Partially Ordered Sets and Lattices

A relation R on a set A is called a partial order relation in A if R is, Reflexive antisymmetric and
transitive.The set A together with the partial order R is Called Partial Order R is called a partially Ordered
Set, or Simply Poset, and we denote this poset by (A, R).
We denote a partial order relation by the symbol . This symbol does not necessarily mean less
than or equal to.
Example 1: Let A = {2, 3, 6, 12, 24, 36} and R be a relation in A which is defined by a divides b.
Then R is a partial order in A.
Example 2: Let be the Z+ set of integers. The usual relation <= is a partial order on Z+.
Example 3: Let be the Z+ set of integers. The usual relation < is not a partial order on Z+. Since it is not
reflexive.
Example 4: Let be the Z+ set of integers. The relation of divisibility (a R b if and only if a | b) is a partial
order on Z+.
Example 5: The inclusion relation is a partial ordering on the power set of a set S.
The partial order defined on the Cartesian product AB is called the product partial order.
COMPARABLE
Let R be a partial order on A and a,b A whenever aR b or bR a, we say that a and
b are comparable otherwise a and b are non-comparable.

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TOTALLY ORDERED SET

Let (A, ) be a partially order set. If for every a, b A, we have a b or b a, then is called a simple
ordering (or linear ordering) on A, and the set (A, ) is called a totally ordered set or a chain.
Example 1: Let N be the set of positive integers ordered by divisibility. The elements 5 and 15 are
comparable. Since 5/15 on similarly the elements 7 and 21 are comparable since 7/21. The positive
integers 3 and 5 are non-comparable since neither 3/5 nor 5/3. Similarly the integers 5 and 7 are noncomparable.
Example 2: Let A be a non-empty set with two or more elements and P (A) denote the power set of A.
Then P (A) is not linearly ordered.(Since {a}and{ B} are not comparable.
Example 3: The set N of positive integers with the usual order (less than equal) is a linear order on N.
The set (N, ) is a totally ordered set.

Hasse diagramA Hasse diagram is a pictorial representation of a finite partial order on a set. In this
representation, the objects i.e., the elements are shown as vertices (or dots).
Two related vertices in the Hasse diagram of a partial order are connected by a line if and only if
they are related.

Examplle 1: Let A = {3, 4, 12,, 24, 48, 72} and the reelation be such that a b if a
divides b.
b The Hassee diagram off (A, ) is shoown in fig.
We avoiid arrows in a Hasse diaggram and draaw lines to shhow that the elements aree related.
Hasse diagrams
d
cann be drawn foor any relatioon which is anti-symmet
a
tric and transsitive but
not neceessarily reflexxive.
Examplle 2: Let A = {1, 2, 3}, and be thee relation leess than of equal to on A. Then the
Hasse diiagram of (A
A, ) is as shoown in ------------

If (A, )) is partially ordered set, the Hasse diagram

d
of (A
A, ) is not unique.
u
For exam
mple, considder the set A = {a, b}. Thhe relation off inclusion (
) on P
(A) is a partial orderring. The Hassse diagramss of (P (A),))------

ment of a poset is called maximal

m
if itt is not less tthan any elem
ment of the poset.
p
i.e.a iss maximal inn
An elem
the poseet (S, ) if theere is no b E S such that a < b. Similaarly,
an element of a poset is called minimal iff it is not greeater than anny element oof the poset. That is, a iss
minimall if there is no element b S such thaat b < a.
Maximaal and minim
mal elements are easy to spot
s
using a Hasse diagrram. They arre the "top" and
a "bottom""
elementss in the diagrram.

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Examplee -Which eleements of thee poset ({2, 4,

4 5, 10, 12,220, 25}, |) aree maximal, annd which aree minimal?
Solutionn: The Hassee diagram inn Fig for thiss poset show
ws that the maximal
m
elem
ments are 12,, 20, and 25,
and the minimal eleements are 2 and 5. Ass this exam
mple shows, a poset can
n have morre than onee
maxima
al element an
nd more thaan one minim
mal elementt.

COVER
R
Let (A, )
be a partiaally ordered set. An elem
ment bA is ssaid to coverr an element aA, if a < b and if theree
does nott exist any ellement cA such
s
that a c and a b..
If b coveers a, then a line is drawnn between th
he elements a and b in thee Hasse diagrram of (A, ))
Greatesst Element aand Least Ellement
Sometim
mes there is an element in a poset thhat is greateer than everyy other elem
ment.
Such an element is called
c
the greeatest elemennt.
If there exists an eelement bA
A, such thatt xb xA
A, then b is called greaatest
memberr in A relativee to .
e
if it is less thaan all the other
o
Likewisse, an elemeent is calledd the least element
elementss in the poset.
Let (A, ) denote a partially ord
dered set. Iff there exists an element aA such thhat ax x
A, then a iss
mber in A, relative to the partial
p
orderiing .
called thhe least mem

Example : Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and be the relation less than or equal to then the
Hasse diagram of (A, ) is as shown in Fig..
From it is clear that 1 is the least member and 5 is the greatest element in (A, ).
Example 2: Let A = {a, b} and P (A) denote the power set of A. Then P (A) = {, {a}, {b}, {a,b}}.
Let be the inclusion relation on the elements of P (A). Clearly is the least member and A = {a, b} is
the greatest member in (P (A), ).
Note:
(i) The least member of is usually denoted by 0, and the greatest member in a poset is usually denoted by
1.
(ii) For a given poset, the greatest or least member may or may not exist.
(iii) The least member in poset, if it is unique, and the greatest member if it exists is unique.
(iv) In every chain, the least and greatest members always exist.
Upper Bound and Lower Bound
Let (A, ) be a partially ordered set and let B A. Any element mA is called an upper bound for B if for
all xA, x m. Similarly an element lA is called a lower bound for B if for all xA, l x.
Example 1: A = {1, 2, 3, ..., 6} be ordered as pictured in Fig
If B = {4, 5} then
The upper bounds of B are 1, 2, 3
The lower bound of B is 6.

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Example 2: Let A = {a, b, c} and (P (A) )be the partially ordered set. The Hasse diagram of the Poset
be as pictured in Fig
If B is the subset {a, c}, {c}. Then the upper bounds of B are {a, c} and A,
while the lower bounds of B are {c} and .
From the above, it is clear that the upper and lower bounds of a subset are
not unique.

Greatest lower bound ( Infimum) and least upper bound(Supremum)

Let A be a partially ordered set and A denote a subset of S. An element L S is called a
Greatest lower bound of A if
(i) L x, for all x A
(ii). L L , L is any lower bound
The greatest lower bound of a A if it exists is unique.
Let A be a partially ordered set and A denote a subset of S. An element U is called a Least upper bound of
A if
(i) xU, for all x A
(ii). U u , u is any upper bound
The least upper bound of a A if it exists is unique.

Consider the poset S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} whose Hasse diagram is shown in

Fig. and let A = {3, 4, 5}.
The elements 7, 8 are lower bounds of B. 7 is least upper bound.
The elements 1, 2, 3 are lower bounds of B. 3 is greatest lower bound.

Theorem 1: Let (A, ) be a partially ordered set and S be a subset of A. Then

(i) The least upper bound of set, if it exists is unique.
(ii) The greatest lower bound of S, if it exists is unique.
i.e., S can have at most, one least upper bound and at most one greatest lower bound.
Proof: (i) If possible let there be two least upper bounds for S, say b1 and b2. Now b2 is supremum
and b1 is an upper bound of S b2 b1. Similarly b1 is supremum and b2 is an upper bound of
S b1 b2. S A, therefore by symmetric property b2 b2, b1 b2 b1 = b2. Hence, least upper
bound of S is unique.
(ii) Left as an exercise.
Theorem 2: Let A be finite non-empty poset with partial order . Then A has atleast, one maximal
element.
Proof: Let aA. If a is not the maximal element. Then we can find an element a1 A such that
1a<a. It a1 is not a maximal element of A, then we can find an element a2 A such that 1 2a <a.
Continuing this argument we get a chain
a < a1 < a2 < a3 < ... ar 1 < ar
Since A is finite this chain cannot be extended and for any bA, we cannot have ar < b. Hence ar
is a maximal element of (A, ).
By the same argument, the dual poset (A, ) has a maximal element such that (A, ) has a minimal
element.

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Theorem 3: If (A, ) and (B, ) are partially ordered sets, then (A B, ) is a partially ordered set with
the partial order , defined by (a, b) (a, b) if aa in A and bb in B.
Proof: aa in A and bb in B
( a, b)AB implies (a, b) (a, b)
Hence satisfies reflexive property in A B.
Let (a, b) (a,b) and (a,b) (a, b) where a, a are the members of A and b, b are the
members of B.
Then aa and a a in A andbb and b b in B
Now aa and aaa=a
(since A is a partially ordered set)
and bb and bbb=b
(since B is a partially ordered set)
is anti-symmetric in A B
Also (a, b) a, b and (a,b) (a,b) in A B where a,a,aA and b,b,bA implies

that
aa and aa and bb and bb
by the transitive property of the partial orders in A and B, we have
aa,aaaa and bb,bbbb
Hence (a, b) (a,b)
Therefore transitive property holds for partial order in A B. Hence A B is a partially ordered set.
LATTICE.
A partially ordered set in which every pair of elements has both a least upper bound and a
greatest lower bound is called a lattice.
or
A lattice is a partially ordered set (L, ) in which every pair of elements a, bL has a greatest lower
bound and a least upper bound.
Some properties of Lattices
Let (L, ) be a lattice and and denote the two binary operation meet and join on (L, ). Then for
any a, b, cL we have
(i) aa=a,
(ii) aa=a (Idempotent laws)
(iii) aa=ba,
(iv) ab=ba (Commutative laws)
(v) (ab) c=a (bc), (vi) (ab) c=a (bc) (Associative laws)
(vii) a (ab)=a,
(viii) a (ab)=a (Absorption laws).

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The above properties (i) to (viii) can be proved easily by using definitions of meet and join.

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Exercisee
1. Draw the Hasse diiagram of thee relation R on A where
A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and
R = {(1,, 1), (1, 2), (22, 2), (2, 4), (1,
( 3), (3, 3),, (3, 4), (1, 4)), (4, 4)}.