Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference IGC-2014

December 18-20, 2014, Kakinada, India

APPROACHES FOR BETTER EXPANSIVE SOIL CHARACTERIZATION

Anand J Puppala, Distinguished Professor, University of Texas at Arlington, TX, anand@uta.edu
Bhaskar Chittoori, Assistant Professor, Boise State University, ID, bhaskarchittoori@boisestate.edu
Aravind Pedarla, Post Doc/Research Associate, University of Texas at Arlington, TX, pedarla@uta.edu
ABSTRACT: Challenges associated with characterization of expansive soils mainly arise due to the soils

dependence on elemental and environmental factors. Environmental factors such as stress history, stress
state and in-situ moisture condition or soil suction have considerable influence on the behavior of
expansive soils. Similarly, inherent mineralogical state and reactiveness of the soil at its micro level also
affects the behavior of expansive soils. Pore connectivity of the soil allows the soil particle hydration,
which either enhances or reduces the expansive behavior. Many approaches to predict the expansive soil
behavior, based on the environmental factors, will be detailed in this study, along with their validation
studies. This article also discusses the unsaturated soil principles which utilize the soil water characteristic
curves in accurately identifying the behavior of expansive clays. Evaluation of the importance of these
elemental factors and the understanding the extent of their influence on the expansive behavior is the
main outcome of this paper.
INTRODUCTION
Expansive soils exhibit volume variations due to
moisture content fluctuations during seasonal
changes. The swell and shrinkage movements of
the soils caused by seasonal moisture variations
inflict severe damage to the structures built above
it, including underground structures, building
foundations, buried pipes, road pavements and
sidewalks [1, 2]. Though expansive soils in natural
conditions are not suitable for urban infrastructure
construction, the rapid growth in population and
the associated urbanization has led to construction
in areas with expansive soils [3, 2]. It has been
noted that the damage to the structures caused by
expansive soils, specifically to pavements and light
buildings, is much greater than the damages caused
by the other natural disasters like earthquakes and
floods [4]. Various countries, including the United
States, Australia, South Africa, Israel, and India,
are facing infrastructure damages caused by
movement of expansive soils. The estimated cost
for repairs of such damages approximates billions
of dollars annually [1]. Roads constructed on
expansive clayey subgrade, though constructed
employing different stabilizing treatments in soil
layers, can still experience pavement cracking that
reduces the service life. In some cases, the

maintenance costs exceed their original

construction costs [5].
Expansive clay soils are identified in the field by
the deep cracks formed on the ground surface
during dry season. The seasonal moisture content
fluctuation zone can extend from 1 to 4.5 m deep,
which can create wider cracks in the surface and
can cause pavement distress [2,6,7].
Problems associated with differential movements
from swell can be expected for all the structures
built on these soils, including residential building
foundations, retaining walls, slopes and pavements.
Swell pressures contribute to heave movements
and lifting of structures in both lateral and vertical
directions, inducing at least some damage to
structures for a majority of the expansive soil sites.
Generally, expansive soils are characterized based
on soil index parameters. Since soils encompass a
wide spectrum of particulate materials, it is
difficult to generalize the expansive soil behaviour
based on individual parameters [6,8]. It is
imperative to better understand the swelling
behaviour and the factors affecting it. The main
parameters governing the swell/shrink behaviour
are identified and studied in this research.
Previous Characterization Methods
Swell properties such as swell strain and swell
pressure of expansive soils are dependent on

Puppala, Chittoori and Pedarla

natural moisture content variations, dry density,

plasticity index, temperature and humidity
conditions and overburden pressure conditions.
Because of the influence of many factors, several
expansive soil characterization methods were
developed [9]. These methods are mainly based on
field measurements (i.e. SPT no), plasticity
properties, and other correlations using activity and
compaction properties.
Some researchers [10] believed that the swell
behaviour of clays is mainly dependent on a single
index parameter, the Plasticity Index (PI). The
building research establishment (BRE) located in
the United Kingdom, suggested that the plasticity
index is an indication of volume change potential
in a soil [10]. Table 2-2, shown below, represents
the classification of expansive soils followed by
BRE.
Table 1: PI-based expansive soil characterization
[10]
Plasticity Index (%)

Potential for volume

change

> 35

Very high

22-48

High

12-32

Medium

< 18

Low

However, the determination of plasticity indices is

performed on remoulded soil, and hence cannot be
an actual representation of swell behaviour.
Swell Prediction Correlations
Empirical methods and correlations are formulated
to determine the swelling potential of clay from the
parameters like void ratio, moisture content, liquid
limit and activity. Several researchers have used
Index parameters to identify the swell behaviour of
expansive soils [11, 12]. Table 2 presents some of
the correlations and models developed by
researchers for the prediction of swell pressure.
Table 2: Correlations for expansive soil
characterization from different sources
Reference
El-Ramli
(1965)
[11]

Correlations
= 0.5

Remarks
Does not
consider initial
water content

Komornik
and David
(1969)
[12]
Dedier
(1973)
[13]
McKeen
(1980)
[14]
Mowafy
and
Bauer
(1985)
[15]

Nagaraj
and
Murthy
(1985)
[16]

log
= 2[132 + 0.0208
+ 0.000665
0.0269 ]

log = 2.55 1.705

log = 0.0294 1.923

= 100 log

log 10.2
= 1.366(10.2 )
+ 0.008954
0.02179 2.84

()
= 2492

0
12811.3 /(5.52 0 )

= 1.122
(0.2343 ) log
log

Insensitive to
dry density
Does not
consider initial
water content
The h is found
from a chart
using CEC, PI,
and percent
clay.

For soils from

Nasr city, Cairo,
Egypt
Three
unknowns in Ps,
Pc and and
the solutions
could be
obtained
by iteration
process.

where,
Ps = swelling pressure (kg/cm2); d = dry density
(g/cm3); ws = shrinkage limit (%);wn = natural
water content (%); LL = liquid limit (%); SI =
shrinkage index; C = clay content (%); Sr = degree
of saturation of specimen before start of test; w* =
water content at Sr = 100%; w = density of water
(g/cm3); P = overburden effective pressure; e0/eL=
generalized initial state of soil; = slope of the line
joining the present state to preconsolidation
pressure; Sp = percent swell (%);
PI = plasticity index (%); W0 = initial water
content (%); H = depth of soil (ft)
The correlations often are based on basic soil
parameters and do not represent the actual swell
potential of the soil. The above methods are highly
unreliable as they do not consider the influence of
soil texture, moisture content, soil suction or pore
structure, which are important factors in relation to
the volume change potential of expansive soils.
Laboratory Swell Characterization
Laboratory studies were conducted on natural and
remoulded specimens to determine the swell
potential of a soil. Swell potential for a soil is
determined by tests like 1 dimensional (1D) swell

Approaches to expansive soil characterization

test and swell pressure tests. Presented below are

some of the tests conducted by the researchers for
soil swell potential determination.
Swelling Strains:
Holtz and Gibbs [17] and Lambe and Whitman
[18] were the first to report the use of
consolidometers for heave prediction of swelling
clays. ASTM D 4546-08 explains three alternate
methods for the determination of free swell, swell
pressure. The free swell of the test specimen is
achieved when the specimen reaches an
equilibrium state with no further swell. Kassif et al.
[19] found that the consolidometer-based test had
become widely accepted for evaluating swelling
soils and predicting the heave that may be
encountered during and after construction.
Swelling Pressure:
Fredlund [20] conducted swelling tests on soft
compressible soils to measure compliance of the
oedometer apparatus. It was concluded that a
number of procedural factors affect the swelling
results obtained from a standard oedometer.
Fredlund [20] also measured the compressibility of
different elements like compressibility of filter
paper, porous disks and appliance corrections,
which are responsible for the inaccurate
measurement of swell behaviour. There appears to
be considerable difference between the measured
and corrected swell pressure values. Hence, the
current research considers all these as procedural
errors in the measurement of swell pressure of a
clay specimen.

Fig. 1: Difference between corrected and

uncorrected swelling pressure [20]

Lateral Swell
In a study conducted by Punthutaecha et al. [21]. A
three-dimensional free swell test not only provided
a reasonable representation of the soil maximum
volumetric swell potential, but also yielded reliable
and repeatable test results [21]. This test was
conducted to investigate the maximum vertical,
radial and volumetric swell potentials.

Fig. 2: Three dimensional free swell test setup [21]

Kassif et al. [19] and Zeitlen and Komornik [22]
discussed field observations of damage to pipelines
buried in expansive clays. They found that
inequalities in the lateral and vertical swelling
behaviour resulted in very large stresses on the
pipelines.
Researchers, Wattanasanticharoen [23] and Avsar
et al. [24] devised different novel swell pressure set
ups to measure both vertical and lateral pressures
of a soil specimen. The ratio between the swell
pressures in lateral and vertical directions was
found to be 0.34 to 0.98. Micro structural
investigations performed on the clay revealed that
the clay minerals were aligned horizontally. It was
found that vertical swelling, which is swelling
perpendicular to the sheeting direction, explains
why the vertical swell pressure is more than the
lateral.
The thin wall oedometer used for the determination
of lateral and vertical swell pressures by Avsar et
al [24] is shown in Figure 3.

Puppala, Chittoori and Pedarla

1

Fig. 3: Thin wall oedometer ring [24]

Problems associated with differential movements
from swell can be expected for lightly loaded
structures,
including
residential
building
foundations constructed on expansive soils. These
infrastructure failures explain the need for better
swell-related characterization and determination of
swell properties of expansive subsoil and backfills.
Due to the limitation of these tests, difficulties
arise in the accurate characterization of expansive
soils in the laboratories.
Unsaturated Volume Change Characterization:
Expansive soils are in an unsaturated state in their
natural environment. Hence, better predictions of
expansive behaviour are obtained by using
unsaturated principles. Many researchers have
proposed vertical movement prediction models for
expansive soils, using unsaturated principles by
researchers like Fredlund and Morgenstern [25],
Snethen [26], etc. In this research, revisits of these
models and their predictions of heave movements
of soils, based on laboratory tests, are presented.
Other evaluations are attempted with heave
movements in real subgrades, which have already
been obtained in this study.
In a research conducted by Fredlund and
Morgenstern [25], the volume change constitutive
relations for expansive soils are proposed from a
semi-empirical model. Two equations were
proposed for volume change: Equation 1 was used
for deformation of soil structure and Equation 2 for
the volume of water present in the soil.

( )

( )

( ) +

( ) +

( )

( )

( )
(1)

( )

(2)

Where, v is the differential change in volume, is

the vertical pressure, ua is the pore air pressure,
and uw is pore water pressure.
Snethen [26] reported the following model, i.e,
Equation 3 to estimate the vertical swell movement
of an expansive soil. This model requires the use of
soil matric suction as one of the parameters.

( ) +
1+

(3)

Where
H = vertical movement (ft.); H = thickness of the
layer (ft.); eo = initial void ratio; A, B = constants
from matric suction vs water content relationship
wo = initial moisture content (%); mf = final matric
suction (kPa); = compressibility factor (slope of
specific volume; f = final applied pressure (kPa);
Cr = suction index shown in Equation 4 below
G
Cr = s
(4)
100B
B = slope of matric suction versus water content
curve; Gs = specific gravity of soil.
Alonso et al. [27] formulated a mathematical
model to determine the behaviour of expansive
unsaturated clays. Two levels of structure, one at
micro level and another at macro level, were
considered. It was found that the strain is
dependent on the stress-suction path, accumulation
of expansion strain during suction cycles at low
confining stress, accumulation of compression
strain, strain fatigue during wetting-drying cycles,
and macro pore invasion by expanded
microstructure. Berniner et al [28] conducted
suction-controlled experiments on Bloom clay. The
authors validated the interpretive model developed
by Alonso et al [29], and built a database of
unsaturated clay thermo-mechanical parameters.
Delage et al. [30] studied the hydro mechanical
behaviour of highly compacted unsaturated clays.
The variations of swelling properties with water
retention for the clay under controlled suction was

Approaches to expansive soil characterization

For 0 < Ps < 100 kPa

= 3.72 + 0.0111 + 2.077 + 0.244
For 100 < Ps < 350 kPa
= 16.31 + 0.0330 + 8.253 + 0.829 log

(5)

(6)

Texas Soil - Free Swell

Initial Suction

% Vertical Swell

0 kPa
100 kPa
300 kPa
450 kPa
MDD 2000 kPa

0
1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

1000000

Time (Sec)

Fig. 4: One dimensional vertical swell at different

initial suction condition [32]
Comparisons of swell pressures and swell strain
potentials and related SWCC properties of these
soils were also made. It was found that with an
increase in matric suction, this relationship shows a
non-linear trend. The maximum bend in the
swelling pressure curve occurs at an air entry
pressure (a) value.
40

25

Volumetric Water content (%)

Where, Ps is the swell pressure, Iv is index

property, s is soil suction, and dry is the soil dry
density.
In a research conducted by Pedarla et al. [32], an
attempt was made to study the relationship
between the SWCC and the swelling pressure,
including the one dimensional swell behaviour for
two different expansive soils, using statically
compacted specimens.
For swell studies, clay specimens were first
subjected to different suction pressures of 100, 300
and 450 kPa via pressure cell testing. The
specimens, after reaching equilibrium conditions,
were then transferred to the oedometer cells for
swell studies. Soil from Texas was studied for
swelling behaviour with varying suction
environments, as shown in Figure 4.

10

One Dimensional Vertical Swell(%)

presented in this research. The dominant role is

played by the microstructural saturated level,
which is strongly affected by the physico-chemical
interactions between water and the active clay
mineral.
Alonso et al. [29] conducted studies on sandbentonite mixtures and predicted the swelling
behaviour using an elasto plastic constitutive
model, which uses a double structure approach. A
vapor equilibrium technique was used to study the
features controlling soil behaviour at different
suction levels. Yusuf and Erol [31] used Nabentonite to study the dependency of soil suction
on water content, dry density and mineral content.
Soil suction was correlated to the soil properties,
namely, water content, plasticity index, dry
density, cation exchange capacity and specific
surface area using multiple regression analyses.
Two swell pressure prediction models were
developed by Yusuf and Erol [31], using the
previous experimental data. Equations 5 and 6
depict the swell pressure prediction models.

20

30

1D Swell Vs Suction
(Texas)
1D Swell (%)

15

20

SWRC DATA

10

10
5

0
1

10

100

1000

0
10000

Matric Suction (kPa)

Fig. 5: Comparison between SWCC and vertical

swell strains [32]

Puppala, Chittoori and Pedarla

The maximum change in swelling pressure occurs

at the air entry pressure of the SWRC, as shown in
Figure 5. The intersection of the two tangents
drawn from the initial portion of the swelling
pressure curve and final portion is approximately
the same as the air entry pressure (a) of the
SWRC.
Characterization of Expansive Clays based on
Clay Mineralogy
In expansive soils, the three most common clay
minerals documented in literature are kaolinite,
illite and montmorillonite [33]. Minerals like
montmorillonite exhibit a very high surface area
when compared to minerals such as kaolinite and
illite [33]. Identification of these minerals is
necessary for accurately evaluating the swell
behaviour.
Chittoori and Puppala [34] used basic soil
properties like total potassium (TP), specific
surface area (SSA) and cation exchange capacity
(CEC) to predict the expansive clay mineral
contents in a soil. The proposed procedure involves
an initial X-ray diffraction analysis of the
powdered sample to qualitatively identify the clay
minerals present in the given soil sample. XRD
results of all the soils showed that kaolinite, illite,
and montmorillonite were dominant and present in
the finer fraction of the soils, along with a few
traces of quartz in the nonclay minerals. After the
XRD analysis, the CEC, SSA, and TPs were
measured for each of the soils, as noted in the
preceding experimental program. These results
were used in the analysis of the following three
linear equations:
%M CECM + %K CECK + %I CECI = CECsoil
%M SSAM + %K SSAK + %I SSAI = SSAsoil
%M TPM + %K TPK + %I TPI = TPsoil

soil sample, respectively; and CECsoil, SSAsoil, and

TPsoil are the values of the properties CEC, SSA,
and TP of the whole soil, respectively. These
equations were solved statistically, using a
spreadsheet program and artificial neural networks
[34]. The authors concluded that the clay mineral
and plasticity information will improve the current
understanding of expansive soils and how they
behave when subjected to chemical changes [34].
Influence on stabilizer dosage:
Soil stabilization is the process of mitigating the
expansive nature of clays by modifying the
properties either chemically or physically
This chemical stabilizing technique is widely used
in the construction of roads, airports,
embankments, or canal linings by intimate mixing
with clayey soils to improve workability, strength,
swelling characteristics and bearing capacity [35].
Current stabilization standards, as shown in Figure
6, involve PI as a characterization for additives.
Pedarla et al. [35] conducted a study to evaluate the
effectiveness of stabilization on expansive soils
with varying mineralogy.

(1)
(2)
(3)

Where, %M, %K, and %I = percentages of the

minerals, montmorillonite, kaolinite, and illite
present in the soil sample, respectively; CECM,
CECK, and CECI are the CEC values of the pure
minerals montmorillonite, kaolinite, and illite
present in the soil sample, respectively; SSAM,
SSAK, and SSAI are the SSA values of the pure
minerals montmorillonite, kaolinite, and illite
present in the soil sample, respectively; TPM, TPK,
and TPI are the TP values of the pure minerals
montmorillonite, kaolinite, and illite present in the

Fig. 6: TxDOT stabilization chart

Certain soils exhibit the same PI characteristics but
different mineralogical contents, which leads to
different soil stabilization behaviour under similar
conditions.
Studies conducted on six expansive clays revealed
that the soils having the same PI properties, but
different Montmorillonite contents, exhibited
diverse results when treated with standard
stabilization design procedures. The soils with high
mineral contents were not stabilized effectively,

Approaches to expansive soil characterization

which proved the influence of minerals. One of the

objectives of the research is to establish the
relationship
between
the
percentage
of
montmorillonite and PI properties, and their
combined effect on chemical stabilization of
natural clays.
Based on the test results, a modified design chart
based on mineralogy is presented and
recommended for future usage. This chart can be
used to determine the optimum amount of
stabilizer dosage based on the percent of
montmorillonite in the soil [35].
Determination of PI and
%MM

If PI 35

If PI < 35

MM < 40

Use standard design

procedure for
optimum stabilizer
dosage

MM 40

MM < 40

MM 40

Dosages of Lime (8%) and Cement (6%) are

recommended

Durability studies are needed to validate the

optimum stabilizer dosage

Fig. 7: Modified stabilization chart based on

mineral montmorillonite [35]
From this research, it was recommended that the
preliminary swell characterization investigations
should include mineralogy for the subsoil. This
would offer better insights into the soil behaviour
than the PI property alone. Researchers proposed
this chart based on one experimental investigation
in which six different soils were tested.
Characterization using Pore Sizes
The measurement of the internal pore structure of a
solid mass has been the main challenge for
researchers in the past decade. These
measurements are possible with the help of
techniques like Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry
(MIP). The mercury intrusion method is a new
technique used to measure the pore size and
distribution of the soil. Because of the mercury
impermeability to soil, the mercury-injecting
pressure is required to overcome the capillary
resistance, which prompts mercury to outflow from
the capillary.

In a study conducted by Simms and Yanful [36],

predictions of the SWCCs, using pore size
distributions (PSD) measured both before and after
the SWCC tests, significantly under-predicted the
values when compared to measured values from
the mercury intrusion porosimetry test.
Rao and Revanasiddappa [37] studied undisturbed
and remoulded soils and conducted suction and
MIP tests. They concluded that the matrix suctions
of the undisturbed and remoulded residual soil
specimens are greatly influenced by the relative
abundance of the inter-aggregate porosity and
intra-aggregate porosity. Cui and Tang [38] studied
pore structures of different soils using MIP and
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) devices and
studied the micro and macro mechanisms of land
subsidence caused by high-rise building groups.
Ferber et al. [39] conducted research on the micro
structural interpretation of swelling tests performed
on four clays. The results showed that swelling of
clays leads to an increase in micropores and a
decrease in macropores. In addition, it was found
that the micropores volume increase is not affected
by the initial dry densities; whereas, the
macropores volume increase is.
Influence of pore gradation on expansive
behaviour:
The roles played by the pore distribution and pore
connectivity in the engineering behaviour of an
expansive soil mass have been the focus of many
researchers. Studies conducted on expansive soils
using the MIP technique showed that during the
soil swelling process, there exists an increase in
micro pore size and a decrease of macro pore size
[40, 41]. In a research conducted by Pedarla et al.
[42], two soils were studied for swell behaviour,
along with pore distribution studies. Both the soils
exhibited similar mineralogical behaviours, but the
Oklahoma soil contained higher percentages of
illite and montmorillonite. Macro swell studies
revealed that Texas soil exhibits higher swell
strains at 9%; whereas, Oklahoma soil exhibits 5%.
The distribution of pore size is a governing
parameter for the hydraulic conductivity of the soil
medium. Pore distribution studies were conducted
on these two soils, and tests results revealed that
the Texas soil exhibits a lower total pore volume of
14.8 cm3/g than Oklahoma soil, which is 18.4

Puppala, Chittoori and Pedarla

cm3/g. For Oklahoma soil, the majority of the pore

volume is concentrated between 0.01 to 0.1 m.
10

micro pore volume. These results indicate that both

the clay mineralogy and pore distribution are
needed to understand the swelling capacities of
sub-soils.

Free Swell (7 kPa)

Texas soil
Oklahoma soil

1 D Vertical Swell (%)

0
1

10

100

10000

1000

100000

1000000

Time (Sec)

Fig. 8: One dimensional vertical swell strains of

Texas and Oklahoma soil [42]
20

Pore Radius Vs Pore volume

Total Pore Volume (cm3/g)

16

SUMMARY
The dependence of swell behaviour on the soils
elemental properties is quite evident. Previous
studies failed to incorporate these attributes for
swell behaviour, thereby leading to erroneous
characterization. In this article, the micro swell
governing attributes, which are clay mineralogy,
matric suction and pore distribution, are studied,
along with their influences on swell behaviour.
Based on the above discussed attributes that
influence the swelling behaviour of expansive
clays, a new universal model that includes the
coupled effects of these attributes is required, as
shown in Figure 9. Further research is being
conducted to include the coupled effects and also
to incorporate the environmental factors affecting
swell properties of soils.

Texas Soil
Oklahoma Soil

Clay
Mineralogy

12

In-situ
Stress

0
0.001

0.01

0.1

10

Swell
Behavior

Pore
Distribution

100

Pore Raidus (micro meter)

Fig. 9: Pore distribution in soils [42]

This uneven distribution of the pore radius curve
leads to lack of interconnectivity between pore
radii in Oklahoma soil and influenced moisture
distribution across the soil specimen. Hence, it can
be stated that due to uniform pore gradation and
smaller micro pore sizes, Texas soil has more open
fabric, and consequently has higher moisture
movement within the soils. This explains the
reasons that Texas soils exhibit higher swelling
potential than the Oklahoma soil, which contains a
gap-graded type of pore distribution and higher

Unsaturated
Attribute

Fig. 10: Coupled effects on swell behavior

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge National
Science Foundation (Program Director: Dr.Richard
J. Fragaszy) for supporting this research under NSF
Grant No.1031214. Any findings, conclusions, or
recommendations expressed in the present material
are those of the authors and do not necessarily
reflect the views of NSF.

Approaches to expansive soil characterization

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