Industrial and Commercial Training

Satisfaction guaranteed? Enhanced impact of trainer competence for autonomous trainees

T. Brad Harris Wonjoon Chung Christina L. Frye Dan S. Chiaburu

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T. Brad Harris Wonjoon Chung Christina L. Frye Dan S. Chiaburu , (2014),"Satisfaction guaranteed? Enhanced impact of
trainer competence for autonomous trainees", Industrial and Commercial Training, Vol. 46 Iss 5 pp. 270 - 277
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T. Brad Harris, Wonjoon Chung, Holly M. Hutchins, Dan S. Chiaburu, (2014),"Do trainer style and learner orientation predict
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Piyali Ghosh, Jagdamba Prasad Joshi, Rachita Satyawadi, Udita Mukherjee, Rashmi Ranjan, (2011),"Evaluating
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Satisfaction guaranteed? Enhanced

impact of trainer competence for
autonomous trainees

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T. Brad Harris, Wonjoon Chung, Christina L. Frye and Dan S. Chiaburu

Dr T. Brad Harris is an Assistant

Professor, Wonjoon Chung is a
PhD Candidate and Christina
L. Frye is a PhD Student, all are
based at School of Labor and
Employment Relations,
University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, Champaign,
Illinois, USA.
Dr Dan S. Chiaburu is an
Assistant Professor, based at
Department of Management,
Mays Business School, Texas
A&M University, College
Station, Texas, USA.

Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate the interplay between perceptions of instructor
competence and trainees motivational orientations (autonomy orientation) as predictor of trainee
satisfaction.
Design/methodology/approach Simulating a realistic training initiative, the paper examines survey
responses from a sample (n 132) of students enrolled in an introductory business course at a large US
university.
Findings Perceptions of instructor competence predict course satisfaction over and above trainees
motivational orientations. Further, trainee satisfaction is an interactive function of both instructor
competence and trainee orientations, with instructor competence being more important for trainees with
high autonomy.
Research limitations/implications The results of the present study should be considered in the light of
the limitations, including limited generalizability, an exclusive focus on trainee satisfaction as outcome, and a
test of only one moderator.
Practical implications This study confirms the need for instructors to be knowledgeable, organized and
prepared, and to establish rapport with their trainees in order to promote high levels of satisfaction with the
instruction even for trainees who are often assumed to naturally thrive in training (i.e. those high in
autonomy).
Social implications If extended to other contexts and settings, the results point out toward the need to
consider multiple venues, including both trainer and trainee-based factors to increase trainees course or
program satisfaction. In a broader sense, aptitude-treatment (Cronbach, 1957) remains a valid perspective
and needs to receive renewed attention.
Originality/value The current literature suggests that positive course reactions (e.g. high trainee
satisfaction) can enhance learning, learning transfer, and ultimately application of acquired knowledge and
skill. This study provides support for the notion that trainee satisfaction is a function of both instructor
competence and trainees motivational orientations. Training professionals can enhance training outcomes
by emphasizing trainer and trainee factors when designing initiatives. Related, trainee motivational
orientations should not be viewed as a substitute for highly competent trainers.
Keywords Aptitude-treatment interaction, Trainee autonomy, Trainee satisfaction, Trainer competence
Paper type Research paper

The authors would like to

acknowledge Katharyne Gabriel,
Bryan Edwards, and participants of
the 13th Annual Texas A&M
Assessment Conference for their
helpful comments on a prior version
of this manuscript.

he American Society of Training and Development (2012) estimated that US

companies spend over $150 billion annually in learning initiatives. However, many HR
departments still face the challenge of justifying and defending these investments, in
large part because their impacts on objectives like financial and operational performance,
customer satisfaction, and turnover are often distal and indirect (Jiang et al., 2012; Rogg et al.,
2001). In the spirit of informing training officers and planners of ways to get more bang for
their buck, we investigate the interplay between trainer (instructor competence) and trainee
(autonomy orientation) characteristics on trainees affective responses (satisfaction with

PAGE 270 INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL TRAINING VOL. 46 NO. 5 2014, pp. 270-277, C Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 0019-7858

DOI 10.1108/ICT-12-2013-0084

training). In doing so, our results suggest than an a priori understanding of their trainers and
audience can be a useful, and perhaps relatively inexpensive, way to enhance training
effectiveness.

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Prior research has established that instructor competence (i.e. the extent to which a trainer is
viewed as an expert and reliable source of information in the content area) positively predict
trainees satisfaction (Finn et al., 2009; McCroskey et al., 1974). Separately, scholars have also
suggested that trainees motivational orientations, such as autonomy orientation (i.e. ones
tendency towards volitional engagement in action [internal locus of causality]; Gagne, 2003,
p. 203), likely have positive impacts on satisfaction (Klein et al., 2006). However, researchers
have not investigated how these characteristics work in tandem. Given the established positive
link between trainees affective reaction (i.e. satisfaction) and learning, application, and knowledge
(Kirkpatrick, 1959; Sitzmann et al., 2008), we seek to disentangle these relationships.
Instructor competence and trainee motivation orientations warrant attention as important,
interactive antecedents of training satisfaction for a number of reasons. First, although much
research assumes and empirically supports the notion that instructor competence positively
predicts training outcomes, substantively less is known about its boundary conditions. Our
study answers calls to understand the moderators and contingencies of instructor competence
on training outcomes (Finn et al., 2009). Second, although scholars now recognize the role of
trainee characteristics, including motivational orientations, it is less clear how, or if, these trainee
dispositions predict training satisfaction over and above, or in conjunction with, instructor
competence. This is an interesting question as prior research has suggested that employee
motivational orientations may interact with contextual factors in learning programs in
unexpected and costly ways. Concretely, a question explored in our research is: does trainer
competence matter equally for all trainees, or are some trainees more sensitive to it?
Such issues have practical relevance for optimizing training. To begin, if findings reveal that both
trainer competence and trainee autonomy orientations independently and jointly predict
trainees satisfaction, our research will confirm previously assumed, but not validated,
propositions concerning the value of investing in high-quality trainers and accounting for
trainees motivational orientations. However, if only instructor competence (but not trainee
orientations) predicts satisfaction, training professionals may be able to place more emphasis
monetarily or otherwise on utilizing skilled and knowledgeable trainers over directing their
attention toward the trainees and their characteristics. Conversely, if only trainee characteristics
(Ghosh et al., 2012) predict course satisfaction, training professionals may be able to identify
opportunities for savings elsewhere, such as using currently under-utilized line managers or
administrators without significant training experience as trainers. Similar implications can be
outlined for interactive/joint effects with trainer competence and trainee motivational
orientations substituting for or accentuating one another. Overall, it is possible that prior
examinations that have independently examined the roles of instructor competence and trainee
orientations have only told part of the training satisfaction story.

Conceptual rationale
Main and additive effects
Instructor competence, as an indicator of instructor credibility, has a powerful influence on
trainee outcomes, including satisfaction (McCroskey et al., 1974). A recent meta-analysis,

Prior research has established that instructor

competence (i.e. the extent to which a trainer is
viewed as an expert and reliable source of
information in the content area) positively predict
trainees satisfaction.

VOL. 46 NO. 5 2014 INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL TRAINING PAGE 271

for example, reported that instructor competence explained over 23 percent of the total
variance in a composite measure of positive student outcomes (r 0.48, k 36, n 10,662;
Finn et al., 2009). The rationale behind this relationship is straightforward. When trainees view
trainers as highly competent, they report more respectful, meaningful and just interactions with
the instructor (Chory, 2007; Martinez-Egger and Powers, 2007; Myers, 2004) and greater
motivation to learn (Frymier and Thompson, 1992; Martin et al., 1997; Tibbles et al., 2008)
which can in turn drive their satisfaction (Finn et al., 2009; McCroskey et al., 2004). Accordingly,
we expect a positive relationship between instructor competence and trainee satisfaction.

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Using a different lens, scholars have substantiated a positive relationship between trainee
autonomy and important training outcomes (Chiaburu et al., 2010, 2013; Payne et al., 2007).
The rationale for this positive relationship is rooted in motivational theory. Trainees with high
autonomy (or causality) orientations are perceived as self-initiators and self-motivators; they do
not rely on extrinsic rewards for their motivation. In contrast to individuals who believe their
outcomes to be driven by external forces, autonomous trainees believe they have volitional
control (Gagne, 2003). Their autonomy promotes perceptions of self-competence and fuels
intrinsic motivation (Deci and Ryan, 1985a, b). According to self-determination and causal
orientation theories, individuals with autonomy orientations have higher needs for satisfaction at
work and value (and strive for) situations in which these natural tendencies can thrive. As a result,
trainees with high autonomy motivations will be motivated to craft under their own volition a
satisfactory training experience. We therefore expect that trainees with a high autonomy
orientation will be more satisfied with instruction.

Interactive effects
Combining the above by using an attribute-treatment perspective (Cronbach, 1957), we
propose that treatment situations (training with competent instructors, in our case) may have a
greater impact on certain types of trainees (i.e. those with high autonomy or learning goal
orientations) (Gully et al., 2002). Researchers have in fact noted that accounting for interactions
between both external factors (e.g. instructors) and trainees personal orientations are critical for
understanding goal achievement (Wolters, 2004). However, it is unknown whether trainee
orientations substitute for instructor competence (dispositional trainee orientations render
instructor competence less impactful) or accentuate it.
Perceptions of instructor competence and trainee autonomy orientation are both thought to
independently increase intrinsic motivation, and ultimately satisfaction, in the training context.
We suspect the mechanisms are synergistic rather than substitutable. Based on assertions in
achievement goal theory research (e.g. Wolters, 2004), we posit that instructor competence
plays an important role in helping trainees with high autonomy orientation achieve their goal of
volitionally determining desired outcomes, increasing their satisfaction. As noted previously,
perceptions of instructor competence influence trainee motivations to learn (Frymier and
Thompson, 1992; Tibbles et al., 2008) by way of higher quality and more credible trainer-trainee
interactions (Chory, 2007; Martinez-Egger and Powers, 2007; Myers, 2004). Autonomy
orientations, on the other hand, refer to a general disposition that motivates trainees to actively
and autonomously take control of their situation (Gagne, 2003). When trainees autonomy
orientation is high, their volitional efforts will be more efficient (less taxing) and more satisfying
when they interact with a competent instructor. Conversely, low autonomy orientation trainees
may take a passive stance toward creating a satisfactory situation, resulting in a more subdued
instructor competence trainee satisfaction relationship.

Perceptions of instructor competence and trainee

autonomy orientation are both thought to
independently increase intrinsic motivation, and
ultimately satisfaction, in the training context.

PAGE 272 INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL TRAINING VOL. 46 NO. 5 2014

To summarize, we investigate the following research questions:

RQ1. Is instructor competence positively related to course satisfaction?
RQ2. Are trainees motivational orientations toward autonomy positively related to course
satisfaction?
RQ3. Do instructor competence and trainees autonomy orientations explain unique additive
variance in course satisfaction?
RQ4. Is there a joint effect of autonomy orientations and instructor competence?

Research design
Participants and procedure

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Our data are based on an initial sample of 454 undergraduates from a large southwestern US
university enrolled in an introductory business course, with the analyses based on 132 students
with complete data. In total, 59 percent of the participants were male (with 4 percent
non-responding), age ranged from 18 to 43 with a mean of 21 years (SD 2.05), average GPA
was 2.98 (1.98-4.00), and average SATscore was 1,450. Participants completed questionnaires
in exchange for credit several times throughout the semester.
Measures
For each measure, participants responded using a seven-point Likert scale (1 strongly agree;
7 strongly disagree). Means, standard deviations, and internal reliability estimates are
presented in Table I. Trainee course satisfaction was measured at the end of the semester, while
all other constructs were measured several weeks prior.
Trainer competence
Trainees perceptions of instructor competence were measured with five items (Sitzmann, 2008;
a 0.93; e.g. The instructor was knowledgeable about the training content).
Trainee autonomy orientation
We used the general causality orientations (Deci and Ryan, 1985b) to assess autonomy.
Trainees were presented with scenarios to which they could respond with selecting an
autonomous, controlled, or impersonal course of action. For example, You have been offered
a new position in a company where you have worked for some time. The first question that is
likely to come to mind is: (autonomous) I wonder if the new work will be interesting; (controlled)
What if I cant live up to the new responsibility?; or (impersonal) Will I make more at this
position?. We averaged the scores for the autonomous responses.
Table I Descriptive statistics and correlations
Variables
1. Age
2. Gender
3. Work experience (months)
4. GPA
5. SAT
6. Trainer competence
7. Trainee autonomy orientation
8. Course satisfaction

Mean

SD

20.82
0.46
38.06
3.03
1,457.28
5.83
5.72
4.43

1.43
0.50
30.59
0.51
345.46
0.94
0.59
1.06

0.17
0.16
0.17
0.51**
0.03
0.09
0.04

0.02
0.05
0.04
0.22*
0.13
0.07

0.17
0.02
0.17
0.02
0.11

0.26**
0.08
0.09
0.10

0.04
0.19*
0.13

(0.93)
0.22*
0.40**

(0.75)
0.21*

(0.84)

Notes: n 125. Estimated reliabilities (Cronbachs a) are reported in parentheses. *po0.05; **po0.01. All significance tests are two-tailed

VOL. 46 NO. 5 2014 INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL TRAINING PAGE 273

Trainee course satisfaction

We measured satisfaction at the end of the semester adapting the five-item scale of Brayfield
and Rothe (1951) (a 0.84). An example item is, I feel fairly satisfied with this course.
Control variables
We controlled for several demographic characteristics such as age, and gender, and for work
experience, GPA, and SAT scores.

Results
Table I presents the means, standard deviations, estimated reliabilities (i.e. Cronbachs a), and
zero-order correlations. Consistent with our predictions, course satisfaction was correlated
with trainees perceptions of instructor competence (r 0.40, po0.01) and with trainees
autonomy orientation (r 0.21, po0.05). We relied primarily on ordinary least squares
regression to test the predictions, with the controls entered in the first step, hypothesized
main effects in the second step, and the interaction term in the final step (Aiken and West,
1991) (Table II).
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As expected, instructor competence predicted course satisfaction over and above the controls
and trainee autonomy orientation (Step 2; b 0.42; po0.01). Interestingly, although trainee
autonomy orientation (Step 2; b 0.13, ns) displayed a coefficient in the expected positive
direction, it was not significant over and above instructor competence. Thus, when viewed
additively, competent trainers drive course satisfaction to a greater extent than factors internal to
trainees.
Results from our interaction tests revealed that the joint effect of instructor competence and
autonomy orientation (Step 3; b 0.17; po0.05) was significant. In Figure 1 we plotted the
interaction at one standard deviation above and below the mean for instructor competence.
The form was consistent with our a priori prediction, as were results from simple slopes analyses
(bhigh autonomy orientation 0.65, po0.01 vs blow autonomy orientation 0.30, po0.05).

Discussion
Based on our results, not only does instructor competence play a key role in trainees
satisfaction, but it is of even greater import for autonomy-oriented trainees. Our research has a
number of practical implications for training professionals. To begin, even though we confirm
that competent instructors are critical for trainee satisfaction, we did not find any significant
additive effects for trainees motivational orientations. Thus, as suggested by prior scholarship,
practitioners should pay particularly close attention to the quality of trainers when implementing
training programs. However, although trainee orientations did not additively explain variance in

Table II Results of hierarchical regression analysis for course satisfaction

Independent variables
Age
Gender (1 female)
Work experience (months)
GPA
SAT
Trainer competence (TC)
Trainee autonomous orientation (AO)
TC  AO
R2(DR2)
F

Step 1
0.05
0.19
0.01
0.09
0.00

0.04 (0.04)
1.12

Step 2
0.01
0.36*
0.00
0.03
0.00
0.42**
0.13
0.22 (0.18)**
5.01**

Step 3
0.00
0.37*
0.00
0.04
0.00
0.48**
0.20*
0.17*
0.26 (0.04)*
5.35*

Notes: n 125. Main independent variables (non-controls) were standardized. *po0.05; **po0.01.
All significance tests are two-tailed

PAGE 274 INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL TRAINING VOL. 46 NO. 5 2014

Figure 1 The joint influence of instructor competence and trainee autonomy orientation
on course satisfaction

5.5

Course Satisfaction

4.5

Low Autonomy Orientation

3.5

High Autonomy Orientation

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3
Low Instructor
Competence

High Instructor
Competence

course satisfaction, our interaction analysis suggests that overlooking them altogether may be a
costly error. Organizations need to be mindful of trainees motivational orientations (e.g. when
identifying high potential employees (Hi-Pos) for additional training). More realistically, both
trainers and instructional designers can rely on priming techniques (e.g. Martocchio, 1994) to
induce shorter-term motivational orientations during training. The results of the present study
should be considered in the light of the limitations, including limited generalizability, an exclusive
focus on trainee satisfaction as outcome, and a test of only one moderator.

Future research
Our study opens up a number of opportunities for future research. First, although we have shed
light on situational and trainee factors contributing to trainee responses to instruction, examining
the underlying dimensions of autonomy orientation were beyond the scope of the current
research. It would be interesting, for instance, to examine whether our results hold to a greater
extent for trainees with approaching (vs avoiding) forms of autonomous goals (Elliot and
McGregor, 2001). A likewise partition can be operated on the outcome, in the light of research
showing the presence of various forms of satisfaction (Ghosh et al., 2011). Second, despite
providing insight on predictors of trainee satisfaction, we did not explicitly examine more distal
aspects of instruction such as learning, learning transfer, and application of acquired
knowledge. Although various literatures support the linkage between positive reactions, such as
satisfaction, to these higher level outcomes (e.g. Sitzmann et al., 2008), we encourage scholars
and practitioners to continue to explore these relationships in light of the current findings. Finally,
future work should examine the central relationships advanced here using different types work
and non-work settings, instructional designs, and training approaches.

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About the authors

Dr T. Brad Harris is an Assistant Professor in the Scholar of Labor and Employment Relations at
the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Wonjoon Chung is a PhD Student in the Scholar of Labor and Employment Relations at the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Christina L. Frye is a PhD Student in the Scholar of Labor and Employment Relations at the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Dr Dan S. Chiaburu is an Assistant Professor in the Mays Business School at the Texas A&M
University.

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