also saw his only attempt as a produceron the novelty record "Baa, Baa, Black
Sheep", by Singing Sheep in association with Doug McLean and Grace McDonald. The recording was a series of
sheep baa-ing along to a drum-machine-produced track and reached number 42 in the UK charts in 1982.
In 1992, to keep his airline company afloat, Branson sold the Virgin label to EMI for 500million. Branson said that
he wept when the sale was completed because the record business had been the very start of the Virgin empire. He
later created V2 Records to re-enter the music business.

17

Richard Branson

Business ventures
Branson formed Virgin Atlantic Airways in 1984, launched Virgin Mobile in 1999, Virgin Blue in Australia (now
named Virgin Australia) in 2000. He was 9th in the Sunday Times Rich List 2006, worth just over 3billion.
Branson wrote in his autobiography of the decision to start an airline:
My interest in life comes from setting myself huge, apparently unachievable challenges and trying to
rise above them ... from the perspective of wanting to live life to the full, I felt that I had to attempt it.
In 1993, Branson took what many saw as being one of his riskier business exploits by entering into the railway
business. Virgin Trains won the franchises for the former Intercity West Coast and Cross-Country sectors of British
Rail.
Virgin acquired European short-haul airline Euro Belgian Airlines in 1996 and renamed it Virgin Express. In 2006,
the airline was merged with SN Brussels Airlines forming Brussels Airlines. It also started a national airline based in
Nigeria, called Virgin Nigeria. Another airline, Virgin America, began flying out of San Francisco International
Airport in August 2007. Branson has also developed a Virgin Cola brand and even a Virgin Vodka brand, which has
not been a very successful enterprise. As a consequence of these lacklustre performers, the satirical British
fortnightly magazine Private Eye has been critical of Branson and his companies (see Private Eye image caption).[6]
A series of disputes in the early 1990s caused tension between Virgin Atlantic and British Airways, which viewed
Virgin as an emerging competitor. Virgin subsequently accused British Airways of poaching its passengers, hacking
its computers, and leaking stories to the press that portrayed Virgin negatively. After the so-called campaign of "dirty
tricks", British Airways settled the case, giving 500,000 to Branson and a further 110,000 to his airline and had to
pay legal fees of up to 3million . Branson divided his compensation (the so-called "BA bonus") among his staff.
On 25 September 2004, Branson announced the signing of a deal under which a new space tourism company, Virgin
Galactic, will license the technology behind Spaceship Onefunded by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen and
designed by legendary American aeronautical engineer and visionary Burt Rutanto take paying passengers into
suborbital space. Virgin Galactic (wholly owned by Virgin Group) plans to make flights available to the public with
tickets priced at US$200,000 using Scaled Composites White Knight Two. Branson plans to take his two children,
31-year-old Holly and 28-year-old Sam, on a trip to outer space when they ride the SpaceShipTwo rocket plane on
its first public flight planned for 2014.
Branson's next venture with the Virgin group is Virgin Fuels, which is set to respond to global warming and exploit
the recent spike in fuel costs by offering a revolutionary, cheaper fuel for automobiles and, in the near future,
aircraft. Branson has stated that he was formerly a global warming sceptic and was influenced in his decision by a
breakfast meeting with Al Gore.
Branson has been tagged as a "transformational leader" in the management lexicon, with his maverick strategies and
his stress on the Virgin Group as an organisation driven on informality and information, one that is bottom-heavy
rather than strangled by top-level management.
On 21 September 2006, Branson pledged to invest the profits of Virgin Atlantic and Virgin Trains in research for
environmentally friendly fuels. The investment is estimated to be worth $3billion.
On 4 July 2006, Branson sold his Virgin Mobile company to UK cable TV, broadband, and telephone company
NTL/NTL:Telewest for almost 1billion. The new company was launched with much fanfare and publicity on 8
February 2007, under the name Virgin Media. The decision to merge his Virgin Media Company with NTL was to
integrate both of the companies' compatible parts of commerce. Branson used to own three-quarters of Virgin
Mobile, whereas now he owns 15 percent of the new Virgin Media company.
In 2006, Branson formed Virgin Comics and Virgin Animation, an entertainment company focused on creating new
stories and characters for a global audience. The company was founded with author Deepak Chopra, filmmaker
Shekhar Kapur, and entrepreneurs Sharad Devarajan and Gotham Chopra.

18

Richard Branson

19

Branson also launched the Virgin Health Bank on 1 February 2007, offering parents-to-be the opportunity to store
their baby's umbilical cord blood stem cells in private and public stem cell banks.
In June 2006, a tip-off from Virgin Atlantic led US and UK competition authorities to investigate price-fixing
attempts between Virgin Atlantic and British Airways. In August 2007, British Airways was fined 271million over
the allegations. Virgin Atlantic was given immunity for tipping off the authorities and received no finea
controversial decision the Office of Fair Trading defended as being in the public interest.
On 9 February 2007, Branson announced the setting up of a new Global science and technology prizeThe Virgin
Earth Challengein the belief that history has shown that prizes of this nature encourage technological
advancements for the good of mankind. The Virgin Earth Challenge will award $25million to the individual or
group who are able to demonstrate a commercially viable design which will result in the net removal of
anthropogenic, atmospheric greenhouse gases each year for at least ten years without countervailing harmful effects.
This removal must have long-term effects and contribute materially to the stability of the Earth's climate.
Branson also announced that he would be joined in the adjudication of the Prize by a panel of five judges, all world
authorities in their respective fields: Al Gore, Sir Crispin Tickell, Tim Flannery, James E. Hansen, and James
Lovelock. The panel of judges will be assisted in their deliberations by The Climate Group and Special Advisor to
The Virgin Earth Prize Judges, Steve Howard.
In August 2007, Branson announced that he bought a 20 percent stake in Malaysia's AirAsia X.
On 13 October 2007, Branson's Virgin Group sought to add Northern
Rock to its empire after submitting an offer that would result in
Branson personally owning 30% of the company, changing the
company's name from Northern Rock to Virgin Money. The Daily
Mail ran a campaign against his bid and Liberal Democrats' financial
spokesperson Vince Cable suggested in the House of Commons that
Branson's criminal conviction for tax evasion might be felt by some as
a good enough reason not to trust him with public money .
On 10 January 2008, Branson's Virgin Healthcare announced that it
would open a chain of health care clinics that would offer conventional
medical care alongside homoeopathic and complementary therapies, a
development that was welcomed by Ben Bradshaw, the UK's health
minister.

Branson in April 2009 at the launch of Virgin

America in Orange County, California

Plans where GPs could be paid for referring National Health Service
(NHS) patients to private Virgin services were abandoned in June
2008. The BMA warned the plan would "damage clinical objectivity", there would be a financial incentive for GPs
to push patients towards the Virgin services at the centre. Plans to take over an NHS Practice in Swindon were
subsequently abandoned in late September 2008.
In February 2009, Branson's Virgin organisation were reported as bidding to buy the former Honda Formula One
team. Branson later stated an interest in Formula One but claimed that, before the Virgin brand became involved
with Honda or any other team, Formula One would have to develop a more economically efficient and
environmentally responsible image. At the start of the 2009 formula one season on 28 March, it was announced that
Virgin would be sponsoring the new Brawn GP team.,[7] with discussions also under way about introducing a less
"dirty" fuel in the medium term.[8] After the end of the season and the subsequent purchase of Brawn GP by
Mercedes, Branson invested in an 80% buyout of Manor Grand Prix, with the team being renamed to Virgin Racing.
Branson and Tony Fernandes, owner of Air Asia and Lotus F1 Racing, had a bet for the 2010 F1 season where the
team's boss should work on the winner's airline on a charity flight dressed as a stewardess. Fernandes escaped as the
winner of the bet, as Lotus Racing ended 10th in the championship, while Virgin Racing ended 12th and last.

Richard Branson

20

Branson kept his word after losing the bet as he served his duty as a stewardess on an Air Asia flight between Perth
and Kuala Lumpur on 12 May 2013.[9]
Branson and Somerset County's Natirar Resort development in New Jersey, on the Natirar Estate, opened in late
2009 with the Ninety Acres Culinary Center. It includes a restaurant run by chef David Felton, cooking school, wine
school, working farm, luxury resort and spa. The development, spearheaded by Branson and Bob Wojtowicz, sits on
500 acres which was the former estate of the King of Morocco.[10]
In 2010, Richard Branson became patron of the UK's Gordon Bennett 2010 gas balloon race, which has 16 hydrogen
balloons flying across Europe.
In April 2010, Branson described the closure of large parts of European airspace owing to volcanic ash as "beyond a
joke". Some scientists later concluded that serious structural damage to aircraft could have occurred if passenger
planes had continued to fly.
In July 2012, Branson announced plans to build an orbital space launch system, designated LauncherOne. Four
commercial customers have already contracted for launches and two companies are developing standardised satellite
buses optimised to the design of LauncherOne, in expectation of business opportunities created by the new smallsat
launcher.
In August 2012, the franchise for the West Coast Main Line, managed by Virgin Rail since 1997, came to an end.
The contract was awarded to FirstGroup after a competitive tender process overseen by the Department for
Transport. Branson had expressed his concerns about the tender process and questioned the validity of the business
plan submitted by FirstGroup. When Virgin Rail lost the contract, Branson said he was convinced the civil servants
had "got their maths wrong". In October, after an investigation into the bidding process, the deal was scrapped. The
Transport Secretary announced there were "significant technical flaws" in the process and mistakes had been made
by transport staff. Virgin Rail continue to operate the West Coast line.[11]

World record attempts

Richard Branson made several world record-breaking attempts after
1985, when in the spirit of the Blue Riband he attempted the fastest
Atlantic Ocean crossing. His first attempt in the "Virgin Atlantic
Challenger" led to the boat capsizing in British waters and a rescue by
RAF helicopter, which received wide media coverage. Some
newspapers called for Branson to reimburse the government for the
rescue cost. In 1986, in his "Virgin Atlantic Challenger II", with sailing
expert Daniel McCarthy, he beat the record by two hours. A year later
his hot air balloon "Virgin Atlantic Flyer" crossed the Atlantic.

A 1998 attempt at an around-the-world balloon

flight by Branson, Fossett, and Lindstrand ends in
the Pacific Ocean on 25 December 1998.

In January 1991, Branson crossed the Pacific from Japan to Arctic

Canada, 6,700 miles (10,800km), in a balloon of 2,600,000 cubic feet
(74,000m3). This broke the record, with a speed of 245 miles per hour (394km/h).

Between 1995 and 1998 Branson, Per Lindstrand and Steve Fossett made attempts to circumnavigate the globe by
balloon. In late 1998 they made a record-breaking flight from Morocco to Hawaii but were unable to complete a
global flight before Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones in Breitling Orbiter 3 in March 1999.
In March 2004, Branson set a record by travelling from Dover to Calais in a Gibbs Aquada in 1 hour, 40 minutes and
6 seconds, the fastest crossing of the English Channel in an amphibious vehicle. The previous record of six hours
was set by two Frenchmen. The cast of Top Gear, Jeremy Clarkson, James May and Richard Hammond, attempted
to break this record in an amphibious vehicle which they had constructed and, while successfully crossing the
channel, did not break Branson's record. They were intercepted by a Coast Guard aircraft along the way, but after
Clarkson remarked "We're trying to beat 'Beardy' Branson!" the Coast Guard wished them good luck, and left[citation

Richard Branson
needed]

In September 2008, Branson and his children made an unsuccessful attempt at an Eastbound record crossing of the
Atlantic ocean under sail in the 99 feet (30m) sloop Virgin Money. The boat, also known as Speedboat, is owned by
NYYC member Alex Jackson, who was a co-skipper on this passage, with Branson and Mike Sanderson. After 2
days, 4 hours, winds of force 7 to 9 (strong gale), and seas of 40 feet (12m), a 'monster wave' destroyed the
spinnaker, washed a ten-man life raft overboard and severely ripped the mainsail. She eventually continued to St.
George's, Bermuda.

Television, film, and print

Branson has guest starred, usually playing himself, on several
television shows, including Friends, Baywatch, Birds of a Feather,
Only Fools and Horses, The Day Today, a special episode of the
comedy Goodness Gracious Me and Tripping Over. Branson made
several appearances during the nineties on the BBC Saturday morning
show Live & Kicking, where he was referred to as 'the pickle man' by
comedy act Trev and Simon (in reference to Branston Pickle). Branson
also appears in a cameo early in XTC's "Generals and Majors" video.
He was also the star of a reality television show on Fox called The
Rebel Billionaire: Branson's Quest for the Best (2004), in which
sixteen contestants were tested for their entrepreneurship and sense of
adventure. It did not succeed as a rival show to Donald Trump's The
Apprentice and only lasted one season.
His high public profile often leaves him open as a figure of satirethe
2000 AD series Zenith features a parody of Branson as a super villain,
as the comic's publisher and favoured distributor and the Virgin group
Branson at the 2008 Toronto International Film
were in competition at the time. He is also caricatured in The Simpsons
Festival.
episode "Monty Can't Buy Me Love" as the tycoon Arthur Fortune,
and as the ballooning megalomaniac Richard Chutney (a pun on Branson, as in Branston Pickle) in Believe Nothing.
The character Grandson Richard 39 in Terry Pratchett's Wings is modelled on Branson.
He has a cameo appearance in several films: Around the World in 80 Days (2004), where he played a hot-air balloon
operator; Superman Returns, where he was credited as a 'Shuttle Engineer' and appeared alongside his son, Sam,
with a Virgin Galactic-style commercial suborbital shuttle at the centre of his storyline. He also has a cameo in the
James Bond film Casino Royale. Here, he is seen as a passenger going through Miami Airport security check-in and
being frisked several Virgin Atlantic planes appear soon after. British Airways edited out Branson's cameo in their
in-flight screening of the movie.
He makes a number of brief and disjointed appearances in the cult classic documentary Derek and Clive Get the
Horn which follows the exploits of Peter Cook and Dudley Moore recording their last comedy album. Branson and
his mother were also featured in the documentary film, Lemonade Stories. In early 2006 on Rove Live, Rove
McManus and Sir Richard pushed each other into a swimming pool fully clothed live on TV during a "Live at your
house" episode.
Branson is a Star Trek fan and named his new spaceship VSS Enterprise in honour of the famous Star Trek ships,
and in 2006, reportedly offered actor William Shatner a ride on the inaugural space launch of Virgin Galactic. In an
interview in Time magazine, 10 August 2009, Shatner claimed that Branson approached him asking how much he
would pay for a ride on the spaceship. In response, Shatner asked "how much would you pay me to do it?"

21

Richard Branson
In August 2007, Branson announced on The Colbert Report that he had named a new aircraft Air Colbert. He later
doused political satirist and talk show host Stephen Colbert with water from his mug. Branson subsequently took a
retaliatory splash from Colbert. The interview quickly ended, with both laughing as shown on the episode aired on
Comedy Central on 22 August 2007. The interview was promoted on The Report as the Colbert-Branson Interview
Trainwreck. Branson then made a cameo appearance on The Soup playing an intern working under Joel McHale who
had been warned against getting into water fights with Stephen Colbert, and being subsequently fired.
In March 2008 he launched Virgin Mobile in India and during that period, he even played a cameo performance in
Bollywood film, London Dreams.
In July 2010, Branson narrated Australian sailor Jessica Watson's documentary about her solo sailing trip around the
world. It premiered on ONEHD on 16 August 2010.
In April 2011 Branson appeared on CNN's Mainsail with Kate Winslet. Together they re-enacted a famous scene
from the 1997 film Titanic for the cameras. On 17 August 2011, he was featured in the premier episode of Hulu's
first long-form original production entitled, A Day in the Life.
At the 2012 Pride of Britain Awards broadcast on ITV on 30 October, Branson, along with Michael Caine, Elton
John, Simon Cowell and Stephen Fry, recited Rudyard Kipling's poem If in tribute to the 2012 British Olympic
and Paralympics heroes.[12]
In 2012, Branson became a LinkedIn Influencer.[13]

Activism
Humanitarian initiatives
In the late 1990s, Branson and musician Peter Gabriel discussed with Nelson Mandela their idea of a small,
dedicated group of leaders, working objectively and without any vested personal interest to solve difficult global
conflicts.[14]
On 18 July 2007, in Johannesburg, South Africa, Nelson Mandela announced the formation of a new group, The
Elders, in a speech he delivered on the occasion of his 89th birthday. Kofi Annan serves as Chair of The Elders and
Gro Harlem Brundtland as Deputy Chair. The other members of the group are Martti Ahtisaari, Ela Bhatt, Lakhdar
Brahimi, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Jimmy Carter, Hina Jilani, Graa Machel, Mary Robinson and Ernesto
Zedillo. Desmond Tutu is an Honorary Elder. Nelson Mandela was an Honorary Elder. The Elders is independently
funded by a group of donors, including Branson and Gabriel.
The Elders use their collective skills to catalyse peaceful resolutions to long-standing conflicts, articulate new
approaches to global issues that are causing or may cause immense human suffering, and share wisdom by helping to
connect voices all over the world. They work together to carefully consider which specific issues they will approach.
Branson's other work in South Africa includes the Branson School of Entrepreneurship, set up in 2005 as a
partnership between Virgin Unite, the non-profit foundation of Virgin, and entrepreneur Taddy Blecher, the founder
of CIDA City Campus, a university in Johannesburg. The school aims to improve economic growth in South Africa
by supporting start-ups and micro-enterprises with skills, mentors, services, networks and finance arrangements.
Fundraising activity to support the school is notably achieved by the Sunday Times Fast Track 100, sponsored by
Virgin Group, at its yearly event, where places to join Richard Branson on trips to South Africa to provide coaching
and mentoring to students are auctioned to attendees. In 2009, Jason Luckhurst and Boyd Kershaw of Practicus,
Martin Ainscough of the Ainscough Group and Matthew Riley of Daisy Communications helped raise 150,000
through the auction.[15]

22

Richard Branson

23
In September 2007, Richard Branson chaired the jury of the first Picnic
Green Challenge, a 500,000 award for best new green initiative, set
up by the Dutch "Postcode Loterij" (postcode lottery) and the PICNIC
Network of creative professionals. The first Green Challenge was won
by Qurrent with the Qbox.
Branson was the first celebrity guest for the popular charity fund
raisers, Reserve Dinners, raising over $75,000 in one evening towards
his Virgin Unite charity.[16]

In March 2008, Richard Branson hosted an environmental gathering at

his private island, Necker Island, in the Caribbean with several
prominent entrepreneurs, celebrities, and world leaders. They
Branson at the United Nations Conference on
discussed global warming-related problems facing the world, hoping
Sustainable Development in 2012
that this meeting will be a precursor to many more future discussions
regarding similar problems. Former British Prime Minister Tony Blair,
Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales, and Larry Page of Google were in attendance.[17]
Branson has been very supportive of Kenya during its troubles, and in May 2008 had gone to Masai Mara to open a
new school (Sekenani Primary School) which has also been partly funded by Virgin Atlantic frequent flyers who
volunteered their time to help with the construction. A documentary of the experience was directed by Carolyn
Scott-Hamilton and filmed by David Collupy.
On 8 May 2009, Branson took over Mia Farrow's hunger strike for 3 days in protest of the Sudanese government
expulsion of aid groups from the Darfur region.
Richard Branson is a signatory of Global Zero (campaign), a non-profit international initiative for the elimination of
all nuclear weapons worldwide. Since its launch in Paris in December 2008, Global Zero (campaign) has grown to
300 leaders, including current and former heads of state, national security officials and military commanders, and
400,000 citizens worldwide; developed a practical step-by-step plan to eliminate nuclear weapons; launched an
international student campaign with 75 campus chapters in eight countries; and produced an acclaimed documentary
film, Countdown to Zero, in partnership with Lawrence Bender and Participant Media.
Since 2010, Branson has served as a Commissioner on the Broadband Commission for Digital Development, a UN
initiative which promotes universal access to broadband services.
In 2011, Branson served on the Global Commission on Drug Policy with former political and cultural leaders of
Latin America and elsewhere, "in a bid to boost the effort to achieve more humane and rational drug laws."
In December, 2013 Branson urged companies to boycott Uganda because of their draconian anti-homosexuality
bill. Branson stated that it would be against my conscience to support this countrygovernments must realize that
people should be able to love whoever they want.

Richard Branson

24

Politics
In the 1980s, he was briefly given the post of "litter Tsar" by Margaret Thatchercharged with "keeping Britain
tidy". In 2005 he declared that there were only negligible differences between the two main parties on economic
matters. He has frequently been mentioned as a candidate for Mayor of London, and polls have suggested he would
be a viable candidate, though he has yet to express interest.

Business practices
Branson's business empire is owned by a complicated series of offshore trusts
and companies. The Sunday Times stated that his wealth is calculated at
3billion; if he were to retire to his Caribbean island and liquidate all of this,
he would pay relatively little in tax. Branson has been criticised for his
business strategy, and has been accused of being a carpetbagger.[18][19]
Branson responded that he is living on Necker for health rather than tax
reasons.

Honours and awards

In 1993, Branson was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Technology
from Loughborough University.

Branson at a conference in San Diego,

California, on July 8, 2013

In the New Years Honours list dated 30 December 1999, Elizabeth II

signified her intention to confer the honour of Knight Bachelor on him for his "services to entrepreneurship".[20] He
was knighted by Charles, Prince of Wales on 30 March 2000 at an investiture in Buckingham Palace.
Also in 2000, Branson received the 'Tony Jannus Award' for his accomplishments in commercial air transportation.
Branson is the patron of several charities, including the International Rescue Corps and Prisoners Abroad, a
registered charity which supports Britons who are detained outside of the UK.
Branson appears at No. 85 on the 2002 list of "100 Greatest Britons" (sponsored by the BBC and voted for by the
public). Branson was also ranked in 2007's Time Magazine "Top 100 Most Influential People in the World". In 2009,
Branson was voted the UK's "Celebrity Dream Boss" in an opinion poll by Cancer Research UK.[21]
On 7 December 2007, United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon presented Branson with the United Nations
Correspondents Association Citizen of the World Award for his support for environmental and humanitarian causes.
On 24 January 2011, Branson was awarded the German Media Prize (organised by "Media Control Charts"),
previously handed to former US president Bill Clinton and the Dalai Lama.
On 14 November 2011, Branson was awarded the ISTA Prize by the International Space Transport Association in
The Hague for his pioneering achievements in the development of suborbital transport systems with "Virgin
Galactic".
On 11 February 2012, Branson was honoured with the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences'
President's Merit Award for his contributions to the music industry. The event took place the night before the 54th
Grammy Awards.[22]
On 2 June 2013, Branson received an honorary degree of Doctor Honoris Causa from Kaunas Technology University
in Kaunas, Lithuania.[23]

Richard Branson

Personal life
Branson has a daughter named Holly and a son named Sam. He stated in an interview with Piers Morgan that he and
wife Joan had a daughter named Clare Sarah who died when she was just four days old in 1979. The couple wedat
their daughter Holly's suggestion when she was eight years oldin 1989 at Necker Island, a 74-acre (30ha) island
owned by Branson in the British Virgin Islands.
In 1998, Branson released his autobiography, titled Losing My Virginity, an international best-seller.
Branson was deeply saddened by the disappearance of fellow adventurer Steve Fossett in September 2007; the
following month he wrote an article for Time magazine, titled "My Friend, Steve Fossett".

Influences
Branson has stated in a number of interviews that he derives much influence from non-fiction books. He most
commonly names Nelson Mandela's autobiography, Long Walk to Freedom, explaining that Mandela was "one of the
most inspiring men I have ever met and had the honour to call my friend." Owing to his interest in humanitarian and
ecological issues, Branson also lists Al Gore's best-selling book, An Inconvenient Truth, and The Revenge of Gaia by
James Lovelock amongst his favourites. According to Branson's book, Screw It, Let's do It. Lessons in Life, he is also
a huge fan of works by Jung Chang.

References
[1] Losing My Virginity (p.239) "I do not believe in God, but as I sat there in the damaged [balloon] capsule, hopelessly vulnerable to the
slightest shift in weather or mechanical fault, I could not believe my eyes."
[2] "Births", The Times, 12 July 1950, pg. 1
[3] "Forthcoming Marriages", The Times, 22 June 1949, pg.7.
[4] Richard Branson Losing my Virginity
[5] Another example was the "Net Book Agreement", which limited the ability of book outlets, including discount book clubs, to offer deep
discounts.
[6] Private Eye had been one of the few nationally distributed magazines that carried advertising for his mail-order business.
[7] Branson's Virgin Group to sponsor Brawn GP (http:/ / www. crash. net/ f1/ News/ 144459/ 1/ bransons_virgin_group_to_sponsor_brawn_gp.
html), www.crash.net
[8] Virgin Become Brawn Gp's Title Sponsor (http:/ / bleacherreport. com/ articles/ 146360-virgin-become-brawn-gps-title-sponsor), Bleacher
Report
[9] Virgin's Sir Richard Branson turns stewardess after losing bet (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-22499827), BBC News
[10] Natirar: Our Story http:/ / natirar. com/ index. php/ vision/ our_story/
[11] West Coast Main Line deal scrapped after contract flaws discovered (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ business-19809717)
[12] "Golden ode: Stars create Olympic Pride of Britain poetry tribute" (http:/ / www. mirror. co. uk/ news/ uk-news/
pride-of-britain-sir-michael-caine-1405339). Daily Mirror. Retrieved 1 November 2012
[13] Richard Branson joins LinkedIn 'influencers' - News (http:/ / www. virgin. com/ lifestyle/ news/
richard-branson-joins-linked-in-influencers). Virgin.com (2012-10-03). Retrieved on 2013-07-18.
[14] Help Free The Children With Richard Branson (http:/ / www. looktothestars. org/ news/ 6353-help-free-the-children-with-richard-branson),
www.looktothestars.org
[15] Richard Branson appearances booking agent (http:/ / www. athletepromotions. com/ celebrity/ Richard-Branson-appearance-booking-agent.
php), www.athletepromotions.com
[16] (http:/ / www. reservedinners. com/ ) Reserve Dinners
[17] "Thinking Green While Sifting Through the Sand" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 03/ 22/ business/ worldbusiness/ 22deal. html) The
New York Times article published 22 March 2008
[18] Branson's reply is here (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ commentisfree/ 2011/ nov/ 23/ nonsense-virgin-success-dependent-on-state).
[19] Branson's response is here (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ commentisfree/ 2013/ jun/ 20/ virgin-trains-handouts-track).
[20] Official announcement knighthood (http:/ / www. london-gazette. co. uk/ issues/ 55710/ supplements/ 1). The London Gazette. 30 December
1999.
[21] "Branson beats Obama as celebrity dream boss" (http:/ / info. cancerresearchuk. org/ news/ archive/ pressreleases/ 2009/ august/
branson-beats-obama-celeb-boss), Cancer Research UK website. Retrieved 12 August 2009.
[22] The Recording Academy, Clive Davis Partner For Pre-GRAMMY Gala (http:/ / www. grammy. com/ news/
the-recording-academy-clive-davis-partner-for-pre-grammy-gala)

25

Richard Branson
[23] Sir Richard Branson Awarded the Title of Honorary Doctor of KTU | KAUNAS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY (http:/ / en. ktu. lt/
content/ news/ sir-richard-branson-will-be-awarded-title-honorary-doctor-ktu). En.ktu.lt. Retrieved on 2013-07-18.

Further reading
Branson, Richard. Losing My Virginity: How I've Survived, Had Fun, And Made a Fortune Doing Business My
Way, 1999, Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0-8129-3229-3
Branson, Richard. Losing My Virginity, Revised Edition First Published in Great Britain by Virgin Books
Limited, London, 2002
Branson, Sir Richard and Prescott, Colin. To the Edge of Space: The Adventures of a Balloonist, 2000, Box tree.
ISBN 0-7522-1865-4
Branson, Sir Richard. Sir Richard Branson, the Autobiography, 2002, Longman. ISBN 0-582-51224-7
Branson, Sir Richard. Losing my virginity: The autobiography, 2005, ISBN 0-7535-1020-0
Bower, Tom. Branson, 2001, ISBN 1-84115-400-8
Branson, Sir Richard. Screw It, Let's Do It: Lessons in Life, 2006, ISBN 0-7535-1099-5
Branson, Sir Richard. Screw It, Let's Do It Expanded: Lessons in Life and Business, 2007, ISBN
978-0-7535-1149-7
Specter, Michael. "Profiles: Branson's Luck" (http://www.michaelspecter.com/2007/05/bransons-luck/). The
New Yorker, 14 May 2007, pp.11425.

Bibliography
Branson, Richard (8 December 2011). Screw Business As Usual. Penguin Group. ISBN978-1-59184-434-1.
Branson, Richard (3 June 2010). Reach for the Skies: Ballooning, Birdmen and Blasting Into Space. Virgin
Books. ISBN978-1-905264-91-9.
Branson, Richard (2 July 2009). Business Stripped Bare. Virgin Books. ISBN978-0-7535-1503-7.
Branson, Richard (29 March 2007). Screw It, Let's Do It. Virgin Books. ISBN978-0-7535-1149-7.

External links
Branson's blog on virgin.com (http://www.virgin.com/richard-branson)

26

Nelson Mandela

27

Nelson Mandela
His Excellency

Nelson Mandela
OM AC CC OJ GCStJ QC GCH RSerafO NPk

Mandela in Johannesburg, on 13 May 2008

President of South Africa
In office
10 May 1994 14 June 1999
Deputy

Thabo Mbeki
F. W. de Klerk

Preceded by

F. W. de Klerk

Succeeded by

Thabo Mbeki
Personal details

Born

Rolihlahla Mandela
18 July 1918
Mvezo, Cape Province, Union of South Africa

Died

5 December 2013 (aged95)

Johannesburg, South Africa

Resting place

Mandela Graveyard
Qunu, Eastern Cape
[1]
314821.8S 283652.7E

Nationality

South African

Political party

African National Congress

Other political
affiliations

South African Communist Party

Spouse(s)

Evelyn Ntoko Mase

(m. 19441957; divorced)
Winnie Madikizela
(m. 19581996; divorced)
Graa Machel
(m. 19982013; his death)

Nelson Mandela

28
Children

Thembekile Mandela
Makaziwe Mandela
Makgatho Mandela
Makaziwe Mandela
Zenani Mandela
Zindziswa Mandela

Alma mater

University of Fort Hare

UoL External Programme
University of South Africa
University of the Witwatersrand

Occupation

Activist
Politician
Philanthropist
Freedom Fighter
Lawyer

Religion

Methodist

Known for

Anti-Apartheid Movement

Awards

Bharat Ratna (1990)

Nobel Peace Prize (1993)
Order of Lenin
Presidential Medal of Freedom

Notable work(s) Long Walk to Freedom

Signature

[2]

Website

www.nelsonmandela.org

Nickname(s)

Madiba
Tata
Dalibhunga (initiation name)

Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (/mndl/; Xhosa pronunciation:[xoliaa mandela]; 18 July 1918 5 December
2013) was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, politician, activist, lawyer, and philanthropist who served as
President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was South Africa's first black chief executive, and the first elected
in a fully representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid through
tackling institutionalised racism, poverty and inequality, and fostering racial reconciliation. Politically an African
nationalist and democratic socialist, he served as President of the African National Congress (ANC) from 1991 to
1997. Internationally, Mandela was Secretary General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999.
A Xhosa born to the Thembu royal family, Mandela attended the Fort Hare University and the University of
Witwatersrand, where he studied law. Living in Johannesburg, he became involved in anti-colonial politics, joining
the ANC and becoming a founding member of its Youth League. After the South African National Party came to
power in 1948, he rose to prominence in the ANC's 1952 Defiance Campaign, was appointed superintendent of the
organisation's Transvaal chapter and presided over the 1955 Congress of the People. Working as a lawyer, he was
repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and, with the ANC leadership, was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the
Treason Trial from 1956 to 1961. Influenced by Marxism, he secretly joined the South African Communist Party
(SACP) and sat on its Central Committee. Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with
the SACP he co-founded the militant Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) in 1961, leading a sabotage campaign against the
apartheid government. In 1962, he was arrested, convicted of conspiracy to overthrow the state, and sentenced to life
imprisonment in the Rivonia Trial.

Nelson Mandela

29

Mandela served over 27 years in prison, initially on Robben Island, and later in Pollsmoor Prison and Victor Verster
Prison. An international campaign lobbied for his release. He was released in 1990, during a time of escalating civil
strife. Mandela joined negotiations with President F. W. de Klerk to abolish apartheid and establish multiracial
elections in 1994, in which he led the ANC to victory and became South Africa's first black president. He published
his autobiography in 1995. During his tenure in the Government of National Unity he invited several other political
parties to join the cabinet. As agreed to during the negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa, he promulgated a
new constitution. He also created the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate past human rights abuses.
While continuing the former government's liberal economic policy, his administration also introduced measures to
encourage land reform, combat poverty, and expand healthcare services. Internationally, he acted as mediator
between Libya and the United Kingdom in the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial, and oversaw military intervention
in Lesotho. He declined to run for a second term, and was succeeded by his deputy, Thabo Mbeki. Mandela became
an elder statesman, focusing on charitable work in combating poverty and HIV/AIDS through the Nelson Mandela
Foundation.
Mandela was a controversial figure for much of his life. Denounced as a communist terrorist by critics, he
nevertheless gained international acclaim for his activism, having received more than 250 honours, including the
1993 Nobel Peace Prize, the US Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Soviet Order of Lenin and the Bharat Ratna. He
is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is often referred to by his Xhosa clan name, Madiba, or as
Tata ("Father"); he is often described as "the father of the nation".

Early life
Childhood: 19181936
Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mvezo in Umtata, then a part of South Africa's Cape Province.[3]
Given the forename Rolihlahla, a Xhosa term colloquially meaning "troublemaker", in later years he became known
by his clan name, Madiba.[4] His patrilineal great-grandfather, Ngubengcuka, was ruler of the Thembu people in the
Transkeian Territories of South Africa's modern Eastern Cape province.[5] One of this king's sons, named Mandela,
became Nelson's grandfather and the source of his surname.[6] Because Mandela was only the king's child by a wife
of the Ixhiba clan, a so-called "Left-Hand House", the descendants of his cadet branch of the royal family were
morganatic, ineligible to inherit the throne but recognised as hereditary royal councillors. His father, Gadla Henry
Mphakanyiswa, was a local chief and councillor to the monarch; he had been appointed to the position in 1915, after
his predecessor was accused of corruption by a governing white magistrate. In 1926, Gadla, too, was sacked for
corruption, but Nelson was told that he had lost his job for standing up to the magistrate's unreasonable demands.[7]
A devotee of the god Qamata, Gadla was a polygamist, having four wives, four sons and nine daughters, who lived
in different villages. Nelson's mother was Gadla's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, who was daughter of Nkedama of the
Right Hand House and a member of the amaMpemvu clan of Xhosa.[8]
"No one in my family had ever attended school [...] On the first day of school my teacher, Miss Mdingane, gave each of us an
English name. This was the custom among Africans in those days and was undoubtedly due to the British bias of our education. That
day, Miss Mdingane told me that my new name was Nelson. Why this particular name I have no idea."
Mandela, 1994

Later stating that his early life was dominated by "custom, ritual and taboo", Mandela grew up with two sisters in his
mother's kraal in the village of Qunu, where he tended herds as a cattle-boy, spending much time outside with other
boys.[9] Both his parents were illiterate, but being a devout Christian, his mother sent him to a local Methodist school
when he was about seven. Baptised a Methodist, Mandela was given the English forename of "Nelson" by his
teacher.[10] When Mandela was about nine, his father came to stay at Qunu, where he died of an undiagnosed ailment
which Mandela believed to be lung disease.[11] Feeling "cut adrift", he later said that he inherited his father's "proud
rebelliousness" and "stubborn sense of fairness".

Nelson Mandela
His mother took Mandela to the "Great Place" palace at Mqhekezweni, where he was entrusted under the
guardianship of Thembu regent, Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo. Although he did not see his mother again for many
years, Mandela felt that Jongintaba and his wife Noengland treated him as their own child, raising him alongside
their son Justice and daughter Nomafu.[12] As Mandela attended church services every Sunday with his guardians,
Christianity became a significant part of his life. He attended a Methodist mission school located next to the palace,
studying English, Xhosa, history and geography.[13] He developed a love of African history, listening to the tales told
by elderly visitors to the palace, and became influenced by the anti-imperialist rhetoric of Chief Joyi.[14] At the time
he nevertheless considered the European colonialists as benefactors, not oppressors. Aged 16, he, Justice and several
other boys travelled to Tyhalarha to undergo the circumcision ritual that symbolically marked their transition from
boys to men; the rite over, he was given the name Dalibunga.[15]

Clarkebury, Healdtown, and Fort Hare: 19361940

Intending to gain skills needed to become a privy councillor for the Thembu
royal house, Mandela began his secondary education at Clarkebury Boarding
Institute in Engcobo, a Western-style institution that was the largest school for
black Africans in Thembuland.[16] Made to socialise with other students on an
equal basis, he claimed that he lost his "stuck up" attitude, becoming best friends
with a girl for the first time; he began playing sports and developed his lifelong
love of gardening. Completing his Junior Certificate in two years, in 1937 he
moved to Healdtown, the Methodist college in Fort Beaufort attended by most
Thembu royalty, including Justice.[17] The headmaster emphasised the
superiority of English culture and government, but Mandela became increasingly
interested in native African culture, making his first non-Xhosa friend, a Sotho
Mandela c. 1937
language-speaker, and coming under the influence of one of his favourite
teachers, a Xhosa who broke taboo by marrying a Sotho.[18] Spending much of
his spare time long-distance running and boxing, in his second year Mandela became a prefect.[19]
With Jongintaba's backing, Mandela began work on a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree at the University of Fort Hare,
an elite black institution in Alice, Eastern Cape, with around 150 students. There he studied English, anthropology,
politics, native administration, and Roman Dutch law in his first year, desiring to become an interpreter or clerk in
the Native Affairs Department.[20] Mandela stayed in the Wesley House dormitory, befriending his own kinsman,
K.D. Matanzima, as well as Oliver Tambo, who became a close friend and comrade for decades to come.[21]
Continuing his interest in sport, Mandela took up ballroom dancing,[22] performed in a drama society play about
Abraham Lincoln,[23] and gave Bible classes in the local community as part of the Students Christian Association.
Although having friends connected to the African National Congress (ANC) and the anti-imperialist movement who
wanted an independent South Africa, Mandela avoided any involvement, and became a vocal supporter of the British
war effort when the Second World War broke out.[24] Helping found a first-year students' house committee which
challenged the dominance of the second-years,[25] at the end of his first year he became involved in a Students'
Representative Council (SRC) boycott against the quality of food, for which he was temporarily suspended from the
university; he left without receiving a degree.[26]

Arriving in Johannesburg: 19411943

Returning to Mqhekezweni in December 1940, Mandela found that Jongintaba had arranged marriages for him and
Justice; dismayed, they fled to Johannesburg via Queenstown, arriving in April 1941.[27] Mandela found work as a
night watchman at Crown Mines, his "first sight of South African capitalism in action", but was fired when the
induna (headman) discovered he was a runaway.[28] Staying with a cousin in George Goch Township, Mandela was
introduced to the realtor and ANC activist Walter Sisulu, who secured him a job as an articled clerk at law firm

30

Nelson Mandela
Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman. The company was run by a liberal Jew, Lazar Sidelsky, who was sympathetic to the
ANC's cause.[29] At the firm, Mandela befriended Gaur Redebe, a Xhosa member of the ANC and Communist Party,
as well as Nat Bregman, a Jewish communist who became his first white friend.[30] Attending communist talks and
parties, Mandela was impressed that Europeans, Africans, Indians and Coloureds were mixing as equals. He stated
later that he did not join the Party because its atheism conflicted with his Christian faith, and because he saw the
South African struggle as being racially based rather than class warfare.[31] Becoming increasingly politicised, in
August 1943 Mandela marched in support of a successful bus boycott to reverse fare rises.[32] Continuing his higher
education, Mandela signed up to a University of South Africa correspondence course, working on his bachelor's
degree at night.[33]
Earning a small wage, Mandela rented a room in the house of the Xhoma family in the Alexandra township;
although rife with poverty, crime and pollution, Alexandra always remained "a treasured place" for him.[34]
Although embarrassed by his poverty, he briefly courted a Swazi woman before unsuccessfully courting his
landlord's daughter.[35] In order to save money and be closer to downtown Johannesburg, Mandela moved into the
compound of the Witwatersrand Native Labour Association, living among miners of various tribes; as the compound
was a "way station for visiting chiefs", he once met the Queen Regent of Basutoland.[36] In late 1941, Jongintaba
visited, forgiving Mandela for running away. On returning to Thembuland, the regent died in winter 1942; Mandela
and Justice arrived a day late for the funeral.[37] After passing his BA exams in early 1943, Mandela returned to
Johannesburg to follow a political path as a lawyer rather than become a privy councillor in Thembuland.[38] He later
stated that he experienced no epiphany, but that he "simply found myself doing so, and could not do otherwise."

Revolutionary activity
Law studies and the ANC Youth League: 19431949
Beginning law studies at the University of Witwatersrand, Mandela was the only native African student, and though
facing racism, he befriended liberal and communist European, Jewish, and Indian students, among them Joe Slovo,
Harry Schwarz and Ruth First.[39] Joining the ANC, Mandela was increasingly influenced by Sisulu, spending much
time with other activists at Sisulu's Orlando house, including old friend Oliver Tambo.[40] In 1943, Mandela met
Anton Lembede, an African nationalist virulently opposed to a racially united front against colonialism and
imperialism or to an alliance with the communists.[41] Despite his friendships with non-blacks and communists,
Mandela supported Lembede's views, believing that black Africans should be entirely independent in their struggle
for political self-determination.[42] Deciding on the need for a youth wing to mass mobilise Africans in opposition to
their subjugation, Mandela was among a delegation that approached ANC President Alfred Bitini Xuma on the
subject at his home in Sophiatown; the African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) was founded on Easter
Sunday 1944 in the Bantu Men's Social Centre in Eloff Street, with Lembede as President and Mandela as a member
of the executive committee.[43]

31

Nelson Mandela

32
At Sisulu's house, Mandela met Evelyn Mase, an ANC activist from
Engcobo, Transkei, who was training at the time to become a nurse.
Married on 5 October 1944, after initially living with her relatives, they
rented House no. 8115 in Orlando from early 1946.[44] Their first child,
Madiba "Thembi" Thembekile, was born in February 1945, and a
daughter named Makaziwe was born in 1947, dying nine months later
of meningitis.[45] Mandela enjoyed home life, welcoming his mother
and sister Leabie to stay with him.[46] In early 1947, his three years of
articles ended at Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, and he decided to
become a full-time student, subsisting on loans from the Bantu Welfare
Trust.[47]

In July 1947, Mandela rushed Lembede, who was ill, to hospital, where
he died; he was succeeded as ANCYL president by the more moderate
Peter Mda, who agreed to co-operate with communists and non-blacks, appointing Mandela ANCYL secretary.[48]
Mandela disagreed with Mda's approach, in December 1947 supporting an unsuccessful measure to expel
communists from the ANCYL, considering their ideology un-African.[49] In 1947, Mandela was elected to the
executive committee of the Transvaal ANC, serving under regional president C.S. Ramohanoe. When Ramohanoe
acted against the wishes of the Transvaal Executive Committee by co-operating with Indians and communists,
Mandela was one of those who forced his resignation.[50]
Mandela and Evelyn in 1944

In the South African general election, 1948, in which only whites were permitted to vote, the Afrikaner-dominated
Herenigde Nasionale Party under Daniel Franois Malan took power, soon uniting with the Afrikaner Party to form
the National Party. Openly racialist, the party codified and expanded racial segregation with the new apartheid
legislation.[51] Gaining increasing influence in the ANC, Mandela and his cadres began advocating direct action
against apartheid, such as boycotts and strikes, influenced by the tactics of South Africa's Indian community. Xuma
did not support these measures and was removed from the presidency in a vote of no confidence, replaced by James
Moroka and a more militant cabinet containing Sisulu, Mda, Tambo and Godfrey Pitje; Mandela later related that
"We had now guided the ANC to a more radical and revolutionary path."[52] Having devoted his time to politics,
Mandela failed his final year at Witwatersrand three times; he was ultimately denied his degree in December
1949.[53]

Defiance Campaign and Transvaal ANC Presidency: 19501954

Mandela took Xuma's place on the ANC National Executive in March 1950.[54] That month, the Defend Free Speech
Convention was held in Johannesburg, bringing together African, Indian and communist activists to call an
anti-apartheid general strike. Mandela opposed the strike because it was not ANC-led, but a majority of black
workers took part, resulting in increased police repression and the introduction of the Suppression of Communism
Act, 1950, affecting the actions of all protest groups.[55] In 1950, Mandela was elected national president of the
ANCYL; at the ANC national conference of December 1951, he continued arguing against a racially united front,
but was outvoted.[56] Thenceforth, he altered his entire perspective, embracing such an approach; influenced by
friends like Moses Kotane and by the Soviet Union's support for wars of independence, Mandela's mistrust of
communism also broke down. He became influenced by the texts of Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Vladimir Lenin,
Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong, and embraced dialectical materialism.[57] In April 1952, Mandela began work at the
H.M. Basner law firm,[58] though his increasing commitment to work and activism meant he spent less time with his
family.[59]
In 1952, the ANC began preparation for a joint Defiance Campaign against apartheid with Indian and communist
groups, founding a National Voluntary Board to recruit volunteers. Deciding on a path of nonviolent resistance
influenced by Mahatma Gandhi, some considered it the ethical option, but Mandela instead considered it

Nelson Mandela

33

pragmatic.[60] At a Durban rally on 22 June, Mandela addressed an assembled crowd of 10,000, initiating the
campaign protests, for which he was arrested and briefly interned in Marshall Square prison.[61] With further
protests, the ANC's membership grew from 20,000 to 100,000; the government responded with mass arrests,
introducing the Public Safety Act, 1953 to permit martial law.[62] In May, authorities banned Transvaal ANC
President J. B. Marks from making public appearances; unable to maintain his position, he recommended Mandela as
his successor. Although the ultra-Africanist Bafabegiya group opposed his candidacy, Mandela was elected regional
president in October.[63]
On 30 July 1952, Mandela was arrested under the Suppression of Communism Act and stood trial as a part of the 21
accused among them Moroka, Sisulu and Dadoo in Johannesburg. Found guilty of "statutory communism", their
sentence of nine months' hard labour was suspended for two years.[64] In December, Mandela was given a six-month
ban from attending meetings or talking to more than one individual at a time, making his Transvaal ANC presidency
impractical. The Defiance Campaign petered out.[65] In September 1953, Andrew Kunene read out Mandela's "No
Easy Walk to Freedom" speech at a Transvaal ANC meeting; the title was taken from a quote by Indian
independence leader Jawaharlal Nehru, a seminal influence on Mandela's thought. The speech laid out a contingency
plan for a scenario in which the ANC was banned. This Mandela Plan, or M-Plan, involved dividing the organisation
into a cell structure with a more centralised leadership.[66]
Mandela obtained work as an attorney for the firm Terblanche and Briggish, before moving to the liberal-run
Helman and Michel, passing qualification exams to become a full-fledged attorney.[67] In August 1953, Mandela and
Oliver Tambo opened their own law firm, Mandela and Tambo, operating in downtown Johannesburg. The only
African-run law firm in the country, it was popular with aggrieved blacks, often dealing with cases of police
brutality. Disliked by the authorities, the firm was forced to relocate to a remote location after their office permit was
removed under the Group Areas Act; as a result, their custom dwindled.[68] Though a second daughter, Makaziwe
Phumia, was born in May 1954, Mandela's relationship with Evelyn became strained, and she accused him of
adultery. Evidence has emerged indicating that he was having affairs with ANC member Lillian Ngoyi and secretary
Ruth Mompati; persistent but unproven claims assert that the latter bore Mandela a child. Disgusted by her son's
behaviour, Nosekeni returned to Transkei, and Evelyn embraced the Jehovah's Witnesses and rejected Mandela's
obsession with politics.[69]

Congress of the People and the Treason Trial: 19551961

"We, the people of South Africa, declare for all our country and the world to know:
That South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black and white, and that no government can justly claim authority unless it is based
on the will of the people."
Opening words of the Freedom Charter

Mandela came to the opinion that the ANC "had no alternative to armed and violent resistance" after taking part in
the unsuccessful protest to prevent the demolition of the all-black Sophiatown suburb of Johannesburg in February
1955.[70] He advised Sisulu to request weaponry from the People's Republic of China, but though supporting the
anti-apartheid struggle, China's government believed the movement insufficiently prepared for guerilla warfare.[71]
With the involvement of the South African Indian Congress, the Coloured People's Congress, the South African
Congress of Trade Unions and the Congress of Democrats, the ANC planned a Congress of the People, calling on all
South Africans to send in proposals for a post-apartheid era. Based on the responses, a Freedom Charter was drafted
by Rusty Bernstein, calling for the creation of a democratic, non-racialist state with the nationalisation of major
industry. When the charter was adopted at a June 1955 conference in Kliptown attended by 3000 delegates, police
cracked down on the event, but it remained a key part of Mandela's ideology.[72]
Following the end of a second ban in September 1955, Mandela went on a working holiday to Transkei to discuss the
implications of the Bantu Authorities Act, 1951 with local tribal leaders, also visiting his mother and Noengland
before proceeding to Cape Town.[73] In March 1956 he received his third ban on public appearances, restricting him

Nelson Mandela
to Johannesburg for five years, but he often defied it.[74] His marriage broke down as Evelyn left Mandela, taking
their children to live with her brother. Initiating divorce proceedings in May 1956, she claimed that Mandela had
physically abused her; he denied the allegations, and fought for custody of their children. She withdrew her petition
of separation in November, but Mandela filed for divorce in January 1958; the divorce was finalised in March, with
the children placed in Evelyn's care.[75] During the divorce proceedings, he began courting and politicising a social
worker, Winnie Madikizela, who he married in Bizana on 14 June 1958. She later became involved in ANC
activities, spending several weeks in prison.[76]
On 5 December 1956, Mandela was arrested alongside most of the
ANC Executive for "high treason" against the state. Held in
Johannesburg Prison amid mass protests, they underwent a preparatory
examination in Drill Hall on 19 December, before being granted
bail.[77] The defence's refutation began on 9 January 1957, overseen by
defence lawyer Vernon Berrang, and continued until adjourning in
September. In January 1958, judge Oswald Pirow was appointed to the
case, and in February he ruled that there was "sufficient reason" for the
defendants to go on trial in the Transvaal Supreme Court.[78] The
formal Treason Trial began in Pretoria in August 1958, with the
defendants successfully applying to have the three judges all linked
The apartheid system pervaded all areas of life.
to the governing National Party replaced. In August, one charge was
dropped, and in October the prosecution withdrew its indictment,
submitting a reformulated version in November which argued that the ANC leadership committed high treason by
advocating violent revolution, a charge the defendants denied.[79]
In April 1959, militant Africanists dissatisfied with the ANC's united front approach founded the Pan-African
Congress (PAC); Mandela's friend Robert Sobukwe was elected president, though Mandela thought the group
"immature".[80] Both parties campaigned for an anti-pass campaign in May 1960, in which Africans burned the
passes that they were legally obliged to carry. One of the PAC-organised demonstrations was fired upon by police,
resulting in the deaths of 69 protesters in the Sharpeville massacre. In solidarity, Mandela publicly burned his pass as
rioting broke out across South Africa, leading the government to proclaim martial law.[81] Under the State of
Emergency measures, Mandela and other activists were arrested on 30 March, imprisoned without charge in the
unsanitary conditions of the Pretoria Local prison, and the ANC and PAC were banned in April.[82] This made it
difficult for their lawyers to reach them, and it was agreed that the defence team for the Treason Trial should
withdraw in protest. Representing themselves in court, the accused were freed from prison when the state of
emergency was lifted in late August.[83] Mandela used his free time to organise an All-In African Conference near
Pietermaritzburg, Natal, in March, at which 1,400 anti-apartheid delegates met, agreeing on a stay-at home protest to
mark 31 May, the day South Africa became a republic.[84] On 29 March 1961, after a six-year trial, the judges
produced a verdict of not guilty, embarrassing the government.[85]

34

Nelson Mandela

35

MK, the SACP, and African tour: 19611962

Disguised as a chauffeur, Mandela travelled the country incognito,
organising the ANC's new cell structure and a mass stay-at-home strike
for 29 May. Referred to as the "Black Pimpernel" in the press a
reference to Emma Orczy's 1905 novel The Scarlet Pimpernel the
police put out a warrant for his arrest.[86] Mandela held secret meetings
with reporters, and after the government failed to prevent the strike, he
warned them that many anti-apartheid activists would soon resort to
violence through groups like the PAC's Poqo.[87] He believed that the
ANC should form an armed group to channel some of this violence,
convincing both ANC leader Albert Luthuli who was morally
opposed to violence and allied activist groups of its necessity.[88]

Thatched room at Liliesleaf Farm, where

Mandela hid

Inspired by Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement in the Cuban Revolution, in 1961 Mandela co-founded Umkhonto
we Sizwe ("Spear of the Nation", abbreviated MK) with the long-time leader of the South African Communist Party
(SACP), Joe Slovo and Walter Sisulu. Becoming chairman of the militant group, he gained ideas from illegal
literature on guerilla warfare by Mao and Che Guevara. Officially separate from the ANC, in later years MK became
the group's armed wing.[89] Most early MK members were white communists; after hiding in communist Wolfie
Kodesh's flat in Berea, Mandela moved to the communist-owned Liliesleaf Farm in Rivonia, there joined by
Raymond Mhlaba, Slovo and Bernstein, who put together the MK constitution.[90] Although Mandela himself denied
ever being a member of the SACP, historical research published in 2011 strongly suggested that he might have been
for a short period, starting from the late 1950s or early 1960s. This was confirmed after his death by the SACP and
the ANC. According to the SACP, he was not only a member of the party, but also served on the party's Central
Committee, when he was arrested in 1962 and this was denied for political reasons.[91][92]
Operating through a cell structure, MK agreed to acts of sabotage to
exert maximum pressure on the government with minimum casualties,
bombing military installations, power plants, telephone lines and
transport links at night, when civilians were not present. Mandela
stated that they chose sabotage not only because it was the least
harmful action, but also "because it did not involve loss of life [and] it
offered the best hope for reconciliation among the races afterward." He
noted that "strict instructions were given to members of MK that we
would countenance no loss of life", but should these tactics fail, MK
Mandela's former home in the Johannesburg
would resort to "guerilla warfare and terrorism". Soon after ANC
township of Soweto
leader Luthuli was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, MK publicly
announced its existence with 57 bombings on Dingane's Day (16 December) 1961, followed by further attacks on
New Year's Eve.[93]
The ANC agreed to send Mandela as a delegate to the February 1962 Pan-African Freedom Movement for East,
Central and Southern Africa (PAFMECSA) meeting in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.[94] Traveling there in secret, Mandela
met with Emperor Haile Selassie I, and gave his speech after Selassie's at the conference.[95] After the conference, he
travelled to Cairo, Egypt, admiring the political reforms of President Gamal Abdel Nasser, and then went to Tunis,
Tunisia, where President Habib Bourguiba gave him 5000 for weaponry. He proceeded to Morocco, Mali, Guinea,
Sierra Leone, Liberia and Senegal, receiving funds from Liberian President William Tubman and Guinean President
Ahmed Skou Tour.[96] Leaving Africa for London, England, he met anti-apartheid activists, reporters and
prominent leftist politicians.[97] Returning to Ethiopia, he began a six-month course in guerrilla warfare, but
completed only two months before being recalled to South Africa.[98]

Nelson Mandela

36

Imprisonment
Arrest and Rivonia trial: 19621964
On 5 August 1962, police captured Mandela along with Cecil Williams near Howick.[99] A large number of groups
have been accused of having tipped off the police about Mandelas whereabouts including Mandelas host in Durban
GR Naidoo, white members of the South African Communist Party, and the CIA, but Mandela considered none of
these connections to be credible and instead attributes his arrest to his own carelessness in concealing his
movements. Of the CIA link in particular, Mandela's official biographer Anthony Sampson believes that "the claim
cannot be substantiated." Jailed in Johannesburg's Marshall Square prison, he was charged with inciting workers'
strikes and leaving the country without permission. Representing himself with Slovo as legal advisor, Mandela
intended to use the trial to showcase "the ANC's moral opposition to racism" while supporters demonstrated outside
the court.[100] Moved to Pretoria, where Winnie could visit him, in his cell he began correspondence studies for a
Bachelor of Laws (LLB) degree from the University of London.[101] His hearing began on 15 October, but he
disrupted proceedings by wearing a traditional kaross, refusing to call any witnesses, and turning his plea of
mitigation into a political speech. Found guilty, he was sentenced to five years' imprisonment; as he left the
courtroom, supporters sang Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika.[102]
"I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons will live together in harmony and with equal
opportunities. It is an ideal for which I hope to live for and to see realised. But, My Lord, if it needs be, it is an ideal for which I am
prepared to die."
Rivonia Trial Speech, 1964

On 11 July 1963, police raided Liliesleaf Farm, arresting those they found there and uncovering paperwork
documenting MK's activities, some of which mentioned Mandela. The Rivonia Trial began at Pretoria Supreme
Court on 9 October, with Mandela and his comrades charged with four counts of sabotage and conspiracy violently
to overthrow the government. Their chief prosecutor was Percy Yutar, who called for them to receive the death
penalty.[103] Judge Quartus de Wet soon threw out the prosecution's case for insufficient evidence, but Yutar
reformulated the charges, presenting his new case from December until February 1964, calling 173 witnesses and
bringing thousands of documents and photographs to the trial.[104]
With the exception of James Kantor, who was innocent of all charges, Mandela and the accused admitted sabotage
but denied that they had ever agreed to initiate guerilla war against the government. They used the trial to highlight
their political cause. At the opening of the defence's proceedings Mandela gave a three-hour speech. That speech
which was inspired by Castro's "History Will Absolve Me" speech was widely reported in the press despite official
censorship, and has been hailed as one of his greatest speeches.[105] The trial gained international attention, with
global calls for the release of the accused from such institutions as the United Nations and World Peace Council. The
University of London Union voted Mandela to its presidency, and nightly vigils for him were held in St. Paul's
Cathedral, London.[106] Deeming them to be violent communist agitators, South Africa's government ignored all
calls for clemency, and on 12 June 1964 de Wet found Mandela and two of his co-accused guilty on all four charges,
sentencing them to life imprisonment rather than death.[107]

Nelson Mandela

Robben Island: 19641982

Mandela and his co-accused were transferred from Pretoria to the
prison on Robben Island, remaining there for the next 18 years.[108]
Isolated from non-political prisoners in Section B, Mandela was
imprisoned in a damp concrete cell measuring 8 feet (2.4m) by 7 feet
(2.1m), with a straw mat on which to sleep.[109] Verbally and
physically harassed by several white prison wardens, the Rivonia Trial
prisoners spent their days breaking rocks into gravel, until being
reassigned in January 1965 to work in a lime quarry. Mandela was
initially forbidden to wear sunglasses, and the glare from the lime
Lime quarry on Robben Island where Mandela
permanently damaged his eyesight.[110] At night, he worked on his
and other prisoners were subjected to hard labour
LLB degree, but newspapers were forbidden, and he was locked in
solitary confinement on several occasions for possessing smuggled
news clippings.[111] Classified as the lowest grade of prisoner, Class D, he was permitted one visit and one letter
every six months, although all mail was heavily censored.[112]
The political prisoners took part in work and hunger strikes the latter considered largely ineffective by Mandela
to improve prison conditions, viewing this as a microcosm of the anti-apartheid struggle.[113] ANC prisoners elected
him to their four-man "High Organ" along with Sisulu, Govan Mbeki and Raymond Mhlaba, and he involved
himself in a group representing all political prisoners on the island, Ulundi, through which he forged links with PAC
and Yu Chi Chan Club members.[114] Initiating the "University of Robben Island", whereby prisoners lectured on
their own areas of expertise, he debated topics such as homosexuality and politics with his comrades, getting into
fierce arguments on the latter with Marxists like Mbeki and Harry Gwala.[115] Though attending Christian Sunday
services, Mandela studied Islam.[116] He also studied Afrikaans, hoping to build a mutual respect with the warders
and convert them to his cause.[117] Various official visitors met with Mandela; most significant was the liberal
parliamentary representative Helen Suzman of the Progressive Party, who championed Mandela's cause outside
prison.[118] In September 1970 he met British Labour Party MP Dennis Healey.[119] South African Minister of
Justice Jimmy Kruger visited in December 1974, but he and Mandela did not get on.[120] His mother visited in 1968,
dying shortly after, and his firstborn son Thembi died in a car accident the following year; Mandela was forbidden
from attending either funeral.[121] His wife was rarely able to visit, being regularly imprisoned for political activity,
and his daughters first visited in December 1975; Winnie got out of prison in 1977 but was forcibly settled in
Brandfort, still unable to visit him.

The inside of Mandela's prison cell as it was when he was imprisoned in 1964 and his open cell window facing the
prison yard on Robben Island, now a national and World Heritage Site. Mandela's cell later contained more furniture,
including a bed from around 1973.

37

Nelson Mandela

38

From 1967, prison conditions improved; black prisoners were given trousers rather than shorts, games were
permitted, and the standard of their food was raised.[122] Mandela later commented on how football "made us feel
alive and triumphant despite the situation we found ourselves in".[123] In 1969, an escape plan for Mandela was
developed by Gordon Bruce, but it was abandoned after being infiltrated by an agent of the South African Bureau of
State Security (BOSS), who hoped to see Mandela shot during the escape. In 1970, Commander Piet Badenhorst
became commanding officer. Mandela, seeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of prisoners, complained
to visiting judges, who had Badenhorst reassigned.[124] He was replaced by Commander Willie Willemse, who
developed a co-operative relationship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison standards.
By 1975, Mandela had become a Class A prisoner, allowing greater numbers of visits and letters; he corresponded
with anti-apartheid activists like Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Desmond Tutu. That year, he began his autobiography,
which was smuggled to London, but remained unpublished at the time; prison authorities discovered several pages,
and his study privileges were stopped for four years.[125] Instead he devoted his spare time to gardening and reading
until he resumed his LLB degree studies in 1980.
By the late 1960s, Mandela's fame had been eclipsed by Steve Biko and the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM).
Seeing the ANC as ineffectual, the BCM called for militant action, but following the Soweto uprising of 1976, many
BCM activists were imprisoned on Robben Island.[126] Mandela tried to build a relationship with these young
radicals, although he was critical of their racialism and contempt for white anti-apartheid activists.[127] Renewed
international interest in his plight came in July 1978, when he celebrated his 60th birthday. He was awarded an
honorary doctorate in Lesotho, the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding in India in 1979, and
the Freedom of the City of Glasgow, Scotland in 1981. In March 1980 the slogan "Free Mandela!" was developed by
journalist Percy Qoboza, sparking an international campaign that led the UN Security Council to call for his
release.[128] Despite increasing foreign pressure, the government refused, relying on powerful foreign Cold War
allies in US President Ronald Reagan and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher; both considered Mandela a
communist terrorist and supported the suppression of the ANC.

Pollsmoor Prison: 19821988

In April 1982 Mandela was transferred to Pollsmoor Prison in Tokai, Cape Town
along with senior ANC leaders Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, Ahmed
Kathrada and Raymond Mhlaba; they believed that they were being isolated to
remove their influence on younger activists.[129] Conditions at Pollsmoor were
better than at Robben Island, although Mandela missed the camaraderie and
scenery of the island.[130] Getting on well with Pollsmoor's commanding officer,
Brigadier Munro, Mandela was permitted to create a roof garden,[131] also
reading voraciously and corresponding widely, now permitted 52 letters a year.
He was appointed patron of the multi-racial United Democratic Front (UDF),
founded to combat reforms implemented by South African President P. W.
Botha. Botha's National Party government had permitted Coloured and Indian
citizens to vote for their own parliaments which had control over education,
health, and housing, but black Africans were excluded from the system; like
Mandela, the UDF saw this as an attempt to divide the anti-apartheid movement
on racial lines.[132]
Violence across the country escalated, with many fearing civil war. Under
pressure from an international lobby, multinational banks stopped investing in
South Africa, resulting in economic stagnation. Numerous banks and Thatcher

Bust of Mandela erected on London's

South Bank by the Greater London
Council administration of socialist
Ken Livingstone in 1985

asked Botha to release Mandela then at the height of his international fame to defuse the volatile situation.[133]
Although considering Mandela a dangerous "arch-Marxist", in February 1985 Botha offered him a release from

Nelson Mandela
prison on condition that he '"unconditionally rejected violence as a political weapon". Mandela spurned the offer,
releasing a statement through his daughter Zindzi stating "What freedom am I being offered while the organisation of
the people [ANC] remains banned? Only free men can negotiate. A prisoner cannot enter into contracts."[134]
In 1985 Mandela underwent surgery on an enlarged prostate gland, before being given new solitary quarters on the
ground floor.[135] He was met by "seven eminent persons", an international delegation sent to negotiate a settlement,
but Botha's government refused to co-operate, in June calling a state of emergency and initiating a police crackdown
on unrest. The anti-apartheid resistance fought back, with the ANC committing 231 attacks in 1986 and 235 in 1987.
Utilising the army and right-wing paramilitaries to combat the resistance, the government secretly funded Zulu
nationalist movement Inkatha to attack ANC members, furthering the violence.[136] Mandela requested talks with
Botha but was denied, instead secretly meeting with Minister of Justice Kobie Coetsee in 1987, having a further 11
meetings over 3 years. Coetsee organised negotiations between Mandela and a team of four government figures
starting in May 1988; the team agreed to the release of political prisoners and the legalisation of the ANC on the
condition that they permanently renounce violence, break links with the Communist Party and not insist on majority
rule. Mandela rejected these conditions, insisting that the ANC would only end the armed struggle when the
government renounced violence.[137]
Mandela's 70th birthday in July 1988 attracted international attention, notably with the Nelson Mandela 70th
Birthday Tribute concert at London's Wembley Stadium. Although presented globally as a heroic figure, he faced
personal problems when ANC leaders informed him that Winnie had set herself up as head of a criminal gang, the
"Mandela United Football Club", who had been responsible for torturing and killing opponents including children
in Soweto. Though some encouraged him to divorce her, he decided to remain loyal until she was found guilty by
trial.[138]

Victor Verster Prison and release: 19881990

Recovering from tuberculosis exacerbated by the dank conditions in his cell,[139]
in December 1988 Mandela was moved to Victor Verster Prison near Paarl.
Here, he was housed in the relative comfort of a warder's house with a personal
cook, using the time to complete his LLB degree.[140] There he was permitted
many visitors, such as anti-apartheid campaigner and longtime friend Harry
Schwarz. Mandela organised secret communications with exiled ANC leader
Oliver Tambo. In 1989, Botha suffered a stroke, retaining the state presidency
but stepping down as leader of the National Party, to be replaced by the
conservative F. W. de Klerk.[141] In a surprise move, Botha invited Mandela to a
meeting over tea in July 1989, an invitation Mandela considered genial.[142]
Botha was replaced as state president by de Klerk six weeks later; the new
president believed that apartheid was unsustainable and unconditionally released
"Nelson Mandela Freedom fighter
all ANC prisoners except Mandela. Following the fall of the Berlin Wall in
in South Africa" as stated in Russian
November 1989, de Klerk called his cabinet together to debate legalising the
by this 1988 Soviet commemorative
ANC and freeing Mandela. Although some were deeply opposed to his plans, de
stamp dating from the Gorbachev era
Klerk met with Mandela in December to discuss the situation, a meeting both
men considered friendly, before releasing Mandela unconditionally and
legalising all formerly banned political parties on 2 February 1990.[143] Shortly thereafter, for the first time in 20
years, photographs of Mandela were allowed to be published in South Africa.
Leaving Victor Verster on 11 February, Mandela held Winnie's hand in front of amassed crowds and press; the event
was broadcast live across the world.[144] Driven to Cape Town's City Hall through crowds, he gave a speech

39

Nelson Mandela

40

declaring his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the white minority, but made it clear that the ANC's
armed struggle was not over, and would continue as "a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid." He
expressed hope that the government would agree to negotiations, so that "there may no longer be the need for the
armed struggle", and insisted that his main focus was to bring peace to the black majority and give them the right to
vote in national and local elections.[145] Staying at the home of Desmond Tutu, in the following days Mandela met
with friends, activists, and press, giving a speech to 100,000 people at Johannesburg's Soccer City.[146]

End of apartheid
Early negotiations: 19901991
Mandela proceeded on an African tour, meeting supporters and politicians in
Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Libya and Algeria, continuing to Sweden where he
was reunited with Tambo, and then London, where he appeared at the Nelson
Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa concert in Wembley
Stadium.[147] Encouraging foreign countries to support sanctions against the
apartheid government, in France he was welcomed by President Franois
Mitterrand, in Vatican City by Pope John Paul II, and in the United Kingdom he
met Margaret Thatcher. In the United States, he met President George H.W.
Bush, addressed both Houses of Congress and visited eight cities, being
particularly popular among the African-American community. In Cuba he met
President Fidel Castro, whom he had long admired, with the two becoming
friends.[148] He met President R. Venkataraman in India, President Suharto in
Indonesia and Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad in Malaysia, before visiting
Australia to meet Prime Minister Bob Hawke and Japan; he did not visit the
Soviet Union, a longtime ANC supporter.

Luthuli House in Johannesburg,

which became the ANC headquarters
in 1991

In May 1990, Mandela led a multiracial ANC delegation into preliminary

negotiations with a government delegation of 11 Afrikaner men. Mandela impressed them with his discussions of
Afrikaner history, and the negotiations led to the Groot Schuur Minute, in which the government lifted the state of
emergency. In August Mandela recognising the ANC's severe military disadvantage offered a ceasefire, the
Pretoria Minute, for which he was widely criticised by MK activists.[149] He spent much time trying to unify and
build the ANC, appearing at a Johannesburg conference in December attended by 1600 delegates, many of whom
found him more moderate than expected.[150] At the ANC's July 1991 national conference in Durban, Mandela
admitted the party's faults and announced his aim to build a "strong and well-oiled task force" for securing majority
rule. At the conference, he was elected ANC President, replacing the ailing Tambo, and a 50-strong multiracial,
mixed gendered national executive was elected.[151]
Mandela was given an office in the newly purchased ANC headquarters at Shell House, central Johannesburg, and
moved with Winnie to her large Soweto home.[152] Their marriage was increasingly strained as he learned of her
affair with Dali Mpofu, but he supported her during her trial for kidnapping and assault. He gained funding for her
defence from the International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa and from Libyan leader Muammar
Gaddafi, but in June 1991 she was found guilty and sentenced to six years in prison, reduced to two on appeal. On 13
April 1992, Mandela publicly announced his separation from Winnie. The ANC forced her to step down from the
national executive for misappropriating ANC funds; Mandela moved into the mostly white Johannesburg suburb of
Houghton. Mandela's reputation was further damaged by the increase in "black-on-black" violence, particularly
between ANC and Inkatha supporters in KwaZulu-Natal, in which thousands died. Mandela met with Inkatha leader
Buthelezi, but the ANC prevented further negotiations on the issue. Mandela recognised that there was a "third
force" within the state intelligence services fuelling the "slaughter of the people" and openly blamed de Klerk

Nelson Mandela
whom he increasingly distrusted for the Sebokeng massacre.[153] In September 1991 a national peace conference
was held in Johannesburg in which Mandela, Buthelezi and de Klerk signed a peace accord, though the violence
continued.[154]

CODESA talks: 19911992

The Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) began in December 1991 at the Johannesburg World
Trade Center, attended by 228 delegates from 19 political parties. Although Cyril Ramaphosa led the ANC's
delegation, Mandela remained a key figure, and after de Klerk used the closing speech to condemn the ANC's
violence, he took to the stage to denounce de Klerk as "head of an illegitimate, discredited minority regime".
Dominated by the National Party and ANC, little negotiation was achieved.[155] CODESA 2 was held in May 1992,
in which de Klerk insisted that post-apartheid South Africa must use a federal system with a rotating presidency to
ensure the protection of ethnic minorities; Mandela opposed this, demanding a unitary system governed by majority
rule.[156] Following the Boipatong massacre of ANC activists by government-aided Inkatha militants, Mandela
called off the negotiations, before attending a meeting of the Organisation of African Unity in Senegal, at which he
called for a special session of the UN Security Council and proposed that a UN peacekeeping force be stationed in
South Africa to prevent "state terrorism". The UN sent special envoy Cyrus Vance to the country to aid
negotiations.[157] Calling for domestic mass action, in August the ANC organised the largest-ever strike in South
African history, and supporters marched on Pretoria.[158]
Following the Bisho massacre, in which 28 ANC supporters and one
soldier were shot dead by the Ciskei Defence Force during a protest
march, Mandela realised that mass action was leading to further
violence and resumed negotiations in September. He agreed to do so
on the conditions that all political prisoners be released, that Zulu
traditional weapons be banned, and that Zulu hostels would be fenced
off, the latter two measures to prevent further Inkatha attacks; under
increasing pressure, de Klerk reluctantly agreed. The negotiations
agreed that a multiracial general election would be held, resulting in a
De Klerk and Mandela shake hands at the World
five-year coalition government of national unity and a constitutional
Economic Forum, 1992
assembly that gave the National Party continuing influence. The ANC
also conceded to safeguarding the jobs of white civil servants; such
concessions brought fierce internal criticism.[159] The duo agreed on an interim constitution, guaranteeing separation
of powers, creating a constitutional court, and including a US-style bill of rights; it also divided the country into nine
provinces, each with its own premier and civil service, a concession between de Klerk's desire for federalism and
Mandela's for unitary government.[160]
The democratic process was threatened by the Concerned South Africans Group (COSAG), an alliance of far-right
Afrikaner parties and black ethnic-secessionist groups like Inkatha; in June 1993 the white supremacist Afrikaner
Weerstandsbeweging (AWB) attacked the Kempton Park World Trade Centre.[161] Following the murder of ANC
leader Chris Hani, Mandela made a publicised speech to calm rioting, soon after appearing at a mass funeral in
Soweto for Tambo, who had died from a stroke.[162] In July 1993, both Mandela and de Klerk visited the US,
independently meeting President Bill Clinton and each receiving the Liberty Medal. Soon after, they were jointly
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Norway.[163] Influenced by young ANC leader Thabo Mbeki, Mandela began
meeting with big business figures, and played down his support for nationalisation, fearing that he would scare away
much-needed foreign investment. Although criticised by socialist ANC members, he was encouraged to embrace
private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietnamese Communist parties at the January 1992 World
Economic Forum in Switzerland.[164] Mandela also made a cameo appearance as a schoolteacher reciting one of
Malcolm X's speeches in the final scene of the 1992 film Malcolm X.

41

Nelson Mandela

42

General election: 1994

With the election set for 27 April 1994, the ANC began campaigning, opening
100 election offices and hiring advisor Stanley Greenberg. Greenberg
orchestrated the foundation of People's Forums across the country, at which
Mandela could appear; though a poor public speaker, he was a popular figure
with great status among black South Africans.[165] The ANC campaigned on a
Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) to build a million houses in
five years, introduce universal free education and extend access to water and
electricity. The party's slogan was "a better life for all", although it was not
explained how this development would be funded.[166] With the exception of the
Weekly Mail and the New Nation, South Africa's press opposed Mandela's
election, fearing continued ethnic strife, instead supporting the National or
Democratic Party. Mandela devoted much time to fundraising for the ANC,
touring North America, Europe and Asia to meet wealthy donors, including
former supporters of the apartheid regime. He also urged a reduction in the
voting age from 18 to 14; rejected by the ANC, this policy became the subject of
ridicule.[167]

Mandela casting his vote in the 1994

election

Concerned that COSAG would undermine the election, particularly in the wake of the Battle of Bop and Shell House
Massacre incidents of violence involving the AWB and Inkatha, respectively Mandela met with Afrikaner
politicians and generals, including P. W. Botha, Pik Botha and Constand Viljoen, persuading many to work within
the democratic system, and with de Klerk convinced Inkatha's Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than launch a
war of secession. As leaders of the two major parties, de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate;
although de Klerk was widely considered the better speaker at the event, Mandela's offer to shake his hand surprised
him, leading some commentators to consider it a victory for Mandela.[168] The election went ahead with little
violence, although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs. As widely expected, the ANC won a sweeping victory,
taking 62 percent of the vote, just short of the two-thirds majority needed to unilaterally change the constitution. The
ANC was also victorious in 7 provinces, with Inkatha and the National Party each taking another.[169] Mandela voted
at the Ohlange High School in Durban, and though the ANC's victory assured his election as President, he publicly
accepted that the election had been marred by instances of fraud and sabotage.[170]

Presidency of South Africa: 19941999

The newly elected National Assembly's first act was to formally elect Mandela as South Africa's first black chief
executive. His inauguration took place in Pretoria on 10 May 1994, televised to a billion viewers globally. The event
was attended by 4000 guests, including world leaders from disparate backgrounds.[171] Mandela headed a
Government of National Unity dominated by the ANC which alone had no experience of governance but
containing representatives from the National Party and Inkatha. Under the Interim Constitution, Inkatha and the NP
were entitled to seats in the government by virtue of winning at least 20 seats. In keeping with earlier agreements, de
Klerk became first Deputy President, and Thabo Mbeki was selected as second. Although Mbeki had not been his
first choice for the job, Mandela grew to rely heavily on him throughout his presidency, allowing him to organise
policy details.[172] Moving into the presidential office at Tuynhuys in Cape Town, Mandela allowed de Klerk to
retain the presidential residence in the Groote Schuur estate, instead settling into the nearby Westbrooke manor,
which he renamed "Genadendal", meaning "Valley of Mercy" in Afrikaans.[173] Retaining his Houghton home, he
also had a house built in his home village of Qunu, which he visited regularly, walking around the area, meeting with
locals, and judging tribal disputes.

Nelson Mandela

Aged 76, he faced various ailments, and although exhibiting continued

energy, he felt isolated and lonely. He often entertained celebrities,
such as Michael Jackson, Whoopi Goldberg, and the Spice Girls, and
befriended ultra-rich businessmen, like Harry Oppenheimer of
Anglo-American, as well as Queen Elizabeth II on her March 1995
state visit to South Africa, resulting in strong criticism from ANC
anti-capitalists. Despite his opulent surroundings, Mandela lived
simply, donating a third of his 552,000 rand annual income to the
Nelson Mandela Children's Fund, which he had founded in 1995.[174]
Mandela moved into the presidential office at
Although speaking out in favour of freedom of the press and
Tuynhuys, Cape Town.
befriending many journalists, Mandela was critical of much of the
country's media, noting that it was overwhelmingly owned and run by
middle-class whites and believing that it focused too much on scaremongering around crime.[175] Changing clothes
several times a day, after assuming the presidency, one of Mandela's trademarks was his use of Batik shirts, known
as "Madiba shirts", even on formal occasions.[176]
In December 1994, Mandela's autobiography, Long Walk to Freedom, was published. In late 1994 he attended the
49th conference of the ANC in Bloemfontein, at which a more militant National Executive was elected, among them
Winnie Mandela; although she expressed an interest in reconciling, Nelson initiated divorce proceedings in August
1995.[177] By 1995 he had entered into a relationship with Graa Machel, a Mozambican political activist 27 years
his junior who was the widow of former president Samora Machel. They had first met in July 1990, when she was
still in mourning, but their friendship grew into a partnership, with Machel accompanying him on many of his
foreign visits. She turned down Mandela's first marriage proposal, wanting to retain some independence and dividing
her time between Mozambique and Johannesburg.[178]

National reconciliation
Presiding over the transition from apartheid minority rule to a multicultural democracy, Mandela saw national
reconciliation as the primary task of his presidency. Having seen other post-colonial African economies damaged by
the departure of white elites, Mandela worked to reassure South Africa's white population that they were protected
and represented in "the Rainbow Nation".[179] Mandela attempted to create the broadest possible coalition in his
cabinet, with de Klerk as first Deputy President. Other National Party officials became ministers for Agriculture,
Energy, Environment, and Minerals and Energy, and Buthelezi was named Minister for Home Affairs. The other
cabinet positions were taken by ANC members, many of whom like Joe Modise, Alfred Nzo, Joe Slovo, Mac
Maharaj and Dullah Omar had long been comrades, although others, such as Tito Mboweni and Jeff Radebe, were
much younger. Mandela's relationship with de Klerk was strained; Mandela thought that de Klerk was intentionally
provocative, and de Klerk felt that he was being intentionally humiliated by the president. In January 1995, Mandela
heavily chastised him for awarding amnesty to 3,500 police just before the election, and later criticised him for
defending former Minister of Defence Magnus Malan when the latter was charged with murder.[180]
Mandela personally met with senior figures of the apartheid regime, including Hendrik Verwoerd's widow Betsie
Schoombie and the lawyer Percy Yutar; emphasising personal forgiveness and reconciliation, he announced that
"courageous people do not fear forgiving, for the sake of peace."[181] He encouraged black South Africans to get
behind the previously hated national rugby team, the Springboks, as South Africa hosted the 1995 Rugby World
Cup. After the Springboks won an epic final over New Zealand, Mandela presented the trophy to captain Francois
Pienaar, an Afrikaner, wearing a Springbok shirt with Pienaar's own number 6 on the back. This was widely seen as
a major step in the reconciliation of white and black South Africans; as de Klerk later put it, "Mandela won the
hearts of millions of white rugby fans."[182] Mandela's efforts at reconciliation assuaged the fears of whites, but also
drew criticism from more militant blacks. His estranged wife, Winnie, accused the ANC of being more interested in

43

Nelson Mandela

44

appeasing whites than in helping blacks.[183]

Mandela oversaw the formation of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate crimes committed under
apartheid by both the government and the ANC, appointing Desmond Tutu as its chair. To prevent the creation of
martyrs, the Commission granted individual amnesties in exchange for testimony of crimes committed during the
apartheid era. Dedicated in February 1996, it held two years of hearings detailing rapes, torture, bombings, and
assassinations, before issuing its final report in October 1998. Both de Klerk and Mbeki appealed to have parts of the
report suppressed, though only de Klerk's appeal was successful.[184] Mandela praised the Commission's work,
stating that it "had helped us move away from the past to concentrate on the present and the future".[185]

Domestic programmes
Mandela's administration inherited a country with a huge disparity in wealth and
services between white and black communities. Of a population of 40 million,
around 23 million lacked electricity or adequate sanitation, 12 million lacked
clean water supplies, with 2 million children not in school and a third of the
population illiterate. There was 33% unemployment, and just under half of the
population lived below the poverty line. Government financial reserves were
nearly depleted, with a fifth of the national budget being spent on debt
repayment, meaning that the extent of the promised Reconstruction and
Development Programme (RDP) was scaled back, with none of the proposed
nationalisation or job creation.[186] Instead, the government adopted liberal
economic policies designed to promote foreign investment, adhering to the
"Washington consensus" advocated by the World Bank and International
Monetary Fund.
Mandela on a visit to Brazil in 1998

Under Mandela's presidency, welfare spending increased by 13% in 1996/97,

13% in 1997/98, and 7% in 1998/99. The government introduced parity in grants for communities, including
disability grants, child maintenance grants, and old-age pensions, which had previously been set at different levels
for South Africa's different racial groups. In 1994, free healthcare was introduced for children under six and pregnant
women, a provision extended to all those using primary level public sector health care services in 1996. By the 1999
election, the ANC could boast that due to their policies, 3 million people were connected to telephone lines, 1.5
million children were brought into the education system, 500 clinics were upgraded or constructed, 2 million people
were connected to the electricity grid, water access was extended to 3 million people, and 750,000 houses were
constructed, housing nearly 3 million people.
The Land Restitution Act of 1994 enabled people who had lost their property as a result of the Natives Land Act,
1913 to claim back their land, leading to the settlement of tens of thousands of land claims. The Land Reform Act 3
of 1996 safeguarded the rights of labour tenants who live and grow crops or graze livestock on farms. This
legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted without a court order or if they were over the age of
sixty-five. The Skills Development Act of 1998 provided for the establishment of mechanisms to finance and
promote skills development at the workplace. The Labour Relations Act of 1995 promoted workplace democracy,
orderly collective bargaining, and the effective resolution of labour disputes. The Basic Conditions of Employment
Act of 1997 improved enforcement mechanisms while extending a "floor" of rights to all workers; the Employment
Equity Act of 1998 was passed to put an end to unfair discrimination and ensure the implementation of affirmative
action in the workplace.
Critics like Edwin Cameron accused Mandela's government of doing little to stem the HIV/AIDS pandemic in the
country; by 1999, 10% of South Africa's population were HIV positive. Mandela later admitted that he had
personally neglected the issue, leaving it for Mbeki to deal with.[187] Mandela also received criticism for failing to
sufficiently combat crime, with South Africa having one of the world's highest crime rates; this was a key reason

Nelson Mandela

45

cited for the emigration of 750,000 whites in the late 1990s.[188] Mandela's administration was also mired in
corruption scandals, with Mandela being perceived as having failed to deal with the problem.[189]

Foreign affairs
Following the South African example, Mandela encouraged other
nations to resolve conflicts through diplomacy and reconciliation. He
echoed Mbeki's calls for an "African Renaissance", and was greatly
concerned with issues on the continent; he took a soft diplomatic
approach to removing Sani Abacha's military junta in Nigeria but later
became a leading figure in calling for sanctions when Abacha's regime
increased human rights violations. In 1996 he was appointed Chairman
of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and
initiated unsuccessful negotiations to end the First Congo War in Zaire.
In South Africa's first post-apartheid military operation, Mandela
ordered troops into Lesotho in September 1998 to protect the
government of Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili after a disputed
election prompted opposition uprisings.

Mandela with US President Bill Clinton. Despite

publicly criticising him on several occasions,
Mandela liked Clinton, and personally supported
him during his impeachment proceedings.

In September 1998, Mandela was appointed Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement, who held their
annual conference in Durban. He used the event to criticise the "narrow, chauvinistic interests" of the Israeli
government in stalling negotiations to end the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and urged India and Pakistan to negotiate to
end the Kashmir conflict, for which he was criticised by both Israel and India. Inspired by the region's economic
boom, Mandela sought greater economic relations with East Asia, in particular with Malaysia, although this was
scuppered by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. He attracted controversy for his close relationship with Indonesian
President Suharto, whose regime was responsible for mass human rights abuses, although privately urged him to
withdraw from the occupation of East Timor.
Mandela faced similar criticism from the West for his personal friendships with Fidel Castro and Muammar Gaddafi.
Castro visited in 1998, to widespread popular acclaim, and Mandela met Gaddafi in Libya to award him the Order of
Good Hope. When Western governments and media criticised these visits, Mandela lambasted such criticism as
having racist undertones. Mandela hoped to resolve the long-running dispute between Libya and the US and Britain
over bringing to trial the two Libyans, Abdelbaset al-Megrahi and Lamin Khalifah Fhimah, who were indicted in
November 1991 and accused of sabotaging Pan Am Flight 103. Mandela proposed that they be tried in a third
country, which was agreed to by all parties; governed by Scots law, the trial was held at Camp Zeist in the
Netherlands in April 1999, and found one of the two men guilty.

Withdrawing from politics

The new Constitution of South Africa was agreed upon by parliament in May 1996, enshrining a series of institutions
to check political and administrative authority within a constitutional democracy. De Klerk opposed the
implementation of this constitution, withdrawing from the coalition government in protest.[190] The ANC took over
the cabinet positions formerly held by the National Party, with Mbeki becoming sole Deputy President. When both
Mandela and Mbeki were out of the country in one occasion, Buthelezi was appointed "Acting President", marking
an improvement in his relationship with Mandela.
Mandela stepped down as ANC President at the December 1997 conference, and although hoping that Ramaphosa
would replace him, the ANC elected Mbeki to the position; Mandela admitted that by then, Mbeki had become "de
facto President of the country". Replacing Mbeki as Deputy President, Mandela and the Executive supported the
candidacy of Jacob Zuma, a Zulu who had been imprisoned on Robben Island, but he was challenged by Winnie,

Nelson Mandela
whose populist rhetoric had gained her a strong following within the party; Zuma defeated her in a landslide victory
vote at the election.[191]
Mandela's relationship with Machel had intensified; in February 1998 he publicly stated that "I'm in love with a
remarkable lady", and under pressure from his friend Desmond Tutu, who urged him to set an example for young
people, he set a wedding for his 80th birthday, in July.[192] The following day he held a grand party with many
foreign dignitaries. The 1996 constitution limited the president to two consecutive five-year terms. Mandela did not
attempt to amend the document to remove the two-term limit; indeed, he had never planned on standing for a second
term in office. He gave his farewell speech on 29 March 1999, after which he retired.

Retirement
Continued activism and philanthropy: 19992004
Retiring in June 1999, Mandela sought a quiet family life, to be
divided between Johannesburg and Qunu. He set about authoring a
sequel to his first autobiography, to be titled The Presidential Years,
but it was abandoned before publication.[193] Finding such seclusion
difficult, he reverted to a busy public life with a daily programme of
tasks, meeting with world leaders and celebrities, and when in
Johannesburg worked with the Nelson Mandela Foundation, founded
in 1999 to focus on combating HIV/AIDS, rural development and
Mandela visiting the London School of
school construction.[194] Although he had been heavily criticised for
Economics in 2000
failing to do enough to fight the pandemic during his presidency, he
devoted much of his time to the issue following his retirement,
describing it as "a war" that had killed more than "all previous wars", and urged Mbeki's government to ensure that
HIV+ South Africans had access to anti-retrovirals.[195] In 2000, the Nelson Mandela Invitational charity golf
tournament was founded, hosted by Gary Player. Mandela was successfully treated for prostate cancer in July 2001.
In 2002, Mandela inaugurated the Nelson Mandela Annual Lecture, and in 2003 the Mandela Rhodes Foundation
was created at Rhodes House, University of Oxford, to provide postgraduate scholarships to African students. These
projects were followed by the Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory and the 46664 campaign against HIV/AIDS. He
gave the closing address at the XIII International AIDS Conference in Durban in 2000, and in 2004, spoke at the XV
International AIDS Conference in Bangkok, Thailand.
Publicly, Mandela became more vocal in criticising Western powers. He strongly opposed the 1999 NATO
intervention in Kosovo and called it an attempt by the world's powerful nations to police the entire world. In 2003 he
spoke out against the plans for the US and UK to launch the War in Iraq, describing it as "a tragedy" and lambasting
US President George W. Bush and UK Prime Minister Tony Blair for undermining the UN. "All that (Mr. Bush)
wants is Iraqi oil,". He attacked the US more generally, asserting that it had committed more "unspeakable atrocities"
across the world than any other nation, citing the atomic bombing of Japan; this attracted international controversy,
although he later reconciled his relationship with Blair.[196] Retaining an interest in Libyan-UK relations, he visited
Megrahi in Barlinnie prison and spoke out against the conditions of his treatment, referring to them as
"psychological persecution".

46

Nelson Mandela

"Retiring from retirement", illness: 20042013

In June 2004, aged 85 and amid failing health, Mandela announced that
he was "retiring from retirement" and retreating from public life,
remarking "Don't call me, I will call you."[197] Although continuing to
meet with close friends and family, the Foundation discouraged
invitations for him to appear at public events and denied most
interview requests.
He retained some involvement in international affairs. In 2005, he
founded the Nelson Mandela Legacy Trust, travelling to the U.S., to
Nelson Mandela and President George W. Bush
speak before the Brookings Institute and the NAACP on the need for
in the Oval Office, May 2005
economic assistance to Africa. He spoke with U.S. Senator Hillary
Clinton and President George W. Bush and first met then-U.S. Senator Barack Obama. Mandela also encouraged
Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe to resign over growing human rights abuses in the country. When this proved
ineffective, he spoke out publicly against Mugabe in 2007, asking him to step down "with residual respect and a
modicum of dignity." That year, Mandela, Machel, and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders in
Johannesburg to contribute their wisdom and independent leadership to some of the world's toughest problems.
Mandela announced the formation of this new group, The Elders, in a speech delivered on his 89th birthday.[198]
Mandela's 90th birthday was marked across the country on 18 July 2008, with the main celebrations held at Qunu,
and a concert in his honour in Hyde Park, London. In a speech marking the event, Mandela called for the rich to help
the poor across the world. Throughout Mbeki's presidency, Mandela continued to support the ANC, although usually
overshadowed Mbeki at any public events that the two attended. Mandela was more at ease with Mbeki's successor
Jacob Zuma, although the Nelson Mandela Foundation were upset when his grandson, Mandla Mandela, flew him
out to the Eastern Cape to attend a pro-Zuma rally in the midst of a storm in 2009.[199]
In 2004, Mandela had successfully campaigned for South Africa to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup, declaring that
there would be "few better gifts for us in the year" marking a decade since the fall of apartheid. Mandela emotionally
raised the FIFA World Cup Trophy after South Africa was awarded host status.[200] Despite maintaining a low
profile during the event due to ill-health, Mandela made his final public appearance during the World Cup closing
ceremony, where he received a "rapturous reception".[201] Between 2005 and 2013, Mandela, and later his family,
were embroiled in a series of legal disputes regarding money held in family trusts for the benefit of his descendants.
In mid-2013, as Mandela was hospitalised for a lung infection in Pretoria, his descendants were involved in
intra-family legal dispute relating to the burial place of Mandela's children, and ultimately Mandela himself.
In February 2011, he was briefly hospitalised with a respiratory infection, attracting international attention, before
being re-hospitalised for a lung infection and gallstone removal in December 2012. After a successful medical
procedure in early March 2013, his lung infection recurred, and he was briefly hospitalised in Pretoria. On 8 June
2013, his lung infection worsened, and he was rehospitalised in Pretoria in a serious condition. After four days, it
was reported that he had stabilised and remained in a "serious, but stable condition". En route to the hospital, his
ambulance broke down and was stranded on the roadside for 40 minutes. The government was criticised for the
incident, but Zuma countered that throughout, Mandela was given "expert medical care."
On 22 June 2013, CBS News stated that he had not opened his eyes in days and was unresponsive, and the family
was discussing how much medical intervention should be given. Former bodyguard Shaun van Heerden, described
by CBS News as "Mandela's constant companion for the last 12 years", had publicly asked the family to "set him
free" a week prior. On 23 June 2013, Zuma announced that Mandela's condition had become "critical". Zuma,
accompanied by the Deputy President of the ANC, Cyril Ramaphosa, met Mandela's wife Graa Machel at the
hospital in Pretoria and discussed his condition. On 25 June Cape Town Archbishop Thabo Makgoba visited
Mandela at the hospital and prayed with Graa Machel Mandela "at this hard time of watching and waiting". The

47

Nelson Mandela

48

next day, Zuma visited Mandela in the hospital and cancelled a visit scheduled for the next day to Mozambique. A
relative of Mandela told The Daily Telegraph newspaper he was on life support.
On 4 July, it was reported that David Smith, a lawyer acting on behalf of Mandela family members, claimed in court
on 26 June that Mandela was in a permanent vegetative state and life support should be withdrawn. The South
African Presidency stated that the doctors treating Mandela denied that he was in a vegetative state. On 10 July,
Zuma's office announced that Mandela remained in critical but stable condition, and was responding to treatment.
On 1 September 2013, Mandela was discharged from hospital, although his condition remained unstable.

Death and funeral

After suffering from a prolonged respiratory infection, Mandela died
on 5 December 2013 at the age of 95. He died at around 20:50 local
time (UTC+2) at his home in Houghton, Johannesburg, surrounded by
his family. His death was announced on television by President Jacob
Zuma.
On 6 December 2013, President Zuma announced a national mourning
period of ten days, with the main event held at the FNB Stadium in
Johannesburg on 10 December 2013. He declared Sunday 8 December
2013 a national day of prayer and reflection. Mandela's body lay in
state from 1113 December at the Union Buildings in Pretoria and a
state funeral was held on 15 December 2013 in Qunu, South Africa.

US President Barack Obama delivers his speech

at Mandela's state memorial service

Approximately 90 representatives of foreign states travelled to South Africa to attend memorial events.

Political ideology
Mandela was an African nationalist, an ideological position he held
since joining the ANC,[202] also being a democratic socialist, thereby
being "openly opposed to capitalism, private land-ownership and the
power of big money". Mandela was influenced by Marxism, and
during the revolution he advocated scientific socialism. During the
Treason Trial, he denied being a communist,[203] although later
historians and biographers believed that this was a lie; biographer
David Jones Smith stated that Mandela "embraced communism and
"Free Mandela" protest in East Berlin, 1986
communists" in the late 1950s and early 1960s, while historian Stephen
Ellis found evidence that he had been an active member of the South
African Communist Party (SACP). This was confirmed after his death by the SACP and the ANC. According to the
SACP, he was not only a member of the party, but also served on the party's Central Committee, when he was
arrested in 1962 and this was denied for political reasons.
In the 1955 Freedom Charter, which Mandela had helped create, it called for the nationalisation of banks, gold
mines, and land, believing this necessary to ensure equal distribution of wealth. Despite these beliefs, Mandela
nationalised nothing during his presidency, fearing that this would scare away foreign investors. This decision was in
part influenced by the fall of the socialist states in the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc during the early 1990s.
Although he presented himself in an autocratic manner in several speeches, Mandela was a devout believer in
democracy and abided by majority decisions even when deeply disagreeing with them. He held a conviction that
"inclusivity, accountability and freedom of speech" were the fundamentals of democracy, and was driven by a belief
in natural and human rights. This belief drove him to not only pursue racial equality but also to promote gay rights as

Nelson Mandela
part of the post-apartheid reforms.

Personal life
Mandela was a private person who often concealed his emotions and confided in very few people.[204] Privately, he
lived an austere life, refusing to drink alcohol or smoke, and even as President made his own bed,[205] although was
also renowned for his mischievous sense of humour.[206] He was known for being both stubborn and loyal,[207] and
at times exhibited a quick temper.[205] He was typically friendly and welcoming, and appeared relaxed in
conversation with everyone, including his opponents.[208] Constantly polite and courteous, he was attentive to all,
irrespective of their age or status, and often talked to children or servants.[209] In later life he always looked for the
best in people, even defending political opponents to his allies, who sometimes thought him too trusting of
others.[210] He was highly image conscious, and throughout his life always sought out fine quality clothes, with
many commentators believing that he carried himself in a regal manner.[211] His official biographer Anthony
Sampson commented that he was a "master of imagery and performance", excelling at presenting himself well in
press photographs and producing soundbites.[212] In describing his life, Mandela stated that "I was not a messiah, but
an ordinary man who had become a leader because of extraordinary circumstances."[213]
Mandela was married three times, fathered six children, had 17
grandchildren, and many great-grandchildren. He could be stern and
demanding of his children, although he was more affectionate with his
grandchildren.[214] His first marriage was to Evelyn Ntoko Mase in
October 1944; they divorced after 13 years in 1957 under the multiple
strains of his adultery and constant absences, devotion to revolutionary
agitation, and the fact that she was a member of the Jehovah's
Witnesses, a religion requiring political neutrality. The couple had two
sons whom Mandela survived, Madiba "Thembi" Thembekile
Mandela House museum, Soweto
(19451969) and Makgatho Mandela (19502005); his first son died in
a car crash, and his second son died of AIDS. The couple had two
daughters, both named Makaziwe Mandela (born 1947 and 1954); the first died at the age of nine months, the
second, known as "Maki", survived Mandela. Makgatho's son, Mandla Mandela, became chief of the Mvezo tribal
council in 2007.
Mandela's second wife, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, also came from the Transkei area, although they, too, met in
Johannesburg, where she was the city's first black social worker. They had two daughters, Zenani (Zeni), born 4
February 1958, and Zindziswa (Zindzi) Mandela-Hlongwane, born 1960. Zindzi was only 18 months old when her
father was sent to Robben island. Later, Winnie was deeply torn by family discord which mirrored the country's
political strife; separation (April 1992) and divorce (March 1996), fuelled by political estrangement. Mandela's third
wife was Graa Machel (ne Simbine), whom he married on his 80th birthday in 1998.[215]

49

Nelson Mandela

50

Influence and legacy

By the time of his death, Mandela had come to be widely considered
"the father of the nation" within South Africa, and "the founding father
of democracy",[216] being seen as "the national liberator, the saviour,
its Washington and Lincoln rolled into one". Mandela's biographer
Anthony Sampson commented that even during his life, a myth had
developed around him that turned him into "a secular saint" and which
was "so powerful that it blurs the realities."[217]Within a decade after
the end of his Presidency, Mandela's era was being widely thought of
as "a golden age of hope and harmony".[213] Across the world,
Mandela earned international acclaim for his activism in overcoming
apartheid and fostering racial reconciliation,[205] coming to be viewed
as "a moral authority" with a great "concern for truth".[218]

Nelson Mandela Bridge in Johannesburg

Throughout his life, Mandela had also faced criticism. Margaret Thatcher attracted international attention for
describing the ANC as "a typical terrorist organisation" in 1987;[219] although she later called on Botha to release
Mandela.[220] On his death, various Twitter users repeated the denunciations that he was a communist and a terrorist,
while various anti-abortion activists across the world took the opportunity to condemn him for supporting the 1996
Choice of Termination of Pregnancy Act. Mandela has also been criticised for his friendship with political leaders
such as Fidel Castro, Muammar Gaddafi, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, and Suharto deemed dictators by critics as
well as his refusal to condemn their human rights violations.

Orders, decorations, and monuments

On the 16th of December 2013, Reconciliation Day, a 9 metre high, bronze
statue of Mandela was unveiled at the Union Buildings by President Jacob Zuma.
In 2004, Johannesburg granted Mandela the freedom of the city, and the Sandton
Square shopping centre was renamed Nelson Mandela Square, after a Mandela
statue was installed there. In 2008, another Mandela statue was unveiled at
Drakenstein Correctional Centre, formerly Victor Verster Prison, near Cape
Town, standing on the spot where Mandela was released from the prison.
In 1993, he received the joint Nobel Peace Prize with de Klerk. In November
2009, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed Mandela's birthday, 18
July, as "Mandela Day", marking his contribution to the anti-apartheid struggle.
It called on individuals to donate 67 minutes to doing something for others,
commemorating the 67 years that Mandela had been a part of the movement.
Awarded the US Presidential Medal of Freedom and appointment to the Order of
Canada, he was also the first living person to be made an honorary Canadian
citizen. Mandela was the last recipient of the Soviet Union's Lenin Peace Prize
Nelson Mandela graffiti by Thierry
Ehrmann in the Abode of Chaos
and the first recipient of the Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights. In
museum, France
1990, he received the Bharat Ratna Award from the government of India and, in
1992, received Pakistan's Nishan-e-Pakistan. The same year, he was awarded the
Atatrk Peace Award by Turkey; he at first refused the award, citing human rights violations committed by Turkey
at the time, but later accepted the award in 1999. Queen Elizabeth II appointed him as a Bailiff Grand Cross of the
Order of St. John (upon the recommendation of the order's Honours and Awards Committee) and granted him
membership in the Order of Merit (a personal gift of the monarch).

Nelson Mandela

Tributes by musicians
Many artists have dedicated songs to Mandela. One of the most popular was from The Special AKA who recorded
the song "Free Nelson Mandela" in 1983, which Elvis Costello also recorded and had a hit with. Stevie Wonder
dedicated his 1985 Oscar for the song "I Just Called to Say I Love You" to Mandela, resulting in his music being
banned by the South African Broadcasting Corporation. In 1985, Youssou N'Dour's album Nelson Mandela was the
Senegalese artist's first US release. Other artists who released songs or videos honouring Mandela include Johnny
Clegg, Hugh Masekela, Brenda Fassie, Khadja Nin,[221] Beyond, Nickelback, Raffi, and Ampie du Preez and AB de
Villiers. South African songstress Zahara, an ambassador for the Nelson Mandela Children's Hospital, released
Nelson Mandela, an extended play that pays tribute to Mandela whilst celebrating his lifetime accomplishments. The
EP's lead single titled "Nelson Mandela" was released at a time when Mandela was critically ill but stable at the
Medi-Clinic Heart Hospital in Pretoria.

Cinema and television

Mandela has been depicted in cinema and television on multiple occasions. He was portrayed by Danny Glover in
the 1987 HBO telefilm Mandela. The 1997 film Mandela and de Klerk starred Sidney Poitier as Mandela, and
Dennis Haysbert played him in Goodbye Bafana (2007). In the 2009 BBC telefilm Mrs Mandela, Mandela was
portrayed by David Harewood, and Morgan Freeman portrayed him in Invictus (2009). Terrence Howard portrayed
him in the 2011 film Winnie Mandela. He is portrayed by Idris Elba in the 2013 film Mandela: Long Walk to
Freedom.

References
Footnotes
[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Nelson_Mandela& params=31_48_21. 8_S_28_36_52. 7_E_
[2] http:/ / www. nelsonmandela. org
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[30]
[31]
[32]
[33]
[34]
[35]
[36]
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[86] ; ; .
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Nelson Mandela
[89] ; ; .
[90] ; ; .
[91] Umsebenzi Online, Volume 12, No. 42, 6 December 2013 (http:/ / www. sacp. org. za/ main. php?ID=4151 )
[92] SACP confirms Nelson Mandela was a member, Business Day, 06 December 2013 (http:/ / www. bdlive. co. za/ national/ politics/ 2013/ 12/
06/ sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member )
[93] ; ; .
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[123] "Nelson Mandela: How sport helped to transform a nation" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ sport/ 0/ 23851559). BBC. Retrieved 6 December
2013
[124] ; .
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[145] ; ; The text of Mandela's speech can be found at

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[146]
[147]
[148]
[149]
[150]
[151]
[152]
[153]
[154]
[155]
[156]
[157]
[158]
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[200] "Blatter presents Mandela with a special FIFA World Cup Trophy" (https:/ / www. fifa. com/ aboutfifa/ organisation/ president/ news/
newsid=881662/ ). FIFA.com. Retrieved 5 December 2013
[201] "Nelson Mandela, South Africa's anti-apartheid icon, dies aged 95" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ worldnews/ nelson-mandela/
9013168/ Nelson-Mandela-dies-aged-95. html) The Telegraph. Retrieved 6 December 2013
[202] ; .

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[203]
[204]
[205]
[206]
[207]
[208]
[209]
[210]
[211]
[212]
[213]
[214]
[215]
[216]
[217]
[218]
[219]
[220]
[221]

;.
Meredith 2010, pp.xvxvi.
Meredith 2010, p.xvi.
Battersby 2011, p.599.
Meredith 2010, p.xvi; Sampson 2011, p.583.
Sampson 2011, pp.411, 498.
Meredith 2010, pp.xvi, 482483.
Sampson 2011, pp.431, 582.
Sampson 2011, pp.432, 554.
Sampson 2011, pp.582583.
Meredith 2010, p.599.
;;.
Meredith 2010, p.xvii.
Meredith 2010, p.565.
Sampson 2011, p.xxvi.
Sampson 2011, p.582.
Sampson 2011, p.360.
Meredith 2010, p.357.
Khadja Nin, Mzee Mandela, in CD Ya... (1998), ARK21, Sherman Oaks, 2000, ISBN 186-810-062-2

Citations
Battersby, John (2011). "Afterword: Living Legend, Living Statue". In Anthony Sampson. Mandela: The
Authorised Biography. London: HarperCollins. pp.587610. ISBN978-0007437979.
Ellis, Stephen (2011). "The Genesis of the ANC's Armed Struggle in South Africa 19481961". Journal of
Southern African Studies 37 (4): 657676. doi: 10.1080/03057070.2011.592659 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
03057070.2011.592659).
Guiloineau, Jean; Rowe, Joseph (2002). Nelson Mandela: The Early Life of Rolihlahla Madiba (http:/ / books.
google. com/ ?id=4iKSlwuya1YC& pg=PA9#v=onepage& q& f=false). Berkeley: North Atlantic Books.
pp.926. ISBN1-55643-417-0.
Herbst, Jeffrey (2003). "The Nature of South African Democracy: Political Dominance and Economic
Inequality". In Theodore K. Rabb, Ezra N. Suleiman. The Making and Unmaking of Democracy: Lessons from
History and World Politics. London: Routledge. pp.206224. ISBN978-0415933810.
Mafela, Munzhedzi James (2008). "The Revelation of African Culture in "Long Walk to Freedom"" (http:/ /
epress. anu. edu. au/ aborig_history/ indigenous_biog/ mobile_devices/ ch08. html#d0e6318). In Anna
Haebich, Frances Peters-Little, Peter Read. Indigenous Biography and Autobiography. Sydney: Humanities
Research Centre, Australian National University.
Houston, Gregory; Muthien, Yvonne (2000). "Democracy and Governance in Transition". In Yvonne Muthien,
Meshack Khosa and Bernard Magubane. Democracy and Governance Review: Mandela's Legacy 19941999.
Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council Press. pp.3768. ISBN978-0796919700.
Kalumba, Kibujjo M. (1995). "The Political Philosophy of Nelson Mandela: A Primer". Journal of Social
Philosophy 26 (3): 161171. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9833.1995.tb00092.x (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1111/ j.
1467-9833.1995.tb00092.x).
Mandela, Nelson (1994). Long Walk to Freedom Volume I: 19181962. Little, Brown and Company.
ISBN978-0754087236.
Mandela, Nelson (2004) [1994]. Long Walk to Freedom Volume II: 19621994 (large print edition). London:
BBC AudioBooks and Time Warner Books Ltd. ISBN978-0754087243.
Muthien, Yvonne; Khosa, Meshack; Magubane, Bernard (2000). "Democracy and Governance in Transition".
In Yvonne Muthien, Meshack Khosa and Bernard Magubane. Democracy and Governance Review: Mandela's
Legacy 19941999. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council Press. pp.361374. ISBN978-0796919700.

55

Nelson Mandela

56

Meredith, Martin (2010). Mandela: A Biography. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN978-1586488321.

Sampson, Anthony (2011) [1999]. Mandela: The Authorised Biography. London: HarperCollins.
ISBN978-0007437979.
Smith, David James (2010). Young Mandela. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN978-0297855248.

External links

Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory (http://archive.nelsonmandela.org/)

Nelson Mandela Children's Fund (http://www.nelsonmandelachildrensfund.com/)
Nelson Mandela Foundation (http://www.nelsonmandela.org/)
Mandela Rhodes Foundation (http://www.mandelarhodes.org/)
The Elders (http://www.theelders.org/)
Nelson Mandela Museum (http://www.nelsonmandelamuseum.org.za/)
Nelson Mandela Day (http://www.mandeladay.com/)
Works by or about Nelson Mandela (http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n85-153068) in libraries (WorldCat
catalog)

Nelson Mandela (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/South_Africa/Society_and_Culture/History/

Nelson_Mandela/) on the Open Directory Project
Political offices
Precededby
F. W. de Klerk

President of South Africa

19941999

Succeededby
Thabo Mbeki

Party political offices

Precededby
Oliver Tambo

President of the African National Congress

19911997

Succeededby
Thabo Mbeki

Diplomatic posts
Precededby
Andrs Pastrana Arango

Secretary General of Non-Aligned

Movement
19981999

Succeededby
Thabo Mbeki

Rhode Island

57

Rhode Island
State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations

Flag

Seal
Nickname(s): The Ocean State
Little Rhody
Motto(s): Hope

Official language

De jure: None
De facto: English

Demonym

Rhode Islander

Capital
(and largest city)

Providence

Area

Ranked 50th

-Total

1,214sqmi
(3,140 km2)

-Width

37miles(60 km)

-Length

48miles(77 km)

-% water

13.9%

-Latitude

41 09' N to 42 01' N

-Longitude

71 07' W to 71 53' W

Population

Ranked 43rd

-Total

1,050,292 (2012 est.)

-Density

1006/sqmi (388/km2)
Ranked 2nd

-Median household income

$54,619 (16th)

Rhode Island

58
Elevation
[1]

-Highest point

Jerimoth Hill
812ft (247 m)

-Mean

200ft (60 m)

-Lowest point

Atlantic Ocean
sea level

Before statehood

Rhode Island

Admission to Union

May 29, 1790 (13th)

Governor

Lincoln Chafee (D)

Lieutenant Governor

Elizabeth H. Roberts (D)

Legislature

General Assembly

-Upper house

Senate

-Lower house

House of Representatives

U.S. Senators

Jack Reed (D)

Sheldon Whitehouse (D)

U.S. House delegation

1: David Cicilline (D)

2: James Langevin (D) (list)

Time zone

Eastern: UTC -5/-4

Abbreviations

RI, US-RI

Website

www.ri.gov

[2]
2

Footnotes: * Total area is approximately 776,957 acres (3,144km )

Rhode Island ( i/rodHelp:IPA for English#Keyalnd/ or /rdalnd/), officially the State of Rhode Island and
Providence Plantations, is a state in the New England region of the United States. Rhode Island is the smallest in
area, the eighth least populous, but the second most densely populated of the 50 US states behind New Jersey. Rhode
Island is bordered by Connecticut to the west and Massachusetts to the north and east, and it shares a water boundary
with New York's Long Island to the southwest.
Rhode Island was the first of the 13 original colonies to declare independence from British rule, declaring itself
independent on May 4, 1776, two months before any other colony. The State was also the last of the thirteen original
colonies to ratify the United States Constitution.[3]
Rhode Island's official nickname is "The Ocean State", a reference to the State's geography, since Rhode Island has
several large bays and inlets that amount to about 14% of its total area. Its land area is 1,045 square miles
(2,710km2), but its total area is significantly larger.

Origin of the name

Despite its name, most of Rhode Island is located on the mainland of the United States. The official name of the
state, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, derives from the merger of two settlements. Rhode Island colony
was founded near present-day Newport, on what is now commonly called Aquidneck Island, the largest of several
islands in Narragansett Bay. Providence Plantations was the name of the colony founded by Roger Williams in the
area now known as the City of Providence.
It is unclear how Aquidneck Island came to be known as Rhode Island, although there are two popular theories.
The explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano, in 1524 noted the presence of an island near the mouth of Narragansett
Bay, which he likened to the Ottoman island of Rhodes (part of modern Greece). Subsequent European explorers

Rhode Island

59

were unable to precisely identify the island that Verrazzano had named. The Pilgrims who later colonized the area
assumed that Verrazzano's "Rhodes" was Aquidneck.
A second theory concerns the fact that Adriaen Block, during his expeditions in the 1610s, passed by Aquidneck,
described in a 1625 account of his travels as "an island of reddish appearance" (in 17th-century Dutch, "een
rodlich Eylande").[4] Historians have theorized that this "reddish appearance" resulted from either red autumn
foliage or red clay on portions of the shore.[5][6]
The earliest documented use of the name "Rhode Island" for
Aquidneck was in 1637, by Roger Williams. The name was officially
applied to the island in 1644 with these words: "Aquethneck shall be
henceforth called the Isle of Rodes or Rhode-Island." The name "Isle
of Rodes" is found used in a legal document as late as 1646.[7][8] Dutch
maps as late as 1659 call the island "Red Island" (Roodt Eylant).
Verrazzano Monument, Providence, Rhode

Roger Williams was a theologian forced out of the Massachusetts Bay

Island.
Colony. Seeking religious and political tolerance, he and others
founded "Providence Plantations" as a free proprietary colony. "Providence" referred to the divine providence and
"plantations" referred to an English term for a colony.
"Rhode Island and Providence Plantations" is the longest official name of any state in the Union. On June 25, 2009,
the General Assembly voted to allow the people to decide whether to keep the name or drop "and Providence
Plantations" due to the misperception that the name related to slavery.[9] The referendum election was held on this
subject during the November 2, 2010 elections, and the people overwhelmingly (78% to 22%) voted to keep the
original name.

Geography
Rhode Island covers an area of 1,214 square miles (3,140km2) and is bordered
on the north and east by Massachusetts, on the west by Connecticut, and on the
south by Rhode Island Sound and the Atlantic Ocean.[] It shares a narrow
maritime border with New York State between Block Island and Long Island.
The mean elevation of the state is 200feet (60m).
Nicknamed the Ocean State, Rhode Island has a number of oceanfront beaches. It
is mostly flat with no real mountains, and the state's highest natural point is
Jerimoth Hill, 812 feet (247m) above sea level.
Located within the New England province of the Appalachian Region, Rhode
Island has two distinct natural regions. Eastern Rhode Island contains the
lowlands of the Narragansett Bay, while Western Rhode Island forms part of the
New England Upland. Rhode Island's forests are part of the Northeastern coastal
forests ecoregion.

Terrain Map of Rhode Island

Narragansett Bay is a major feature of the state's topography. Block Island lies
about 12 miles (19km) off the southern coast of the mainland. Within the Bay, there are over 30 islands. The largest
is Aquidneck Island, shared by the municipalities of Newport, Middletown, and Portsmouth. The second-largest
island is Conanicut; the third-largest is Prudence.

Rhode Island

Map of Rhode Island, showing major

cities and roads

60

Shoreline in Newport, Rhode Island

Ninigret Pond National Wildlife Refuge,

Rhode Island

Geology
A rare type of rock called Cumberlandite, found only in Rhode Island (specifically in the town of Cumberland), is
the state rock. There were initially two known deposits of the mineral, but since it is an ore of iron, one of the
deposits was extensively mined for its ferrous content. The state is underlain by the Avalon terrane and was once
part of the micro-continent Avalonia prior to closure of the Iapetus ocean.

Climate
Rhode Island is an example of a humid continental climate with warm, rainy summers and chilly winters. The
highest temperature recorded in Rhode Island was 104F (40C), recorded on August 2, 1975, in Providence.[10]
The lowest recorded temperature in Rhode Island was 23F (31C), on February 5, 1996, in Greene.[11] Monthly
average temperatures range from a high of 83F (28C) to a low of 20F (7C).

History

The original 1636 deed to

Providence, signed by Chief
Canonicus.

Rhode Island

61

Colonial era: 16361770

In 1636, Roger Williams, after being banished from the Massachusetts
Bay Colony for his religious views, settled at the tip of Narragansett
Bay, on land granted to him by the Narragansett and Pequot tribes.
Both tribes were subservient to the Wampanoag tribe led by Massasoit.
He called the site Providence "having a sense of God's merciful
providence unto me in my distress."[12] Eventually it became a place of
religious freedom.
In 1638, after conferring with Williams, Anne Hutchinson, William
Coddington, John Clarke, Philip Sherman, and other religious
dissidents settled on Aquidneck Island (then known as Rhode Island),
which was purchased from the local natives, who called it Pocasset.
This settlement was called Portsmouth and was governed by the
Portsmouth Compact. The southern part of the island became the
separate settlement of Newport after disagreements among the
founders.

The congregation founded by Roger

Williams in 1638 built this
Providence historic church in 1776

Samuel Gorton purchased the Native American lands at Shawomet in

1642, precipitating a military dispute with the Massachusetts Bay
Colony. In 1644, Providence, Portsmouth, and Newport united for their
common independence as the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence
Plantations, governed by an elected council and "president". Gorton
received a separate charter for his settlement in 1648, which he named
Warwick after his patron.
During King Philip's War (16751676), a force of Massachusetts,
Roger Williams and Narragansett Native
Connecticut and Plymouth militia under General Josiah Winslow
Americans
invaded and destroyed the fortified Narragansett Indian village in the
Great Swamp in what is now South Kingstown, Rhode Island, on December 19, 1675.[13] The Indians referred to this
as a massacre. The Wampanoag tribe under war-leader Metacomet, whom the colonists called "King Philip", invaded
and burned down several of the towns in the area, including Providence which was attacked twice. In one of the final
actions of the war, Benjamin Church killed King Philip in what is now Bristol, Rhode Island; King Philip's head was
put on a pole and stood at the entrance to Plimoth Plantation as a warning to other Indians for years.
The colony was amalgamated into the Dominion of New England in 1686, as King James II attempted to enforce
royal authority over the autonomous colonies in British North America. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the
colony regained its independence under the Royal Charter. Slaves were introduced at this time, although there is no
record of any law legalizing slave-holding, although the colony later prospered under the slave trade, by distilling
rum to sell in Africa as part of a profitable triangular trade in slaves and sugar with the Caribbean.

Rhode Island

62

Revolutionary to Civil War Period: 1770-1860

Rhode Island's tradition of independence and dissent gave it a
prominent role in the American Revolution. At approximately 2a.m.
on June 10, 1772, a band of Providence residents attacked, and
subsequently burned to the waterline, the grounded revenue schooner
Gaspee for enforcing unpopular trade regulations within Narragansett
Bay. Rhode Island was the first of the thirteen colonies to renounce its
allegiance to the British Crown, on May 4, 1776.[14] It was also the last
colony of the thirteen colonies to ratify the United States Constitution
"King Philip's Seat", a Native American meeting
place on Mount Hope, Bristol, Rhode Island.
on May 29, 1790, once assurances were made that a Bill of Rights
would become part of the Constitution. During the Revolution, the
British occupied Newport. A combined Franco-American force fought to drive them off Aquidneck Island.
Portsmouth was the site of the first African-American military unit, the 1st Rhode Island Regiment, to fight for the
U.S. in the Battle of Rhode Island of August 29, 1778. The arrival of a French fleet forced the British to scuttle their
own ships, rather than surrender them to the French. The celebrated march to Yorktown, Virginia in 1781 that ended
with the defeat of the British at the Siege of Yorktown and the Battle of the Chesapeake began in Newport, Rhode
Island under the joint command of General George Washington who led American troops and the Comte de
Rochambeau who led French soldiers sent by King Louis XVI. In 2009, this was officially recognized by the
National Park Service.
Rhode Island was heavily involved in the slave trade during the post-revolution
era. In 1774, the slave population of Rhode Island was 6.3%, nearly twice as high
as any other New England colony. In the years after the Revolution, Rhode
Island merchants controlled between 60% and 90% of the American trade of
African slaves.[15]

National Park Service map of the

Washington-Rochambeau
Revolutionary Route, which
commenced in Rhode Island.

Rhode Island

63

In addition to the slave trade, Rhode Island was also heavily involved
in the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution began in
America in 1787 when Thomas Somers reproduced textile machine
plans he imported from England. He helped to produce the Beverly
Cotton Manufactory, which Moses Brown of Providence took an
interest in. Teaming up with Samuel Slater, Moses Brown helped to
create the second cotton mill in America, a water-powered textile mill.
As the Industrial Revolution moved large numbers of workers into the
Providence in the mid-19th century
cities, a permanently landless, and therefore voteless, class developed.
By 1829, 60% of the state's free white males were ineligible to vote.
After several unsuccessful attempts to address this problem, a new state constitution was passed in 1843 allowing
landless white men to vote if they could pay a $1 poll tax.
In the early 19th Century, Rhode Island was subject to a tuberculosis
outbreak which led to public hysteria about vampirism.

Civil War to Progressive Era: 18601929

Abandoned stables, Brenton Point State Park,

Newport (1968)

During the American Civil War, Rhode Island was the first Union state
to send troops in response to President Lincoln's request for help from
the states. Rhode Island furnished 25,236 fighting men, of whom 1,685
died. On the home front, Rhode Island, along with the other northern
states, used its industrial capacity to supply the Union Army with the
materials it needed to win the war. The United States Naval Academy
moved to Rhode Island temporarily during the war.

In 1866, Rhode Island abolished racial segregation in the public schools throughout the state.
During World War I, Rhode Island furnished 28,817 soldiers, of whom 612 died. After the war, the state was hit hard
by the Spanish Influenza.
In the 1920s and 1930s, rural Rhode Island saw a surge in Ku Klux Klan membership, largely in reaction to large
waves of immigrants moving to the state. The Klan is believed to be responsible for burning the Watchman
Industrial School in Scituate, which was a school for African-American children.[16]

Rhode Island

64

Growth in the modern era: 1929present

Since the Great Depression, the Rhode Island Democratic Party has dominated local politics. Rhode Island has
comprehensive health insurance for low-income children, and a large social safety net. Many urban areas still have a
high rate of children in poverty. Due to an influx of residents from Boston, increasing housing costs have resulted in
more homeless in Rhode Island.
The 350th Anniversary of the founding of Rhode Island was celebrated
with a free concert held on the tarmac of the Quonset State Airport on
August 31, 1986. Performers included Chuck Berry, Tommy James
and headliner Bob Hope.
In 2003, a nightclub fire in West Warwick claimed one hundred lives
and resulted in nearly twice as many injured, and caught national
attention. The fire resulted in criminal sentences.
In March 2010, areas of the state received record flooding due to rising
rivers from heavy rain. The first period of rainy weather in mid-March
Providence in 2009
caused localized flooding, and two weeks later, more rain caused more
widespread flooding in many towns, especially south of Providence. Rain totals on March 2930, 2010 exceeded
14inches in many locales, resulting in the inundation of area riversespecially the Pawtuxet River which runs
through central Rhode Island. The overflow of the Pawtuxet River, nearly 11 feet (3.4m) above flood stage,
submerged a sewage plant and closed a five-mile (8km) stretch of Interstate 95. In addition, it flooded two shopping
malls, numerous businesses, and many homes in the towns of Warwick, West Warwick, Cranston, and Westerly.
Amtrak service between New York and Boston was also suspended during this period. Following the flood, Rhode
Island was in a state of emergency for two days. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was called
in to help flood victims.

Politics
Presidential elections results
Year

Republican

Democratic

2012 35.24% 157,204 62.70% 279,677

2008 35.21% 165,391 63.13% 296,571
2004 38.67% 169,046 59.42% 259,760
2000 31.91% 130,555 60.99% 249,508
1996 26.82% 104,683 59.71% 233,050
1992 29.02% 131,601 47.04% 213,299
1988 43.93% 177,761 55.64% 225,123
1984 51.66% 212,080 48.02% 197,106
1980 37.20% 154,793 47.70% 198,342
1976 44.10% 181,249 55.40% 227,636
1972 53.00% 220,383 46.80% 194,645
1968 31.80% 122,359 64.00% 246,518
1964 19.10% 74,615

80.90% 315,463

1960 36.40% 147,502 63.60% 258,032

Rhode Island

65
1956 58.30% 225,819 41.70% 161,790
1952 50.90% 210,935 49.10% 203,293

The capital of Rhode Island is Providence. The state's current governor is Lincoln Chafee (D), and the lieutenant
governor is Elizabeth H. Roberts (D). Its United States Senators are Jack Reed (D) and Sheldon Whitehouse (D).
Rhode Island's two United States Representatives are David Cicilline (D-1) and Jim Langevin (D-2). See
congressional districts map.
Rhode Island is one of a few states that do not have an official Governor's residence. See List of Rhode Island
Governors.
The state legislature is the Rhode Island General Assembly, consisting of the 75-member House of Representatives
and the 38-member Senate. Both houses of the bicameral body are currently dominated by the Democratic Party.
Because Rhode Island's population barely crosses the threshold for additional votes in both the federal House and
Electoral College, it is well represented relative to its population, with the eighth-highest number of electoral votes
and second-highest number of House Representatives per resident. Based on its area, Rhode Island even has the
highest density of electoral votes.
Federally, Rhode Island is a reliably Democratic state during presidential elections, regularly giving the Democratic
nominees one of their best showings. The state was devoted to Republicans until 1908, but has only strayed from the
Democrats 7 times in the 24 elections that have followed. The last sixteen presidential elections in Rhode Island have
resulted in the Democratic Party winning the Ocean State's Electoral College votes twelve times (The only
Republican victories during that time being in 1952, 1956, 1972 and 1984). In the 1980 presidential election, Rhode
Island was one of only six states to vote against Republican Ronald Reagan. Reagan did carry Rhode Island in his
49-state victory in 1984, but the state was Reagan's second-weakest victory (After neighboring Massachusetts). No
Republican since Reagan has even won any of the state's counties in a Presidential election; in fact, in 1988, it was
the only state where George H.W Bush lost every county (Although Bush still was able to win over 40% of the
state's popular vote, something no Republican since has done). Rhode Island was the Democrats' leading state in
1988 and 2000, and second-best in 1968, 1996 and 2004. Rhode Island's most one-sided Presidential election result
was in 1964, with over 80% of Rhode Island's votes going for Lyndon B. Johnson. In 2004, Rhode Island gave John
Kerry more than a 20-percentage-point margin of victory (the third-highest of any state), with 59.4% of its vote. All
but three of Rhode Island's 39 cities and towns voted for the Democratic candidate. The only exceptions were East
Greenwich, West Greenwich and Scituate.[17] In 2008, Rhode Island gave Barack Obama a 28-percentage-point
margin of victory (the third-highest of any state), with 63% of its vote. All but one of Rhode Island's 39 cities and
towns voted for the Democratic candidate (The exception being Scituate). Rhode Island also had one of the best
voter turnouts in the country for the 2008 presidential election, with 83% of the state's active voters voting.
Voter registration and party enrollment as of March 15, 2011
Party

Active voters Inactive voters Total voters Percentage

Democratic

124,088

10,729

134,817

19.54%

Republican

72,033

7,392

79,425

11.51%

Moderate

5,532

101

5,633

0.82%

Unaffiliated

430,123

39,953

470,076

68.13%

Total

631,776

58,175

689,951

100%

Rhode Island has abolished capital punishment, making it one of 15 states that have done so. Rhode Island abolished
the death penalty very early, just after Michigan, the first state to abolish it, and carried out its last execution in the
1840s. Rhode Island was the second to last state to make prostitution illegal. Until November 2009 Rhode Island law
made prostitution legal provided it took place indoors. In a 2009 study Rhode Island was listed as the 9th safest state

Rhode Island

66

in the country.
In 2011 Rhode Island became the third state in the United States to pass legislation to allow the use of medical
marijuana. Additionally the Rhode Island General Assembly passed civil unions and it was signed into law by
Governor Lincoln Chafee on July 2, 2011. Rhode Island became the eighth state to fully recognize either same-sex
marriage or civil unions. Same-Sex Marriage became legal on May 2, 2013 and took effect August 1.
Rhode Island has some of the highest taxes in the country, particularly its property taxes, ranking seventh in local
and state taxes, and sixth in real estate taxes.

Demographics
Historical
populations
Census

Pop.

1790

68,825

1800

69,122

0.4%

1810

76,931

11.3%

1820

83,059

8.0%

1830

97,199

17.0%

1840

108,830

12.0%

1850

147,545

35.6%

1860

174,620

18.4%

1870

217,353

24.5%

1880

276,531

27.2%

1890

345,506

24.9%

1900

428,556

24.0%

1910

542,610

26.6%

1920

604,397

11.4%

1930

687,497

13.7%

1940

713,346

3.8%

1950

791,896

11.0%

1960

859,488

8.5%

1970

946,725

10.1%

1980

947,154

0%

1990

1,003,464

5.9%

2000

1,048,319

4.5%

2010

1,052,567

0.4%

Est. 2013 1,051,511

0.1%

Source: 19102010

Rhode Island

67

The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of

Rhode Island was 1,051,511 on July 1, 2013, a 0.1% decrease since the
2010 United States Census. The center of population of Rhode Island
is located in Providence County, in the city of Cranston. A corridor of
population can be seen from the Providence area, stretching northwest
following the Blackstone River to Woonsocket, where 19th-century
mills drove industry and development.
According to the 2010 Census, 81.4% of the population was White
(76.4% non-Hispanic white), 5.7% was Black or African American,
0.6% American Indian and Alaska Native, 2.9% Asian, 0.1% Native
Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 3.3% from two or more races.
12.4% of the total population was of Hispanic or Latino origin (they
may be of any race).

Rhode Island Population Density Map

Of the people residing in Rhode Island, 58.7% were born in Rhode Island, 26.6% were born in a different state, 2.0%
were born in Puerto Rico, U.S. Island areas, or born abroad to American parent(s), and 12.6% were foreign born.[18]
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, as of 2012, Rhode Island had an estimated population of 1,050,292, which is a
decrease of -354, or -0.1%, from the prior year and an increase of 2,275, or 0.2%, since the year 2000. This includes
a natural increase since the last census of 15,220 people (that is 66,973 births minus 51,753 deaths) and an increase
due to net migration of 14,001 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net
increase of 18,965 people, and migration within the country produced a net decrease of 4,964 people.
The ten largest ancestry groups in Rhode Island are:
19.0% Italian
18.3% Irish
12.1% English
8.2% Portuguese
8.0% French
6.4% French Canadian
3.3% Dominican[19]
3.3% Puerto Rican
2.2% Chinese
1.8% Guatemalan
Hispanics in the state make up 12.8% of the population, predominantly Dominican, Puerto Rican, and Guatemalan
populations.
According to the 2000 U.S. Census, 84% of the population aged 5 and older spoke only American English, while
8.07% spoke Spanish at home, 3.80% Portuguese, 1.96% French, 1.39% Italian and 0.78% speak other languages at
home accordingly.
Whites not of Hispanic ancestry were 76.5% of the state's population in 2011. In 2011, 40.3% of Rhode Island's
children under the age of one belonged to racial or ethnic minority groups, meaning that they had at least one parent
who was not non-Hispanic white.
6.1% of Rhode Island's population were reported as under 5, 23.6% under 18, and 14.5% were 65 or older. Females
made up approximately 52% of the population.
Rhode Island has a higher percentage of Americans of Portuguese ancestry, including Portuguese Americans and
Cape Verdean Americans than any other state in the nation. Additionally, the state also has the highest percentage of
Liberian immigrants, with more than 15,000 residing in the state. Italian Americans make up a plurality in central
and southern Providence County and French Canadians form a large part of northern Providence County. Irish

Rhode Island

68

Americans have a strong presence in Newport and Kent counties. Yankees of English ancestry still have a presence
in the state as well, especially in Washington County, and are often referred to as "Swamp Yankees." African
immigrants, including Cape Verdean Americans, Liberian Americans, Nigerian Americans and Ghanaian
Americans, form significant and growing communities in Rhode Island.
Although Rhode Island has the smallest land area of all fifty states, it has the second highest population density of
any state in the Union, second only to that of New Jersey.

Religion
A Pew survey of Rhode Island residents' religious self-identification
showed the following distribution of affiliations: Protestant 27%,
Mormonism 0.5%, Jewish 1%, Roman Catholic 43%, Orthodox 1%,
Non-religious 23%, Jehovah's Witness 1%, Hinduism 0.5%, Buddhism
1% and Islam 0.5%.[20] The largest denominations are the Roman
Catholic Church with 456,598 adherents, the Episcopal Church (United
States) with 19,377, and the American Baptist Churches USA with
15,220 adherents.
The Jewish community of Rhode Island is centered in the Providence
area, and emerged during a wave of Jewish immigration,
(predominately from the Shtetl between 1880 and 1920. The presence
of the Touro Synagogue in Newport, the oldest existing synagogue in
the United States, emphasizes that these second-wave immigrants did
not create Rhode Island's first Jewish community; a comparatively
smaller wave of Portuguese Jews immigrated to Newport during the
colonial era.
Rhode Island has one of the highest percentage of Roman Catholics in
the nation mainly due to large Irish, Italian, and French Canadian
immigration in the past; recently, significant Portuguese and various
Hispanic communities have also been established in the state. Though
it has one of the highest overall Catholic percentages of any state, none
of Rhode Island's individual counties ranks among the 10 most
Catholic in the United States, as Catholics are very evenly spread
throughout the state.

Grace Church, a historic church at

175 Mathewson Street in Providence,
Rhode Island.

Touro Synagogue

Rhode Island

69

Cities and towns

Rhode Island is divided into five counties, but along with Connecticut
and to a partial extent the rest of New England, it has no county
government. The entire state is divided into municipalities, which
handle all local government affairs.
There are 39 cities and towns in Rhode Island. Major population
centers today result from historical factorswith the advent of the
water-powered mill development took place predominantly along the
Blackstone, Seekonk, and Providence Rivers. Providence is the base of
a large metropolitan area.

A historic side street in Newport

Ranked by population, the state's 15 largest municipalities are:

1. Providence (178,042)
2. Warwick (82,672)
3. Cranston (80,387)
4. Pawtucket (71,148)
5. East Providence (47,034)
6. Woonsocket (40,186)
7. Coventry (36,014)
8. Cumberland (32,506)
9. North Providence (32,078)
10. South Kingstown (30,639)
11. West Warwick (29,191)
12. Johnston (28,768)
13. North Kingstown (26,486)
14. Newport (24,672)
15. Bristol (22,954)
In common with many other New England states, some of Rhode Island's cities and towns are further partitioned into
villages. Notable villages include Kingston, in the town of South Kingstown, which houses the University of Rhode
Island, Wickford, in the town of North Kingstown, the site of an annual international art festival, and the Town Hall
of the Town of South Kingstown is located in the Village of Wakefield.

Economy
The Rhode Island economy had a colonial base in fishing. The
Blackstone River Valley was a major contributor to the American
Industrial Revolution. It was in Pawtucket that Samuel Slater set up
Slater Mill in 1793, using the waterpower of the Blackstone River to
power his cotton mill. For a while, Rhode Island was one of the leaders
in textiles. However, with the Great Depression, most textile factories
relocated to southern US states. The textile industry still constitutes a
part of the Rhode Island economy, but does not have the same power
that it once had.
Other important industries in Rhode Island's past included toolmaking,
costume jewelry and silverware. An interesting by-product of Rhode

Textron's headquarters, in the company of One

Financial Plaza and the Rhode Island Hospital
Trust building.

Rhode Island

70

Island's industrial history is the number of abandoned factoriesmany

of them now being used for condominiums, museums, offices, and
low-income and elderly housing. Today, much of the economy of
Rhode Island is based in services, particularly healthcare and
education, and still to some extent, manufacturing.
The headquarters of Citizens Financial Group, the 14th largest bank in
the United States, is located in Providence. The Fortune 500 companies
CVS Caremark and Textron are based in Woonsocket and Providence,
respectively. FM Global, GTECH Corporation, Hasbro, American
Power Conversion, Nortek, and Amica Mutual Insurance are all
Fortune 1000 companies that are based in Rhode Island.

Narragansett Towers and Narragansett Town

Beach, one of Rhode Island's tourist destinations.

Rhode Island's 2000 total gross state product was $33billion, placing it 45th in the nation. Its 2000 per capita
personal income was $29,685, 16th in the nation. Rhode Island has the lowest level of energy consumption per capita
of any state. Additionally, Rhode Island is a rated as the 5th most energy efficient state in the country.[21] In
December 2012, the state's unemployment rate was 10.2%.
Health services are Rhode Island's largest industry. Second is tourism, supporting 39,000 jobs, with tourism-related
sales at $3.26 billion in the year 2000. The third-largest industry is manufacturing. Its industrial outputs are costume
jewelry, fabricated metal products, electrical equipment, machinery, shipbuilding and boatbuilding. Rhode Island's
agricultural outputs are nursery stock, vegetables, dairy products and eggs.
Rhode Island's taxes were appreciably higher than neighboring states, because Rhode Island's income tax was based
on 25% of the payer's federal income tax payment. Former Governor Donald Carcieri claimed that the higher tax rate
had an inhibitory effect on business growth in the state and called for reductions to increase the competitiveness of
the state's business environment. In 2010, the Rhode Island General Assembly passed a new state income tax
structure that was then signed into law on June 9, 2010, by Governor Carcieri. The income tax overhaul has now
made Rhode Island competitive with other New England states by lowering its maximum tax rate to 5.99% and has
reduced the number of tax brackets to three. The state's first income tax was first enacted in 1971.

Largest employers
As of March 2011, the largest employers in Rhode Island (excluding employees of municipalities) are the
following:[22]
Rank

Employer

Employees

Notes

State of Rhode Island

14,904

Full-time equivalents

Lifespan Hospital Group

11,869

Rhode Island Hospital (7,024 employees), The Miriam Hospital (2,410), Newport
Hospital (919), Emma Pendleton Bradley Hospital (800), Lifespan Corporate
Services (580), Newport Alliance Newport (68), Lifespan MSO (53), and Home
Medical (15)

U.S. federal government

11,581

Excludes 3,000 active duty military personnel and 7,000 reservists, but includes 250
employees of the Naval War College.

Roman Catholic Diocese of Providence

6,200

Care New England

5,953

Employees at: Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island (3,134), Kent County
Memorial Hospital (1,850), Butler Hospital (800), VNA of Care New England
(140), and Care New England (29)

CVS Caremark

5,800

The corporate headquarters are at Woonsocket (5,630 employees). The corporation

also has 170 employees at Pharmacare

Rhode Island

71

Citizens Financial Group

(subsidiary of The Royal Bank of
Scotland Group)

4,991

Brown University

4,800

Stop & Shop Supermarket

(subsidiary of Ahold)

3,632

10

Bank of America

3,500

11

Fidelity Investments

2,934

2,434 employees in Smithfield and 500 in Providence

12

Rhode Island ARC

2,851

Employees at James L. Maher Center (700), The Homestead Group (650), Cranston
Arc (374), The ARC of Blackstone Valley (350), Kent County ARC (500), The
Fogarty Center (225), and Westerly Chariho, ARC (52)

13

MetLife Insurance Co.

2,604

14

General Dynamics Corp.

2,243

15

University of Rhode Island

2,155

16

Wal-Mart

2,078

17

The Jan Companies

2050

18

Shaw's Supermarkets
(subsidiary of Albertsons LLC)

1,900

19

St. Joseph Health Services and Hospitals 1,865

of Rhode Island/CharterCARE Health
Partners

20

The Home Depot, Inc.

Excludes student employees.

2,200 employees at General Dynamics Electric Boat in North Kingstown, and 43

employees at General Dynamics Information Technology Newport in Middletown
adjacent to the Naval Undersea Warfare Center

Employees at Jan-Co Burger King (1,500) (Burger King franchiser); Newport

Creamery, LLC (400), Quidnessett Country Club (100), and The Country Inn (50)

Employees at Our Lady of Fatima Hospital (1,343) and St. Joseph Hospital for
Specialty Care (522)

1,780

Transportation
Bus
The Rhode Island Public Transit Authority (RIPTA) operates statewide
intra- and intercity bus transport from its hubs at Kennedy Plaza in
Providence, Pawtucket, and Newport. RIPTA bus routes serve 38 of
Rhode Island's 39 cities and towns (New Shoreham on Block Island
being the only exception). RIPTA currently operates 58 routes,
including daytime trolley service (using trolley-style replica buses) in
Providence and Newport.

Ferry

A RIPTA bus at Kennedy Plaza

From 2000 through 2008, RIPTA offered seasonal ferry service linking
Providence and Newport (already connected by highway) funded by grant money from the United States Department
of Transportation. Though the service was popular with residents and tourists, RIPTA was unable to continue on
after the federal funding ended. Service was discontinued as of 2010. The privately run Block Island Ferry links
Block Island with Newport and Narragansett with traditional and fast-ferry service, while the Prudence Island Ferry
connects Bristol with Prudence Island. Private ferry services also link several Rhode Island communities with ports
in Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York. The Vineyard Fast Ferry offers seasonal service to Martha's Vineyard

Rhode Island
from Quonset Point with bus and train connections to Providence, Boston, and New York. Viking Fleet offers
seasonal service from Block Island to New London, Connecticut and Montauk, New York.

Rail
The MBTA Commuter Rail's Providence/Stoughton Line links Providence and T.F. Green Airport with Boston. The
line was later extended southward to Wickford Junction, with service beginning April 23, 2012. The state hopes to
extend the MBTA line to Kingston and Westerly. as well as explore the possibility of extending Connecticut's Shore
Line East to T.F. Green Airport. Amtrak's Acela Express stops at Providence Station (the only Acela stop in Rhode
Island), linking Providence to other cities in the Northeast Corridor. Amtrak's Northeast Regional service makes
stops at Providence Station, Kingston, and Westerly.

Aviation
Rhode Island's primary airport for passenger and cargo transport is T. F. Green Airport in Warwick, though Rhode
Islanders who wish to travel internationally on direct flights or who seek a greater availability of flights and
destinations often fly through Logan International Airport in Boston.

Limited access highways

Interstate 95 runs southwest to northeast across the state, linking Rhode Island with other states along the East Coast.
Interstate 295 functions as a partial beltway encircling Providence to the west. Interstate 195 provides a
limited-access highway connection from Providence (and Connecticut and New York via I-95) to Cape Cod. Initially
built as the easternmost link in the (now cancelled) extension of Interstate 84 from Hartford, Connecticut, a portion
of U.S. Route 6 through northern Rhode Island is limited-access and links I-295 with downtown Providence.
Several Rhode Island highways extend the state's limited-access highway network. RI-4 is a major north-south
freeway linking Providence and Warwick (via I-95) with suburban and beach communities along Narragansett Bay.
RI-10 is an urban connector linking downtown Providence with Cranston and Johnston. RI-37 is an important
east-west freeway through Cranston and Warwick and links I-95 with I-295. RI-99 links Woonsocket with
Providence (via RI-146). RI-146 travels through the Blackstone Valley, linking Providence and I-95 with Worcester,
Massachusetts and the Massachusetts Turnpike. RI-403 links RI-4 with Quonset Point.
Several bridges cross Narragansett Bay connecting Aquidneck Island
and Conanicut Island to the mainland, most notably the Claiborne Pell
Newport Bridge and the Jamestown-Verrazano Bridge.

Bicycle paths
The East Bay Bike Path stretches from Providence to Bristol along the
eastern shore of Narragansett Bay, while the Blackstone River
Bikeway will eventually link Providence and Worcester. In 2011,
The Claiborne Pell Newport Bridge
Rhode Island completed work on a marked on-road bicycle path
through Pawtucket and Providence, connecting the East Bay Bike Path with the Blackstone River Bikeway,
completing a 33.5 miles (53.9km) bicycle route through the eastern side of the state. The William C. O'Neill Bike
Path (commonly known as the South County Bike Path) is a 6-mile path through South Kingstown and Narragansett.
The 14-mile Washington Secondary Bike Path stretches from Cranston to Coventry, and the 2-mile Ten Mile River
Greenway path runs through East Providence and Pawtucket.

72

Rhode Island

73

Education
Colleges and universities
Rhode Island has several colleges and universities:

Brown University
Bryant University
Community College of Rhode Island
Johnson & Wales University

Naval War College

New England Institute of Technology
Providence College
Rhode Island College
Rhode Island School of Design
Roger Williams University
Salve Regina University
University of Rhode Island

University Hall at Brown University is one of the

oldest academic buildings in the United States.

Bello Center at Bryant University

Culture
Some Rhode Islanders speak with a non-rhotic accent that many
compare to a "Brooklyn" or a cross between a New York and Boston
accent ("water" becomes "wata"). Many Rhode Islanders distinguish
the aw sound [], as one might hear in New Jersey; e.g., the word
coffee is pronounced [kfi] KAW-fee. This type of accent was
brought to the region by early settlers from eastern England in the
Puritan migration to New England in the mid-seventeenth century.[23]
Rhode Islanders refer to drinking fountains as "bubblers," (pronounced
bub-luhs.)

Beavertail State Park

Nicknamed "The Ocean State", the nautical nature of Rhode Island's

geography pervades its culture. Newport Harbor, in particular, holds many pleasure boats. In the lobby of the state's
main airport, T. F. Green, is a large life size sailboat, and the state's license plates depict an ocean wave or a sailboat.
Additionally, the large number of beaches in Washington County lures many Rhode Islanders south for summer
vacation.
The state was notorious for organized crime activity from the 1950s into the 1990s when the Patriarca crime family
held sway over most of New England from its Providence headquarters.

Rhode Island

74

Rhode Islanders developed a unique style of architecture in the 17th

century, called the stone-ender.
Rhode Island is the only state to still celebrate Victory over Japan Day.
It is known locally as "VJ Day", or simply "Victory Day".

Redwood Library and Athenaeum

Food and beverages

Several foods and dishes are unique to Rhode Island and some are hard to find outside of the state. Hot wieners,
which are sometimes called gaggers, weinies, or New York System wieners, are smaller than a standard hot dog,
served covered in a meat sauce, chopped onions, mustard, and celery salt. Famous to Rhode Island is Snail Salad,
which is served at numerous restaurants throughout the state. The dish is normally prepared "family style" with over
five pounds of snails mixed in with other ingredients commonly found in seafood dishes. Grinders are submarine
sandwiches, with a popular version being the Italian grinder, which is made with cold cuts (usually ham, prosciutto,
capicola, salami, and Provolone cheese). Linguia or chourio (a spicy Portuguese sausage) and peppers, eaten with
hearty bread, is also popular among the state's large Portuguese community.
Pizza strips are prepared in Italian bakeries and sold in most supermarkets and convenience stores. They are
rectangular strips of pizza without cheese. Their rich flavor comes solely from a dense, zesty tomato paste baked on
a half inch tall pan pizza crust, and may be enjoyed warm or cold. Party pizza is a box of these pizza strips. Spinach
pies are similar to a calzone but filled with seasoned spinach instead of meat, sauce and cheese. Variations can
include black olives or pepperoni with the spinach.
As in colonial times, johnnycakes are made with corn meal and water, then pan-fried much like pancakes. During
fairs and carnivals, Rhode Islanders enjoy dough boys, plate-sized disks of fried dough sprinkled with powdered
sugar (or pizza sauce). Zeppoles are Italian doughnut-like pastries traditionally eaten on Saint Joseph's Day, often
made with exposed centers of vanilla pudding, cream filling, or ricotta cream, and sometimes topped with a cherry.
As in many coastal states, seafood is readily available. Shellfish is
extremely popular, with clams being used in multiple ways. The
quahog, from the Narragansett Indian word "poquauhock"; see A Key
into the Language of America by Roger Williams 1643) is a large clam
usually used in a chowder. It is also ground and mixed with stuffing
(and sometimes spicy minced sausage) and then baked in its shell to
form a stuffie. Steamed clams are also a very popular dish. Calamari
(squid) is sliced into rings and fried and is served as an appetizer in
most Italian restaurants, typically Sicilian-style, i.e. tossed with sliced
banana peppers and with marinara sauce on the side.

Waterplace Park in Providence

Rhode Island, like the rest of New England, has a tradition of clam chowder. While both the white New England
variety and the red Manhattan variety are popular, there is also a unique clear chowder, known as Rhode Island Clam
Chowder available in many restaurants. According to Good Eats, the addition of tomatoes in place of milk was
initially the work of Portuguese immigrants in Rhode Island, as tomato-based stews were already a traditional part of

Rhode Island

75

Portuguese cuisine, and milk was costlier than tomatoes. Scornful New Englanders called this modified version
"Manhattan-style" clam chowder because, in their view, calling someone a New Yorker was an insult.
A culinary tradition in Rhode Island is the clam cake. The clam cake (also known as a clam fritter outside of Rhode
Island) is a deep fried ball of buttery dough with chopped bits of clam inside. They are sold by the half-dozen or
dozen in most seafood restaurants around the state. The quintessential summer meal in Rhode Island is chowder and
clam cakes.
Clams Casino originated in Rhode Island after being invented by Julius Keller, the maitre d' in the original Casino
next to the seaside Towers in Narragansett.[24] Clams Casino resemble the beloved stuffed quahog but are generally
made with the smaller littleneck or cherrystone clam and are unique in their use of bacon as a topping.
According to a Providence Journal article, the state features both the highest number and highest density of
coffee/doughnut shops per capita in the country, with 342 coffee/doughnut shops in the state. At one point, Dunkin'
Donuts alone had over 225 locations.
The official state drink of Rhode Island is coffee milk, a beverage created by mixing milk with coffee syrup. This
unique syrup was invented in the state and is sold in almost all Rhode Island supermarkets, as well as border states.
Although coffee milk contains some caffeine, it is sold in school cafeterias throughout the state. Strawberry milk is
also as popular as chocolate milk.

An example of a "low" three digit license plate

Famous Rhode Islanders

Rhode Island Statesymbols
Animate insignia
Bird(s)

Rhode Island Red Chicken

Fish

Striper Bass

Flower(s) Violet
Tree

Red maple

Inanimate insignia
Beverage Coffee milk
Food

Rhode Island Greening Apple

Mineral

Bowenite

Rock

Cumberlandite

Shell

Northern Quahog

Slogan(s) Unwind, "Hope"

Soil

Narragansett

Song(s)

Rhode Island,
Rhode Island, It's for Me

Rhode Island

76
Tartan

Rhode Island Tartan

[25]

Wikipedia:Link rot

Route marker(s)

State Quarter

Released in 2001

Lists of United States state insignia

Low numbered license plates

Since 1904, when the first black and white porcelain license plates were issued by the state, politicians have
distributed low-numbered plates as a way to reward supporters or associates; such plates have become a status
symbol. State officials have seemingly legitimized this by making Rhode Island one of the few states which allows
the owner to leave license plates to other family members in their will. For "preferred plates", (Passenger plates with
1 letter and 1-3 digits or 2 letters with 1-2 digits, Passenger plates with 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 digits,
Commercial/Motorcycle plates with 1-4 digits, Combination plates with 1-4 digits, Suburban/War Veteran's plates
with 1-3 digits, and National Guard plates with 1-2 digits), there has also been an official license plate lottery
through the Governor's Office. The value depends on the category of the license plate, the general "Ocean State" is
the most valuable followed by "Combination" or "Suburban" license plates; license plates under the category "Taxi",
"Commercial", "State", "Public" or "Bus" are less important because the total number of these plates are fewer. The
main branch of the Division of Motor Vehicles is cooperative in allowing choosing the two letters beginning the
license plates if available in the plate room, as long as not a preferred plate.

Popular culture

Rhode Island

77

The Farrelly brothers and Seth MacFarlane depict Rhode Island in

popular culture, often making comedic parodies of the state.
MacFarlane's television series Family Guy is based in a fictional Rhode
Island city named Quahog, and notable local events and celebrities are
regularly lampooned. Peter is seen working at the Pawtucket brewery,
and other state locations are mentioned.
The movie High Society, starring Bing Crosby, Grace Kelly and Frank
Sinatra, was set in Newport, Rhode Island.
The film adaptation of The Great Gatsby from 1974 was also filmed in
Newport.

Some Rhode Islanders have second "summer

homes" by the coast.

Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy Onassis and John F. Kennedy were

married at St. Mary's church in Newport, RI. Their reception was held at Hammersmith Farm, the Bouvier summer
home in Newport.
Cartoonist Don Bousquet, a state icon, has made a career out of Rhode Island culture, drawing Rhode Island-themed
gags in the Providence Journal and Yankee magazine. These cartoons have been reprinted in the Quahog series of
paperbacks (I Brake for Quahogs, Beware of the Quahog and The Quahog Walks Among Us.) Bousquet has also
collaborated with humorist and Providence Journal columnist Mark Patinkin on two books: The Rhode Island
Dictionary and The Rhode Island Handbook.
The 1998 film Meet Joe Black was filmed at Aldrich Mansion in the Warwick Neck area of Warwick, RI.
Body of Proof's first season was filmed entirely in Rhode Island. The show premiered on March 29, 2011.
The 2007 Steve Carell and Dane Cook film Dan in Real Life was filmed in various coastal towns in the state. The
sunset scene with the entire family on the beach takes place at Napatree Point.
Jersey Shore star Pauly D filmed part of his spin-off, The Pauly D Project in his hometown of Johnston.

Famous firsts in Rhode Island

Rhode Island is famous for being the first in many respects; some of the state's most "famous firsts" include enacting
the first law prohibiting slavery in North America on May 18, 1652. Slater Mill in Pawtucket was the first
commercially successful cotton-spinning mill with a fully mechanized power system in America and was the
birthplace of the Industrial Revolution in the US. The oldest Fourth of July Parade in the country is still held
annually in Bristol, Rhode Island. The first Baptist Church in America was founded in Providence in 1638.[26] Ann
Smith Franklin of the Newport Mercury was the first female newspaper editor in America (August 22, 1762). She
was the editor of "The Newport Mercury" in Newport, Rhode Island. Touro Synagogue, the first synagogue in
America, was founded in Newport in 1763. The first armed act of rebellion in America against the British Crown
was the boarding and burning of the Revenue Schooner Gaspee in Narragansett Bay on June 10, 1772. The idea of a
Continental Congress was first proposed at a town meeting in Providence on May 17, 1774. Rhode Island elected the
first delegates (Stephen Hopkins and Samuel Ward) to the Continental Congress on June 15, 1774. The Rhode Island
General Assembly created the first standing army in the colonies (1,500 men) on April 22, 1775. On June 15, 1775,
the first naval engagement of the American Revolution occurred between a Colonial Sloop commanded by Capt.
Abraham Whipple and an armed tender of the British Frigate Rose. The tender was chased aground and captured.
Later in June, the General Assembly created the first American Navy when it commissioned the Sloops Katy and
Washington, armed with 24 guns and commanded by Abraham Whipple, who was promoted to Commodore. Rhode
Island was the first Colony to declare independence from Britain on May 4, 1776. Pelham Street in Newport was the
first in America to be illuminated by gaslight in 1806. The first strike in the United States in which women
participated occurred in Pawtucket in 1824. Watch Hill has the nation's oldest carousel that has been in continuous
operation since 1850. The motion picture machine (a machine showing animated pictures) was patented in

Rhode Island
Providence on April 23, 1867. The first lunch wagon in America was introduced in Providence in 1872. The first
nine hole golf course in America was completed in Newport in 1890. The first state health laboratory was established
in Providence on September 1, 1894 The Rhode Island State House was the first building with an all-marble dome to
be built in the United States (18951901) The first automobile race on a track was held in Cranston on September 7,
1896. The first automobile parade was held in Newport on September 7, 1899, on the grounds of Belcourt Castle.
The first NFL night game was held on November 6, 1929, at Providence's Kinsley Park. The Chicago (now Arizona)
Cardinals defeated the Providence Steam Roller 160. In 1980, Rhode Island became the first state to decriminalize
prostitution indoors, but indoor prostitution was outlawed again in 2009; see Prostitution in Rhode Island.

Sports
Rhode Island has two professional sports teams, both of which are top-level minor league affiliates for teams in
Boston. The Pawtucket Red Sox baseball team, of the Triple-A International League, are an affiliate of the Boston
Red Sox. They play at McCoy Stadium in Pawtucket and have won three league titles, the Governors' Cup, in 1973,
1984, and 2012. McCoy Stadium also has the distinction of being home to the longest professional baseball game
ever played 33 innings. The other professional minor league team is the Providence Bruins ice hockey team, of the
American Hockey League, who are an affiliate of the Boston Bruins. They play in the Dunkin' Donuts Center in
Providence and won the AHL's Calder Cup during the 199899 AHL season. Additionally, Rhode Island is home to
the Rhode Island Rebellion rugby league team, a Semi-Professional Rugby League team that competes in the USA
Rugby League. The Rebellion play their home games at Classical High School in Providence. The National Football
League's New England Patriots and Major League Soccer's New England Revolution play at Gillette Stadium in
nearby Foxborough, Massachusetts, approximately 18 miles (29km) north of Providence and 9 miles (14km) from
the state's border.
There are four NCAA Division I schools in Rhode Island. All four schools compete in different conferences. The
Brown University Bears compete in the Ivy League, the Bryant University Bulldogs compete in the Northeast
Conference, the Providence College Friars compete in the Big East Conference and the University of Rhode Island
Rams compete in the Atlantic-10 Conference. Three of the schools' football teams compete in the Football
Championship Subdivision, the second-highest level of college football in the United States. Brown plays FCS
football in the Ivy League, Bryant plays FCS football in the Northeast Conference, and Rhode Island plays FCS
football in the Colonial Athletic Association. All four of the Division I schools in the State compete in an intrastate
all-sports competition known as the Ocean State Cup, with Bryant winning the most recent cup in 201112 academic
year.
Rhode Island also has a long and storied history for athletics. Prior to the great expansion of athletic teams all over
the country Providence and Rhode Island in general played a great role in supporting teams. The Providence Grays
won the first World Championship in baseball history in 1884. The team played their home games at the old Messer
Street Field in Providence. The Grays played in the National League from 1878 to 1885. They defeated the New
York Metropolitans of the American Association in a best of five game series at the Polo Grounds in New York.
Providence won three straight games to become the first champions in major league baseball history. Babe Ruth
played for the minor league Providence Grays of 1914 and hit his only official minor league home run for that team
before being recalled by the Grays' parent club, the Boston Red Stockings.
A now-defunct professional football team, the Providence Steam Roller, won the 1928 NFL title. They played in a
10,000 person stadium called the Cycledrome. A team by a similar name, the Providence Steamrollers, played in the
Basketball Association of America; which would become the National Basketball Association.
From 1930 to 1983, America's Cup races were sailed off Newport, and the both extreme-sport X Games and Gravity
Games were founded and hosted in the state's capital city.
The International Tennis Hall of Fame is in Newport at the Newport Casino, site of the first U.S. National
Championships in 1881. The Hall of Fame and Museum were established in 1954 by James Van Alen as "a shrine to

78

Rhode Island

79

the ideals of the game". The Hall of Fame Museum encompasses over 20,000 square feet (1,900m2) of tennis
history, chronicling tennis excellence from the 12th century to today. The Hall of Fame has 13 grass courts, and is
the site of the Hall of Fame Tennis Championships, the only professional tennis event played on grass courts in the
United States. The first members of the Hall of Fame were inducted in 1955, and as of 2008, there are 207 players,
contributors, and court tennis players in the Hall of Fame.

McCoy Stadium where the

Pawtucket Red Sox play baseball

Dunkin' Donuts
Center

Bryant
University's
Bulldogs
Stadium

University of
Rhode Island's
Meade Stadium
and Ryan
Center

1884 Baseball Champion

Providence Grays

Landmarks
The state capitol building is made of white Georgian marble. On top is
the world's fourth largest self-supported marble dome.[27] It houses the
Rhode Island Charter granted by King Charles II in 1663, the Brown
University charter and other state treasures.
The First Baptist Church in America is the oldest Baptist church in the
Americas, founded by Roger Williams in 1638.
The first fully automated post office in the country is located in
Providence. There are many historic mansions in the seaside city of
Newport, including The Breakers, Marble House and Belcourt Castle.
Also located there is the Touro Synagogue, dedicated on December 2,
1763, considered by locals to be the first synagogue within the United
States (see below for information on New York City's claim), and still
serving. The synagogue showcases the religious freedoms that were
established by Roger Williams as well as impressive architecture in a
mix of the classic colonial and Sephardic style. The Newport Casino is
a National Historic Landmark building complex that presently houses
the International Tennis Hall of Fame and features an active
grass-court tennis club.

Rhode Island State House

The Breakers Mansion

Rhode Island

80

Scenic Route 1A (known locally as Ocean Road) is in Narragansett.

"The Towers", a large stone arch, is located in Narragansett. It was
once the entrance to a famous Narragansett casino that burned down in
1900. The Towers now serve as an event venue and host the local
Chamber of Commerce, which operates a tourist information center.
Rhode Island also has three of the nations tallest bridges.[citation needed]
The Newport Tower has been hypothesized to be of Viking origin,
although most experts believe it was a Colonial-era windmill.

Nightingale-Brown House

References
[1] Elevation adjusted to North American Vertical Datum of 1988
[2] http:/ / www. ri. gov
[3] Jensen, Founding, 679; Friedenwald, Interpretation, 9293. Retrieved April 12, 2009.
[4] Nieuwe Wereldt ofte Beschrijvinghe van West-Indien, uit veelerhande Schriften ende Aen-teekeningen van verscheyden Natien (Leiden,
Bonaventure & Abraham Elseviers, 1625) (http:/ / www. s4ulanguages. com/ delaet. html). An English translation of the relevant text:
"Documentary History of Rhode Island (1916): archive.org (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ documentaryhisto02chap/
documentaryhisto02chap_djvu. txt)
[5] Elisha Potter, 1835. The Early History of Narragansett. Collections of the Rhode-Island Historical Society, v3. books.google.com (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=RDIqdXhz9A4C& ots=4A087c9MfB& dq=potter's early history of narragansett& pg=PA22#v=snippet&
q=dutch name& f=false)
[6] Samuel G. Arnold, History of Rhode Island (1859). books.google.com (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=iUJg2uqb7LgC&
pg=PA70#v=onepage& q& f=false)
[7] SOS.ri.gov (http:/ / sos. ri. gov/ library/ history/ name/ )
[8] Hamilton B. Staples, "Origins of the Names of the State of the Union", Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, vol. 68 (1882):
Google Docs, Origins of the Names of the State of the Union (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=msILAAAAIAAJ& lpg=PA368&
ots=MxZLoQLqKW& dq="commemorated the fiery aspect of the place"& pg=PA367#v=onepage& q="commemorated the fiery aspect of the
place"& f=false)
[9] RI closer to changing state name over slavery (http:/ / triad. news14. com/ content/ top_stories/ 611218/
ri-closer-to-changing-state-name-over-slavery/ )
[10] Recorded Highest Temperatures by State (http:/ / www. infoplease. com/ ipa/ A0001416. html) Information Please Almanac
[11] Recorded Lowest Temperatures by State (http:/ / www. infoplease. com/ ipa/ A0001416. html) Information Please Almanac
[12] An Album of Rhode Island History by Patrick T. Conley
[13] King Philip's War (http:/ / www. historyplace. com/ specials/ kingphilip. htm)
[14] Know Rhode Island, RI Secretary of State (http:/ / sos. ri. gov/ library/ history/ independence/ )
[15] Slavery, the Brown Family of Providence, and Brown University, Brown News Bureau (http:/ / www. brown. edu/ Administration/
News_Bureau/ Info/ Slavery. html)
[16] Robert Smith, In the 1920s the Klan Ruled the Countryside (http:/ / www. projo. com/ specials/ century/ month4/ 426nw1. htm), The Rhode
Island Century, The Providence Journal, April 26, 1999.
[17] taken from web.mit.edu (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ cstewart/ www/ election2004. html)
[18] American FactFinder - Results (http:/ / factfinder2. census. gov/ faces/ tableservices/ jsf/ pages/ productview. xhtml?src=bkmk)
[19] American FactFinder - Results (http:/ / factfinder2. census. gov/ faces/ tableservices/ jsf/ pages/ productview.
xhtml?pid=DEC_10_SF1_QTP10& prodType=table)
[20] http:/ / religions. pewforum. org/ maps
[21] Kuffner, Alex. (October 20, 2011) RI moves up in state energy efficiency rankings | Business | providencejournal.com | The Providence
Journal (http:/ / news. providencejournal. com/ business/ 2011/ 10/ ri-moves-up-in-state-energy-efficiency-rankings. html#. TqDdkpwu5EE)
[22] " Top Employers in Rhode Island (http:/ / www. riedc. com/ files/ Top Employers ranking 2011. pdf)." Rhode Island Economic
Development Corporation
[23] David Hackett Fischer, Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America (Oxford University Press, 1989), pg. 13-207 (ISBN 0195069056)
[24] Ruth Reichl, John Willoughby, Zanne Early Stewart The Gourmet Cookbook: More Than 1000 Recipes Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2006
ISBN 0-618-80692-X, 9780618806928 1056 pages page 50 The Gourmet Cookbook (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=PwJgZhXZVNkC& pg=PA50& dq=clams+ casino+ rhode+ island)
[25] http:/ / www. standrewsri. org/ tartan. htm
[26] The First Baptist Church (http:/ / www. fbcia. org/ page110. html)
[27] visitrhodeisland.com (http:/ / www. visitrhodeisland. com/ attractions/ propertyDetail. aspx?id=1251& ref=/ attractions/ index. aspx),
attractions, state Capitol]

Rhode Island

Bibliography
Primary sources
Dwight, Timothy. Travels Through New England and New York (circa 1800) 4 vol. (1969) Online at: vol 1 (http:/
/www-gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/cgi-bin/digbib.cgi?PPN244525439); vol 2 (http://dz-srv1.sub.
uni-goettingen.de/sub/digbib/loader?did=D6116); vol 3 (http://dz-srv1.sub.uni-goettingen.de/sub/digbib/
loader?did=D6784); vol 4 (http://dz-srv1.sub.uni-goettingen.de/sub/digbib/loader?did=D6003)
McPhetres, S. A. A political manual for the campaign of 1868, for use in the New England states, containing the
population and latest election returns of every town (1868) (http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/
text-idx?c=moa;idno=ADH0309)
Rhode Island's Geography and Climate (http://www.sec.state.ri.us/resources_for/library/riinfo/riinfo/
knowrhode)

Secondary sources
Adams, James Truslow. The Founding of New England (1921)
Adams, James Truslow. Revolutionary New England, 16911776 (1923)
Adams, James Truslow. New England in the Republic, 17761850 (1926)
Andrews, Charles M. The Fathers of New England: A Chronicle of the Puritan Commonwealths (1919). Short
survey by leading scholar.
Axtell, James, ed. The American People in Colonial New England (1973), new social history
Brewer, Daniel Chauncey. Conquest of New England by the Immigrant (1926).
Coleman, Peter J. The Transformation of Rhode Island, 17901860 (1963)
Conforti, Joseph A. Imagining New England: Explorations of Regional Identity from the Pilgrims to the
Mid-Twentieth Century (2001)
Dennison, George M. The Dorr War: Republicanism on Trial, 18311861 (1976)
Hall, Donald, ed. Encyclopedia of New England (2005)
Karlsen, Carol F. The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England (1998)
Lovejoy, David S. Rhode Island Politics and the American Revolution, 17601776 (1969)
McLaughlin, William. Rhode Island: A Bicentennial History (1976)
Palfrey, John Gorham. History of New England (5 vol 185990) (http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/
text-idx?c=moa;idno=AJA1967)
Moondancer & Strong Woman "Cultural History of the Native Peoples of Southern New England". Bauu Press.
(2007).
Slavery in the North Slavery in Rhode Island "Slavery in Rhode Island" (http://www.slavenorth.com/
rhodeisland.htm). Slavenorth.com. Retrieved July 31, 2010.
Sletcher, Michael. New England. (2004).
Stephenson, Nathaniel Wright. Nelson W. Aldrich, a Leader in American Politics (1930).
WPA. Guide to Rhode Island (1939).
Zimmerman, Joseph F. The New England Town Meeting: Democracy in Action (http://www.questia.com/
library/book/the-new-england-town-meeting-democracy-in-action-by-joseph-f-zimmerman.jsp). (1999)

81

Rhode Island

82

External links
State of Rhode Island government website (http://www.ri.gov/index.php)
Rhode Island (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/North_America/United_States/Rhode_Island/) on the Open
Directory Project
Energy & Environmental Data for Rhode Island (http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/state_energy_profiles.
cfm?sid=RI)
USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Rhode Island (http://www.usgs.gov/state/state.
asp?State=RI)
U.S. Census Bureau (http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/44000.html)
Rhode Island laws (http://www.rilin.state.ri.us/Statutes/)
Scituate Art Festival (http://www.scituateartfestival.org)
Rhode Island State Facts (http://www.ers.usda.gov/StateFacts/RI.htm)
Detailed Historical Article from the 1911 Encyclopdia Britannica (http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/RAY_RHU/
RHODE_ISLAND.html)
Indian Place Names (http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~rigenweb/IndianPlaceNames.html)

Geographic data related to Rhode Island (http://www.openstreetmap.org/browse/relation/165795) at

OpenStreetMap

Rhode Island travel guide from Wikivoyage

Rhode Island State Databases (http://wikis.ala.org/godort/index.php/Rhode_Island) Annotated list of
searchable databases produced by Rhode Island state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents
Roundtable of the American Library Association.
Precededby
List of U.S. states by date of statehood
Succeededby
North Carolina Ratified Constitution on May 29, 1790 (13th) Vermont

Coordinates: 41.7N 71.5W (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Rhode_Island&
params=41.7_N_71.5_W_region:US-RI_type:adm1st_scale:1000000)

Kolkata

83

Kolkata
Kolkata

Calcutta

Metropolis

Clockwise from top: Victoria Memorial, St. Paul's Cathedral, central business district, Howrah Bridge, city tram line, Vidyasagar Bridge
Nickname(s): City of Joy
Cultural Capital of India

Location of Kolkata in West Bengal

Coordinates: 22.567N 88.367E (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Kolkata&
params=22_34_N_88_22_E_type:city(4486679)_region:IN-WB)Coordinates: 22.567N 88.367E (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/
geohack. php?pagename=Kolkata& params=22_34_N_88_22_E_type:city(4486679)_region:IN-WB)
Country

India

State

West Bengal

Division

Presidency

District

[2]
Kolkata

Government
Type

MayorCouncil

Body

KMC

Mayor

Sovan Chatterjee

Kolkata

84

Sheriff

Indrajit Ray

Police commissioner

Surajit Kar Purakayastha

Area
Metropolis

185km2 (71sqmi)

Metro

1,886.67km2 (728.45sqmi)

Elevation

9m (30ft)

Population (2011)
Metropolis

4,486,679

Rank

7th

Density

24,000/km2 (63,000/sqmi)

Metro

14,112,536

Metro rank

3rd

Metropolitan

14,617,882 (3rd)

Demonym

Calcuttan

Time zone

IST (UTC+05:30)

ZIP code(s)

700 001 to 700 157

Area code(s)

+91-33

Vehicle registration

WB 01 to WB 10

UN/LOCODE

IN CCU

Official languages

Bengali and English

Website

www.kmcgov.in (https:/ / www. kmcgov. in/ )

Kolkata /kolkt/ (Bengali: , ) (also known as Calcutta /klkt/) is the capital of the Indian
state of West Bengal. Located on the east bank of the Hooghly river, it is the principal commercial, cultural, and
educational centre of East India, while the Port of Kolkata is India's oldest operating port as well as its sole major
riverine port. As of 2011, the city had 4.5million residents; the urban agglomeration, which comprises the city and
its suburbs, was home to approximately 14.1million, making it the third-most populous metropolitan area in India.
As of 2008, its economic output as measured by gross domestic product ranked third among South Asian cities,
behind Mumbai and Delhi. As a growing metropolitan city in a developing country, Kolkata confronts substantial
urban pollution, traffic congestion, poverty, overpopulation, and other logistic and socioeconomic problems.
In the late 17th century, the three villages that predated Kolkata were ruled by the Nawab of Bengal under Mughal
suzerainty. After the Nawab granted the East India Company a trading license in 1690, the area was developed by
the Company into an increasingly fortified mercantile base. Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah occupied Kolkata in 1756, and
the East India Company retook it in the following year and by 1772 assumed full sovereignty. Under East India
Company and later under the British Raj, Kolkata served as the capital of India until 1911, when its perceived
geographical disadvantages, combined with growing nationalism in Bengal, led to a shift of the capital to New Delhi.
The city was a centre of the Indian independence movement; it remains a hotbed of contemporary state politics.
Following Indian independence in 1947, Kolkatawhich was once the centre of modern Indian education, science,
culture, and politicswitnessed several decades of relative economic stagnation. Since the early 2000s, an economic
rejuvenation has led to accelerated growth.
As a nucleus of the 19th- and early 20th-century Bengal Renaissance and a religiously and ethnically diverse centre
of culture in Bengal and India, Kolkata has established local traditions in drama, art, film, theatre, and literature that

Kolkata
have gained wide audiences. Many people from Kolkataamong them several Nobel laureateshave contributed to
the arts, the sciences, and other areas, while Kolkata culture features idiosyncrasies that include distinctively
close-knit neighbourhoods (paras) and freestyle intellectual exchanges (adda). West Bengal's share of the Bengali
film industry is based in the city, which also hosts venerable cultural institutions of national importance, such as the
Academy of Fine Arts, the Victoria Memorial, the Asiatic Society, the Indian Museum, and the National Library of
India. Though home to major cricketing venues and franchises, Kolkata differs from other Indian cities by giving
importance to association football and other sports.

Etymology
The word Kolkata derives from the Bengali term Kolikata [kolikata] (Bengali: ), the name of one of three
villages that predated the arrival of the British, in the area where the city eventually was to be established; the other
two villages were Sutanuti and Govindapur.
There are several explanations about the etymology of this name:
The term Kolikata is thought to be a variation of Kalikkhetro [kaliketro] (Bengali: ), meaning
"Field of [the goddess] Kali".
Alternatively, the name may have been derived from the Bengali term kilkila (Bengali: ), or "flat area".
The name may have its origin in the words khal [kal] (Bengali: ) meaning "canal", followed by kaa [kata]
(Bengali: ), which may mean "dug".
According to another theory, the area specialised in the production of quicklime or koli chun [kolitun] (Bengali:
) and coir or kata [kata] (Bengali: ); hence, it was called Kolikata [kolikata] (Bengali: ).
While the city's name has always been pronounced Kolkata [kolkata] (Bengali: ) or Kolikata [kolikata]
(Bengali: ) in Bengali, the anglicised form Calcutta was the official name until 2001, when it was changed
to Kolkata in order to match Bengali pronunciation.

History
The discovery and archaeological study of Chandraketugarh, 35
kilometres (22mi) north of Kolkata, provide evidence that the region
in which the city stands has been inhabited for over two millennia.
Kolkata's recorded history began in 1690 with the arrival of the English
East India Company, which was consolidating its trade business in
Bengal. Job Charnock, an administrator who worked for the Company,
is traditionally credited as the founder of the city; in response to a
public petition, the Calcutta High Court ruled in 2003 that the city does
not have a founder. The area occupied by the present-day city
Painting of Fort William, c. 1828, the place
encompassed three villages: Kalikata, Gobindapur, and Sutanuti.
where the Black Hole incident took place
Kalikata was a fishing village; Sutanuti was a riverside weavers'
village. They were part of an estate belonging to the Mughal emperor; the jagirdari (a land grant bestowed by a king
on his noblemen) taxation rights to the villages were held by the Sabarna Roy Choudhury family of landowners, or
zamindars. These rights were transferred to the East India Company in 1698.:1
In 1712, the British completed the construction of Fort William, located on the east bank of the Hooghly River.
Facing
frequent

85

Kolkata

skirmishes with French forces, the British began to upgrade their

fortifications in 1756. The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud-Daulah,
protested the militarisation. His warning went unheeded, and the
Nawab attacked; he captured Fort William and instigated the gruesome
killings of British prisoners of war in the Black Hole of Calcutta. A
force of Company soldiers (sepoys) and British troops led by Robert
Clive recaptured the city the following year. Declared a presidency
city, Calcutta became the headquarters of the Bengal Presidency.
Calcutta was named the capital of East India Company controlled
Kolkata port, 1945, an important military port
territories of India in 1772; beginning in 1864, the hill station of
during World War II.
Shimla served as administrative capital during summers. In the early
19th century, the marshes surrounding the city were drained; the
government area was laid out along the banks of the Hooghly River. Richard Wellesley, Governor-General of India
between 1797 and 1805, was largely responsible for the development of the city and its public architecture.
Throughout the late 18th and 19th century, the city was a centre of the East India Company's opium trade.
By the 1850s, Kolkata had two areas: White Town, which was primarily British and centred around Chowringhee;
and Black Town, mainly Indian and centred around North Calcutta. The city underwent rapid industrial growth
starting in the early 1850s, especially in the textile and jute industries; this encouraged British companies to
massively invest in infrastructure projects, which included telegraph connections and Howrah railway station. The
coalescence of British and Indian culture resulted in the emergence of a new babu class of urbane Indians, whose
members were often bureaucrats, professionals, newspaper readers, and Anglophiles; they usually belonged to
upper-caste Hindu communities. In the 19th century, the Bengal Renaissance brought about an increased
sociocultural sophistication among city denizens. In 1883, Kolkata was host to the first national conference of the
Indian National Association, the first avowed nationalist organisation in India. Gradually, Calcutta became a centre
for revolutionary organisations associated with the Indian independence movement. The temporary 1905 partition of
Bengal along communal lines resulted in widespread public agitation and a boycott of British goods by the Swadeshi
movement. These activities, along with the administratively disadvantageous location of Calcutta on the eastern
fringes of India, prompted the British to move the capital to New Delhi in 1911.
The city and its port were bombed several times by the Japanese between 1942 and 1944, during World War II.
Coinciding with the war, millions starved to death during the Bengal famine of 1943 due to a combination of
military, administrative, and natural factors. Demands for the creation of a Muslim state led in 1946 to an episode of
communal violence that killed over 4,000. The partition of India led to further clashes and a demographic
shiftmany Muslims left for East Pakistan, while hundreds of thousands of Hindus fled into the city.
During the 1960s and 1970s, severe power shortages, strikes, and a violent MarxistMaoist movement by groups
known as the Naxalites damaged much of the city's infrastructure, resulting in economic stagnation. The Bangladesh
Liberation War of 1971 led to a massive influx of thousands of refugees, many of them penniless, that strained
Kolkata's infrastructure. During the mid-1980s, Mumbai (then called Bombay) overtook Kolkata as India's most
populous city. In 1985, Rajiv Gandhi dubbed Kolkata a "dying city" in light of its socio-political woes.
In the period 19772011, West Bengal was governed from Kolkata by the Left Front, which was dominated by the
Communist Party of India (CPM). It was the world's longest-serving democratically elected communist government;
Kolkata was a key base for Indian communism. The city's economic recovery gathered momentum after the 1990s,
when India began to institute pro-market reforms. Since 2000, the information technology (IT) services sector has
revitalised Kolkatas stagnant economy. The city is also experiencing marked growth in its manufacturing base.

86

Kolkata

Geography
Spread roughly northsouth along the east bank of the Hooghly River, Kolkata sits within the lower Ganges Delta of
eastern India; the city's elevation is 1.59m (530ft). Much of the city was originally a wetland that was reclaimed
over the decades to accommodate a burgeoning population. The remaining undeveloped areas, known as the East
Kolkata Wetlands, were designated a "wetland of international importance" by the Ramsar Convention (1975). As
with most of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, the soil and water are predominantly alluvial in origin. Kolkata is located over
the "Bengal basin", a pericratonic tertiary basin. Bengal basin comprises three structural unit: shelf or platform in the
west; central hinge or shelf/slope break; and deep basinal part in the east and southeast. Kolkata is located atop the
western part of the hinge zone which is about 25km (16mi) wide at a depth of about 45,000m (148,000ft) below
the surface. The shelf and hinge zones have many faults, among them some are active. Total thickness of sediment
below Kolkata is nearly 7,500m (24,600ft) above the crystalline basement; of these the top 350450m
(1,1501,480ft) is quaternary, followed by 4,5005,500m (14,76018,040ft) of tertiary sediments, 500700m
(1,6402,300ft) trap wash of cretaceous trap and 600800m (1,9702,620ft) permian-carboniferous Gondwana
rocks. The quaternary sediments consist of clay, silt, and several grades of sand and gravel. These sediments are
sandwiched between two clay beds: the lower one at a depth of 250650m (8202,130ft); the upper one 1040m
(30130ft) in thickness. According to the Bureau of Indian Standards, on a scale ranging from I to V in order of
increasing susceptibility to earthquakes, the city lies inside seismic zone III; according to a United Nations
Development Programme report, its wind and cyclone zone is "very high damage risk".

Urban structure
The Kolkata metropolitan area is spread over 1,886.67km2 (728.45sqmi):7 and comprises 3municipal corporations
(including Kolkata Municipal Corporation), 39local municipalities and 24panchayat samitis, as of 2011.:7 The
urban agglomeration encompassed 72cities and 527towns and villages, as of 2006. Suburban areas in the Kolkata
metropolitan area incorporate parts of the following districts: North 24 Parganas, South 24 Parganas, Howrah,
Hooghly, and Nadia.:15 Kolkata, which is under the jurisdiction of the Kolkata Municipal Corporation ( KMC), has
an area of 185km2 (71sqmi). The eastwest dimension of the city is comparatively narrow, stretching from the
Hooghly River in the west to roughly the Eastern Metropolitan Bypass in the easta span of 910km (5.66.2mi).
The northsouth distance is greater, and its axis is used to section the city into North, Central, and South Kolkata.
North Kolkata is the oldest part of the city. Characterised by
19th-century architecture and narrow alleyways, it includes areas such
as Shyambazar, Shobhabazar, Chitpur, Cossipore, Baranagar, Sinthee,
and Dum Dum.:6566 Central Kolkata hosts the central business
district. It contains B. B. D. Bagh, formerly known as Dalhousie
Square, and the Esplanade on its east; Strand Road is on its west. The
West Bengal Secretariat, General Post Office, Reserve Bank of India,
High Court, Lalbazar Police Headquarters, and several other
government and private offices are located there. Another business hub
is the area south of Park Street, which comprises thoroughfares such as
Jawaharlal Nehru Road, Camac Street, Wood Street, Loudon Street,
Shakespeare Sarani, and A. J. C. Bose Road. The Maidan is a large
Satellite view of Kolkata
open field in the heart of the city that has been called the "lungs of
Kolkata" and accommodates sporting events and public meetings. The Victoria Memorial and Kolkata Race Course
are located at the southern end of the Maidan. Among the other parks are Central Park in Bidhannagar and
Millennium Park on Strand Road, along the Hooghly River.

87

Kolkata

South Kolkata developed after India gained independence in 1947; it

includes upscale neighbourhoods such as Ballygunge, Alipore, New
Alipore, Lansdowne, Bhowanipore, Tollygunge, Jodhpur Park, Lake
Gardens, Golf Green, Jadavpur, and Kasba. From south-west to
south-east, outlying areas include Garden Reach, Behala, Thakurpukur,
Kudghat, Ranikuthi, Bansdroni, Baghajatin, and Garia. Two planned
townships in the greater Kolkata region are Bidhannagar, also known
as Salt Lake City and located north-east of the city; and Rajarhat, also
Kolkata Skyline viewed from a high rise at Strand
called New Town and sited east of Bidhannagar. In the 2000s,
Road
SectorV in Bidhannagar developed into a business hub for information
technology and telecommunication companies. Both Bidhannagar and
New Town are situated outside the Kolkata Municipal Corporation limits, in their own municipalities. Fort William,
on the western part of the city, houses the headquarters of the Eastern Command of the Indian Army; its premises are
under the jurisdiction of the army.

Climate
Kolkata is subject to a tropical wet-and-dry climate that is designated
Aw under the Kppen climate classification. The annual mean
temperature is 26.8C (80.2F); monthly mean temperatures are
1930C (6686F). Summers (MarchJune) are hot and humid, with
temperatures in the low 30s Celsius; during dry spells, maximum
temperatures often exceed 40C (104F) in May and June. Winter
lasts for only about two-and-a-half months, with seasonal lows dipping
to 911C (4852F) in December and January. May is the hottest
Monsoon clouds over Nalban, a part of East
month, with daily temperatures ranging from 2737C (8199F);
Kolkata Wetlands.
January, the coldest month, has temperatures varying from 1223C
(5473F). The highest recorded temperature is 43.9C (111.0F),
and the lowest is 5C (41F). Often, in AprilJune, the city is struck by heavy rains or dusty squalls followed by
thunderstorms or hailstorms, bringing cooling relief from the prevailing humidity. These thunderstorms are
convective in nature, and are known locally as kal baisakhi (), or "Nor'westers" in English.
Rains brought by the Bay of Bengal branch of the south-west summer monsoon lash Kolkata between June and
September, supplying it with most of its annual rainfall of 1,582mm (62in). The highest monthly rainfall total,
306mm (12in), occurs in August. The city receives 2,528hours of sunshine per year, with maximum sunlight
exposure occurring in March. Kolkata has been hit by several cyclones; these include systems occurring in 1737 and
1864 that killed thousands.
Pollution is a major concern in Kolkata. As of 2008, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide annual concentration were
within the national ambient air quality standards of India, but respirable suspended particulate matter levels were
high, and on an increasing trend for five consecutive years, causing smog and haze. Severe air pollution in the city
has caused a rise in pollution-related respiratory ailments, such as lung cancer.

88

Kolkata

89

Climate data for Kolkata (19711990)

Month

Aug

Sep

32.6
36.4
39.4
41.5
43.3
43.0
39.7
(90.7) (97.5) (102.9) (106.7) (109.9) (109.4) (103.5)

35.5
(95.9)

36.2
(97.2)

35.3
34.3
32.3
43.3
(95.5) (93.7) (90.1) (109.9)

Average high C
(F)

26.4
29.1
(79.5) (84.4)

33.5
(92.3)

35.3
(95.5)

35.4
(95.7)

34.0
(93.2)

32.3
(90.1)

32.1
(89.8)

32.4
(90.3)

32.3
30.3
27.0
(90.1) (86.5) (80.6)

Daily mean C (F)

20.1
23.0
(68.2) (73.4)

27.6
(81.7)

30.2
(86.4)

30.7
(87.3)

30.3
(86.5)

29.2
(84.6)

29.1
(84.4)

29.1
(84.4)

28.2
24.9
20.8
26.93
(82.8) (76.8) (69.4) (80.49)

Average low C (F)

13.8
16.9
(56.8) (62.4)

21.7
(71.1)

25.1
(77.2)

26.0
(78.8)

26.5
(79.7)

26.1
(79)

26.1
(79)

25.8
(78.4)

Record low C (F)

8.2
8.1
(46.8) (46.6)

12.7
(54.9)

16.1
(61)

19.6
(67.3)

21.4
(70.5)

23.1
(73.6)

22.7
(72.9)

22.7
(72.9)

Rainfall mm
(inches)

11
30
(0.43) (1.18)

35
(1.38)

60
(2.36)

142
(5.59)

288
411
349
288
143
26
17
1,800
(11.34) (16.18) (13.74) (11.34) (5.63) (1.02) (0.67) (70.86)

Record high C (F)

Avg. rainy days (

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Oct

23.9
(75)

Nov

Dec

19.6
14.5
(67.3) (58.1)

18.7
12.0
9.7
(65.7) (53.6) (49.5)

Year

31.7
(89.1)

22.2
(72)
8.1
(46.6)

1.2

2.2

3.0

4.8

8.7

14.7

20.5

20.2

15.7

8.1

1.5

0.9

101.5

% humidity

66

58

58

66

70

77

83

83

81

73

67

68

70.8

Mean monthly
sunshine hours

204.6

203.4

226.3

234.0

226.3

123.0

93.0

105.4

117.0

182.9

192.0

1.0 mm)

204.6 2,112.5

Source: Hong Kong Observatory, NOAA (extremes, mean, humidity, 1971-1990)

Economy
Kolkata is the main commercial and financial hub of East and North-East India and home to the Calcutta Stock
Exchange. It is a major commercial and military port, and is the only city in eastern India to have an international
airport. Once India's leading city, Kolkata experienced a steady economic decline in the decades following India's
independence due to steep population increases and a rise in militant trade-unionism, which included frequent strikes
that were backed by left-wing parties. From the 1960s to the late 1990s, several factories were closed and businesses
relocated. The lack of capital and resources added to the depressed state of the city's economy and gave rise to an
unwelcome sobriquet: the "dying city". The city's fortunes improved after the Indian economy was liberalised in the
1990s and changes in economic policy were enacted by the West Bengal state government.
Flexible production has been the norm in Kolkata, which has an informal sector that employs more than 40% of the
labour force. One unorganised group, roadside hawkers, generated business worth 8,772crore (US$ 2billion) in
2005. As of 2001, around 0.81% of the city's workforce was employed in the primary sector (agriculture, forestry,
mining, etc.); 15.49% worked in the secondary sector (industrial and manufacturing); and 83.69% worked in the
tertiary sector (service industries).:19 As of 2003, the majority of households in slums were engaged in occupations
belonging to the informal sector; 36.5% were involved in servicing the urban middle class (as maids, drivers, etc.),
and 22.2% were casual labourers.:11 About 34% of the available labour force in Kolkata slums were unemployed.:11
As in many other Indian cities, information technology became a high-growth sector in Kolkata starting in the late
1990s; the city's IT sector grew at 70% per annuma rate that was twice the national average. The 2000s saw a
surge of investments in the real estate, infrastructure, retail, and hospitality sectors; several large shopping malls and
hotels were launched. As of 2010 (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Kolkata& action=edit), Kolkata,
with an estimated gross domestic product (GDP) by purchasing power parity of 150 billion dollars, ranked third
among South Asian cities, after Mumbai and Delhi.
Kolkata is home to many industrial units operated by large public- and private-sector corporations; major sectors
include steel, heavy engineering, mining, minerals, cement, pharmaceuticals, food processing, agriculture,

Kolkata

90

electronics, textiles, and jute. ITC Limited, Coal India Limited, and Britannia Industries rank among the companies
headquartered in the city. Kolkata hosts the headquarters of three major public-sector banks: Allahabad Bank, UCO
Bank, and the United Bank of India. Adoption of the "Look East" policy by the Indian government; opening of
Sikkim's Nathu La mountain pass, which is located on the border between India and China, to bi-directional
international trade; and the interest shown by South-East Asian countries in expanding into Indian markets are
factors that could benefit Kolkata.

Demographics
A resident of Kolkata is referred to via the demonym Calcuttan or
Kolkatan. According to provisional results of the 2011 national census,
Kolkata district, which occupies an area of 185km2 (71sqmi), had a
population of 4,486,679; its population density was 24,252/km2
(62,810/sqmi). This represents a decline of 1.88% during the decade
200111. The sex ratio is 899females per 1000maleslower than the
national average. The ratio is depressed by the influx of working males
from surrounding rural areas, from the rest of West Bengal, and from
neighbouring states, mainly Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Orissa; these
men commonly leave their families behind. Kolkata's literacy rate of
87.14% exceeds the all-India average of 74%. The urban
agglomeration had a population of 14,112,536 in 2011.

Dakshineswar Kali Temple, a Hindu temple.

Bengali people form the majority of Kolkata's population; Marwaris and Biharis compose large minorities. Among
Kolkata's smaller communities are Chinese, Tamils, Nepalis, Oriyas, Telugus, Assamese, Gujaratis, Anglo-Indians,
Armenians, Greeks, Tibetans, Maharashtrians, Konkanis, Malayalees, Punjabis, and Parsis.:3 The number of
Armenians, Greeks, Jews, and other foreign-origin groups declined during the 20thcentury. The Jewish population
of Kolkata was 5,000 during World War II, but declined after Indian independence and the establishment of Israel;
by 2013, there were 25 Jews in the city. India's sole Chinatown is in eastern Kolkata; once home to 20,000 ethnic
Chinese, its population dropped to around 2,000 as of 2009 as a result of multiple factors including repatriation and
denial of Indian citizenship following the 1962 Sino-Indian War, and immigration to foreign countries for better
economic opportunities. The Chinese community traditionally worked in the local tanning industry and ran Chinese
restaurants.

Kolkata urban agglomeration population growth

Census

Total

1981

9,194,000

1991

11,021,900 19.9%

2001

13,114,700 19.0%

2011

14,112,536

7.6%

Source: Census of India

Kolkata

91

Religion in Kolkata
Religion

Percent

Hinduism

77.68%

Islam

20.27%

Christian

0.88%

Jain

0.46%

Others

0.71%

Bengali, the official state language, is the dominant language in Kolkata. English is also used, particularly by the
white-collar workforce. Hindi and Urdu are spoken by a sizeable minority. According to the 2001 census, 77.68% of
the population is Hindu, 20.27%Muslim, 0.88%Christian, and 0.46%Jain. The remainder of the population
includes Sikhs, Buddhists, and other religions; 0.19% did not state a religion in the census. Kolkata reported 67.6%
of Special and Local Laws crimes registered in 35large Indian cities during 2004. The Kolkata police district
registered 15,510Indian Penal Code cases in 2010, the 8th-highest total in the country. In 2010, the crime rate was
117.3 per 100,000, below the national rate of 187.6; it was the lowest rate among India's largest cities.
As of 2003, about one-third of the population, or 1.5million people, lived in 3,500unregistered squatter-occupied
and 2,011registered slums.:4:92 The authorised slums (with access to basic services like water, latrines, trash removal
by the Kolkata Municipal Corporation) can be broadly divided into two groupsbustees, in which slum dwellers
have some long term tenancy agreement with the landowners; and udbastu colonies, settlements which had been
leased to refugees from present-day Bangladesh by the Government.:5 The unauthorised slums (devoid of basic
services provided by the municipality) are occupied by squatters who started living on encroached landsmainly
along canals, railway lines and roads.:92:5 According to the 2005 National Family Health Survey, around 14% of the
households in Kolkata were poor, while 33% lived in slums, indicating a substantial proportion of households in
slum areas were better off economically than the bottom quarter of urban households in terms of wealth status.:23
Mother Teresa was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for founding and working with the Missionaries of Charity in
Kolkataan organisation "whose primary task was to love and care for those persons nobody was prepared to look
after".

Government and public services

Civic administration
Kolkata is administered by several government agencies. The Kolkata
Municipal Corporation, or KMC, oversees and manages the civic
infrastructure of the city's 15boroughs, which together encompass
141wards. Each ward elects a councillor to the KMC. Each borough
has a committee of councillors, each of whom is elected to represent a
ward. By means of the borough committees, the corporation undertakes
urban planning and maintains roads, government-aided schools,
hospitals, and municipal markets. As Kolkata's apex body, the
corporation discharges its functions through the mayor-in-council,
The Calcutta High Court.
which comprises a mayor, a deputy mayor, and ten other elected
members of the KMC. The functions of the KMC include water
supply, drainage and sewerage, sanitation, solid waste management, street lighting, and building regulation. The

Kolkata

92

Kolkata Port Trust, an agency of the central government, manages the city's river port. As of 2012, the All India
Trinamool Congress controls the KMC; the mayor is Sovan Chatterjee, while the deputy mayor is Farzana Alam.
The city has an apolitical titular post, that of the Sheriff of Kolkata, which presides over various city-related
functions and conferences.
Kolkata's administrative agencies have areas of jurisdiction that do not coincide. Listed in ascending order by area,
they are: Kolkata district; the Kolkata Police area and the Kolkata Municipal Corporation area, or "Kolkata city"; and
the Kolkata metropolitan area, which is the city's urban agglomeration. The agency overseeing the latter, the Kolkata
Metropolitan Development Authority, is responsible for the statutory planning and development of greater Kolkata.
As the seat of the Government of West Bengal, Kolkata is home to not only the offices of the local governing
agencies, but also the West Bengal Legislative Assembly; the state secretariat, which is housed in the Writers'
Building; and the Calcutta High Court. Kolkata has lower courts: the Court of Small Causes and the City Civil Court
decide civil matters; the Sessions Court rules in criminal cases. The Kolkata Police, headed by a police
commissioner, is overseen by the West Bengal Ministry of Home Affairs. The Kolkata district elects two
representatives to India's lower house, the Lok Sabha, and 11representatives to the state legislative assembly.

Utility services
The Kolkata Municipal Corporation supplies the city with potable water that is sourced from the Hooghly River;
most of it is treated and purified at the Palta pumping station located in North24 Parganas district. Roughly 95% of
the 4,000tonnes of refuse produced daily by the city is transported to the dumping grounds in Dhapa, which is east
of the town. To promote the recycling of garbage and sewer water, agriculture in encouraged on the dumping
grounds. Parts of the city lack proper sewerage, leading to unsanitary methods of waste disposal.
Electricity is supplied by the privately operated Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation, or CESC, to the city proper;
the West Bengal State Electricity Board supplies it in the suburbs. Fire services are handled by the West Bengal Fire
Service, a state agency. As of 2012, the city had 16fire stations.
State-owned Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, or BSNL, as well as private enterprises, among them Vodafone, Bharti
Airtel, Reliance, Idea Cellular, Aircel, Tata DoCoMo, Tata Teleservices, Virgin Mobile, and MTS India, are the
leading telephone and cell phone service providers in the city.:2526:179 Kolkata being the first city in India to have
cell phone and 4G connectivity, the GSM and CDMA cellular coverage is extensive. As of 2010, Kolkata has 7
percent of the total Broadband internet consumers in India; BSNL, VSNL, Tata Indicom, Sify, Airtel, and Reliance
are among the main vendors.

Infrastructure
Transport
Public transport is provided by the Kolkata Suburban Railway, the
Kolkata Metro, trams, and buses. The suburban rail network reaches
the city's distant suburbs. According to a 2013 survey conducted by
International Association of Public Transport, Kolkata ranks the top
among the six cities surveyed in India, in terms of public transport
system. The Kolkata Metro, in operation since 1984, is the oldest
underground mass transit system in India. It spans the northsouth
length of the city and covers a distance of 25.1km (16mi). As of 2009,
five Metro rail lines were under construction. Kolkata has three
long-distance railway stations, located at Howrah, Sealdah, and

A road in Kolkata showing buses, taxis,

autorickshaws and other modes of road transport.

Kolkata

93

Chitpur, which connect Kolkata by rail to most cities in West Bengal

and to other major cities in India. The city serves as the headquarters of
two Indian Railways regional divisionsthe Eastern Railway and the
South-Eastern Railway.
Kolkata has rail and road connectivity with Dhaka, capital of
Bangladesh.
Buses, which are the most commonly used mode of transport, are run
by government agencies and private operators. Kolkata is the only
Indian city with a tram network, which is operated by the Calcutta
A Hand-pulled rickshaw, taxis, trams and private
car at an intersection
Tramways Company. The slow-moving tram services are restricted to
certain areas of the city. Water-logging, caused by heavy rains that fall
during the summer monsoon, can interrupt transportation networks. Hired public conveyances include auto
rickshaws, which often ply specific routes, and yellow metered taxis. Almost all of Kolkata's taxis are antiquated
Hindustan Ambassadors by make; newer air-conditioned radio taxis are also in service. In parts of the city, cycle
rickshaws and hand-pulled rickshaws are patronised by the public for short trips.
Due to its diverse and abundant public transportation, privately owned vehicles are not as common in Kolkata as in
other major Indian cities. The city has witnessed a steady increase in the number of registered vehicles; 2002 data
showed an increase of 44% over a period of seven years. As of 2004, after adjusting for population density, the city's
"road space" was only 6% compared to 23% in Delhi and 17% in Mumbai. The Kolkata Metro has somewhat eased
traffic congestion, as has the addition of new roads and flyovers. Agencies operating long-distance bus services
include Calcutta State Transport Corporation, South Bengal State Transport Corporation, North Bengal State
Transport Corporation, and various private operators. The city's main bus terminals are located at Esplanade,
Karunamoyee, and Babughat. The KolkataDelhi and KolkataChennai prongs of the Golden Quadrilateral, and
National Highway 34 start from the city.
Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport, located in Dum Dum some 16km (9.9mi) north-east of the city
centre, operates domestic and international flights. In 2013, the airport was upgraded to handle increased air traffic.
The Port of Kolkata, established in 1870, is India's oldest and the only major river port. The Kolkata Port Trust
manages docks in Kolkata and Haldia. The port hosts passenger services to Port Blair, capital of the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands; freighter service to ports throughout India and around the world is operated by the Shipping
Corporation of India. Ferry services connect Kolkata with its twin city of Howrah, located across the Hooghly River.

Healthcare

Calcutta Medical College, the first institution in

Asia to teach modern medicine.

As of 2011, the health care system in Kolkata consists of

48government hospitals, mostly under the Department of Health &
Family Welfare, Government of West Bengal, and 366private medical
establishments; these establishments provide the city with 27,687
hospital beds. For every 10,000people in the city, there are
61.7hospital beds,[1] which is higher than the national average of
9hospital beds per 10,000. Ten medical and dental colleges are located
in the Kolkata metropolitan area which act as tertiary referral hospitals
in the state. Calcutta Medical College, founded in 1835, was the first
institution in Asia to teach modern medicine. These facilities are
inadequate to meet the healthcare needs of the city. More than 78% in

Kolkata
Kolkata prefer the private medical sector over the public medical sector,:109 due to the poor quality of care, the lack
of a nearby facility, and excessive waiting times at government facilities.:61
According to the 2005 National Family Health Survey, only a small proportion of Kolkata households were covered
under any health scheme or health insurance.:41 The total fertility rate in Kolkata was 1.4, which was the lowest
among the eight cities surveyed.:45 In Kolkata, 77% of the married women used contraceptives, which was the
highest among the cities surveyed, but use of modern contraceptive methods was the lowest (46%).:47 The infant
mortality rate in Kolkata was 41 per 1,000 live births, and the mortality rate for children under five was 49 per 1,000
live births.:48
Among the surveyed cities, Kolkata stood second (5%) for children who had not had any vaccinations under the
Universal Immunization Programme as of 2005.:48 Kolkata ranked second among the surveyed cities, with access to
an anganwadi centre under the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) programme for 57% of the children
between 0 and 71 months.:51 The proportion of malnourished, anaemic and underweight children in Kolkata was less
in comparison to other surveyed cities.:5455
About 30% of the women and 18% of the men in Kolkata are obesethe majority of them belonging to the non-poor
strata of society.:105 In 2005, Kolkata had the highest percentage (55%) among the surveyed cities of anaemic
woman, while 20% of the men in Kolkata were anaemic.:5657 Diseases like diabetes, asthma, goitre and other
thyroid disorders were found in large numbers of people.:5759 Tropical diseases like malaria, dengue and
chikungunya are prevalent in Kolkata, though their incidence is decreasing. Kolkata is one of the districts in India
with a high number of people with AIDS; it has been designated a district prone to high risk.

Education
Kolkata's schools are run by the state government or private organisations, many of which are religious. Bengali and
English are the primary languages of instruction; Urdu and Hindi are also used, particularly in central Kolkata.
Schools in Kolkata follow the "10+2+3" plan. After completing their secondary education, students typically enroll
in schools that have a higher secondary facility and are affiliated with the West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary
Education, the ICSE, or the CBSE. They usually choose a focus on liberal arts, business, or science. Vocational
programs are also available.
As of 2010, the Kolkata urban agglomeration is home to 14universities run by the state government. The colleges
are each affiliated with a university or institution based either in Kolkata or elsewhere in India. Presidency College,
Kolkata (now known as Presidency University, Kolkata) is the oldest educational institution of the city. Founded in
1817 as Hindu College, it is mostly known for its contribution in the Bengal Renaissance and the Naxalite
Movement, and is considered as one of the most prestigious institutions of higher education in both West Bengal and
India. The University of Calcutta, founded in 1857 is the oldest modern university in South Asia. Bengal
Engineering and Science University is the second oldest engineering institution of the country located in Howrah.
Jadavpur University is known for its arts, science, and engineering faculties. The Indian Institute of Management
Calcutta, which was the first of the Indian Institutes of Management, was established in 1961 at Joka, a locality in
the south-western suburbs. The West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences is one of India's autonomous
law schools, while the Indian Statistical Institute is a public research institute and university.
Notable scholars who were born, worked or studied in Kolkata include physicists Satyendra Nath Bose, Meghnad
Saha, and Jagadish Chandra Bose; chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy; statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis;
physician Upendranath Brahmachari; educator Ashutosh Mukherjee; and Nobel laureates Rabindranath Tagore, C.
V. Raman, and Amartya Sen.

94

Kolkata

95

Culture
Kolkata is known for its literary, artistic, and revolutionary heritage; as the former capital of India, it was the
birthplace of modern Indian literary and artistic thought. Kolkata has been called the "City of Furious, Creative
Energy" as well as the "cultural [or literary] capital of India". The presence of paras, which are neighbourhoods that
possess a strong sense of community, is characteristic of Kolkata. Typically, each para has its own community club
and, on occasion, a playing field. Residents engage in addas, or leisurely chats, that often take the form of freestyle
intellectual conversation. The city has a tradition of political graffiti depicting everything from outrageous slander to
witty banter and limericks, caricatures, and propaganda.
Kolkata has many buildings adorned with Indo-Islamic and Indo-Saracenic architectural motifs. Several
well-maintained major buildings from the colonial period have been declared "heritage structures"; however, others
are in various stages of decay. Established in 1814 as the nation's oldest museum, the Indian Museum houses large
collections that showcase Indian natural history and Indian art. Marble Palace is a classic example of a European
mansion that was built in the city. The Victoria Memorial, a place of interest in Kolkata, has a museum documenting
the city's history. The National Library of India is the leading public library in the country.
The popularity of commercial theatres in the city has declined since the 1980s.:99 Group theatres of Kolkata, a
cultural movement that started in the 1940s contrasting with the then-popular commercial theatres, are theatres that
are not professional or commercial, and are centres of various experiments in theme, content, and production; group
theatres use the proscenium stage to highlight socially relevant messages.:99 Chitpur locality of the city houses
multiple production companies of jatra, a tradition of folk drama popular in rural Bengal. Kolkata is the home of the
Bengali cinema industry, dubbed "Tollywood" for Tollygunj, where most of the state's film studios are located. Its
long tradition of art films includes globally acclaimed film directors such as Academy Award-winning director
Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak, Mrinal Sen, Tapan Sinha, and contemporary directors such as Aparna Sen, Buddhadeb
Dasgupta, and Rituparno Ghosh.
During the 19th and 20th centuries, Bengali literature was modernised through the works of authors such as Ishwar
Chandra Vidyasagar, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Michael Madhusudan Dutt, Rabindranath Tagore, Kazi
Nazrul Islam, and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay. Coupled with social reforms led by Ram Mohan Roy, Swami
Vivekananda, and others, this constituted a major part of the Bengal Renaissance.[2] The middle and latter parts of
the 20th century witnessed the arrival of post-modernism, as well as literary movements such as those espoused by
the Kallol movement, hungryalists and the little magazines. Large majority of publishers of the city is concentrated
in and around College Street, "...a half-mile of bookshops and bookstalls spilling over onto the pavement", selling
new and used books.

A murti, or representation, of the

goddess Durga shown during the
Durga Puja festival.

Kalighat painting originated in 19th century Kolkata as a local style that reflected
a variety of themes including mythology and quotidian life. The Government
College of Art and Craft, founded in 1864, has been the cradle as well as
workplace of eminent artists including Abanindranath Tagore, Jamini Roy, and
Nandalal Bose. The art college was the birthplace of the Bengal school of art that
arose as an avant garde and nationalist movement reacting against the prevalent
academic art styles in the early 20th century. The Academy of Fine Arts and
other art galleries hold regular art exhibitions. The city is recognised for its
appreciation of rabindrasangeet (songs written by Rabindranath Tagore) and
Indian classical music; Bengali popular music, including baul folk ballads,
kirtans, and Gajan festival music; and modern music, including
Bengali-language adhunik songs. Since the early 1990s, new genres have
emerged, including one comprising alternative folkrock Bengali bands. Another
new style, jibonmukhi gaan ("songs about life"), is based on realism.:105

Kolkata
Key elements of Kolkata's cuisine include rice and a fish curry known as machher jhol, which can be accompanied
by desserts such as roshogolla, sandesh, and a sweet yoghurt known as mishti dohi. Bengal's large repertoire of
seafood dishes includes various preparations of ilish, a fish that is a favourite among Calcuttans. Street foods such as
beguni (fried battered eggplant slices), kati roll (flatbread roll with vegetable or chicken, mutton, or egg stuffing),
phuchka (a deep-fried crpe with tamarind sauce) and Indian Chinese cuisine from Chinatown are popular. Sweets
play a large part in the diet of Kolkatansespecially at their social ceremonies.
Though Bengali women traditionally wear the sari, the shalwar kameez and Western attire is gaining acceptance
among younger women. Western-style dress has greater acceptance among men, although the traditional dhoti and
kurta are seen during festivals. Durga Puja, held in SeptemberOctober, is Kolkata's most important festival; it is an
occasion for glamorous celebrations. The Bengali New Year, known as Poila Boishak, as well as the harvest festival
of Poush Parbon are among the city's other festivals; also celebrated are Jagaddhatri Puja, Diwali, Saraswati Puja,
Eid, Holi, Christmas, and Rath Yatra. Cultural events include the Kolkata Book Fair, the Dover Lane Music Festival,
the Kolkata Film Festival, and Nandikar's National Theatre Festival.

Media
The first newspaper in India, the Bengal Gazette started publishing
from the city in 1780. Among Kolkata's widely circulated
Bengali-language newspapers are Anandabazar Patrika, Bartaman,
Sangbad Pratidin, Aajkaal, Dainik Statesman and Ganashakti. The
Statesman and The Telegraph are two major English-language
newspapers that are produced and published from Kolkata. Other
popular English-language newspapers published and sold in Kolkata
include The Times of India, Hindustan Times, The Hindu, The Indian
Express, and the Asian Age. As the largest trading centre in East India,
Akashvani Bhawan, the head office of All India
Kolkata has several high-circulation financial dailies, including The
Radio, Kolkata, a state-owned Radio.
Economic Times, The Financial Express, Business Line, and Business
Standard. Vernacular newspapers, such as those in the Hindi, Urdu,
Gujarati, Oriya, Punjabi, and Chinese lanuages, are read by minorities. Major periodicals based in Kolkata include
Desh, Sananda, Saptahik Bartaman, Unish-Kuri, Anandalok, and Anandamela. Historically, Kolkata has been the
centre of the Bengali little magazine movement.
All India Radio, the national state-owned radio broadcaster, airs several AM radio stations in the city. Kolkata has 12
local radio stations broadcasting on FM, including two from AIR. India's state-owned television broadcaster,
Doordarshan, provides two free-to-air terrestrial channels, while a mix of Bengali, Hindi, English, and other regional
channels are accessible via cable subscription, direct-broadcast satellite services, or internet-based television.
Bengali-language 24-hour television news channels include ABP Ananda, Tara Newz, Kolkata TV, 24 Ghanta, NE
Bangla, News Time, and Channel 10.

96

Kolkata

97

Sports
The most popular sports in Kolkata are football and cricket. The city is
home to top national football clubs such as Mohun Bagan A.C.,
Kingfisher East Bengal F.C., Prayag United S.C., and the
Mohammedan Sporting Club. Calcutta Football League, which was
started in 1898, is the oldest football league in Asia. Mohun Bagan
A.C., one of the oldest football clubs in Asia, is the only organisation
to be dubbed a "National Club of India". As in the rest of India, cricket
is popular in Kolkata and is played on grounds and in streets
throughout the city. Kolkata has an Indian Premier League franchise
known as the Kolkata Knight Riders; the Cricket Association of
Bengal, which regulates cricket in West Bengal, is also based in the
city. Tournaments, especially those involving cricket, football,
badminton, and carrom, are regularly organised on an inter-locality or
inter-club basis. The Maidan, a vast field that serves as the city's
largest park, hosts several minor football and cricket clubs and
coaching institutes.

Salt Lake Stadium

Football is a popular sport in Kolkata. Here

amateur players enjoy a game in the rain.

Eden Gardens, which has a capacity of 90,000 as of 2011, hosted the

final match of the 1987 Cricket World Cup. It is home to the Bengal
cricket team and the Kolkata Knight Riders. The multi-use Salt Lake
Stadium, also known as Yuva Bharati Krirangan, is the world's
second-largest football facility by seating capacity as of 2010. The
Calcutta Cricket and Football Club is the second-oldest cricket club in
the world. Kolkata has three 18-hole golf courses. The oldest is at the
Royal Calcutta Golf Club, the first golf club built outside the United
Kingdom. The other two are located at the Tollygunge Club and at Fort
William. The Royal Calcutta Turf Club hosts horse racing and polo
Eden Gardens was renovated prior to the 2011
Cricket World Cup.
matches. The Calcutta Polo Club is considered the oldest extant polo
club in the world. The Calcutta South Club is a venue for national and
international tennis tournaments; it held the first grass-court national championship in 1946. In the period
20052007, Sunfeast Open, a tier-III tournament on the Women's Tennis Association circuit, was held in the Netaji
Indoor Stadium; it has since been discontinued.
The Calcutta Rowing Club hosts rowing heats and training events. Kolkata, considered the leading centre of rugby
union in India, gives its name to the oldest international tournament in rugby union, the Calcutta Cup. The
Automobile Association of Eastern India, established in 1904, and the Bengal Motor Sports Club are involved in
promoting motor sports and car rallies in Kolkata and West Bengal. The Beighton Cup, an event organised by the
Bengal Hockey Association and first played in 1895, is India's oldest field hockey tournament; it is usually held on
the Mohun Bagan Ground of the Maidan. Athletes from Kolkata include Sourav Ganguly and Pankaj Roy, who are
former captains of the Indian national cricket team; Olympic tennis bronze medallist Leander Paes, golfer Arjun

Kolkata

98

Atwal, and former footballers Sailen Manna, Chuni Goswami, P. K. Banerjee, and Subrata Bhattacharya.

Sister Cities
As of 2013, Kolkata has the sister city relationships with the following cities:
City

Country

Pittsburgh

United States

Long Beach, California

United States

Dallas

United States

Jersey City

United States

Odessa

Ukraine

Naples

Italy

Thessaloniki

Greece

Incheon

South Korea

Dhaka

Bangladesh

China S.A.R.

Macau

Kunming

China

References
[1] The population (4,486,679) and hospital beds (27,687) have been used to derive this rate.
[2] cited in

Further reading
Chaudhuri, S (1990). Calcutta: the living City. I and II. Kolkata: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-562585-4.
Dutta, Krishna (2003). Calcutta: a cultural and literary history (http://books.google.com/
books?id=UKfoHi5412UC). Oxford, UK: Signal Books. ISBN978-1-902669-59-5.
Mitra, A (1976). Calcutta diary. London: Frank Cass. ISBN0-7146-3082-9.
Mukherjee, SC (1991). The changing face of Calcutta: an architectural approach. Kolkata: Government of West
Bengal. ASIN B0000D6TXX (http://www.amazon.com/dp/B0000D6TXX).
Roy, A (2002). City requiem, Calcutta: gender and the politics of poverty. Minneapolis, US: University of
Minnesota Press. ISBN0-8166-3932-9.
Thomas, Frederic C. (1997). Calcutta poor: elegies on a city above pretense (http://books.google.com/
books?id=shPmSQBGKRwC). Armonk, New York, US: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN1-56324-981-2.
Lapierre, Dominique (1985). La cit de la joie (The City of Joy) (http://books.google.com/books/about/
City_Of_Joy.html?id=VbURK16m5ysC). Kolkata: Arrow. ISBN0-09-914091-8.

Kolkata

External links
Kolkata Municipal Corporation (https://www.kmcgov.in/)
Kolkata (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/West_Bengal/Localities/Kolkata//) on the Open
Directory Project

Kolkata travel guide from Wikivoyage

Kolkata (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/89203/Kolkata) Encyclopdia Britannica entry

99

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:5.3.10RichardBransonByDavidShankbone.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:5.3.10RichardBransonByDavidShankbone.jpg License: Creative Commons
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File:RichardBransonVAOCApr09.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RichardBransonVAOCApr09.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors:
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File:Balloon crash Hawaii.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Balloon_crash_Hawaii.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: United States Coast Guard, AMT2
Marc Alarcon
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Contributors: Freelance photographer Richard Burdett ( Website)
File:Richard Branson UN Conference on Sustainable Development 2012.jpg Source:
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File:Nelson Mandela-2008 (edit).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nelson_Mandela-2008_(edit).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: South
Africa The Good News
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Mandela
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File:The Nelson Mandela House.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Nelson_Mandela_House.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
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File:Luthuli House.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Luthuli_House.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Garyvdm
File:Frederik de Klerk with Nelson Mandela - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 1992.jpg Source:
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File:Mandela voting in 1994.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mandela_voting_in_1994.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
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File:Detuynhuys.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Detuynhuys.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Borisgorelik
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Photograph Office, Clinton Administration
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File:George W. Bush and Nelson Mandela - walking - Oval Office - May 17 2005.jpg Source:
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White House Photographer
File:Obama Madiba Memorial.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Obama_Madiba_Memorial.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ekhaya2000, HelenOnline,
O'Dea, 1 anonymous edits
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Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany Contributors: Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1986-0920-016,_Berlin,_Weltgewerkschaftskongress,_Probe_des_Festprogramms.jpg: Senft, Gabriele
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File:Mandela museum soweto.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mandela_museum_soweto.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Arria Belli,
HelenOnline, HenkvD, Man vyi, Moongateclimber, NJR ZA, Xnatedawgx
File:South Africa-Johannesburg-Nelson Mandela Bridge001.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:South_Africa-Johannesburg-Nelson_Mandela_Bridge001.jpg
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File:Nelson Mandela painted portrait P1040890.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nelson_Mandela_painted_portrait_P1040890.jpg License: Creative Commons
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File:Rhode Island in United States (zoom) (extra close) (US48)-rotate.png Source:
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File:Rhode Island - NED500.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rhode_Island_-_NED500.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Loodog at
en.wikipedia
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TUBS
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File:Providence, Rhode Island, Original Deed.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Providence,_Rhode_Island,_Original_Deed.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Swampyank, 2 anonymous edits
File:First Baptist Church in America in RI.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:First_Baptist_Church_in_America_in_RI.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:
Andrei Stroe, Mapmarks, 3 anonymous edits
File:Roger Williams and Narragansetts.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roger_Williams_and_Narragansetts.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Krschner,
Lupo, Magicpiano, Origamiemensch, SonPraises, Ushistorynut, Uyvsdi, 1 anonymous edits
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File:W-RSimpleMap.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:W-RSimpleMap.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: National Park Service
File:Providence, Rhode Island, 1858.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Providence,_Rhode_Island,_1858.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: John Badger
Bachelder (1825-1894). Publisher: W. Endicott & Co., New York
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File:N3419822 37931820 6163Providence.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:N3419822_37931820_6163Providence.jpg License: Creative Commons
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File:Grace Church Providence.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grace_Church_Providence.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Marcbela
File:Touro Synagogue, Newport, RI.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Touro_Synagogue,_Newport,_RI.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0
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File:Newport Rhode Island USA.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Newport_Rhode_Island_USA.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
User:Decumanus
File:Providencetextronside.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Providencetextronside.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Loodog,
TexasAndroid
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File:RIPTA Gillig Low Floor 0517.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RIPTA_Gillig_Low_Floor_0517.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
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File:Claiborne Pell Newport Bridge.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Claiborne_Pell_Newport_Bridge.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
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File:BrownUniversity-UniversityHall.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BrownUniversity-UniversityHall.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License
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File:Rhode Island Summer Homes.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rhode_Island_Summer_Homes.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
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File:1884grays.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1884grays.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Fuzzybunny566 at en.wikipedia
File:Rhode Island State Capitol (north facade).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rhode_Island_State_Capitol_(north_facade).jpg License: Creative Commons
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Case
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file:India West Bengal location map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_West_Bengal_location_map.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Germany Contributors: NilDutt, NordNordWest, Shadowxfox, 2 anonymous edits
File:Fortwilliam1828.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fortwilliam1828.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Aavindraa, Belasd, Jayantanth, Quibik, Roland zh
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File:Mchbuilding.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mchbuilding.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Dwaipayanc
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File:Akashvani Bhawan Kolkata 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Akashvani_Bhawan_Kolkata_2.jpg License: unknown Contributors: File:Salt Lake Stadium - Yuva Bharati Krirangan , Kolkata - Calcutta 3.jpg Source:
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