PHYSICAL AND

GEOTECHNICAL
PROPERTIES
OF SOILS
Second Edition

Joseph E. Bowles
Consulcing EngineerfSoftware Consultane
Engineering Computer Software

INTERNATIONAL STUDENT EDITION

l
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY
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CONTENTS

Preface
Chapter l
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-5
1-6
1-7
1-8
1-9

Chapter 2

--

2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-7
2-8
2-9
2-10
2- 11
2-12
2-13
2- 14
2- 15
2-16

xi

Introduction to Geotechnics, Statistics,

and SI
Generai Introduction
The Study or Soil Mechanics
Text Objectives
Some Typical Soil Problems
H istorical Development or Soil Mechanics
Soil Failures
Sources or Inrormation for Geotechnical Engineers
Elements of Statistics and Probability
SI Units

2
4
4
5
9
13
16
23

Soil Proper ties- P hysical and Index

26

Introduction
Soil Composition and Terms
Basic Defini tions and Mass-Volume Relationships
Noncohesive and Cohesive Soils
Atterberg (or Consistency) Limits
Soil Moisture
Indices of Soil Consistency
Specific Surface
Specific Gravity
Soil Texture
Soil Phases
Grain Size
Uni t Weight of Soils (Dry, Wet, and Submerged)
Effective or Intergranular Pressures
Intergranular Pressures in Partially Saturated Soils
Summary

26
26
27
39
_40
41
42

A3
44
46
46
48
50
52
59
60
v

,.
vi

CONTE-;TS

COI'TEI'TS

Cbapter 3
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-8
3-9
3-10
3-1 1
,3-12
3-13
3-14
3-15
3-16
3-17
3-1 8

Cbapter 4
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
4-5
4-6
4-7
4-8
Ch~pter

5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4
5-5

5-6
5-7
5-8
5-9

Chapter 6
6-1
6-2
6-3

Geologie Propertie:;, Formations of

Natura! Soil Deposits, and Groundwater

64

Introduction
The Earth
Physcal Properties of Minerals
The Rock and Soil Cycle
Igneous Rocks
Sedmentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Crustal Movements
Rock Weatheringand Soil Formation - Generai Considerations in Rock Weathering
Soil Formations Produced by Weathering,...tRunning Water and Alluvial Deposits
Glacial Deposits
Wind Deposits
Gravity Deposits
Subsurface Water~
Sources of Geologie Information
Summary

64
65
66
67
70
74
79
80
85
92
92
96
100
106
109
109
116
117

Soil Classification Tests and

Common Systems

119

_.

Generai
Soil Tests for Classification.L..,
The Unified Soil Classification System
The AASHTO Soil Classification System
Generai Description of AASHTO Soil
Classification Subgroups
The AASHTO Group Index
Field Identification Tests
Summary

119
121
128
135

Soil Structure and Clay Minerals

137
138
140
141

_g__

Soils and Soil Formation .-.

Sol Structure and Fabric
Sol Cohesion and Friction ~
Granular Soil Structure
Other Considerations of Granular Soil Structure;
~
Relative Density
Structure of Cohesive Sols
Clay and Clay Minerai'
Generai Clay Minerai Properties
Summary

145
145
146
146
147
149
154
158
163
167

6-4
6-5
6-6
6-7
6-8
6-9
6-10
6- 11
6-12
6-13
6-14
6-15
6-16
6-1 7

Chapter 7

Determining Subsurface Conditions

Location, Spacing. and Depth of Borings
Sampling
Water Table
Sample Quality and Engineering Practice
The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) ...___-SPT Correlations
Boring Logs
Cone Penetration Test (C PT)
Rock Drilling
Seismic Exploration
Resistivity Exploration
The Total Stress Cell and Dilatometer
Summary

174
177
179
184
184
185
186
188
189
192
194
199
200
202

Compaction and Soil Stabilization

204

\\_,

204
Generai Concept of Soil Stabilization _
205
Soil as a Construction Materia!--------------205
Soil Stabi1ization
o-.._
207
Soil Compaction
:208
Tbeory of Compaction
212
Compaction of Cobesionless Soils
Structure and Properties of Compacted
213
Cohesive Soils
.
215
Stabilization
of
Expansive
Clays

7-8
7-9 OtherCommentsonSoilCompactio~216
217
7-1 0 Excavation and Compaction Equipment
223
7-11 Compaction Specifications
225
7-12 Fie!d Contro! of Compaction
230
7-13 Statistica! Field Unit Weight Contro!
232
7-14 Deep Compaction of In Si tu Soils
234
7-15 Static Stabilization
234
7-16 F abric Stabilization
236
Soil-Cement
and
Lime-Fly-Ash
Soil
Stabilization
7-1 7
238
7-1 8 Special Problems in Soil Compaction
239
7-19 Summary
7-1
7-2
7-3
7-4
7-5
7-6
7-7

Chapter 8

Soil Exploration and Sampling

170

8-1
8-2
8-3
8-4
8-5
8-6

Introduction
Site Investigation
Site Geology

170
171
172

8-7
8-8
8-9

q/

vii

--

Soil Hydraulics, Permeability,

Capillarity, and Shrinkage

24 1

Water in Soil ~
Permeabilty L
Soil Water Flow and the Bernoulli Energy Equaton
Determination of the Coefficient of Permeability
Lmitations and Other Considerations in Determning k
Effective Coefficient of Permeabilty of 4.Stratified Soils
Capllarity and Capillary Effects in Sol
Seepage Forces and Quick Conditions
Summary

<

241
242
245
249
252
254
257
267
274

,.
COl'TEl'TS

viii

Chapter 9

11 -5

Seepage and Flow Net Theory

277

Introduction
Seepage Flow through Soil- The LaPlace Equation
Flow Nets
Fio w ets for Sheet-Pile C ut-Oif Walls
Flow N ets fo r Ea rth Dams
Methods for Obtaining the Phreatic Line
for Earth Dams
9-7 Flo w Net Construction
9-8. Direct Computation of Seepage Quantity
9-9 The Flow Net When kx f k,
9-10 Contro) ofSeepage through Dams
9-11 Sudden Drawdown and Seepage Forces
9- 12 Piping and Contro! of Piping
9-13 Other Methods fo r Seepage Quantities
9-14 Elements of Weli Hydrau lics
9-15 Summary

277
278
280
282
286

9-1
9-2
9-3
9-4
9-5
9-6

Chapter 10
IO-l
10-2
10-3
10-4
10-5
10-6
10-7
10-8
10-9
10-10
10-11
10-12
10-13
10-14
10-15
10-16
10-17
10-18
10-19
10-20
10-21

ix

COKTE:-:TS

Chapter Il
Il - l
11-2
11-3
11-4

289
293
296
297
299
301
302
304
305
307

Stresses, Strains, a nd Rheological Concepts

310

Generai Considerations
~
Generai Stresses and Strains at a P oint
Theory of Elasticity Concepts Used in ~
Soil Mechanics Problems
Octahedral Stresses
Stress-Strai n Modulus and Hooke's Law
Anisotropie Soil
Two-Dimensional Stresses a t a Poi m
<::--"'
Mohr's Stress Circle
Mohr's Circle for lnclined Principal Axes
Boussinesq Stresses in an Elastic Half Space
Boussinesq Solution for Rou nd Plates
Numerica! Integratio n of the Bo ussinesq Equations
O ther Solutions fo r the Boussinesq Equations
Pressure Bulbs and Stress Concentration Factors
The Vertical Pressure Profile
The A verage Pressure
T he Newmark Influence Chart
Westergaard's Stress
Soil Deformation or Settlement
Rheological Models
Summary

313
31 4
320
325
326
328
332
333
335
336
337
341
342
344
345
348
349
351
353

Consolidation and Consolidation

Settlemen ts

356

Soil Consolidation and Settlement Problems ~

Soil Consolidation
~
Interpreting the Consolidation Test
Correction of the Com pression Curve for Disturbance

356
358
360
365

310
312

tj,--

11-6
11-7
11 -8
11-9
11- 10
!l - li
ll -12
ll - 13
11- 14
11- 15

Chapter l2
12-l
12-2
12-3
12-4
12-5
12-6
12-7
12-8

Chapter 13
13-1
13-2
13-3
13-4
13-5
13-6
13-7
13-8
13-9
13-10
13-11
13-12
13-13
13-14
13-15
13-16

Chapter 14
14-1
14-2
14-3

Preconsolidation and Estimation of the

Preconsolidation Pressure
The Compression Parameters
Compression Parameters fo r Arithmetic Plots
Empirica! Approximations for C, and C~
Soil Structure and Consoliaation
<!
Settlemen t Computations
Secondary Compression (Creep) Senlemems
Illustrative Examples
Controlling Consolidation Settlements
Reliability of Consolidation Settlement Computations
Su mmary

365
367
369
370
372
373
374
376
382
382
383

Rate of Consolidation

387

~
The Coefficient of Consolidation
Percent Consolidation
Methods of Obtaining the Time of
Interest for Computing c,.
Rate of Consolidation Based o n Strain
Illustrative Examples
Consolidation Rates for Layered Media
Three-Dimensional Consolidation
Summary

387
391

<

Shear Strength of Soils

393
396
402
410
411
411

-<

Introduction
~
Shear Strength Parameters c and <P
Soil Failure, Criticai Void Ratio, .c_
and Resid ua! Strength
Soil Tests to Determi ne Shear Strength Parameters
Stress Paths
Shear Strength of Cohesionless Soil
Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils
Pore Pressure Elfects in Consolidated-Drained Tests
Sensitivity of Cohesive Soils
Empirica] Methods for Shear Strength
~
In-Si tu Direct Measurement of Shear Strength "<'
<(
Factors Alfecting Shear Strength
Normalized Soil Parameters
The sJp. Ratio
~
Pore Pressure Parameters
Summary
.L

414
414
41 6

'-

4 18
420
435
440
442
455
455
456
459
462
463
464
466
47 1

Static and D ynamic Stress-Strain

Characteristics

476

Stress-Strain Data
T he Stress-Strain Modulus
P oisson's Ratio

476
476
4 79

,.
X CONTENTS

14-4
14-5
14-6
14-7
14-8

Chapter 15
15-1
15-2
15-3
15-4
15-5
15-6
15-7
15-8
15-9
15-10
15-11
15-12
15-13
15-14

Chapter 16
16-1
16-2
16-3
16-4
16-5
16-6
16-7
16-8
16-9
16-10

Factors Affecting the Stress-Strain Modulus

and Approximations
Resilient Mod ulus
Dynamic Soil Stress-Strain M odulus
Cyclic Modulus o f Deformation and Liquefaction
Summary

482
482
483
486
496

Latera! Pressures, Bearing Capacity,

and Settlement

498

514
517
522
524
525
529
533

Stability of Slopes

536

Generai Considerations in Stability of Slopes

Infinite Slo pes
Stability of Infin ite Cohesive Slopes
Circular Are Analysis
The tP-Circle Method
S1ope Stability Charts
Slope Ana1ysis by Method of Slices
Wedge Block Analysis
Validity of S1ope Stability Analyses
Summary

536
537
539
540
542
544
551
555
558
559

Bibliography
Indexes

563
571

Name Index
Subject l ndex

498
498
501
506
507
510
513

Introduction
Soi l Stresses at a Point-K. Conditions
Active and Passive Earth Pressures
Pressures against Walls
Inclined Cohesionless Ground
Latera! Earth Pressure for Cohesive Soils
The T riai Wedge Solution
Logarithmic Spirai and tP-Circle Methods for
Passive Pressure in Cohesionless Soil
Bearing Capacity-Theoretical
Bearing Capacity by Empirica! Methods
Other Bearing Capacity Problems
Deep Fountlations
Immediate Settlement Computations
Summary

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following abbreviations are used to simplify the reference list:

HRB

HRR
ASCE
JGED
JSMFD
PSC

Highway Research Board [presently Transportation Research

Board (TRB), Washington, D.C.]. Publications available from
TRB if in print
High way Research Record. Publications available from TRB if in
print
America n Society of Civil Engineers
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE (1974-Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division ASCE
(1956-1973)
Proceedings ASCE Specialty Conferences
1st PSC: Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils (1960)
3d PSC:
Placement and Improvement of Soil to Suppor! Structures
(1968)
5th PSC : P erformance of Earth and Earth Supported Structures

(1972)

ASTM
STP
CGJ

6th PSC: In Si tu Measurement of Soil Properties (1975)

American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.
Special Technical Publication published by ASTM.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Ottawa, Canada.
563

564

PHYSIC"AL Al'.0 GEOTEC" H'IICAL

.
PROPERTIES OF SOILS
BIBLIOGRAP!iy

ICSMFE

Proceedings of International Conference on Soil Mechanics and

Foundation Engineering
S
Proceedings of InternatiOna
.
1 Symposium on Soil tructure,
Gothenberg, Sweden

ISSS

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-

Geotec h ntque
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56S

(1974): "Analytical and Computer Methods in Foundation Engineering," McGraw-Hill Book

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B. B. (1980) : Soil Sampling in Europe; State-of-the-An, JGED, ASCE, vol. 106, GT 1, pp.
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Aboshi,
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t es 3d PSC ASCE 440 pages.
--

1 of Soilto Suppor! truc ur

'
'
- - - (1983):
(1968): Placement
and lmprovemen
" Annua! Book
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ASTM
ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa. (pnor to 1983 P~. 19). d its Role in Geotechnical Projects lnvolving
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Azzouz, .
'
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1 !6 n 2 pp. 19-29.
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f CI
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1p
and Res1stance o
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w.

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l
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566

PHYSICAL ANO GEOTECH:-JICA L PROPE RTIES OF SOJLS

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Desai. C S. (1979): .. Elementary Fmne Element et o '

Janbu,
N. (1965):
2, pp.
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434..pages.
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DOTN.J.,
(1 976):
Flyash: A Construcuon
Matena'

A. W.. and J. R. Sallberg (1960): Factors That lnHuence Field Compaction of Soils, HRB
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Bull. no. 272, 206 pages.

D.C.,
, ( I 98 0). .. Fundamentals or Geotechnical Analysis,"
R. Anderson, and F. W. K'teoer
l S 198L pages.
unn.
y k 414 pages
. Test in Sensitive Clay, ASTM STP 399, pp.
Wiley
andAn
Sons,
[ne., Newor or
W. 1_
(!965):
Evaluatton
the ' F'teId Vane
Eden,John
D

D. E.,pp.and
W. G. Holtz (1973): Expansive Soils-The Hidden Disaster, Civi[ Engineering,
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'

8- 17.
.
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