Engineering Geology, 34 (1981) 185--199

185

Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam -- Printed in The Netherlands

SOME GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF A LIME-STABILIZED

LATERITE CONTAINING A HIGH PROPORTION OF ALUMINIUM
OXIDE

B.K.A. AKOTO and G. SINGH

Building and Road Research Institute, Kumasi (Ghana)

The University of Leeds, Leeds (Great Britain)
(.Received January 20, 1981, accepted July 20, 1981)

ABSTRACT
Akoto, B.K.A. and Singh, G., 1981. Some geotechnical properties of a lime-stabilized
laterite containing a high proportion of aluminium oxide. Eng. Geol., 17: 185--199.
The engineering properties of many soils can be improved by lime stabilization. Not all
such soils, however, show improved strength. Such non-reactive soils will show no strength
increase regardless of lime type and percentage, curing environment and duration of
treatment.
The type and amount of minerals and elements may either facilitate or inhibit increase
in strength. The strength of soils possessing high proportions of aluminium oxide could
be reduced when stabilized with lime and cured over a long period at a high temperature.
This decrease in strength is due to the type o f reaction products formed.
A Kenyan laterite with a high proportion of aluminium oxide was stabilized with
different percentages of lime and cured over periods of up to 28 days. The results show
that with a lower percentage of lime, the unconfined strength decreases with increase in
curing time. However, when the amount o f lime is increased, there is an increase in
strength with curing time. The immediate California Bearing Ratio (C.B.R.) values are
observed to be functions of density and moisture content. The higher the density, the
greater the C.B.R. values.
INTRODUCTION

Use of lime-clay mixtures for construction purposes started some 5,000

years ago; the sub-bases of many R o m a n roads, including the Appian Way,
were stabilized with lime (Krebs and Walker, 1971). In the United States of
America, lime stabilization was first used a b o u t 1920 and by 1971 the use of
lime stabilization was approaching an annual rate of 500 million m 2 of construction.
The purpose o f lime-stabilization has been to alter soil properties for
specific engineering requirements. Such soil properties as strength, permeability, workability anql swelling potential can be changed or improved b y
soil stabilization. N o t all soils, however, show improved strength with addition
of lime. With some svils~he pozzotanm reaction is inhibited, cementing agents
0013--7952/81/0000--0000/$02.50 1981 Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company

186

are not extensively formed, and hence there is no appreciable strength

increase. Thompson (1966} has used the term "reactivity" to distinguish
between soils which "react" with lime and those that do not. Those which
react with .lime to produce strength increase greater than 345 kN/m 2 following 28 days curing at a temperature of 22.8C are "reactive", and those which
display strength increase less than 345 kN/m 2 are called "non-reactive". If a
soil is "non-reactive" strength increase will not be achieved regardless of lime
type and percentage, curing environment and duration.
The response of soil to stabilization is influenced by the clay minerals,
sesquioxides present, mica content, organic matter, particle-size composition,
position of the soil in the profile and the soil series, amongst other things.
Bishewski {1963), Thompson (1965) and Sherwood (1968) have indicated
that the presence of sesquioxides decreases the strength of stabilized laterite
soils, whilst De Graft Johnson and Bathia (1969), o n t h e other hand, attribute the susceptibility of laterite soils to stabilization to the high concentration of sesquioxide.
This study was undertaken using laterite soil having a high proportion of
oxides of iron and aluminium and stabilizing it with various percentages of
lime. Both static and dynamic tests were performed on the raw and the
stabilized soil. This paper contains the results obtained from the static tests.
MATERIALS

The soil was red-brownish laterite imported from Kenya. The main constituent minerals were quartz, feldspar, kaolinite, gibbsite and mica (Fig.l).
The main elements in the soil were oxides of silica,aluminiurn and iron, which
form more than 80% by weight of the total elements in the soil.These and
other elements present in the soil are shown in Table I. The stabilizingage;~t
used was commercial-grade white calcium hydrated lime.
Legend :
K - Kaolin
F, - Oibbsife
O - oL Quartzite

F - Feldspar
"

O
/

K F

rV~

20 (CU Kcr. r a d i a t i o n l

Fig.1. X-ray diffraction patterns for raw laterite.

187
TABLE I
Results from chemical analysis by x-ray fluorescence of the fraction < 5 mm

Elements

% by weight

SiO2
A1203
Fe203
TiO:
MnO
MgO
CaO
K~O

31.22
26.83
22.42
1.21
1.61
0.38
0.55
0.30
0.24
0.54
15.06

P2Os
NaO
Water loss in fusion
Total

100.33

TESTING PROCEDURES

The soil was mixed thoroughly and then air-dried at room temperature.
The soil was then sieved through 5 mm sieve. The retained component was
discarded. Such preliminary values as consistency limit, specific gravity and
pH were measured. The static tests performed on both the natural and the
stabilized soft included compaction, California Bearing Ratio (C.B.R.) and
the Unconfined Compressive Strength (U.C.). All tests were performed
according to B.S. 1377 (1975) and 1924 (1975). Homogeneous mixtures
were obtained by blending the required amount of lime with the air-dried
soil in a mechanical mixer for three minutes. Water was then added and mixing continued for about seven minutes.

Compaction and C.B.R.

Moisture--density relationships were investigated for the untreated, 3%,
5%, 7% and 10% lime contents. Immediately after mixing, the lime--soil
mixture was compacted in a C.B.R. mould at modified AASHO compaction
level; C.B.R. tests were then performed immediately. Since the soil was susceptible to crushing, different soil samples were used for the determination
of the various experimental points on the compaction curve.

Unconfined compression tests

All the unconfined compression tests were performed on samples compacted at optimum moisture content and maximum dry unit weight for each
treatment level. The specimens were prepared in a 50 mm by 100 mm
constant-volume mould by static compaction to modified ASSHO maximum
density. To obtain a uniform density through the specimens and also to make
extrusion o f the specimens easier, the following steps were taken.

188
(a) A very thin film of grease was smeared in the mould before compaction.
(b) Compaction was done in t w o stages; first, manually in four layers,
each layer b.eing tapped by a rod fifteen times, the surface of each layer
being scarified before the n e x t layer was put on, so as to obtain a good bond
between layers.
After this initial compaction, the mould with its end caps in position was
placed under a universal compression machine and the sample compacted
from both ends o f the mould at a compression rate of 1 mm per minute. The
samples were extruded from the mould, waxed and stored in an oven kept at
a temperature of 28C + 2C. At each stabilizer content, at least three specimens were tested after 1, 7, 14 and 28 days of curing.
TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Particle size distribution

The result o f the particle-size distribution tests is shown in Fig.2. The dispersing agent used was sodium hexametaphosphate, which is considered to
be the best dispersing agent for laterite (Gidigasu, 1976). Increasing the
concentration from 2.5% to 5% decreased the clay content by 6%, with
slight changes in the other particle sizes. This change may be attributed to
the fact that the higher concentration causes agglomeration of the smaller
particles.

u,'~ o

oO

100

~t~

..tt o

c o r~. o t ~

ucb

I:i

90

71

80
70

7,
X:
I/l!

60
50
z.O
30
20

10
0
00001

kfldTl 11 Ii
0.001

0 01

01
10
Porticle S~ze (ram)

A - 2 5m11
B - 5 0 m l l "Sdium HexometQphosphafe
C-Originaal Soil

Fig.2. Particle-size distribution.

i
10

100

189

A tterberg limits
Two methods, the Casagrande method and the cone penetrometer
method, were used to determine the liquid limit of the soil samples after 1 h
and 24 h o f curing. The results are shown in Fig.3. The values of the liquid
limit from the c o n e p e n e t r o m e t e r method were, at all times, lower than
those obtained by the Casagrande device. Whilst the two curing methods did
not differ much in their effects on the plastic limit, samples cured for 1 h had
liquid limits greater at all lime contents than those cured for 24 h.

Specific gravity
This was found to be 2.62 and 2.71 for samples passing through 2 m m
and 5 m m sieves, respectively. The iron concentration in the larger particle
sizes was responsible for the higher values of the specific gravity in the
bigger sizes. These and other engineering properties of the soil are shown in
Table II.
60
\\

50'
Liquid

Limff

,~/*(
._--e Plastic Limit
~- 3o

10

Cnsagr'ande
"~I hr
o Cone PenetrometerJ
c~ C a s a q r a n d e
2/, hrs.
Cone -Penefrometer
~J"

30

2C

hr curing
24 hrs curing

Lime Content

Fig.3. E f f e c t o f lime c o n t e n t o n Atterberg's limits.

190
TABLE II
Some engineering properties of Kenyan laterite
Liquid limit (%)
Plastic limit (%)
Plasticity index
Mod.AASHO max. Dry Density (kg/m 3)
(ib./ft 3)
Optimum moisture content (%)
Specific gravity < 2 mm
< 5 mm
pH

49.2
29.7
19.5
1760
109.6
19.7
2.62
2.71
5.3

Dry unit weight/moisture content

The results of the compaction tests are shown in Figs.4 and 5. Like most
soil--lime mixtures, the dry unit weight decreases with an increase in the
lime content, The decrease of dry unit weight with the addition of lime can
be attributed to the flocculation and agglomeration of the soil particles and
to the lower unit weight o f lime. The increase in the o p t i m u m moisture content could be attributed to the total increase in fines c o n t e n t due to the
addition of the lime and to the high affinity which lime has for water.

California Bearing Ratio ( CBR )

Most of the published research on lime-stabilized soils has been devoted to
cured specimens, and there is very little information on the immediate effects
t h a t result from the improvement of properties of uncured lime--laterite
mixtures. Immediate CBR tests will, therefore, shed some light. The test
results are shown in Figs.5--7 and Fig.9. Fig.5 shows the relationship
between moisture c o n t e n t and immediate CBR for the different lime contents. The shapes o f the CBR and compaction curves for the 3%, 5% and 7%
lime softs are similar.
At the o p t i m u m moisture contents (Fig.7), the 3% stabilized soil gave the
highest CBR. As observed by Neubauer and Thompson (1972) and Van Ganse
(1974) the immediate improvements in the stabilized soil are n o t proportional
to the a m o u n t o f lime added.
Even though most researchers rule o u t the possibility of extensive development of pozzolanic reaction products being responsible for the rapid amelioration, i.e. improvement, o f the properties of cohesive soft, there is a wide
disagreement as to the mechanisms responsible for these effects. Whilst some
researchers (e.g., Neubauer and Thompson, 1972) attribute the amelioration
effect to the immediate cation exchange and the flocculation and agglomeration reactions that occur when cohesive soil is stabilized with lime, others
(e.g. Diamond and Kinter, 1965) postulate t h a t the mechanism responsible is
the formation o f bonds of tetracatcium alumina hydrates and possibly

191
1800

0%

3%
5%

7%
10%

'"~"\
\

1780

Lime
Lime
Lime
Lime
Lime

\
\

1760

\"
\

\
\

17/,0

\\

-- 1720

1700

~3

\\

16

1~8
2'0
2'2
Moisture Content {%}

1680

1660

16~0

1/.

__i

21,

Fig.4. Moisture/density relationships.

calcium silicate hydrates which link the clay particles together. This happens
as a result of an immediate reaction occurring between the alumina-bearing
edges of clay particles and the lime adsorbed on the faces of adjacent
particles. Diamond and Kinter, however, admit that the formation of
hydrates does not lend itself to easy demonstration. Van Ganse (1974) attributes the amelioration of the soil properties to the formation of the softs
into crumbs which retain their individuality when the lime--soil mixture is
kneaded and compacted.
It does appear that the amelioration is due to the flocculation and agglomeration of the soil when mixed with lime, resulting in the formation of
soil crumbs; and possibly the formation of calcium alumina and calcium silica
hydrates, which help to link the clay particles together. The reaction
products formed are neither stable nor complete and by themselves are not
responsible for the strength increase.
It could be concluded that the immediate CBR values are functions of
both moisture content and dry density. The higher the dry density, the
greater the CBR value o f the stabilized soil. Jan and Walker (1963) have also
observed that both the immediate CBR and the cured CBR are functions of
both density and moisture content. There are optimal moisture contents
and compactive efforts for m a x i m u m strength.

192

1800

(o1 - - Dry Density

(bl---CBR
00

0% Lime

mo

-= ~72o
}
16~0
= 16

16

10

20

3% L,me

,o

20

Me~sture Content I%)

60

ao

~o ~

0o

30

so

20 m

~.0

10

30

20~f16

~7oo

'

c~

1680
18 20 2~1660'2"" ~
Molstut~ Content (%)

24

5% Lime

1001

/,'~

1720~

~ 00

1~9of

:,0

:::{

~o

:= o
Moisture Content f % l

10% Lime

7"/.t,me

1690

70~J".'~.

-- 1720

1"

80

~ 1700

50

11670 ~,

--

60~ 40t/

c~ 1660

~0 ~ 30

c~

00
16~,01

~,~.

t1080 ~_
~
1650 c~

16,0 ~

10

00 21 22 23
Hoisfur~ Content (%)

Holsture Content (~/,)

Fig.5. Relationships among moisture content, dry density and immediate California

Bearing Ratio (CBR).

100

80

'.........

6O

~ :\

L_a

~0
Lime Content

......
20

;3

o%

---

r/.

--

s%

....

105/o

'...

~\:.

,_

".,

~\ ~ \

"-.,

\,A\
........

15

1A7
19
21
Moisture Content (%)

..\\

2'3

2s

Fig.6. Relation b e t w e e n moisture c o n t e n t and CBR at various lime contents.

m a x i m u m CBR.

193
100

80

/60

\ \ \ ) , 0,0

\.:

s% Lime

f2::

~0

7% Lime

\
~10% Lime

20

-2

-1
OPT. +1
Moisture Confenf

*2

Fig.7. CBR against moisture c o n t e n t .

Unconfined compressive strength

The results of strength tests are shown in Figs.8--12. To explain the
shapes of the graphs it will be necessary to explain briefly the reactions that
bring a b o u t strength increase in lime-stabilized soils.
The strength shown by soil--lime mixtures comes about as a result of the
reaction between lime and soil minerals to generate cementitious reaction
products. These pozzolanic reaction products are generally calcium silicate
hydrates (CSH), calcium aluminate hydrates (CAH) and calcium aluminosilicate hydrates (CASH).
Nwakanma (1979) studied the reaction between lime and red tropical
soil from Brazil by measuring the a m o u n t of unreacted lime left in solution,
and hence the a m o u n t of lime consumed during lime--soil reaction. He
observed that the lime consumed was very high at the initial stage; more than
50% being consumed within the first five to seven days, thereafter the rate
of consumption was highly reduced. R u f f and Ho (1966) also studied the
time-temperature strength-reaction products and observed that reaction
products in the tobermorite hydrate groups are formed at all temperatures
as early as one day after compaction. Slight amounts of calcium aluminate
hydrates appeared to have formed, even though it was non-conclusive. The
reaction products at the end of three- and seven-day curing were similar to
those of one-day curing, except that the calcium aluminate hydrates were
quite evident at the higher temperatures of 50C and 60C. The x-ray diffraction curve for 65 days was similar to that formed after 7 days curing, but
also there was an indication of the definite formation of crystalline C4AHn
at all temperatures, from 5C to 60C.

194

900

"~10%

800

7%

7oc
z

5%

~600

500

......---e3O/o

~oo

300
r

200

1/*

Age(days)

--0%

2=1

2'8

Fig.8. Relationship between Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) and age at various
lime contents.

8I

100
lI = ~ - "

700

90_
600
o

80

500
.

70 ocu

c~

CO

~oo

g 30o

2o

_o

(a}

UC.S.

'

(b) - - ~

CB.R.

60

~
t_,

;.

;,

LimeContent {/o)

1~

Fi~.9. Relationship between lime content and: (a) one-day UCS, and (b) immediate

195

150

J
f
J
/

I~0

/ 10% Lime

f p

130

p,-J

/
120

11o
2
loo
aJ
r~

90

80
" ' ~ 3 %

70

Age (days.)

Lime

2'1

Fig.10. UCS e x p r e s s e d as a p e r c e n t a g e o f o n e - d a y UCS.

Mitchell and Hooper (1961} have pointed o u t that if there were a "perm a n e n t " cementing reaction at an early stage of mixing lime with soil, then
delay between mixing and compaction should adversely affect the strength
of the final products as happens in the case of soil-cement. It has been
reported that the time lapse between mixing and compaction has no deleterious effect on the strength of the compacted mixture. Anday (1963) has
indicated that the strength development in lime--soil mixtures is a very slow
process, requiring very long periods of from several weeks to many months;
Harty and Thompson (1973}, for example, have observed that the strength
of 28-day cured lime-stabilized soil is a b o u t 2 to 3 times that of the 7-day
cured material.
It could, therefore, be concluded that even if more than 50% of the lime
is consumed within the first five to seven days after curing and that reaction
products are formed as early as 24 h after compaction, the strength increase
in the soil--lime mixture is n o t due to the a m o u n t of lime consumed nor to
the initial reaction products formed b u t rather to the changes that take place
in the cementitious products formed during the pozzolanic reaction. R u f f
and Ho (1966) concluded from their work that lime--clay reaction is a con-

196
900

BOO
E

700
%-J

600

>~ 500

o
L~

~0o

,,= 300
~
o

200

I00

6
Lime Content

10

(1o)

Fig.11. Relationship between 28-days UCS and lime content.

secutive reaction; the strength gain being due to the different phases of the
complete reaction:
lime + clay -~ CSH {gel) -* CSH (11) -~ CSH (1) -~ tobermorite.
They indicated that at any given time there could be more than one phase
of the reaction present, depending upon curing time and temperature; and
that the strength increases as the reaction proceeds further.
The other cementitious products formed during soil--lime reaction are the
calcium aluminate hydrates. The form generally produced at r o o m temperature has the composition -- C4AHn. At an elevated temperature, in the
region of 30C and above, a different calcium aluminate, C3AH6, is formed;
and once formed it is stable at r o o m temperature (Ruff and Ho, 1966). This
c o m p o u n d is the same as that formed in high-alumina cement at high
temperatures or with prolonged curing. This c o m p o u n d is responsible for
loss of strength in high-alumina cement and lime (or cement) stabilized soil
with high proportions o f aluminium oxide. This converted cubic c o m p o u n d ,
C3AH6 (3CaOA1203" 6H20) has a higher density than the original calcium
aluminates and under the conditions that the overall dimensions of the b o d y
are constant, this increased density in the c o m p o u n d brings a b o u t increased

197
600

300

200

100

1'o
Lime Content (%)

Fig.12. UCS as a percentage of natural soil (28 days curing).

porosity in the stabilized soil mass and this leads to a loss of strength (Lea,
1970; Neville, 1975). Lea (1970) has emphasized that it is the volume change
on conversion, rather than the mineralogical nature or morphology of the
hydrates formed that is responsible for the fall in strength. Sherwood (1968)
indicated that the effect o f conversion of the initial calcium aluminate
hydrate to the cubic c o m p o u n d m a y be masked by the strength increases of
the other pozzolanic reaction products. He observed that there was a reduction in strength with time when bauxitic soil (47% A1203 and only 4%
$102) was stabilized with as much as 10% lime or cement.
The soil used for this study had a high proportion of both A1203 and
$102 and the clay mineral was predominantly kaolinite. Therefore the
reaction products likely to be formed are both CSH and CAH.
Fig.8 shows that the increase in strength is n o t proportional to the a m o u n t
of lime added, whereas Fig.9 shows that the shape of the curve of the oneday UCS is similar to that of the immediate CBR at various lime contents.
With time, changes take place in the reaction products which, amongst
other things, axe affected by the a m o u n t of lime used.
For smaller percentages of lime, for example 3%, there is a gradual
decrease o f strength with time. This reduction in strength m a y be due to the
conversion of the calcium aluminate hydrate to the cubic c o m p o u n d . It
should be remembered that the samples were cured at a temperature of
28C + 2C and according to R u f f and Ho (1966) cubic c o m p o u n d could be

198
formed at the upper range of the curing temperature; once formed, the
c o m p o u n d could be stable in the curing temperature range. So even though
calcium silicate hydrates might have been formed, their contribution to the
strength was not enough to overcome the reduction due to the cubic compound. The strength appeared to be picking up slightly after 21 days curing.
Fig.10 shows the strength as a percentage of the one-day strength with
increase in curing time.
There is a scatter of points for the soil stabilized with 7% lime. However,
if the best-fit line is drawn through the points, one observes that there is a
gradual increase in strength with time. The same trend occurs for the 10%
stabilized soil. At a higher lime c o n t e n t and longer curing time, the reaction
products in the tobermorite groups appear to be proceeding further, resulting
in higher strength, and thus masking the effect o f the cubic c o m p o u n d .
F i g . l l shows that the o p t i m u m lime content for maximum strength will
be a b o u t 12% (by extrapolation). This is higher than the optimum lime content obtained by the pH m e t h o d (Eades and Grim, 1960). USAID (1972)
also observed that the o p t i m u m lime content obtained by the pH m e t h o d
was always lower than the lime content that gave the maximum strength for
lime-stabilized laterite. It would, therefore, appear that the pH method is
n o t applicable to tropical soils.
MAIN CONCLUSIONS
Increase in the concentration of the dispersing agent reduced the amount
of clay fraction as measured in the laboratory.
The cone penetrometer gave lower liquid limits than the Casagrande
device and the longer mellowing time gave lower values of the plasticity
index.
Increase in lime content decreases maximum dry unit weight and increases
optimum moisture content.
For all the stabilized soil-mixtures, the highest CBR values were obtained
at the o p t i m u m moisture content, except for the 7% lime c o n t e n t where
the maximum CBR was obtained at 2% below the o p t i m u m moisture content.
The immediate CBR is a function of density, the higher the density the
higher the CBR, and it is n o t proportional to the a m o u n t of lime added.
The Unconfined compressive strength of one-day cured stabilized soil is
almost independent of the a m o u n t of lime added. After 28-days curing the
strength increases, at a decreasing rate, with an increase in the lime content.
Higher temperatures could be deleterious to lime-stabilized soil containing
high proportions of A1203. At lower lime contents there could be a decrease
in strength with time.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The help rendered by the following is acknowledged: Professor A.R. Cusens
for making available the facilities at his Department; the Director of the

199

Transport and Road Research Laboratory, U.K. and the Staff in the Overseas
Unit for providing the laterite used in the study and the Ghana Government
for sponsoring the first author for the study.
REFERENCES
Anday, M.C., 1963. Curing lime stabilized soils. Highway Res. Board, H.R.R., 29: 13--24.
B.S. 1377, 1975. Methods of Testing Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes. British Standards
Institute.
B.S. 1924, 1975. Methods o f Test for Stabilized Soils. British Standards Institute.
Bishewski, E., 1963. The effect of mixing time on the strength of clayey gravel stabilized
with hydrated lime. Proc. 3rd Reg. Conf. Africa, Soil Mech. Found. Eng., 3rd,
Salisbury, 1: 63--67.
De Graft-Johnson, J.W.S. and Bathia, H.S., 1969. Engineering properties of laterite soils.
Gen. Rep., Spec. Sess. Lateritic Soils; Proc. Int. Conf. SMFE, 7th, Mexico, 2: 13--43.
Diamond, S. and Kinter, E.R., 1965. Mechanisms o f soil-lime stabilization. Highway Res.
Rec., 92: 83--102.
Eades, J.L. and Grim, R.E., 1960. Reaction of hydrated lime with pure clay minerals in
soil stabilization. Highway Res. Board, Bul., 262: 51--63.
Gidigasu, M.D., 1976. Laterite Soil Engineering. Elsevier, Amsterdam 554 pp.
Harty, J.R. and Thompson, M.R,, 1973. Lime reactivity of tropical and subtropical soils.
Highway Res. Rec., 422: 102--112.
Jan, M.A. and Walker, R.D., 1963. Effect of lime moisture and compaction on a clay soil.
Highway Res, Rec., 29: 1--12.
Krebs, R.D. and Walker, R.D., 1971. Highway Materials. McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y.,
428 pp.
Lea, F.M., 1970. The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete. F_ziward Arnold, Glasgow.
Mitchell, J.K. and Hooper, D.R., 1961. Influence of time between mixing and compaction
on properties of lime-stabilized expansive clay. Highway Res. Board, Bull., 304: 14--31.
Neubauer, C.H. and Thompson, M.R., 1972. Stability properties of uncured lime-treated
fine-grained soils. Highway Res. Rec., 381: 20--26.
Neville, A.M., 1975. High Alumina Cement Concrete. The Construction Press, London.
Nwakanma, C.A., 1979. The Use of Red Tropical Soils as Pozzolanas: Reaction Products
and Properties. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Leeds, U.K.
Ruff, C.G. and Ho, C., 1966. Time--temperature strength reaction product relationships in
lime--bentonite--water mixtures. Highway Res. Rec., 139: 42--60.
Sherwood, P.T., 1968. The properties of cement stabilized materials. T.R.R.L., Rep. LR
205.
Thompson, M.R., 1965. Soil-lime mixtures for construction of low-volume roads. TRB,
Spec. Rep., No.160.
Thompson, M.R., 1966. Lime reactivity of illinois soils. J. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. Div.,
ASCE, Vol.92.
USAID, 1972. Laterite and Lateritic Soils and Other Problem Soils of Africa. U.S. Agency
for Int. Development, Report AID/CSD-2146, 290 pp.
Van Ganse, R.F., 1974. Immediate amelioration of wet cohesive soils by quick lime.
Transp. Res. Rec., 501: 42--53.