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Superposition of Waves
Consider a region in space where two or more waves pass through at the same time.
According to the superposition principle, the net displacement is simply given by the
vector or the algebraic sum of the individual displacements. Interference is the
combination of two or more waves to form a composite wave, based on such principle.
The idea of the superposition principle is illustrated in Figure 14.1.1.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 14.1.1 Superposition of waves. (a) Traveling wave pulses approach each other,
(b) constructive interference, (c) destructive interference, (d) waves move apart.
Suppose we are given two waves,
1 (x,t) = 10 sin(k1 x 1t + 1 ),
(14.1.2)
1 (x) = sin x,
2 (x) = 2sin(x + / 4 )
(14.1.3)
a
a sin x + bcos x = a 2 + b2
sin x +
2
2
a +b
cos x
a 2 + b2
(14.1.5)
= a 2 + b2 sin(x + ),
with
b
= tan 1 .
a
(14.1.6)
(14.1.7)
then leads to
where = tan 1 ( 2 /(1 + 2)) = 30.4 = 0.53 rad. The superposition of the waves is
depicted in Figure 14.1.2.
14-3
14.1.1
Suppose we are considering two light waves. In order to form an interference pattern, the
incident light must satisfy two conditions:
(i) The light sources must be coherent. This means that the waves from the sources must
maintain a constant phase relation. For example, if two waves are phase shifted by = ,
this phase shift must not change with time.
(ii) The light must be monochromatic. This means that the light consists of just one
wavelength = 2 / k .
Light emitted from an incandescent light bulb is incoherent because the light consists of
waves of different wavelengths and they do not maintain a constant phase relationship.
Thus, no interference pattern is observed.
In 1801 Thomas Young carried out an experiment in which the wave nature of light was
demonstrated. The schematic diagram of the double-slit experiment is shown in Figure
14.2.1.
A monochromatic light source is incident on the first screen that contains a slit S0 . The
emerging light then arrives at the second screen which has two parallel slits S1 and S2 .
which serve as the sources of coherent light. The light waves emerging from the two slits
then interfere and form an interference pattern on the viewing screen. The bright bands
(fringes) correspond to interference maxima, and the dark band interference minima.
Figure 14.2.2 illustrates ways in which the waves could combine to interfere
constructively or destructively.
point P than the light from slit 1. This extra distance is called the path difference. From
Figure 14.2.3, we have, using the law of cosines,
2
d
r = r + dr cos = r 2 + dr sin ,
2
2
2
2
1
(14.2.1)
and
2
d
r2 2 = r 2 + dr cos + = r 2 + + dr sin .
2
2
(14.2.2)
(14.2.3)
In the limit L >> d , where the distance to the screen is much greater than the distance
between the slits, the sum of r1 and r2 may be approximated by r1 + r2 2r , and the path
difference becomes
= r2 r1 d sin .
(14.2.4)
In this limit, the two rays r1 and r2 are essentially treated as parallel (see Figure 14.2.4).
Figure 14.2.4 Path difference between the two rays, assuming L >> d .
Whether the two waves are in phase or out of phase is determined by the value of .
Constructive interference occurs when is zero or an integer multiple of the wavelength
,
m = d sin m = m , m = 0, 1, 2, 3, (constructive interference) , (14.2.5)
14-6
1
m = d sin m = m + , m = 0, 1, 2, 3, (destructive interference) .(14.2.6)
2
y
.
L
(14.2.7)
Substituting Eq. (14.2.7) into the constructive and destructive interference conditions
given in Eqs. (14.2.5) and (14.2.6), the positions of the bright and dark fringes are,
respectively,
ym = m
L
,
d
m = 0, 1, 2, 3, (constructive interference) ,
(14.2.8)
and
ym = (m +1/ 2)
L
, m = 0, 1, 2, 3, (destructive interference) . (14.2.9)
d
14-7
y
2.00 102 m
4
d = (1.50 10 m)
= 2.50 106 m .
L
1.20 m
(b) From the answer in part (a), we have
2.50 106 m
=
3.00 ,
8.33 107 m
hence = 3.00 .
(c) Because the path difference is an integer multiple of the wavelength, the intensity at
point P is a maximum.
14.3 Intensity Distribution
Consider the double-slit experiment shown in Figure 14.3.1.
The total instantaneous electric field E at the point P on the screen is equal to the vector
sum of the two sources: E = E1 + E2 . The magnitude of the Poynting vector flux S is
proportional to the square of the total field,
S E 2 = (E1 + E2 ) 2 = E12 + E22 + 2E1 E2 .
(14.2.10)
(14.2.11)
The term 2 E1 E2
incoherent light sources, since there is no definite phase relation between E1 and E2 , the
cross term vanishes, and the intensity due to the incoherent source is simply the sum of
the two individual intensities,
I inc = I1 + I 2 .
(14.2.12)
For coherent sources, the term 2 E1 E2 is non-zero. In fact, for constructive
(14.2.13)
which is four times greater than the intensity due to a single source. When destructive
interference takes place, E1 = E2 , and E1 E2 I1 , and the total intensity becomes
I = I1 2 I1 + I1 = 0 ,
(14.2.14)
as expected.
Suppose that the waves emerged from the slits are coherent sinusoidal plane waves. Let
the electric field components of the wave from slits 1 and 2 at P be given by
and
E1 = E0 sin( t) ,
(14.2.15)
E2 = E0 sin( t + ) ,
(14.2.16)
respectively, where the waves from both slits are assumed to have the same amplitude E0 .
For simplicity, we have chosen the point P to be the origin, so that the kx dependence in
the wave function is eliminated. Because the wave from slit 2 has traveled an extra
14-9
=
.
2
2
2
=
d sin .
(14.2.17)
(14.2.18)
Assuming that both fields point in the same direction, the total electric field may be
obtained by using the superposition principle discussed in Section 13.5,
(14.2.20)
The intensity I is proportional to the time-average of the square of the total electric field,
(14.2.21)
(14.2.22)
where I 0 is the maximum intensity on the screen. Substitute Eq. (14.2.18) into Eq.
(14.2.22) yielding
(14.2.23)
I = I 0 cos 2 ( d sin / ) .
The plot of the ratio I / I 0 as a function of d sin / is shown in Figure 14.3.2.
14-10
(14.2.24)
I
2 d sin
I = 0 1 + 2cos
,
9
(14.2.25)
14-11
(14.2.26)
(14.2.27)
(14.2.28)
The total electric field at the point P on the screen is then the sum
E = E1 + E3 + E2 = E0 sin( t + )(2cos( ) + 1) .
(14.2.29)
1 2
E0 (2cos( ) + 1)2 ,
2
(14.2.30)
cos = 1 . Thus,
1 + 2cos( )
I
.
=
I0
9
Substitute = 2 d sin / into Eq. (14.2.31). Then the intensity is
(14.2.31)
I
I
2
2 d sin
I = 0 (1 + 2 cos ) = 0 1 + 2 cos
.
9
9
(14.2.32)
14-12
continue to travel in straight lines, then no diffraction pattern would be observed (Figure
14.4.2b).
Figure 14.4.2 (a) Spreading of light leading to a diffraction pattern. (b) Absence of
diffraction pattern if the paths of the light wave are straight lines.
We shall restrict ourselves to a special case of diffraction called Fraunhofer diffraction.
In this case, all light rays that emerge from the slit are approximately parallel to each
other. For a diffraction pattern to appear on the screen, a convex lens is placed between
the slit and screen to provide convergence of the light rays.
14.5 Single-Slit Diffraction
In our consideration of Youngs double-slit experiments, we have assumed the width of
the slits to be so small that each slit is a point source. In this section we shall take the
width of slit to be finite and see how Fraunhofer diffraction arises.
Let a source of monochromatic light be incident on a slit of finite width a , as shown in
Figure 14.5.1.
14-14
sin = .
2
2
Therefore
sin =
.
a
(14.4.1)
(14.4.2)
Applying the same reasoning to the wavefronts from four equally spaced points a
distance a / 4 apart, the path difference would be = a sin / 4 , and the condition for
destructive interference is
2
sin =
.
(14.4.3)
a
The argument can be generalized to show that destructive interference will occur when
a sin m = m , m = 1, 2, 3, (destructive interference)
(14.4.4)
Figure 14.5.2 illustrates the intensity distribution for a single-slit diffraction. Note that
= 0 is a maximum.
14-15
sin m = m
m = 1, 2, 3,
m .
L
a
2
y sin .
(14.5.1)
14-17
Suppose the wavefront from the first point (counting from the top) arrives at the point P
on the screen with an electric field given by
E1 = E10 sin( t) .
(14.5.2)
The electric field from point 2 adjacent to point 1 will have a phase shift , and the
field is
(14.5.3)
E2 = E10 sin( t + ) .
Because each successive component has the same phase shift relative to the previous one,
the electric field from point N is
E N = E10 sin( t + (N 1) ) .
(14.5.4)
= N =
2
2
N y sin =
a sin ,
(14.5.6)
where N y = a . The expression for the total field given in Eq. (14.5.5) can be simplified
as follows. Apply the trigonometric relation cos( ) cos( + ) = 2sin sin :
cos( t / 2) cos[ t (N 1 / 2) ]
(14.5.8)
cos( t / 2) cos[ t (N 1 / 2) ]
= 2sin( t + (N 1) / 2)sin(N / 2).
(14.5.9)
14-18
(14.5.10)
(14.5.11)
sin( / 2)
1 2 sin( / 2)
2
=E
sin ( t + (N 1) / 2) = E10
.(14.5.12)
2
sin( / 2)
sin( / 2)
2
10
I
I = 02
N
sin( / 2)
sin( / 2) ,
(14.5.13)
where the extra factor N 2 has been inserted to ensure that I 0 corresponds to the intensity
at the central maximum = 0 ( = 0) . In the limit where 0 ,
N sin( / 2) N / 2 = / 2 ,
(14.5.14)
sin( 2)
sin( a sin / )
I = I0
= I0
.
/2
a sin /
(14.5.15)
14-19
a sin m = m , m = 1, 2, 3, .
We can then determine the various angles m such that the intensity is minimum,
sin m = m , m = 1, 2, 3, .
a
(14.5.16)
In Figure 14.6.3 the intensity is plotted as a function of the angle , for a = and
a = 2 . We see that as the ratio a / grows, the peak becomes narrower, and more light
is concentrated in the central peak. In this case, the variation of I 0 with the width a is
not shown.
14-20
sin( a sin / )
I = I0
,
a sin /
I = I 0 cos 2 ( / 2) = I 0 cos 2 ( d sin / ),
single-slit diffraction,
double-slit interference .
Suppose we now have two slits, each having a width a , and separated by a distance d .
The resulting interference pattern for the double-slit will also include a diffraction pattern
due to the individual slit. The intensity of the total pattern is the product of the two
functions,
2
sin( a sin / )
I = I 0 cos ( d sin / )
.
a sin /
2
(14.6.1)
The first and the second terms in the above equation are referred to as the interference
factor and the diffraction factor, respectively. While the former yields the interference
substructure, the latter acts as an envelope that sets limits on the number of the
interference peaks (see Figure 14.7.1).
.
d sin m
=
a sin
(14.6.2)
d
.
a
(14.6.3)
Since the mth fringe is not seen, the number of fringes on each side of the central fringe is
m 1 . Thus, the total number of fringes in the central diffraction maximum is
N = 2(m + 1) + 1 = 2m 1 .
(14.6.4)
14-22
(a)
(b)
Figure 14.8.2 Intensity distribution for a diffraction grating for (a) N = 10 and (b)
N = 30 .
The location of the maxima does not depend on the number of slits, N . However, the
maxima become sharper and more intense as N is increased. The width of the maxima
can be shown to be inversely proportional to N . In Figure 14.8.2, we show the intensity
distribution as a function of / 2 for diffraction grating with N = 10 and N = 30 . Notice
that the principal maxima become sharper and narrower as N increases.
The observation can be explained as follows: suppose an angle (recall that
= 2 a sin / ) which initially gives a principal maximum is increased slightly, if
there were only two slits, then the two waves will still be nearly in phase and produce
maxima which are broad. However, in a diffraction grating with a large number of slits,
even though may only be slightly deviated from the value that produces a maximum, it
will be exactly out of phase with a light wave emerging from some other slit. Because a
diffraction grating produces peaks that are much sharper than the two-slit system, it gives
a more precise measurement of the wavelength.
14.9 Summary
m = d sin m = m , m = 0, 1, 2, 3,
(constructive interference) ,
where m is called the order number. The condition for destructive interference
is
14-23
d sin m = (m + 1 / 2) , m = 0, 1, 2, 3,
(destructive interference) .
sin m = m , m = 1, 2, 3,
a
(destructive interference) ,
where a is the width of the slit. The intensity of the interference pattern is
2
sin( 2)
sin( a sin / )
I = I0
= I0
,
/2
a sin /
where = 2 a sin / is the phase difference between rays from the upper end
and the lower end of the slit, and I 0 is the intensity at = 0 .
For two slits each having a width a and separated by a distance d , the
interference pattern will also include a diffraction pattern due to the single slit,
and the intensity is
2
sin( a sin / )
I = I 0 cos d sin /
.
a sin /
2
14-24
The total field E may be regarded as a geometric series. We begin with the Euler
formula
(ix) n
(1) n x 2 n
(1) n x 2 n +1
ix
e =
=
+ i
= cos x + i sin x .
(14.9.1)
(2n)!
n =0 n !
n =0
n = 0 (2n + 1)!
In the Euler formula, sin x = Im(eix ) , where the notation Im stands for the imaginary
part. We can write the sum of terms that appears on the right-hand-side of Eq. (14.5.5) as
1 ei
ei / 2 (ei / 2 e i / 2 )
sin( / 2)
sin( / 2)
= Im ei( t +( N 1) / 2)
,
= sin( t + (N 1) / 2)
sin( / 2)
sin( / 2)
(14.9.2)
an = 1 + a + a2 + =
n =0
1 a n +1
,
1 a
| a | < 1,
(14.9.3)
and
(eiN / 2 e iN / 2 ) sin( / 2)
,
=
sin( / 2)
(ei / 2 e i / 2 )
(14.9.4)
where = N .
The total electric field then becomes
sin( / 2)
E = E10
sin( t + (N 1) / 2) ,
sin( / 2)
(14.9.5)
14-25
(14.9.6)
vectors E1 and E2 , respectively. The addition of E = E1 + E2 is shown in Figure 14.10.1.
The idea of this geometric approach is based on the fact that when adding two vectors,
the components of the resultant vector are equal to the sum of the individual components.
The vertical component of E is the resultant field E and is the sum of the vertical
projections of E1 and E2 .
If the two fields have the same amplitude E10 = E20 , the phasor diagram becomes
14-26
(14.9.7)
' = = ( ) = .
2 2 2 2
2
From Figure 14.10.2, we have that
cos ' =
E0 / 2
.
E10
(14.9.8)
Combining Eqs. (14.9.7) and (14.9.8), we can solve for the amplitude
E0 = 2E10 cos ' = 2E10 cos( / 2) .
(14.9.9)
(14.9.10)
Alternatively the sum of the fields can be determined using the trigonometric identity
given in Eq. (14.2.27).
Now lets turn to the situation where there are N sources, as in our calculation of the
single-slit diffraction intensity in Section 14.6. By setting t = 0 in Eq. (14.5.5), the timeindependent part of the total field is
(14.9.11)
The corresponding phasor diagram is shown in Figure 14.10.3. Notice that all the phasors
lie on a circular arc of radius R, with each successive phasor differed in phase by .
14-27
E0 / 2
=
.
2
R
(14.9.12)
2
2
/ 2
(14.9.13)
where = N . The result is completely consistent with that obtained in Eq. (14.5.11).
The intensity is proportional to E02 ,
2
sin( / 2)
I sin( / 2)
I = 02
= I0
.
N / 2
/2
which reproduces the result in Eq. (14.5.15)
(14.9.14)
Solution: On the viewing screen, light intensity is a maximum when the two waves
interfere constructively. This occurs when
d sin m = m ,
m = 0, 1, 2, ,
(14.10.1)
Thus, there are 452 maxima in the range 0 < < 45.0 . By symmetry, there are also 452
maxima in the range 45.0 < < 0 . Including the one for m = 0 straight ahead, the total
number of maxima is
(14.10.3)
N = 452 + 452 + 1 = 905 .
14.11.2 Phase Difference
In the double-slit interference experiment shown in Figure 14.2.3, suppose
d = 0.100 mm and L = 1.00 m , and the incident light is monochromatic with a
wavelength = 500 nm .
(a) What is the phase difference between the two waves arriving at a point P on the
screen when = 0.800 ?
(b) What is the phase difference between the two waves arriving at a point P on the
screen when y = 4.00 mm ?
(c) If = 1 / 3 rad , what is the value of ?
(d) If the path difference is = / 4 , what is the value of ?
Solutions:
(a) The phase difference between the two wavefronts is given by
2
2
=
d sin .
(14.10.4)
2
(1.00 104 m) sin(0.800) = 17.5 rad .
(5.00 107 m)
(14.10.5)
=
With = 0.800 , we have
14-29
(b) When is small, we make use of the approximation sin tan = y / L . Thus, the
phase difference becomes
2 y
d .
(14.10.6)
L
For y = 4.00 mm , we have
4.00 103 m
2
4
(1.00
10
m)
1.00 m = 5.03 rad .
(5.00 107 m)
(14.10.7)
1
2
2
rad =
d sin =
(1.00 104 m)sin .
7
3
(5.00 10 m)
(14.10.8)
Therefore = 0.0152 .
(d) For = d sin = / 4 , we have
5.00 107 m
= sin 1 = sin 1
= 0.0716 .
4
4d
4(1.00 10 m)
(14.10.9)
14-30
Figure 14.11.1
Solution: The path difference between the two rays is
= d sin 1 d sin 2 .
(14.10.10)
(14.10.12)
(14.10.13)
14-31
(14.10.14)
(b) The phase difference is related to the path difference and the wavelength by
(14.10.15)
y
,
a L
sin m = m
(14.10.16)
where the small-angle approximation has been made. Thus, the position of the m th order
dark fringe measured from the central axis is
ym = m
L
.
a
(14.10.17)
Let the second bright fringe be located halfway between the second and the third dark
fringes. Therefore,
1
1
L 5 L
y2b = ( y2 + y3 ) = (2 + 3)
=
.
(14.10.18)
2
2
a
2a
The approximate wavelength of the incident light is then
(14.10.19)
d = 2.80 m . The screen has a semi-cylindrical shape, with its axis at the midline
between the slits.
(a) Find the angles of the interference maxima on the screen. Express your answers in
terms of the angles the location of the maxima make with respect to the bisector of the
line joining the slits.
(b) How many bright fringes appear on the screen?
(c) For each bright fringe, find the intensity, measured relative to the intensity I 0 ,
associated with the central maximum.
Solutions:
(a) The condition for double-slit interference maxima is given by
d sin m = m
m = 0, 1, 2, .
(14.10.20)
Therefore
m
m = sin 1
.
d
(14.10.21)
5.00 107 m
m = sin m
= sin 1 (0.179 m) .
6
2.80 10 m
1
(14.10.22)
0 = 0
(14.10.23)
m = sin 1 (m / a) m = 1, 2, .
(14.10.24)
14-33
5.00 107 m
m = sin 1 m
= sin 1 (0.714 m) .
7
7.00 10 m
(14.10.25)
(14.10.26)
Since these angles correspond to dark fringes, the total number of bright fringes is
N = 11 2 = 9 .
(c) The intensity on the screen is given by
2
sin ( a sin / )
I = I0
,
a sin /
(14.10.27)
a sin / =
(14.10.28)
Therefore
2
I sin 45.0
=
= 0.811 .
I 0 0.785
(14.10.29)
(14.10.30)
I sin 90.0
=
= 0.406 .
I 0
1.57
(14.10.31)
(14.10.32)
I sin 135
=
= 0.0901 .
I 0
2.36
(14.10.33)
(14.10.34)
I sin 225
=
= 0.0324 .
I 0
3.93
(14.10.35)
14-35
L
,
3d
n = 1,2,4,5,7,8,10, ,
E2 = E20 sin( t + )
I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos .
where I1 and I 2 are the intensities due to the light from each slit.
14.13.5 Secondary Maxima
In a single-slit diffraction pattern, we have shown in 14.6 that the intensity is
14-36
sin( / 2)
sin( a sin / )
I = I0
= I0
.
/2
a sin /
(a) Explain why the condition for the secondary maxima is not given by
m / 2 = (m + 1 / 2) ,
m = 1,2,3, .
(b) By differentiating the expression above for I , show that the condition for secondary
maxima is
= tan .
2
2
(c) Plot the curves y = / 2 and y = tan( / 2) . Using a calculator which has a graphing
function, or mathematical software, find the values of at which the two curves
intersect, and hence, the values of for the first and second secondary maxima.
Compare your results with m / 2 = (m + 1 / 2) .
14.13.6 Interference-Diffraction Pattern
If there are 7 fringes in the central diffraction maximum in a double-slit interference
pattern, what can you conclude about the slit width and separation?
14-37