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Oscillation

Periodic and oscillatory motion

Periodic motion
A motion that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called periodic motion.
Oscillation
If a body moves back and forth repeatedly about a mean position, it is said to possess oscillatory
motion.
Vibration
Rapid oscillatory motion is termed as vibration.
There is no significant difference between oscillations and vibrations. When the frequency is small, it
is called oscillation (like the oscillation of a branch of a tree), while when the frequency is high, it is
called vibration (like the vibration of a string of a musical instrument).

Period and frequency

Time period
The smallest interval of time after which a periodic motion is repeated is called its time period (T).
Its unit is second.
Frequency
Number of oscillation performed by an object in oscillatory motion is termed as frequency ().
Its unit is s-1 or hertz (Hz).

Displacement
It refers to change with time of any physical property under consideration. The choice of origin is a
matter of convenience. Generally it is convenient to measure displacement of the body from its
equilibrium position.
For example,

In case of rectilinear motion of a steel ball on a surface, the distance from the starting point as a
function of time is its position displacement.
For an oscillating simple pendulum, the angle from the vertical as a function of time may be
regarded as a displacement variable.
The voltage across a capacitor, changing with time in an a.c. circuit, is also a displacement
variable.,
Pressure variations in time in the propagation of sound wave, the changing electric and magnetic
fields in a light wave are examples of displacement in different contexts.

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The displacement variable may take both positive and negative values. In experiments on
oscillations, the displacement is measured for different times.
The displacement can be represented by a mathematical function of time. In case of periodic
motion, this function is periodic in time
Periodic function
Any function which repeats itself after regular interval of time is called periodic function.
If f(t + T) = f(t), then the function f(t) is said to be a periodic function. Here T is the period of the
periodic function.
Example:

sin t
cos t

Fourier theorem
Any periodic function can be expressed as a superposition of sine and cosine functions of different
time periods with suitable coefficients.

Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple harmonic motion
It is defined as such an oscillatory motion about a fixed point in which the restoring force is always
proportional to the displacement from that point and is always directed towards that point.
A simple harmonic motion can be represented as x(t) = A cos (t + )
Amplitude
Amplitude of a SHM represents the magnitude of the maximum displacement of the particle in
either direction.
In the equation x(t) = A cos (t + ), A is the amplitude of SHM.
As sine function varies between + 1. So x(t) varies between +A
Phase of motion
The time varying quantity (t + ) in x(t) = A cos (t + ) is called the phase of the motion. It
describes the state of the motion at any time.
Phase constant or phase angle
The constant in the equation x(t) = A cos (t + ) is called initial phase or phase angle.
The value of depends upon the displacement and velocity of the particle at t = 0.
Phase constant signifies the initial condition.

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Angular frequency
The constant is called the angular frequency of the motion. It is related to the time period of the
motion by = 2/T
SI unit of angular frequency is radian per second.

Simple harmonic motion and uniform circular motion

Let a reference particle P is executing a uniform circular motion
with (constant) angular speed in a reference circle. The radius
A of the circle is the magnitude of the particles position vector.
At any time t, the angular position of the particle is t +
where is its angular position at t = 0. The projection of particle
P on the x-axis is a point P2 , which can be taken as a second
particle. The projection of the position vector of particle P on
the x-axis gives the location x(t) of P2 . So x(t ) = A cos (t + )
which is the same as equation of simple harmonic motion. This shows that if the reference particle P
moves in a uniform circular motion; its projection P 2 executes a simple harmonic motion along a
diameter of the circle.
So Simple harmonic motion is the projection of uniform circular motion on a diameter of the circle
in which the latter motion takes place.
Note:
If the particle P 2 is at origin at time t = 0, then its motion can be expressed as x(t) = A sin (t + )
If the particle P 2 is at the end of a diameter at time t = 0, then its motion can be expressed as
x(t) = A cos (t + )

Velocity and acceleration in simple harmonic motion

Instantaneous velocity of a particle executing SHM
Let a particle is performing SHM by x(t) = A cos t

( ) =

2 2
( ) = [ cos ] = =
= 2 2

Negative sign indicates that the direction of velocity is towards x = 0.

Maximum velocity of the particle will be at x = 0, which is - A.
Minimum velocity of the particle will be at x = A, which is 0
Acceleration of a particle executing SHM

( ) =

( ) = [ sin ] = 2 = 2

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From the expression of acceleration it is seen that acceleration is proportional to the displacement
and is directed towards the mean.
Acceleration will be maximum at x=A, which is equal to - 2A
Acceleration will be minimum at x=0, which is equal to 0
Variation of displacement, velocity and acceleration
with time

x(t) = A cos t =A cos 2t/T

v(t) = - A sin t = - A sin 2t/T
a(t) = -A2 cos t = -A2 cos t 2t/T

t=0
A
0
- A2

t = T/4
0
- A
0

t = T/2
-A
0
A2

t = 3T/4
0
A
0

t=T
A
0
- A2

Note
Negative sign indicates direction from right to left, i.e. towards negative x axis.

Force law for simple harmonic motion

Newtons second law of motion relates the force acting on a system and the corresponding
acceleration produced. Therefore, if we know how the acceleration of a particle varies with time,
this law can be used to learn about the force, which must act on the particle to give it that
acceleration. If we combine Newtons second law and a(t) = - 2x, we find that for simple harmonic
motion F(t) = ma = - m 2x = - kx, where k = m 2

So =

This Equation gives the force acting on the particle. It is proportional to the displacement and
directed in an opposite direction. Therefore, it is a restoring force. Note that unlike the centripetal
force for uniform circular motion that is constant in magnitude, the restoring force for SHM is time
dependent.
Note
Linear harmonic oscillator
Since the force F is proportional to x rather than to some other power of x, such a system is also
referred to as a linear harmonic oscillator.

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Non-linear harmonic or anharmonic oscillators
Systems in which the restoring force is a nonlinear function of x are termed as.

Energy in simple harmonic motion

A particle executing simple harmonic motion has kinetic and potential energies, both varying
between the limits, zero and maximum.
Kinetic energy
The velocity of a particle executing SHM is a periodic function of time. It is zero at the extreme
positions of displacement. Therefore, the kinetic energy (K) of such a particle, which is defined as
K = mv2 = m2A2 sin2 (t + ) = k A2 sin2 (t + )
Note

It is a periodic function of time, being zero when the displacement is maximum and
maximum when the particle is at the mean position.
K does not depend on the sign of v.
The period of K is T/2.

Potential energy
As spring force is a conservative force, so it has potential energy associated with it.
Potential energy of SHM is given by U(x) = kx2 = kA2 cos2 (t + )
Note:
the potential energy of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is also periodic, with
period T/2,
The value of potential energy is zero at the mean position and maximum at the extreme
displacements.
Total mechanical energy
Total mechanical energy of a particle under SHM is
E = U + K = kA2 cos2 (t + ) + k A2 sin2 (t + ) = kA2 [cos2 (t + ) + sin2 (t + )] = kA2.
The total mechanical energy of a harmonic oscillator is thus independent of time
Graphical representation of variation of U, K and E
In a linear harmonic oscillator, all energies are positive and peak twice during every period. For x = 0,
the energy is all kinetic and for x = A it is all potential. In between these extreme positions, the
potential energy increases at the expense of kinetic energy. This behaviour of a linear harmonic
oscillator suggests that it possesses an element of springiness and an element of inertia. The former
stores its potential energy and the latter stores its kinetic energy.

With time

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With displacement

Oscillation due to spring

A block of mass m fixed to a spring, which in turn
is fixed to a rigid wall. The block is placed on a
frictionless horizontal surface. If the block is
pulled on one side and is released, it then
executes a to and fro motion about a mean
position. Let x = 0, indicate the position of the
centre of the block when the spring is in
equilibrium. The positions marked as A and +A indicate the maximum displacements to the left and
the right of the mean position. This spring and block system when deformed, is subject to a restoring
force, the magnitude of which is proportional to the deformation or the displacement and acts in
opposite direction.
At any time t, if the displacement of the block from its mean position is x, the restoring force F acting
on the block is, F (x) = k x. The constant of proportionality, k, is called the spring constant, its value
is governed by the elastic properties of the spring. A stiff spring has large k and a soft spring has
small k.
So the system performs a simple harmonic motion with:
Angular frequency
Time period

= 2

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The simple pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a particle of mass m (called
the bob of the pendulum) suspended from one end of an
un-stretchable, mass-less string of length L fixed at the
other end. The bob is free to swing to and fro in a plane, to
the left and right of a vertical line through the pivot point.
The forces acting on the bob are the force T, tension in the
string and the gravitational force F g = mg. The string makes
an angle (in radian) with the vertical.
The force F g can be resolved into two components:

Radial component F g cos

Tangential component F g sin .

The radial component is cancelled by the tension, since there is no motion along the length of the
string.
The tangential component produces a restoring torque about the pendulums pivot point. This
torque always acts opposite to the displacement of the bob so as to bring it back towards its central
location.
The restoring torque is given by, = L (F g sin )

The negative sign indicates that the torque acts to reduce

L is the length of the moment arm of the force F g sin about the pivot point.

For rotational motion we have, = I

I is the pendulums rotational inertia about the pivot point

is its angular acceleration of the pendulum about the pivot point.

So I = - L(F g sin ) = - Lmg sin

Now if is small, sin can be approximated by
So = - (mgL/I)
So the angular acceleration of the pendulum is proportional to the angular displacement but
opposite in sign. Thus as the pendulum moves to the right, its pull to the left increases until it stops
and begins to return to the left. Similarly, when it moves towards left, its acceleration to the right
tends to return it to the right and so on, as it swings to and fro in SHM. Thus the motion of a simple
pendulum swinging through small angles is approximately SHM.

Angular frequency of simple pendulum

Comparing a(t) = - 2x of a SHM with = - (mgL/I) for a simple pendulum we get 2 = mgL/I

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All the mass of a simple pendulum is centred in the mass m of the bob, which is at a radius of L from
the pivot point. Therefore, for this system I = m L2.
So 2 = mgL/I = mgL/ml2 = g/L.
So angular frequency

Time period of simple pendulum

Time period

= 2

Damped simple harmonic motion

Damped oscillation
The air drag and the friction at the support oppose the motion of a pendulum and dissipate its
energy gradually. So the motion of a simple pendulum, swinging in air, dies out eventually.
The pendulum is said to execute damped oscillations.
In damped oscillations, although the energy of the system is continuously dissipated, the oscillations
remain apparently periodic. The dissipating forces are generally the frictional forces.
Damping force
The damping force F d = b v

b is a damping constant that depends on the characteristics of the medium in which the SHM is
taking place and the dimension of simple harmonic oscillator.
v is the linear velocity of the oscillator.
The negative sign makes it clear that the force is opposite to the velocity at every moment.

Motion under the influence of damping force

For a SHM, the restoring force F S = - kx, where x is
the displacement from the equilibrium position.
If m is the mass of the system and a(t) is the
acceleration at any time t, then under damped
condition the total force ma(t) = F = F S + F d = -kx bv
Displacement
Displacement in damped oscillation is given by

() = /2 cos( + )

/2 is the amplitude of oscillation and /

is the angular frequency of the damped oscillator.

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Amplitude

/2 continuously decreases with time.

Angular frequency
Angular frequency of the damped oscillation is given by

42

Energy of damped oscillation

For small value of damping the energy of damped oscillation is given by

1
() = 2 /
2

So the total energy of oscillation decreases exponentially with time.

Forced oscillation and resonance

Because of the ever-present dissipative forces, the free oscillations cannot be sustained in practice.
They get damped. However by applying periodic external force not only the oscillations can be
maintained but the amplitude can also be increased. Under this condition the oscillator is under the
influence of forced or driven oscillations.
Natural frequency
The natural angular frequency of the system is the angular frequency, at which it will oscillate if it
were displaced from equilibrium position and then left to oscillate freely,

Forced oscillation
Suppose an external force F(t) of amplitude F 0 that varies periodically with time is applied to a
damped oscillator. Such a force can be represented as,
F(t) = F 0 cos d t.
The motion of a particle under the combined action of a linear restoring force, damping force and a
time dependent driving force represented is given by,
m a(t) = k x(t) bv(t) + F 0 cos d t
The oscillator initially oscillates with its natural frequency . When external periodic force is applied,
the oscillations with the natural frequency die out, and then the body oscillates with the angular
frequency of the external periodic force. Its displacement, after the natural oscillations die out, is
given by x(t) = A cos ( d t + ), where t is the time measured from the moment the external
periodic force is applied.
Amplitude of the forced oscillator depends on the angular frequency of the driving force.

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Driving frequency close to natural frequency
When the driving frequency is close to
natural frequency, the amplitude will be
maximum and the system is said to be under
resonance condition.
Resonance
The maximum possible amplitude for a given
driving frequency is governed by the driving
frequency and the damping, and is never
infinity. The phenomenon of increase in
amplitude when the driving force is close to
the natural frequency of the oscillator is
called resonance.

The amplitude of a forced oscillator as a

function of the angular frequency of the driving
force is shown in the graph. The amplitude is
greatest near d / = 1. The five curves
correspond to different extents of damping
present in the system. Curve a corresponds to
the least damping, and damping goes on
increasing successively in curves b, c, d, e.
Notice that the peak shifts to the left with
increasing damping.

Small damping, driving frequency far from natural frequency

Smaller the damping, the taller and narrower is the resonance peak. If we go on changing the driving
frequency, the amplitude tends to infinity when it equals the natural frequency. But this is the ideal
case of zero damping, a case which never arises in a real system as the damping is never perfectly
zero.
Note:
All mechanical structures have one or more natural frequencies, and if a structure is
subjected to a strong external periodic driving force that matches one of these frequencies,
the resulting oscillations of the structure may rupture it.
It is for the same reason the marching soldiers break steps while crossing a bridge.
Aircraft designers make sure that none of the natural frequencies at which a wing can
oscillate match the frequency of the engines in flight.
Earthquakes cause vast devastation. It is interesting to note that sometimes, in an
earthquake, short and tall structures remain unaffected while the medium height structures
fall down. This happens because the natural frequencies of the short structures happen to
be higher and those of taller structures lower than the frequency of the seismic waves.

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