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By

Engr. Muhammad Waseem

Definition: Process by which water is changed from


the liquid or solid state into the gaseous state
through the transfer of heat energy (ASCE, 1949).
It occurs when some water molecules attain
sufficient kinetic energy to break through the water
surface and escape into the atmosphere (~ 600 cal
needed to evaporate 1 gram of water).
Depends on the supply of heat energy and the
vapor pressure gradient (which, in turn, depends
on water and air temperatures, wind, atmospheric
pressure, solar radiation, etc).

Transpiration is the evaporation occurring


through plant leaves (stomatal openings).
Transpiration is affected by plant physiology
and environmental factors, such as:
- Type of vegetation
- Stage and growth of plants
- Soil conditions (type and moisture)
- Climate and weather

Combined loss of water vapor from within the


leaves of plants (transpiration) and evaporation of
liquid water from water surfaces, bare soil and
vegetative surfaces.
Globally, about 62% of the precipitation that falls
on the continent is evapotranspired (~72,000
km3/yr); 92% of which from land surfaces
evapotranspiration and 3% from open water
evaporation
(source:
Dingman,
Physical
Hydrology).
Approximately 70% of the mean annual rainfall in
the U.S. is returned to the atmosphere as
evaporation or transpiration.

In practice, the terms E and ET are often used to


mean the same thing - the evaporation from the land
surface.

POTENTIAL EVAPORATION is the climate


controlled evaporation from an open water
surface with unlimited supply (and no thermal
capacity).
It is the loss of water which will occur
through evaporation, if at no time there is a
deficiency of water supply.

POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION is the ET


that would occur from a well vegetated
surface when moisture supply is not limiting
(often calculated as the PE).
It is the loss of water which will occur
through evaporation, if at no time there is a
deficiency of water in the soil for the use of
vegetation.

Actual evapotranspiration (AET; ET) drops


below its potential level as the soil dries.

Factors affecting Evaporation from an


open water surface:
1.Meteorology
a)Energy (mostly solar)

b)Wind velocity
c)Temperature at the air-water interface
d)Humidity in the overlying air

2-Geographical
a)

Water quality

Saline

water has a reduced vapor pressure, and therefore


evaporation decreases about 1% for every 1% increase in
salinity. Normally a small consideration
Turbidity of the water can affect the heat budget, but
generally not considered
b)Depth

of water body
c)Size of the water surface

Additional factors specific to soils:


a) Soil moisture content

-Soil is different than open water surface because opportunity for


evaporation is not always 100%, can be more or less
-evaporation decreases as the soil surface dries, therefore more rain is
evaporated in small frequent storms than in large infrequent storms
b) Soil capillary characteristics
capillary rise is affected by soil texture. < in sandy soils > in clay soils
c)water table depth
d)soil color - darker soils absorb more heat
e)presence of vegetation - shading effects
f)snow cover

Evaporation must be considered in the


design of large water storage reservoirs,
large-scale water resources planning and
water supply studies.
For flood flow studies, urban drainage
design applications it may be neglected.
Example: during typical storm periods with
intensities of 0.5 in/hr, evaporation is on
the order of 0.01 in/hr.

Reduction of Surface Area


Mechanical Covers

Chemical Films
Acetyl Alcohol (hexadecanol)

Stearyl Alcohol (octadecanol)


Growing tall trees on the windward side of the reservoirs
to act as wind breakers
Removing the water loving weeds and plants like
Phreatophytes from the periphery of the reservoir.

1.

Climate
1.
2.
3.
4.

2.

Soil
1.

3.

Light intensity
Atmospheric vapor pressure
Temperature
Wind
Availability of water

Plant factors
1.
2.
3.
4.

Extent and efficiency of root system


Leaf area
Leaf arrangement & structure
Stomatal behavior

Measurement of Transpiration
A potometer sometimes

known transpirometer is a
device used for measuring
the rate transpiration.
Types:
1. Ganong's Potometer
2. Darwin's Potometer
3. Gaurrea's Potometer
4. farmer potometer
POTOMETER

Methods to control Transpiration Includes


1. The use of chemicals to inhibit water consumption.
2. Harvesting of plants
3. Improved irrigation practices

Direct Method

i.

Lysimeter experiment

ii.

Evaporation Pan

Indirect Method

i.

Water budget methods

ii.

Energy budget methods

iii.

Mass transfer techniques

iv.

Combination of energy budget and mass transfer methods


(e.g.,Penman)

1-Lysimeter
Lysimeter is a device in which a

volume of soil planted with


vegetation is located in a container
to isolate it hydrologically from the
surrounding soil.
Having a weighing device and a

drainage system, which permit


continuous measurement of excess
water and draining below the root
zone and plant water use, and
hence evapotranspiration.
The amount of water lost by
evapotranspiration can be worked
out by calculating the difference
between the weight before and
after the precipitation input.

Irrigated lysimeter

PE = Rainfall + Irrigation - Percolation

The pan is the most widely used evaporation


instrument.
There are three types
1. Sunkun Pan ( installed inside earth surface)
2. Surface Pan
3. Floating Pan

4 ft

Wooden
support

10 in
6 in

Galvanized
steel

S
P Q Qr Qs Q0 Qd E
t
S
S
P Ep

Ep P
t
t
Surface runoff - Qr

Evaporation - E Precipitation - P
Inflow- Q

Subsurface
runoff - Qs
Outflow- Q

Subsurface seepage losses- Qd

We are not really interested in what evaporates from a


pan; instead we want to know the regional evaporation
from land surface or the evaporation from a nearby
lake.
Unfortunately, pan evaporation is often a poor
indicator of these variables (due in part to pan
boundary effects and limited heat storage).

Evaporation from an open water surface (E) is usually


estimated from the pan evaporation (Ep) as:
E = K Ep
where K is the pan coefficient (regional coefficient,
usually around ~0.6-0.7).
Similar expressions are also used in practice to estimate
potential evapotranspiration from pan data.

It is the least complicated method of estimating evaporation.

Results obtained from this method are not so accurate.

It is based on the assumption that the change in storage, S


and all other components of inflow I and out flow O

along with losses L except evaporation can be measured


and evaporation is the quantity of water to balance the
continuity equation
E = P R L - S

S
P Q Qr Qs Q0 Qd E
t

Precipitation - P
Evaporation- E

Inflow- Q

Surface runoff - Qr

Subsurface
runoff - Qs
Outflow- Q0

Subsurface seepage losses- Qd

Example:
From a 50mm rain fall 35mm of runoff is generated that was
measured at stream gauging station. If infiltration losses are
estimated as 10mm. Find evaporation losses assume S = 0

Solution

P =50mm R= 35mm
E = P R L - S
E = 50-35-10-0
E= 5mm

L= 10mm

S = 0

The energy budget approach make use of the law of


conservation of energy.
The total energy reaching a body of water must be equal
to the total energy leaving the water plus the increase in
the internal energy of the water body
The continuity equation of the energy budget approach is

Qe = Qs-Qr-Qb-Qh-QrQv

Qe
Qr
Qh
Qr

= the energy available for evaporation


Qs = solar radiation
= reflected solar energy
Qb = long wave loss
= latent heat b/w water surface and atmosphere
= heat transfer to and from lake
Qv = increases in stored energy

2-Energy budget Approach


Characteristics:
Most accurate method (evaporation is a function
of the energy state of the water system)
Difficult to evaluate all terms

Energy balance equation has to be simplified


Empirical formulas are used (although radiation
measurements are preferable)

Evaporation is a diffusive process (moves from where its


concentration is larger to where its concentration is smaller at
a rate that is proportional to the gradient of concentration):

E = k (es0 ea)

( Daltons Equation)

es0 vapor pressure of the evaporating water surface;


- ea vapor pressure of overlying air at the same height
- k coefficient depends upon wind velocity , atmospheric
pressure and vapor pressure of air

When a surface evaporates, it looses energy


and cools itself.
It is that cooling that can be observed from
space.
Satellites can map the infrared heat
radiated from Earth, thus enabling to
distinguish the cool surfaces from the warm
surfaces.

winter

summer

Satellite map of evapotranspiration of whole world in


the season of winter and summer

Energy availability - The more energy available, the


greater the rate of Evapotranspiration. It takes about
600 calories of heat energy to change 1 gram of liquid
water into a gas.
Humidity gradient - The rate and quantity of water
vapour entering into the atmosphere both become
higher in drier air.
Water availability - Evapotranspiration cannot occur if
water is not available.

Wind speed higher the wind speed, greater will the


rate of evapotranspiration.
Physical attributes of the vegetation - factors as
vegetative cover, plant height, leaf area index and leaf
shape and the reflectivity of plant surfaces can affect
rates of evapotranspiration.
Soil characteristics - Soil characteristics that can
affect evapotranspiration include its heat capacity, and
soil chemistry.

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