MZUMBE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

Research Methods in Social Sciences: Theory, Philosophy, Methodology and

Observation

Montanus C.Milanzi (PhD)

Milanzi, M.C. (first draft, do not quote; November, 2002 / Second draft January 2009)
Faculty of Public Administration and Management
P O Box 2 Mzumbe, United Republic of Tanzania
Tel: 078 4 324 627; 0716320836
Email: mcmilanzi@hotmail.com

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Objectives of the Handbook ...
Acknowledgements ...
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Wisdom
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Chapter One
Introduction to Research
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Introduction ...
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The Meaning of Research
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Intrinsic Characteristics of Research ...
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Relational Characteristics of Research
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Research as a Support Function in Science ...
Two Research Philosophies/Traditions
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The First Philosophy: Positivism
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The Short History of Western Philosophy
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The Second Philosophy: Phenomenology
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The Problems of Social Sciences
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Description, Explanation, Prediction and Control
Observation ...
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Analysing Documents ...
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Asking Questions
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Chapter Two
Starting the Research Process ...
Introduction ...
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Elements of Research Process...
Methodological Approaches ...

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Chapter Three
Research Design and Methodology ...
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Research Design
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Introduction ...
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The Notion of Design ...
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Types of Research Design
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Research Methodology
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Functions of Methodology in Social Science Research
The Notion of the Concept to Enrich Methodology ...

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Chapter Four
Research Proposal Writing ...
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Types of Research
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Definition
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Elements/Composition of a Research Proposal
Conclusion
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Chapter Five
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Sample Research Proposals ...

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Introduction ...
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Micro Finance Institutions
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Statement of the Problem
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Objectives of the Study
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Theoretical Underpinning of the Study
Literature Review
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Research Methodology
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Significance of the Study
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Methods of Data Collection ...
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Limitations of the Study
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Bibliography ...
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Tropical Diseases and Health Financing

Introduction ...
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Rationale of the Study
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Research Design
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Ethical Considerations of the Study ...
Critical Assessment of the Study
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Farmer/Pastoralists Conflict Resolution and Reconciliation Programme

The main Purpose of the Assignment ...
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Scope of the Task
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Approach and Methodology ...
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Work Plan
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Chapter Six
Data Tabulation and Presentation
Classification of Data ...
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Tabulation of Data
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Data Presentation
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Data Analysis ...
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Measures of Central Value

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Chapter Eight
Orthogonality in Research
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Four Meanings of Orthogonality
The Closure over Observations
Computability or Measurement
Defensibility against Values

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Chapter Nine
Research Report Writing
Study Objectives
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Research Hypotheses ...

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Data and Types of Data Collected
Data Collection Methods
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Data Analysis and Interpretations
Results
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Discussion
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Conclusions and Recommendations

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Identification of Training Needs of the Private Sector in Kondoa

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Baseline Study Report on the Support to Gender Equality, Human Rights, Democracy and
Good Governance in Karagwe District
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Objectives of the Handbook

1) To provide its readers with tools, knowledge, skills and experiences of conducting
research;
2) To help researchers or the would-be researchers to avoid some of the pitfalls and time
wasting false trails that can consume researchers time;
3) To establish and institute good research habits and culture among researchers and
would-be researchers;
4) To take readers of this handbook in the research process from the stage of selecting a
topic through to the production of the well planned, methodologically sound and well
written final report (dissertation/thesis) on time.
***

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I know that many people have participated in one way or another to facilitating this
tedious work which I started some months ago. The task involved a lot of reading,
thinking and organising some information so that the intended audience can be able to read
and grasp something from what I have written. Special thanks must go to all members of
my family who allowed me to work and stay in a solitary manner in order to organise this
work which seemed to me will be of great use to the intended audience. My wife,
Scolastica; my children, Nehemia, Patricia, Gerard and Amanda; my brothers children:
Edwin, Edson, Basuta, James and Bruno are praised for your utmost support and
encouragement given to me during the writing and reading of this ambitious task. My wife
was always able to understand the circumstances which I faced during the preparation of
this work. She kept on encouraging me, supporting and even assisted in proof reading of
the earlier draft of the work. Indeed, I am proud of her.
I have written this piece of work to serve the special audience namely those who are
determined to use research as one of the scientific tools. I will be sorry if I have failed to
capture the demands of my special audience. I will say hurrah! if the audience expectations
are met by this piece of work.
It is easy to lose sight of the continuous inputs into this work from various Learning
Resource Centres of the Mzumbe University (Tanzania), Hull University (United
Kingdom) and University of Lincoln (United Kingdom). I am not going to forget the
reading treasure the three specific libraries have possessed and offered me.
This task is not holy. There are some possibilities for gaps, misconceptions and even
misinformation when conveying these pieces of information to the audience.
I, alone, stand to be blamed, punished, praised and prized for this work.
Montanus C.Milanzi
Mzumbe
Tanzania
January 2009

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Wisdom
Academicians have historically been prime agents in the generation of knowledge through
research and its dissemination through publication of results and through teaching.
Universities and institutions of higher learning are concerned with the communication and
accreditation of knowledge, through their educational role.
Creating usable knowledge is becoming an increasingly important topic in social sciences.
Human beings need more usable knowledge to help manage interpersonal, community and
organisational affairs. Since the time of Newton, it has been observed that science has been
the pre-eminent was in which human beings have generated reliable and cumulative
knowledge.

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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
1.0 Introduction
This chapter introduces research as a tool used by scientists for rigorous and systematic
investigations in order to advance knowledge beyond its frontier beyond what is currently
known. Research scientists or analysts do not have unique access to the nature of the problem,
nor does the problem have a given, pre-defined nature. Research scientists / analysts build
creativity into the process of inquiry in order to reveal how situations may be usefully
understood by those involved with them. Of course, there are different ways that scientists can
accomplish scientific endeavours. For example, researchers who use realist oriented approach
to the practice of science would suggest that theories put forward in the process of inquiry can
be tested for their closeness to truth. It implies that truth is the actual relationships that exist in
reality. Research using this conception rests on the degree to which propositions have
undergone tests in the face of competing claims. Research focuses and determines the degree
of certainty with which knowledge about the world can be made. Foucault (1980: 131) states
that truth is the thing of this world: it is produced only by virtue of multiple forms of
constraint ... Each society has its regime of truth, its general politics of truth: that is the types
of discourse which it accepts and makes function as true; ...
1.1 The Meaning of Research
This question can be difficult to answer because many research scientists and people would
tend to answer it differently. Every person has his/her own biases based on the knowledge,
experiential and value inclinations he/she has acquired over some time periods. The description
or definition of a thing / object must be looked at its characteristics such as physical setting,
quality, an activity and a relation. For instance, being three sided is a defining characteristic of
triangles, since nothing would be a triangle unless it has three sides. In this case one would like
to know the main characteristics of research, the presence of which would entitle something to
be called research and the absence of which would keep it from being called one. To know this
we must go beyond the range of actual things to which the word or term is applied. Immanuel
Kant in 1781 informed that a definition is a representation of a complete conception of a thing
within its own limits. It must describe the conception completely. It implies that a definition
omits none of the marks or signs of which it is composed (Kant, 1781: 408 - 409). Definitions
are analyses of given conceptions and they are used for making distinctions.

One can define research as a focused and systematic enquiry that goes beyond generally
available knowledge to acquire specialised and detailed information, providing a basis for
analysis and elucidatory comment on the topic of enquiry. It is about finding things out and
there are many activities consistent with this description (Ackroyd and Hughes, 1981, page
13). In other words research is solving a problem by comprehending it. It involves a search of
relationships between more critical variables, constraints, and premises that bear upon the goal
sought (Koontz, ODonnell and Weihrich, 1984, page 191). Research describes a quest for
new scientific or engineering knowledge. Checkland and Scholes (1990, page 298) define
research in a very metaphoric way: `... whenever a reasonably sophisticated body of knowledge
and associated methodology has been internalised, then any `use can be described as
research.
Any definition:
a) Must point out the unique attributes or qualities of whatever is defined. It implies that it
must include all cases it covers and exclude all cases not covered;
b) Should not be circular. It must not contain any element of the phenomenon or object being
defined;
c) Should be stated positively;
d) Should use clear terms.
Three types of definitions have been isolated:
i)

The real definition

ii)

Nominal definition

iii)

Operational definition (Baker, 1988: 112)

The real definition is used to capture the ultimate or essential nature of the actual
phenomenon in question. An example is a mathematics definition of a triangle as a threesided figure. A nominal definition specifies the meaning and components of the term for the
purposes of rigorous philosophical inquiry. Thirdly, the operational definition, which looks
at the various dimensions of the phenomenon to be thoroughly defined. It is a definition
that specifies ways of measuring the concept.
More generally research:
1. Finds something out;
2. Process of inquiry;
2

3. Accelerates process of understanding;

4. Informs;
5. Makes sense of everyday experience; and
6. Wants to create knowledge - `to know something ...
The above statements / points are subject to many interpretations, depending on the
philosophical, ethical and political issues that are located in the background. If we are aware of
philosophical issues can we defend our results against the criticism of others? If unaware:
common sense approaches are used (naivet?). Worse than that if we are unaware of ethical
and political issues, we may directly cause harm to those involved in our research activity.
Also, the results of our research may be used to harm others.
Thus, it is unwise to conduct research without an awareness of the philosophical, ethical and
political issues that lie in the background. This awareness is at the heart of the special nature of
academic research, which can be viewed as:
1. Espousing or adopting a philosophical tradition;
2. Deriving (developing or applying) a theoretical framework consistent with that tradition;
and
3. Applying a framework to a domain such as empiricism, scientific method and population
growth.
a) Intrinsic Characteristics of Research
Any characteristic of research can be a defining one. It is an intrinsic characteristic of research
or a thing that does not depend on the existence of other things, which are made defining. For
instance, research is to formulate statements that are confronted with reality. It is the way in
which the human organism acquires knowledge about reality. Research is a more rigorous and
technically a more a more complicated form of investigation, study or inquiry. It is conducted
through a methodical process to add to ones body of knowledge and to that of others by
discovering the non trivial facts and insights. It is conducted to solve problems and to expand
knowledge. It constitutes a systematic way of asking questions and it is also a systematic
method of enquiry or study.
Research is based on the epistemological assumption that truth is not given but that it can be
discovered by discursive reconstruction (Kant, 1781; and Leydesdorff, 1995: 27). There is a
fundamental shift in the ways knowledge is being produced these days. This affects not only
3

what knowledge is produced but also how it is produced (Starkey and Madan, 2001; and
Gibbons et al, 1994). Gibbons et al (1994) trace the development of this new form of
knowledge. This new form of knowledge was called Mode 2 Knowledge (M2K). Mode 1
knowledge (M1K) is the one which we traditionally produce as scientific approach to
knowledge creation. Gibbons et al (1994: 3) further state that ... in Mode 1 problems are set
and solved in the context governed by the largely academic interests of a specific community.
By contrast, Mode 2 knowledge is trans-disciplinary. Mode 1 is characterised by homogeneity,
mode 2 by heterogeneity. ... Mode 1 is hierarchical and transient.
The dictionary meaning of research states that research is a careful study or investigation
carried out in order to discover new facts or information. I repeat once again:- Research is a
focused and systematic enquiry that goes beyond generally available knowledge in order to
acquire specialised and detailed information, providing a basis for analysis and elucidatory
comment on the topic of enquiry. It is about finding things out and there are many activities
consistent with this description. It can also be explained as an attempt to make known
something previously not known to humans. It means to advance human knowledge and make
it more certain and better fitting. Research is a more rigorous and technically more complicated
form of investigation. It is seeking through methodical processes to add to ones own body of
knowledge, and to that of other people by the discovery of non trivial facts and insights. It is
conducted in order to solve problems and to expand knowledge. It can also be seen as a
systematic way of asking questions, a systematic method of enquiry.
It involves a way that formulates statements, which are confronted with reality. It is the way in
which the human organism acquires knowledge about reality. It is a recent activity compared to
science.
b) Relational or Extrinsic Characteristics of Research
One can define research in relation to other things, which are not research. What distinguishes
research from other forms of knowledge creation? Objects use is defined to show relational
characteristics / properties rather than its appearance. Elias (1986) defines research in relation
to its aims. It is discovery that makes known something previously unknown to people. This
could be a number of activities such as making some investigations, inquiries and studies. It is
to advance human knowledge and make it more certain or better fitting.

Research involves clarification of problems and sometimes solutions that are useful to people
and organisations (Jozeni, 2002). It takes stock to of possible advantages when making a
choice. Research permits an administrator or a decision maker to be aware of the actual state
of affairs on the ground as other sources of information are skimpy or outright unreliable (ibid,
2002). Research involves an interaction between the scientist and the object of investigation,
and that what the scientist observes is directly related to the nature of that interaction
(Heisenberg, 1958).
Scientific research is the type of research that is conducted within the rules and conventions of
science. It implies that scientific research is based on logic and reason and the systematic
examination of evidence. Ideally, within the scientific model, it should be possible for research
to be replicated by the same or different researchers and for similar conclusions to emerge. It
should also contribute to a cumulative body of knowledge about a field or topic. In the social
sciences the scientific model must be adapted, modified and in some cases largely abandoned.
Social science research is carried out using the methods and traditions of social sciences. Social
sciences differ from the physical or natural sciences in that it deals with people and their social
behaviour, and people are less predictable than non human phenomena (Veal, 1992).
1.2 Research as a Support Function in Science
Science is highly esteemed and it bears the mark of the general. Science focuses on some
aspects of reality, which means that one does not consider reality as a whole when conducting
a scientific investigation. In science ones attention is restricted in some way, and a particular
aspect of reality is isolated for consideration. There is an abundance of evidence from everyday
life that science is held in high regard, in spite of some disenchantment with science because of
consequences for which some hold it responsible, such as hydrogen bombs, pollution and the
emergency of HIV/AIDS. Scientists agree that there are few contributions in social theory and
philosophy, which have been made so far on the subject of method in empirical research. In the
actual fact, there are four major misconceptions about knowledge in social sciences (Sayer,
1992, page 13).
Scientific community enacts rules and norms of inquiry that justifies its claims to knowledge. In
social sciences our interest is practical. It involves the questions of the type: What shall I/We
do? whereas in physical or natural sciences the preoccupation is more theoretical and the
question is: What is the case?
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De Zeeuw (1996) sees science as characterised in a form of collective learning, which focuses
on observation as its main vehicle. Science has been developed as an opposition and treatment
of the associated difficulties with the earlier forms of collective learning namely the oral and
textual traditions, which concentrated on other forms of exchanges (that is, narrations and
scripts). Sciences are not united by their subject matter but rather by their methodology. A
scientific methodology is a system of explicit rules and procedures upon which research is
based and against which claims for knowledge are evaluated.
Sayer (1992) outlines a number of explanations regarding the importance of science in
knowledge generation: First, it is always assumed that knowledge is gained purely through
contemplation or observation of the world. However, knowledge can be acquired in different
ways. Throughout history, people have acquired knowledge in a number of ways. The scientific
approach is by no means the only way by which people have attempted to understand their
environment and themselves. Three general modes of acquiring knowledge have served the
purpose: the authoritarian mode, the mystical mode and the rationalistic mode (FrankfortNachmias and Nachmias, 1996, page 3). Major distinctions among these modes (Table 1.1) lie
in the way each vests credibility in the source or producer of knowledge, the procedure by
which knowledge is produced and the effect of that knowledge.
This contemplative view of knowledge does not show the relationship of knowledge to
practice, which may be interactive rather than passive and purely reflective. It thus concludes
that the only function of knowledge and language is propositional and referential. What is
neglected under this conception is that knowledge concerns not only `what is the case or
`knowing-that but also `knowing-how. Knowing-how means to do something whether it be
physical behaviour or communicating successfully with others (Sayer, 1992, page 14).Table 1.1
summarises different approaches to knowledge acquisition.

Table 1.1 Approaches to knowledge

Knowledge/Mode
Source or producer
of knowledge

Authoritarian
Qualified
individuals socially
or politically
defined such as
religious, tribal
leaders and
scientists in
technocratic
societies

Procedure to
produce knowledge

To seek knowledge
by referring to
qualified
individuals.
Dis-creditors and
dis-legitimizers of
the authority of a
knowledge
producer must
repeatedly be
refuted and an
alternative source
of knowledge
provided.

The effect of
knowledge
produced

Mystical
Authorities on the
supernatural and
charismatic powers
such as prophets,
diviners and
mediums. For
instance, Jesus with
Christianity and
Mohammed with
Islam; Nyerere with
socialism and self
reliance (ujamaa na
kujitegemea) in
Tanzania and
Kaunda with
humanism in
Zambia.
To seek the truth
from those people
with supernatural
powers.
Depends much on
the ritualistic and
ceremonial
procedures
performed by
people with
supernatural
qualities. The
confidence in the
knowledge
produced decreases
as the number of
refutations
increases.
Less/non scientific

Interpretation of
Less/non scientific
such knowledge
Source: Adapted from various literature

Rationalistic
Any individual who
can obtain
knowledge by strict
adherence to the
forms and rules of
logic
(methodology).

To observe the
phenomenon under
investigation.
Scientism in which
scientists always
assume that science
is the highest
knowledge to which
all should aspire.

Scientific

Human beings perceive the world through the filter of - or using the framework of - the ideas
already present within them, that is, internal to them - the source of many of those ideas is the
perceived world outside. Kant stated that human beings structure the world by means of
already present, innate ideas. The knowing how defines the set of dispositions such as
tendency, capacity, propensity and skills. It is the type of knowledge which refers to the
persons knowing whilst the knowing-that refers to the type of knowledge about the domain as

the result of exercising about knowing-how (Ryle, 1949). Understanding is a part of knowing
how. The knowledge that is required for understanding intelligent performances of a specific
kind is some degree of competence in performances of that kind (Ryle, 1949, page 54). An
observer can appreciate the stupidity or cleverness of chess players only if he knows the game
(Argyris, et al, 1985, page 25).
Secondly, it is always assumed that what we know can be reduced to what we can say and
write. The tendency and inclination to pedestal spoken or written forms of knowledge and to
imagine that these are the only ways in which meaning can be communicated and knowledge
can be carried out is a misconception. We know that much of everyday knowledge takes the
practical form. Not all social behaviour is acquired and mediated linguistically, even in the form
of talk internalised in our heads (Sayer, 1992, page 15). Researchers cannot continue to
maintain the status quo by describing the world as it exists and not on changing it. There is no
need to stick onto the defensive routines of the world which may sometimes aim at protecting
the interests of individuals and organisations. The purpose of science is to describe reality
through the generation of knowledge about change. Thus it is important to understand the
world if we want to change it.
The third misconception is that knowledge can be safely regarded as a thing or product, which
can be evaluated independently of any consideration of its production and use in social activity.
There is a common tendency to think of knowledge as a product or thing which exists outside
of us, which we can posses and which is stored in finished form in our heads or in libraries. We
tend to think in terms of knowing, which is in the process of becoming, in solution, as
consciousness but at a thing already precipitated. This seems to be a static view of knowledge
but it is necessary to consider the production of knowledge as a social activity.
In order to develop knowledge we need raw materials and tools on which and with which we
can work. There are linguistic, conceptual and cultural as well as material. In trying to
understand the world, we use existing knowledge and skills drawn from whatever cultural
resources are available, to work upon other raw materials.
Finally, science can simply be assumed to be the highest form of knowledge and that other
types are dispensable or displaceable by science (Sayer, 1992, page 13). Scientists normally
assume that science is the highest form of knowledge to which all human beings should aspire.

The ultimate goal of social science is to produce a cumulative body of verifiable knowledge.
Such knowledge would enable us to explore, describe, understand, explain, predict, change,
compare and evaluate some aspects of the social world (Refer to Table 1.2).

Table 1.2 The functions of the social enquiry

S/No
1

Purpose of Research
Explore

Describe

Understand

Explain

Change

Predict

Compare

Evaluate

Attempts
To explore the concept since the phenomenon is not
well understood and to inform further stages of
investigation.
To provide the characteristics of the phenomenon
under investigation.
To provide the regularities of the phenomenon under
investigation.
To provide the regularities of the phenomenon under
investigation.
In some way to provide the regularities of the
phenomenon under investigation and also to monitor
the object under investigation.
To determine and examine the possible outcomes
under particular circumstances.
To disclose the similarities and differences of some
phenomena
To measure the impact, achievement, process and
progress.

Source: Adapted from N. Blaikie, 1993. Approaches to Social Enquiry, Cambridge: Polity
Press; and No. 7 is from P.C.Ndunguru, 1994. Lecture Notes on Research Methodology,
IDM: Directorate of Graduate Studies, Unpublished Research Notes, pages 9 and 12.
1.3 Two Research Philosophies/Traditions
There are two main research philosophies namely positivism and phenomenology. Each of
these positions has to some extent been elevated into a stereotype, often by opposing side.
Although it is now possible to draw up comprehensive lists of assumptions and methodological
implications associated with each position, it is not possible to identify any one philosopher
who ascribes to all aspects of one particular view (Read also Burrell and Morgan, 1979
framework called sociological paradigms and the book by Thomas Kuhn on how scientific
revolutions progress over time. Refer to the Handbook on Organisation Theory by Milanzi,
M.C. 2001).
1.3.1 The First Philosophy: Positivism

The key idea of positivism is that the social world exists externally, and that its properties
should be measured through objective methods, rather than being inferred subjectively through
sensation, reflection or intuition. There are two key issues in positivism: First, reality is external
and objective; and second that knowledge is only of significance if it is based on observations
of this external reality. There are a number of implications in positivism as proposed by a
number of philosophers including Comte (1853) and Bacon:
i) Independence: The observer is independent of what is being observed;
ii) Value freedom: It is about the choice of what to study and how to study it. This can be
determined by objective criteria rather than by human beliefs and interests;
iii) Causality: The aim of social sciences is to identify causal explanations and fundamental
laws that explain regularities in human social behaviour;
iv)Hypothetico - deductive: Science proceeds from the process of hypothesizing fundamental
laws and then deducing the kind of observations that will demonstrate the kind of truth or
falsity;
v) Operationalisation: Concepts need to be operationalised in a way which enables facts to be
measured quantitatively;
vi)Reductionism: Problems as a whole are better understood if they are reduced into the
simplest possible elements;
vii)

Generalisation: In order to be able to generalise about regularities in human and social

behaviour it is necessary to select samples of sufficient size;

viii)

Cross sectional analysis: Regularities can easily be identified by making comparisons of

variations across samples.

10

EXAMPLE
The Short History of Western Epistemology
A. Western Epistemology
17th Century
THE ARRIVAL OF POSITIVISM
Bacon
1620
Galileo
1632
Descartes
1639
Hobbes
1651
Spinoza
1663
Newton
1687
Locke
1690
18th Century
Leibniz
1710
Vico
Hume
Kant
Fichte

1725
1748
1781
1798

19th Century
Hegel
Mill
Comte
Spencer
Mach
Avenarius

1807
1843
1853
1873
1886
1888

ANTI-POSITIVISM
Marx
1844
Dilthey
1876
Wundt
1879
Brentano
1880
Rickett
1889
Pareto
1890
James
1890
Simmel
1892
Windelband
1894
Weber
1896
Durkheim
1898
20th Century
Mead
Husserl
Gramsci
Heidegger

1925
1931
1932
1937

LOGICAL POSITIVISM
Russell
1919
11

Wittgenstein
Godel
Carnap
Hempel

1922
1931
1937
1948

CONTEMPORARY CRITICS
Malinowiski
1926
Freud
1933
Horkheimer
1937
Skinner
1938
Schutz
1945
Parsons
1949
Wittgenstein
1953
Toulmin
1953
Blau
1955
Marcuse
1955
Merton
1957
Polanyi
1958
Nagel
1961
Gouldner
1962
Popper
1963
Gadamer
1965
Garfinkel
1967
Hesse
1970
Kuhn
1970
Foucault
1970
Habermas
1971
Radnitzky
1973
Fayerabend
1975
Giddens
1976
Apel
1980
Note:
You should also read other contributions from a number of philosophers and social scientists
such as Ardorno, Lukacs, Heller, Quine, Pavlov, Deleuze, Bhaskar, Burrell and Morgan,
Derrida, Lyotard, Mbiti, Houtondji, Dismas Masolo, Odera Oruka, Sodipo, Churchman,
Wiredu, Idowu, Nyerere, Leopold Senghor, Placid Temples, Ackoff, Casti, Elias, Lakatos,
Beer, Maturana and Varela, Spencer-Brown.
1.3.2 The Second Philosophy: Phenomenology
It has a view that the world and reality are not objective and exterior but they are socially
constructed and given meaning by people. Phenomenology tradition includes interpretive
sociology, naturalistic inquiry, qualitative methodology and `new paradigm inquiry (Reason and
Rowan, 1981 cited in Easterby-Smith et al, 1991, page 26). Each of these takes a slightly
different stance in the application of phenomenology and in the features of positivism that it
finds most distasteful. Phenomenology states that reality is socially constructed rather than
objectively determined. The task of the researcher is to gather facts and measure how often
12

certain patterns occur, but to appreciate the different constructions and meanings that people
place upon their experience. A researcher should try to understand and explain why people
have different experiences, rather than search for external causes and fundamental laws to
explain their behaviour. Human action arises from the sense that people make of different
situations, rather than as a direct response from external stimuli.
The term `paradigm has become popularised over the recent years

to explain research

traditions. Thomas Kuhn (1962) was the first person to use the term in early 1960s. The word
paradigm has been used in many different ways (Milanzi, 2001). Mintzberg (1978, page 635)
cited in Easterby-Smith et al (1991, page 26) states that the term paradigm is too vague to be
pinned down, and it pops everywhere. Morgan (1979) criticises Mintzbergs `head-in-the-sand
attitude to terms such as `paradigm and he thus proposes a way of tidying up its usage.
Morgan (1979) distinguished three levels of use: the philosophical level which reflects basic
beliefs about the world; the social level, which provides guidelines about how a researcher
should conduct his/her endeavour; and the technical level which involves specifying the
methods and techniques which should ideally be adopted in conducting research (Table 1.3).

13

Table 1.3 Key features of positivist and phenomenological paradigms

S/N

Level of Use

Philosophical Level
(Basic beliefs)

Positivist paradigm
(Objectivist)
- The world is external
and objective
- Observer is
independent
- Science is value free

Social Level (Researcher - Focus on facts

should)
- Look for causality and
fundamental laws
- Reduce phenomena to
simplest elements
- Formulate hypotheses
and then test them
Technical Level
- Operationalising
(Preferred methods
concepts so that they
include)
can be measured
- Taking large samples

Phenomenological
paradigm (Subjectivist)
- The world is socially
constructed and
subjective
- Observer is part of
what observed
- Science is driven by
human interests
- Focus on meanings
- Try to understand what
is happening
- Look at the totality of
each situation
- Develop ideas through
induction from data
- Using multiple
methods to establish
different views of
phenomena
- Small samples
investigated in depth or
over time

Source: M. Easterby-Smith et al. 1991. Management Research: An Introduction, London:

Sage, page 27

14

1.4 The Problems of Social Sciences

The Problems of social science can be summarised in Table 1.4 below:
SNo
1

Goals of Science
Description

Practical Implications
Measurement

Social Science Problems

Invisible variables
People change

Explanation

Prediction

Control

Ambiguous variables
Identify the time order of Timing of events not
events
always clear and precise
Establish causal links
between variables
Generalisation from one
setting to another
Manipulation

Cannot always see

interaction
Uniqueness, complexity
and lack of comparability
between human
phenomena.
Moral and legal
constraints

Source: A.Huczynski and D.Buchanan, 1991. Organisational Behaviour: An Introductory

Text, New York: Prentice Hall, page 17
Table 1.5 The main assumptions about the nature of social sciences
Assumptions
Ontological assumptions
Epistemological
assumptions

Subjective
Reality is interpreted by the
individual.
Reality is socially created.
Knowledge is relative.
Researchers should focus
on meaning and examine
the totality of a situation
(anti positivism).

Assumptions about human Humans possess free will

nature
and have autonomy
(voluntarism).
Methodological
Understanding the world is
assumptions
best done by analysing
subjective accounts of a
situation or phenomena

15

Objective
Reality is external to the
individual.
Reality is given (Realism).
Researchers should focus
on empirical evidence and
hypothesis testing, looking
for fundamental laws and
causal relationships
(positivism).
Humans are the product of
their environments
(determinism).
Operationalising and
measuring constructs,
along with quantitative
analysis techniques and
hypotheses testing will
uncover universal laws that
explain and govern reality
(nomothetic).

Source: T.Goles and R.Hirschheim, 2000. The paradigm is dead, the paradigm is dead ... long
live the paradigm: The legacy of Burrell and Morgan, International Journal of Management
Science, Omega, 28, 249 - 268, Table 1, page 252
In addition to that the society has the two types of assumptions
Table 1.6 Assumptions about Nature of Society
Order Dimension
Regulation
Stability
Cohesion
Integration
Consensus
Societal forces uphold the status quo

Conflict Dimension
Conflict
Change
Disintegration
Coercion
Deep seated structural conflict
Structural contradiction

Description, Explanation, Prediction and Control

There are three ways, which social sciences produce descriptions of the phenomena they study.
a) Observation;
b) Asking questions; and
c) Studying/examining written documents
Observation
Observation as a social science research method is an extension of what happens in many other
areas of life, and it has developed out of the attempts to be systematic both in the ways people
make and record observations in everyday life and in the ways people interpret those
observations. It has been a basic method of physical or natural sciences as well. In social
sciences we use observation in order to study various aspects of social behaviour such as land
use patterns, condom use among unmarried women or university students, leadership roles and
decision making in small groups. It is a natural and simple way to carry out social research. It
refers to using ones senses to see, smell, touch, occasionally taste and to listen to what is
going on in a given social setting. Observation can be done in three ways:
Unobtrusive measures; which can identify patterns of social activity without actually coming
into direct contact with those being studied;
Non participant observation: the researcher is physically present but only as a spectator who
does not become directly involved in the activities of the people who are being studied; and
Participant observation: the researcher takes part in the activities under investigation. For
instance, the researcher could become a bus conductor in order to check the level of
corruption the police officers are participating.

16

a) Observation is a process of becoming familiar with the special features of the setting and
population under investigation;
b) Observation is necessary to keep a check on the progress of work on the quality of
information being collected;
Problems of Observation
a) Problems of structure: Social scientists need to structure observations and record them
appropriately. We cannot observe and record everything we can see or that takes place in
the social situation we study. Hence, observation structure depends on: i) whether or not we
have a clear idea about what we want to observe, b) whether or not we have clear
expectations about what will take place, c) whether or not we have much knowledge about
the people to be observed, and d) what kind of situations and events we wish to observe.
b) The Problem of Interpretation: How do we interpret the patterns of behaviour and social
relationships the observer observes? Do we rely entirely on social scientific concepts? Or do
we rely on our own cultural background and experience? To what extent should researchers
take account of the meanings and interpretations of the people being observed? Hence,
observation is always concerned with behaviour, which has both meaningful social
importance and an objective physical importance. It is important to the researcher to
understand the behaviour and social relationships of his/her respondents. The meaning and
social importance of observable behaviour cannot be directly obtained from what is
observed. It means that this must be already known to the observer, or it must be learnt in
the course of the study such as through interviews and discussions.
c) The Problem of Observer - Observed relationship: Observation involves watching people
and events. The problem is that the presence of the observer may cause people to behave
unnaturally. Hence, observers may be observed and behaviours and events we observe may
be a response to our presence. This problem is called observer effect. The solution is
through the installation of different types of observation which address into the observer
effect differently: participant observation and non participant observation.
Analysing Documents
It involves reading items containing information and evidence relevant to our research
interests. Written materials, diagrams, tables and pictures are produced in a wide variety of
forms which are never published in journals and books. Organisations and institutions are

17

essentially rich sources of documentary evidence of this kind. Examples of documentary

evidence come from:
Diaries
Memoranda
Equipment operating manuals
Productivity analyses
Company policy statements
Letters
Committee minutes
Customer or client records
Company accounts
Autobiographies
There are two main principles in Using Documentary Sources
a) Whether they are biased; and
b) Whether they are adequate and sufficiently comprehensive for our purposes.
Sometimes writers are simply prejudiced and do not present a well rounded point of view. This
can be deliberate but it more often occurs either because all writers are fallible and may make
mistakes of fact and judgement, or because they are incompetent in reporting and may give
accounts which are of poor quality even if not absolutely wrong; any document may be
misleading for a combination of all these reasons.
Questions to ask:
1) Are the assertions and interpretations made by the author supported by evidence?
2) Is the reporting consistent?
3) Does the report enable us to check on data used for ourselves?
4) Are there other sources available for cross checking?
5) Who and what is the writer?
6) What are the circumstances under which the report or document was written and to
whom was it addressed in the first instance?
7) Are definition of terms and categories useful?
Examples of Inconsistent Documents:

18

The 1964 accounts on the overthrow of the Sultan of Zanzibar: This was a very important
political event but how exactly happened? We have two different initial sources on what
happened. One published in The Nationalist (Dar es Salaam) claiming that the officials of the
Afro Shirazi Party were responsible, and the other by John Okello who claims that he and his
followers were responsible. The two accounts are clearly inconsistent and even contradictory.
Which, if either, are we to believe?
Asking Questions
There are two main ways in which respondents can be asked questions in social science
research: a) Through interviews b) Through questionnaires.
The choice of the method depends on the type of data required to be collected.
Bibliography
Argyris, C, R.Putnam and D.M. Smith. 1985. Action Science, San Francisco: Jossey - Bass
Publishers
Baker, T.L. 1988. Doing Social Research, New York; McGraw
Blaikie, N. 1993. Approaches to Social Enquiry, Cambridge: Polity Press
Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. and Lowe, A. 1991. Management Research: An Introduction,
London: Sage
Frankfort-Nachmias, C. and D. Nachmias, 1996. Research Methods in Social Sciences,
London: Arnold
Gibbons, M., Limoges, L., Nowotny, H., Schwartman, S., Scott, P. and Trow, M. 1994. The
New Production of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary
Societies, London: Sage
Hofstadter, D.R., 1986. Metamagical Themas: Questing for the Essence of Mind and Pattern,
Toronto: Bantam Books
Hospers, J. 1953. An Introduction to Philosophical Analysis, London: Routledge
Jozeni, A. 2002. Research: Is it market-based or support-based function? Financial Times,
Dar es Salaam, Wednesday, August 14 - 20, 2002, page 8.
Kant, I. 1781. Critique of Pure Reason, New York: Prometheus Books
Keys, P. 1998. Creativity, Design and Style in MS/OR, Research Memorandum Number 18,
Hull University: Centre for Systems Studies
Ndunguru, P.C. 1994. Lecture Notes on Research Methodology, IDM Mzumbe: Directorate of
Graduate Studies (Unpublished Report)
19

Pons, V. (Ed.). 1992. Introduction to Social Research, Dar es Salaam: DUP

Romm, N. 2001. Considering Our Responsibilities as Systemic Thinkers: A Trusting
Constructivist Argument, Research Memorandum Number 27, Hull University, Centre for
Systems Studies
Ryle, G., 1949. The Concept of Mind, New York: Barnes & Noble
Sayer, A. 1992. Method in Social Science, London: Routledge
Starkey, K. and Madan, P. 2001. Bridging the relevance gap: aligning stakeholders in the
future of management research, British Journal of Management, 12, S3 - S26
Tsoukas, H. and Papoulias, D. 1996. Creativity in MS/OR: From Technique to Epistemology,
Interfaces, 26 (2), 73 - 79
Zeeuw, de, G. 1996. Second Order Organisational Research, Working Paper Number 7, Centre
for Systems and Information Sciences, The University of Humberside, UK

20

CHAPTER TWO
STARTING THE RESEARCH PROCESS
2.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the planning of research activity, the formulation of research proposals,
the relationship between policy, planning and management issues or problems, research
problems and research design; and the research tendering process.
Morgan (1983) states that research process should involve a choice between modes of
engagement, which entail different relationships between theory and method, concept and
object, and the researcher and the researched, rather than simply a choice about method alone.
He proposes a logic of different research strategies decoded through a systematic analysis of
the modes of engagement. His framework constitutes three elements namely constitutive
assumptions (paradigms), epistemological stance (metaphors), and favoured methodology
(puzzle solving).
First, paradigms provide a rationale for a particular research strategy. The assumptions are
grounded in a network of implicit or explicit assumptions regarding ontology and human
nature and define the researchers view of the social world. Second, the epistemological stance
or metaphors are depicted in that how the scientific knowledge is shaped in an effort to
concretise the ground assumptions that underwrite researchers work. Images of a social
phenomenon provide a means of structuring scientific inquiry, guiding attention in distinctive
ways. The image favours a particular epistemological stance which suggests that certain
understanding, insight and explanation may be more appropriate than the others. Third, the
favoured methodology in which the image of a phenomenon to be investigated provides the
basis for detailed scientific research concerned to examine, and probably to operationalise and
measure, the extent to which detailed aspects of the image characterise the phenomenon. The
image generates specific concepts and methods of study through which knowledge of the
phenomenon can be obtained. Methodologies are puzzle solving tools that bridge the gap
between the image of the phenomenon and the phenomenon itself. Methodologies link the
researcher to the situation being studied in terms of rules, procedures, and general protocol
that operationalise the network of assumptions embodied in the researchers paradigm and
favoured epistemological stance (Morgan, 1983: 21).
We have to emphasise that understanding is very important if we want to engage in research.
We need to have a particular framework in order to guide our understanding. The existence of

21

different strategies for social research, drawing from various ground assumptions, and
generating different kinds of knowledge, poses some problems regarding the way we should
view and evaluate the research process. The view of research as a mode of engagement
emphasises that researcher and researched must be seen as part of a whole and, therefore,
questions the idea that it is possible to stand outside the research process and evaluate it in any
absolute way. Another alternative calls for the need to explore the research diversity and its
consequences through the model based on the idea of reflective discourse or conversation.
The research process can be divided into eight main elements as shown in Table 2.1 below.
Table 2.1 Elements of the research process
Element
Select topic

Remarks
The topic comes from different sources: personal interest, the
literature, policy/management, social factors, popular/media.
Review Literature It is the process of identifying and engaging with previously
published research relevant to the topic of interest.
Device conceptual The conceptual framework indicates how the researcher views the
framework
concepts involved in the study.
Decide research
The questions help to answer or identify the solution of the
questions
research problem.
List information
Research questions and the conceptual framework give rise to a
needs
list of information needs.
Decide research
It involves making decisions on a number of aspects of research
strategy
process.
Conduct research Doing research.
Report findings
The writing of research results or findings.
Disseminate the
The dissemination/broadcast of research results to different
findings
stakeholders
2.1 Select the Topic
There are a number of factors, which prompt the selection of research topic:
a) Personal interest: the researcher may be personally involved in a certain activity of interest.
Using such an interest as a focus for research has advantages and disadvantages. The
advantage lies in the knowledge of the phenomenon, which the researcher already has, the
possibility of access to key individuals and further information, and the high level of
motivation which is likely to be brought to the research. The disadvantage is that the
researcher may be biased and not be able to view the situation as objectively as someone
with no prior interest or knowledge.

22

b) The literature: It is the main source of ideas in academic work. A researchable area can take
many forms. It may be that a certain theory or theoretical proposition has never been tested
empirically, or it merits further empirical testing:
Geographically it has been tested in Morogoro not elsewhere in Tanzania, or it may have
been developed in relation to urban areas, but not in rural areas;
Socially: it is based on research on men and ignores women;
Temporary: it was last tested 10 years ago and so may be out of date, or it has not been
fully investigated historically;
Contextually: it was developed in another area of human activity but has never been applied,
let say, to local government authorities or executive agencies.
Methodologically: it was initially based on qualitative data and has not been tested
quantitatively.
c) Policy or management: Academic studies are concerned with methodology as with
substantive findings of the research. However, policy and management issues can be
identified as well.
d) Social concern: It can give a wide range of research topics.
e) Popular issue or media: It can inspire research that seeks to explore popular beliefs or
conceptions, particularly where it is suspected that these may be inaccurate.
Note:
The Evaluation of the Previous Academic Work in the Area
The author is required to sieve the coherence of the three types related to his work. First, if
you want to prepare a research proposal look for a synthesised coherence. This refers to a
possible new links in the area of study based on the key areas of the area to be studied to
suggest undeveloped areas. For instance, how does employment policy in Tanzania support
staffing of employees in non Tanzanian institutions such as MNEs. The second type of
coherence is progressive coherence in which your paper should show how the networks of
researchers or writers evolve the subject over time and the last type of coherence is noncoherence. It refers to works from common research programme, but linked by disagreements.
For instance, how does different writers in industrial relations link or disagree on the
relationship between industrial relations practices of the host country versus that of the MNEs,
ILO conventions and multinational culture.
Identify the Problem or Question, that is, Finding the Niche

23

Check for three key issues in your proposal that are necessary to be addressed. First,
incompleteness, that is, search for literature which is unfinished, needs to be supplied to new
areas, and your study will supply it. Second, the inadequacy, by showing the perspectives
which could have been applied to the problem but the previous authors havent. Third, you can
claim that the existing literature overlooks relevant perspectives and it is wrong or inadequate.
That is, the question of incommensurability.
The Proposal Itself
Your literature review should focus around the problem or question leading to the re-statement
of question. Then either provide the explanation or justification of method; presentation and
discussion of results. Or provide the clear derivation of propositions.
2.2 Review of Literature
Reviewing literature on a topic can be one of the most rewarding and even frustrating research
activity. It is a task where a range of skills and qualities needs to be employed - including
patience, persistence, insight and lateral thinking. It can play a number of role in research.
Types of literature review:
1) Inclusive: identifies everything that has been written on a topic.
2) Inclusive/evaluative: It takes the inclusive approach a step further by providing a
commentary on the literature in terms of its coverage and its contribution to knowledge and
understanding of the topic.
3) Exploratory: It seeks to discover existing research which might through some light on a
specific research question or issue.
4) Instrumental: Its focus is on the management issue and literature is used as a source of
suitable ideas on how the research might be tackled.
5) Content analysis/hermeneutics: It involves the detailed analysis of the contents of certain
body of literature or other documentary source as texts. The text becomes a focus of
research in its own right rather than being merely a report of research.
The following are the roles of literature review in research:
a) Enter basis of the research;
b) Source of ideas on topics for research;
c) Information on research already done by others;
d) Source of methodological or theoretical ideas;
24

e) Basis of comparison;
f) Information that is and integral or supportive part of the research.
There can be an interim literature review which happens at the beginning of the research
process. There is need also to explore not only published materials or literature but also
unpublished or ongoing work.
2.3 Device Conceptual Framework
It involves the following elements:
a) Identification of concepts;
b) Definition of concepts;
c) Exploration of relationships between concepts;
d) Operationalisation of concepts.
2.4 Decide Research Questions
The primary and subsidiary questions should be identified. The research question needs to
express the relationship between variables or concepts.
2.5 List Information Needs
Research questions or hypotheses and the conceptual framework must give rise to a list of
information needs.
2.6 Decide Research Strategy
It involves making decisions on a number of aspects of the research process. There are a
number of components required to be known under research strategy:
1) Project elements;
2) Information gathering techniques to be used;
3) Data Analysis techniques;
4) Budget; and
5) Time table or work plan
2.7 Conduct Research
It is doing the research activity. It is the collection of data.
2.8 Report Findings
25

The writing up of the results of the study. It starts as soon as the research begins because
literature review and conceptual framework are part of the report content.

2.9 Dissemination of the findings

26

2.9 Methodological Approaches: Some Views

Science has been largely created and practised in terms of one particular psyche. The alternative
psychological forms of science based on alternative psychological styles are possible (Reason,
1981: 43).
Ways in which social scientists think about science (Reason, 1981: 44)
Jung gives an holistic view of the psyche as a universal phenomenon that is ultimately part of a
transcendental reality linking mind to mind and mind to nature (Morgan, 1986: 223). He talk
about the archetypes. These are patterns which structure thought and hence give order to the
world. Jungs work has major implications for understanding how people enact organisational
reality (Morgan, 1986: 224). Jung encourages us to understand the general relations between
internal and external life and the role which archetypes play in shaping our understanding of the
external world.
There are repressed human side of organisation situating beneath the surface of formal
rationality. Jung uses the term shadow to refer to unrecognised or unwanted drives and desires.
The full development of self knowledge and human personality, a process which he describes
as individuation, rests on the persons ability to recognise the rival elements his/her personality
and to deal with the contradictions in a unified manner (Denhardt, 1981). Most of unresolved
tensions in ourselves were projected onto other people and external situations. To understand
our external reality we must first understand the other within.
Jung distinguished two ways of perceiving reality: through SENSATION and INTUITION and
two ways of judging reality: THINKING and FEELING (Morgan, 1986: 225).There are two
dimensions: INFORMATION DIMENSION and DECISION-MAKING DIMENSION. These
two are independent and are orthogonal. The individual can take information from both
internal or external world either by sensation (S) or intuition (I). These are seen by Jung as
antithetical psychological processes. We can take information by sensation via the senses an
our intuitions through imagination. On the other hand, the decision-making dimension has two
antithetical possibilities: the thinking (T) and feeling (F). Individuals use reasoning by thinking
in order to seek truth while he/she can reach personalistic value judgements by feeling.
Thinking generalises while feeling individualises (Reason, 1981: 44).

27

The scheme provides a nice illustration of how repressed elements of the psyche may signify
unused skill and potential within the human which, if tapped, could contribute much to an
individuals ability to cope with the problems he/she faces (Morgan, 1986: 225).
Mitroff and Kilmann (1978) used Jungs psychological types to analyse patterns of reasoning
and thought. The unconscious should be viewed like a black hole. We need to understand the
role of the unconscious in organisational life as a kind of a black hole. It characterise the
invisible yet intense gravitational fields that capture all passing matter (Morgan, 1986: 227).
The invisible dimensions of SSM which is unconscious can swallow and trap the rich energies
of people involved in the organisation process. It is possible to release trapped energy in ways
that may promote creative transformation and change.

28

Figure 2.1 Methodological Approaches to Social Sciences

Decision Making Dimension
THINKING
Analytical
Scientist
SENSING

Conceptual
Informational
Theorist
Dimension
INTUITION

Particular
Humanist

Conceptual Humanist
FEELING

Analytical scientist:
The basic drive is towards certainty. He/she is concerned with precision, accuracy, valid,
reductionistic, causal, apolitical, progressive, cumulative, clear standards for judgement,
realistic, anti-mystical, unambiguous, exact and reliability. The logic is Aristotelian, strict
classical logic, non-dialectical and indeterminate.
Conceptual Theorist:
The basic drive is imagination and speculative theory construction. The concern is minimising
errors of hypothesis discovering. The nature of scientific knowledge is impersonal, value free,
imaginative, valid, purposeful ambiguity, uncertainty and problematic. The logic is dialectical
logics and an emphasis with multiple perspectives.
Conceptual Humanist:
It is personal, value-constituted, interested activity, holistic, political, multiple causation,
uncertain, problematic and concerned with humanity. It follows dialectical behaviour logics
such as Soft Systems Methodology (SSM).
Particular Humanist:
Personal, value-constituted, poetic, political, action-oriented, a causal, non rational. It observes
the logic of unique and singular. (E.g. post structuralists).
References
Delahanty, F., and G.Gemill (1982) The Black Hole in Group Development, Presented at
Academy of Management Meetings, New York.
Denhardt, R.B. (1981) In the Shadow of Organisation, Lawrence, KA: Regents Press

29

Gill, J. and P.Johnson (1997) Research Methods for Managers, London: Paul Chapman
Heisenberg, W. (1958) Physics and Philosophy, New York: Harper Brothers
Jung, C.G. (1971) The Portable Jung, New York: Viking Press
Mitroff, I.I., and R.H.Kilmann (1978) Methodological Approaches to Social Sciences, San
Francisco: Josse-Bass
Morgan, G. (1983) Research Strategies: Modes of Engagement, in G.Morgan (Ed.)
Beyond Method: Strategies for Social Research, Newbury Park: Sage
Reason, P. (1981) Methodological approaches to social science by Ian Mitroff and Ralph
Kilmann: an appreciation, in P.Reason and J.Rowan (Eds.) Human Inquiry: A Sourcebook of
New Paradigm Research, Chichester: Wiley, 43 - 51

30

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
A

RESEARCH DESIGN

3.0 Introduction
This part focuses on the structural aspects of research. It aims at analysing the way the
researcher has organised his/her study to achieve the specific ends. The aim of the design in
research is to increase the internal validity of the study so that the researcher can be able to
possess an ability or abilities to attain the aims of the study. The design is there in order to
satisfy the requirements of the study/research in terms of its productivity, operational efficiency
and the quality of the study. In addition to that the design in research can be used to satisfy the
needs of individual researchers for interest, challenge and accomplishment.
A research design is a blue print that enables the investigator to come up with solutions to
those problems and guides him/her in various stages of the research. Research design is about
organising of research activity, including the collection of data, in ways that are most likely to
achieve the research aims. There are a number of potential choices to make when one wants to
develop a research design. Of course, there are few algorithms which can guide the researcher
into making the ideal choices for a particular situation. Ndunguru (1994, page 21) explains that
designing a research project involves organising the collection and analysis of data to fulfil the
purpose of research.
Research design is a grand research plan which determines what a researcher is going to
observe and analyse in the field. It also includes some issues which try to answer the two
questions WHY and HOW of the research (Babbie, 1983, page 73). It refers also to an
arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims at
combining relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure (Selltiz, 1959, page
50).
Alexander (1964, page 15) states that the ultimate object of design is form. When a person
speaks of design the main object of discussion is not the form alone but the ensemble
comprising the form and its context. Alexander (1964, page 60) shows some difficulties in
which a designer faces:
`Take for example, the design of a simple kettle. He has to invent a kettle which fits
the context of its use. It must not be too small. It must not be hard to pick up when
it is hot. It must not be easy to let go off by mistake. It must not be hard to store in

31

the kitchen. It must not be hard to get the water out of it. It must pour cleanly. It
must not let the water in it cool too quickly. The material it is made of must not cost
too much. It must be able to withstand the temperature of boiling water. It must not
be too hard to clean on the outside. It must not be a shape which is too hard to
machine ...
There are in total 21 detailed design requirements or misfit variables which Alexander had
listed to describe the designers difficulty to designing a simple kettle. Similar difficulty arises
when a researcher wishes to create a research design.
Easterby-Smith et al (1991, page 33) state that choices are required to design research. A
designer must always be aware of three things: different philosophical positions, different
theoretical positions and different methodological types. The knowledge of research tradition
enables a researcher to create the elements of research design which are consistent with each
other. I have listed some six choices (Box 3.1) that are of particular significance in determining
the research design. The listed choices are based on the basic dichotomy between the use of
positivist and phenomenological approaches as explained elsewhere in this manual.
Box 3.1 Choices for Research Design
1. Researcher is independent vs researcher is involved
2. Large samples vs small samples
3. Testing theories vs generating theories
4. Experimental design vs fieldwork methods
5. Verification vs falsification

These choices for research design are of course not absolute. However, researchers should be
prepared to make choices and thereby provide a clear focus to their efforts.
3.1 The Notion of Design
The dictionary meaning of design is a preliminary outline or drawing for something that is to
be made, the art of producing these. It is a scheme of lines or shape of forming a decoration.
Davis and Olson (1984) adopted the term from Simon (1960): Design means inventing,
developing and analysing possible courses of action. This involves processes to understand the
problem, to generate solutions, and to test solutions for feasibility. Simon (1960) uses a model
to describe the decision making process. Hence, design is a second phase of the process. Thus,
in research the research design should be able to deal with the following:

32

a) Research design should support in understanding the problem. It implies that the correct
model of the situation needs to be applied or created, and assumptions of the model tested;
b) Support for generating solutions: the generation of possible causes of action is aided by:
The design of research;
The validity of the research design selected;
c) Support for testing feasibility of solutions: A solution is tested for feasibility by analysing it
in terms of the environments it affects such as problem area, entire organisation, competition
and society. Another approach is to analyse the proposed solutions using models of the
different environments.
3.2 Types of Research Designs
Most literature on scientific research identify three main types of research designs namely case
study, survey and experimental designs.
a) Case Study Design
It focuses on a particular case as a unit under investigation. A case may imply an individual
person or respondent, a group of persons, a set of relationships, things, a tribe or a community
and even a country or group of countries. Case studies investigate the unit across the variety of
features or characteristics. A case study is characterised by a thorough investigation of a unit
over a range of variables.
Case studies are detailed investigations of individuals, groups or departments in an
organisation, or a whole organisation. There is no attempt made at experimental control despite
it is important to identify accurately the time order of events. The sequence of events can be
used to establish cause and effect relationships. Case study data can be collected over an
extended time series to produce what are called longitudinal studies.
It is a more flexible research design which can produce interesting and valuable results in its
own right.
A case study is a method of exploring and analysing the life of a social unit, be that unit a
person, a family, an institution, a cultural group, or even a community. The case study under
investigation may be one human individual or only an episode in his/her life, or it might be a
nation or empire or an epoch of history (Bharadwaj, 1989: 2). In other words a case study

33

design is a small, inclusive and intensive study of an individual in which the investigator brings
to bear all his/her skills and methods, or as a systematic gathering of enough information about
a person to permit one to understand how he/she functions as a unit of society. It is a detailed
investigation of individuals, groups or departments in an organisation, or a whole organisation.
The consequences of events in case studies can be used to generate insights for more rigorous
and systematic investigation and more carefully controlled research (Huczynski and Buchanan,
1991: 30).
Merits of case studies
a) Microscopic study of social unit
The complete information about the social unit can be studied through a case study. Both the
general and specific characteristics of a unit are carefully studied. This type of design delves
deeper and deeper by making minute investigations in order to arrive at specific and correct
conclusions. It helps to extend the growth of our perception and provides a clear
understanding about life. It is a direct study of human behaviour and it does not deal with
abstractions.
b) Formation of evidential hypothesis
This type of research design conclusions are drawn after a deep and minute investigation of all
relevant factors. It is for this reason that hypothesis based on such conclusions are always
decisively validated.
c) A Vast Field of Experience for Researcher
A research studies all the varied factors of life in a case study. He/she has to take care of
various divergent circumstances and situations encountered in practical life. He/she has to
collect and accumulate a wide variety of experiences at the state of analysis when answers to
questions and solutions to problems are thoroughly searched and investigated.
d) The Use of Variety of Techniques
A variety of approaches and techniques are used in a case design for the purpose of collecting
data. Interviews, questionnaires, oral discussions, documents, letters, diaries, records and many
other types of approaches can be used during data collection.
e) Study of Personal Matters
Even personal and individual matters can be studied by the case design.
34

f) Helpful to Understanding of Study Problem

The researcher selects some of the units and identifies the study problem for case study. This
helps in understanding not only the variety of inherent problems but the study problem in its
totality.
g) Provides Basis for Generalisation
Generalisation becomes easy and possible on the basis of knowledge generated through the
investigation and understanding of various situations and circumstances including related
problems.
h) To Find Out Deviant Cases
The deviant cases are the ones, which go against our validated and clearly defined hypotheses.
Case design is immensely useful in arriving at the correct facts and decisions.
i) Cost Efficient Method
Case design is a highly cost efficient method to study and research. The resources available for
research are always scarce and limited. The case design provides a means of covering a large
amount of ground for an acceptable cost.
b) Survey Design
Information and data are collected from relatively large number of cases or units under
investigation. Large number of people, groups and relationships is studied by collecting data
and information on few variables. The main objective of survey design is to investigate the
selected characteristics (variables) of the entire population. Survey design focuses on few cases
and variables for investigation.
One of the most popular social science research design. Surveys are cross sectional as they
study a range, or variety, or cross section of people, occupations and organisations. A research
establishes a form of control over independent variables at the data analysis stage.
c) Experimental Design
It aims at assessing the effect of an experimental variable (treatment conditions or stimuli) on
an experimental group of objects. It deals with causality in a more direct way. The main motive
of experimental design is to ascertain whether there is any statistical difference between the
35

experimental group and the control group at the particular time in future. You can relate it with
Professor Elton Mayos research effort in the Western Electric Company in 1930s.
Experimental designs are normally used in natural sciences or first phase sciences where
laboratory conditions can easily be described or manipulated.
The design has three elements necessary for research namely the experimental group, the
control group and the experimental variable (treatment conditions or stimuli). The experimental
group is the group of persons or objects which are exposed to the experimental variable
(treatment conditions or stimuli) in order to assess the effect of that variable in the group. The
control group has similar characteristics to the experimental group but it is not exposed to the
experimental variable. The experimental variable is a treatment condition to which the
experimental group is exposed to see what happens to it as a result.
Social sciences use experimental design to study social phenomena in much the same way as
natural science. The advantage of laboratory experiments lie with the control that the
researcher or analyst has over the variables that are to be studied. The real world tends to be
different in ways which make it difficult to establish cause and effect relationships clearly. The
disadvantage of laboratory experiments lie in their artificiality. People may not behave normally
in a scientific laboratory setting.
Experiments are used to measure the effects of one variable on another. For instance, the effect
of local beer consumption on students examinations at Mzumbe University. Local beer
consumption is called an independent variable whereas examination performance is a
dependent variable. It is believed that the dependent variable depends on how much local beer
Mzumbe University students have drunk.
The laboratory setting allows the researcher to measure the variables very accurately. He/she
can control how much each student is given to drink and assess how well they do in their
examination. Every student works under the same examination conditions and the only factor
that could cause variations in behaviour is the quantity of local beer swallowed.
Experiments can be of two types: First, manipulated field experiments and secondly, naturally
occurring experiment.
B

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
36

3.3 Introduction
Sciences are not united by their subject matter but rather by their methodology. A scientific
methodology provides a system of explicit rules and procedures which research is based and
against which claims for knowledge are evaluated. Methodology provides the logos (study) of
the methods or techniques.
3.1 Functions of Methodology in Social Science Research
There are three main functions namely.
a) Methodology provides rules for communication;
b) It provides rules for reasoning; and
c) It provides rules for intersubjectivity.
Methodology facilitates communication between researchers who either have shared or want
to share a common experience. In addition to that by making rules of methodology explicit
public and accessible, a framework for replication and repetition including constructive
criticism is set forth.
Empirical observations or facts must be ordered and related into systematic and logical
structures. Essential tool of the scientific approach, along with factual observations is logic the system of valid reasoning that permits drawing reliable inferences from factual
observations. By the use of logic as a foundation of scientific thinking, scientific methodology
enhances the internal consistency of the scientific claims for knowledge. Methodology requires
competence in logical reasoning.
Methodology explains the accepted criteria for empirical objectivity (truth) and the methods
and techniques for validation. Objectivity and validation are highly interdependent. Empirical
objectivity depends on validation so much so that the scientist cannot make claims for
objectivity until other scientists have verified his/her findings. Intersubjectivity, which involves
the sharing of observations and factual information among researchers, is indispensable
because logical reasoning alone does not guarantee empirical objectivity.
3.4 The Notion of the Concept to Enrich Methodology
A concept in research is an abstraction or a symbol or a representation of an object or one of
its properties, or of a behavioural phenomenon. Researchers form concepts in order to describe
the empirical world.
37

Functions of Concepts
a) Concepts are foundation of communication;
b) Concepts introduce perspective;
c) Concepts allow scientists to classify and generalise. They structure, categorise, order and
generalise scientists experiences and observations.
D) Concepts serve as components of theories.
In social science research concepts are converted into variables by translating or mapping them
into a set of values. A variable is an empirical property that can take on two or more values. If
a property can change either in quantity or quality, it can be regarded as a variable.
A variable that can have only two values is called dichotomous variable. The variable that the
researcher wishes to explain is the DEPENDENT or CRITERION variable whereas the
variable which is expected to explain change is INDEPENDENT or EXPLANATORY /
PREDICTOR variable.
A CONTROL variable is used to reduce the risk of attributing explanatory power to
independent variable that are not in fact responsible for the variation found in the dependent
variable. It is used to test the possibility that an empirically observed relation between and
independent and dependent variable is spurious. A spurious relation is a relation which can be
explained by variables other than those stated in the hypothesis. If the influence of all other
variables is eliminated or controlled for and the empirical relation between the independent and
dependent variables is maintained, then the relation in non spurious.

38

Sampling and Sample Designs

Sampling
Sampling is a process of learning about the population on a basis of a sample drawn from it. A
sample is a subset of population units. The process of sampling constitutes three elements:
a) Selecting the sample;
b) Collecting the information; and
c) Making an inference about the population
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to
the technique or procedure the research analyst would adopt in selecting items for the
sample. There are many sample designs from which a researcher can select. Some designs
are relatively more precise and easier to apply than others. The research must prepare and
select a design, which should be reliable and appropriate for his/her research study.

Steps in Preparing for the Sample Design

The researcher must pay the following attention when preparing for the sample design:
1. Type of the universe. This is the first step in developing a sample design. The objects to
be studied must be clearly defined. The universe can be infinite or finite.
2. The sampling Unit: A decision has to be taken on sampling unit before selecting a
sample. A sampling unit may be geographical one such as a region, district, ward,
division, village etc or a construction unit such as a house, flat etc or it may be a social
unit such as a family, club, school, college or it may be an individual. The research
analyst has to decide one or more of such units that he/she has to select from his/her
study.
3. Source List: that is a sampling frame from which the sample is to be drawn. Such list
should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate.
4. Sample size: The size of the sample.
5. Parameters of interest: One must consider the question of specific population
parameters, which are of interest. Examples: the proportion of population of persons
with some characteristic, average or other measures concerning the population. All
these must have the strong impact upon the sample design one would accept.

39

6. Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations from practical point of view have major
impact upon the decisions relating to not only the size of the sample, but also the type
of the sample.
7. Sampling procedure: He/she must select the type of the technique he/she will use in
selecting the items for the sample. There are several techniques from which the
researcher is expected to select from. Select a technique, which will minimise cost and
have a smaller sampling error.
Criteria of selecting a sampling procedure
Ensure that the procedure causes a small sampling error and helps to control systematic bias in
a better way. It implied that:
1. Avoid inappropriate sampling frame; otherwise it will result in a systematic bias;
2. Avoid defective measuring device; otherwise it will result in a systematic bias;
3. Non respondents: systematic bias;
4. Indeterminacy principle: it can cause systematic bias. Individuals act differently when
kept under observation than what they do when kept in non-observed situations.
5. Natural bias in the reporting of data: cause of systematic bias n most inquiries. People
in general understate their incomes if asked about it for tax purposes but they overstate
the same if asked for social status or their affluence.

Characteristics of Good Sample

1. A good sample design must result in a truly representative sample;
2. It must result in a small sampling error;
3. It must be viable in a context of funds available for the research study;
4. It must have a small systematic error that can be controlled in a better way;
5. It must have a sample that can be applied for the whole population/universe with a
reasonable level of confidence.

Two different types of Sample Designs

a) Representative bias (random or non random sampling designs)
b) The element selection technique (Restricted or unrestricted)

40

The purpose of most statistical investigations is to make valid generalisations or

transfer results from one context into another research context on the basis of
samples about the populations from which the samples came.

Sample
A sample is any subset of a population. It is a portion of a population that is studied to learn
about the population.
A subset of population members is called a sample. Examples of a population:

The incomes of all BAF II students in Mzumbe University

The admission fees of all first year applicants in Mzumbe University

The total number of BBA II students who do not have savings of Tshs 100,000 in their
bank accounts.

A population consists of a collection of individual units, which may be persons, objects, or

experimental outcomes, whose characteristics are to be studied.

For one reason or another it is not possible to observe or measure every element of the
population. Hence, a subset of a population is observed and on the basis of the analysis carried
out on the subset inferences are drawn about the population. This subset is actually observed
and analysed is known as a sample. Accountants, supplies officers and auditors to estimate the
value of the total inventory in the stores without actually inspecting all the items physically use
various sampling methodologies. Sampling methods can be used to ascertain the impact of
various media of advertising leading to the most profitable combination of advertising media
for a given budget.

Research analysts are interested to learn about specific characteristics of attributes of these
populations. Sampling is about learning about the population on the basis of a sample drawn
from it. It implies that sampling technique or method allows for generalisation of the
conclusions drawn from the sample.
Sampling error:
The name given to natural variability inherent among samples from a population. It is always
present when samples are obtained.

41

Non sampling error:

The name given to inaccuracies and actual errors or mistakes that can and should be avoided
by using sound experimental techniques.
Why Sample?
1. Cost minimisation. It is less expensive; For instance, to study the consumer reaction
before launching a new product it will be less expensive to carry out a consumer
survey based on a sample rather than studying the entire population which is the
potential group of customers.
2. It saves time as well.
3. Representation of the population;
4. A small size of a sample enables the analysts to collect data more quickly than to
survey all the units of the population even if we are willing to spend money;
5. It is possible to achieve the greater accuracy by using appropriate sampling techniques
than by a complete enumeration of all the units of the population. Complete
enumeration may result into inaccuracies of the data.
6. Avoiding bias and hallo effect of the members of the population;
7. In destructive testing of products a sample has to suffice.
8. Sometimes a census is impossible. A census is a complete enumeration of the entire
population, as opposed to a sample that consists of only a portion of the population.

Objectives of Sampling
a) Statistical estimation
b) Testing hypotheses
c) Drawing some inferences about the population

Process of Sampling
It involves the following activities:
i)

Selecting the sample

ii)

Collecting the data or information

iii)

Making an inferences about the population or universe

42

Essentials of Sampling
a) Representativeness
b) Adequacy
c) Independence
d) Homogeneity
Types of Sampling
There are basically two types
a) Non probability sampling

Judgemental sampling (purposive or deliberate sampling). Sometimes it is called

convenient sampling. Examples: broadcast surveys and man on the street
surveys. The results of this type of sampling cannot be used to make valid
conclusions about the target population because the sampled population is likely
to be quite different from the target population.

Convenient sampling

Quota sampling

Representative sample: it uses randomisation to remove unwanted bias, and

therefore, probability samples are the only samples that can be analysed using
statistical methods.
b) Probability sampling

Simple random sampling

Systematic sampling

Stratified sampling

Cluster sampling

Process of Sampling
1)

Select a Sample

2)

Collect data or information

a) Primary data
-

Questionnaires

Interviews

Observation

b) Secondary data

43

3)

Diaries

Books

Journal articles

Reports

Minutes

Making an inferences about the population

A -

Conclusions

B -

Generalisation

C -

Transferability of results

PROBABILITY OR RANDOM SAMPLING

-

Observes the laws of probability

It is used to describe the process applied to select the sample from the population

Randomness is the property of the sampling procedure

ADVANTAGES OF RANDOM SAMPLING

1.

It does not depend upon the existence of detailed information about the population for
its effectiveness.

2.

It provides estimates, which are essentially unbiased and have measurable precision

3.

It is possible to evaluate relative efficiency of various sample designs when

probability sampling is used.
Limitations
1. It requires a high level of skills and experience for its use
2. It requires a lot of time to plan and execute random sample

3.

The costs involved in probability sampling are larger compared to non probability
sampling
.
NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING
-

It does not use randomization

There is no way of knowing the pattern of variability in the process of sampling

44

SAMPLING METHODS
1) Random (probability) sampling methods
a)

Unrestricted
-

b)

Simple random sampling

Restricted
-

Stratified sampling

Systematic sampling

Cluster sampling

2) Non Random (non probability) sampling methods

-

Judgemental sampling

Convenience sampling

Quota sampling

Accidental

Deliberate

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

It is a sampling technique in which each and every unit of the population has an equal
opportunity of being selected in the sample
-

A sample size

Population

n
N

Conditions
1)

All n items of the sample are selected independently of one another and all N items
in the population have the same chance of being included in the sample.

2)

At each selection, all remaining items in the population, N, have the same chance of
being drawn:
-

If the sampling is made with replacement i.e. when each unit drawn
from the population is returned prior to drawing the next unit, each
unit/item has a probability of 1/N of being drawn at each selection.

If the sampling is without replacement, the probability of each item

remaining in the population at:

1st draw

1/N

2nd draw

1/N 1
45

3rd draw

1/N 2

nth draw -

1/N (n 1)

3) All the possible samples of a given size n are equally likely to be selected
Example:
A finite population of size elements
(say: a, b, c, d, e, f,)
Sample size : 3
Then there are 20 possible distinct samples of the required size:
Abc

abd

abe

abf

Acd

ace

acf

ade

Adf

aef

bcd

bce

Ced

cdf

cef

def

6 ( 3 = 6!
3 ! (6-2)!
If we select one of these samples in such a way that each has a probability 1/ 20 of being
selected, we will then call this a random sample.
How to select a random sample
-

If the population is not too large - each of N measurements can be written on a paper,
then written on a paper, and then mix those slips of paper thoroughly in a container and
then draw as a lottery.
Complex problem of sampling
1)
2)

Enlist all possible samples on paper slips as explained above.

Write the name of each element of a finite population on a slip of paper, put them in
a box then select your sample.
1st draw

3/6

2nd draw

2/5

3rd draw

These draws are independent; the joint probability of the 3 elements, which constitute our
sample is the product of their individual probabilities:
3/6 x 2/5 x = 1/20

46

Table of Random Numbers

-

Integers from 0 to 9 occur randomly and with equal frequency

An accounting firm decides to select a simple random sample of n = 15 monthly retail
accounts receivable from among the N = 1000 current monthly retail accounts of the
department store in order to estimate the total amount due on all a/c receivable.

Solution
Number all N = 1000
Accounts receivable:
001, 002, .. 999,000
Steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Arbitrarily select a starting point

Suppose a starting point is the 1st number in the fifth column
Drop the last 2 digits of each 5 digit number
The repeating number to be dropped.
Identify a random sample of n = 15.

An Example of a Table of Random Numbers

81080
83272
82844
33097
48477
61186
92545
05172
73850
77978
16463
56564
26355
87582
15659

67473
18379
85553
46244
33067
63971
83866
25637
99275
42899
00350
40277
51841
80276
86285

23666
46498
16852
16769
76572
20547
06895
13665
97475
65518
44697
66044
01235
88583
09579

22251
60045
57931
48531
84835
14846
28019
86725
11064
48688
94868
78417
15986
30633
07969

17616
80649
84063
56618
96208
77137
08547
45970
93492
96755
22697
52968
65898
50721
17850

47

60716
35179
57516
90035
68558
62636
04275
42670
05362
83554
33740
52982
74181
65017
88197

77125
03185
46529
88363
23560
88927
79277
35291
57562
76916
60701
82340
51391
48735
14309

18657
57068
47030
04097
89245
34322
28833
22685
99582
15224
04034
92970
11313
04476
25013

RESTRICTED RANDOM SAMPLING

A.
Stratified Sampling
It is one of the random sampling methods, which by using the available information concerning
the population attempts to design a more efficient sample than obtained by simple random
procedure. The population is divided into different groups or classes such as BPA II, BPA III,
BPA I, MPA, MSc, MBA, BAF III. These classes or categories are called strata and the sample
is drawn from each stratum at random.

For example: we are interested to study the consumption pattern of Mzumbe University
students. The students at Mzumbe University have been categorised into several classes:
i)

Classification by programmes such as BAF Programme, BBA Programme, MPA

Programme, MSc Programme, MBA Programme, BPA Programme, CA
Programme, LLB Programme, DL Programme;

ii)

Classification by halls of residence which students stay: Mkwawa Hall, Kinjekitile

Hall, Matola Hall, Sophia Hall, Kunambi Hall, Kingo Hall, Cabral Residence,
Vikenge Residence etc.

A research analyst is required to have a prior knowledge of the traits, which the study
population possesses. Such knowledge may be based on expert judgment, past data and
information, preliminary observation from pilot studies conducted before the actual study is
conducted.
i)

Expert judgment;

ii)

Past data or information;

iii)

Preliminary observation

The Main Objectives of Stratified Sampling

The main purpose of this type of sampling is to increase the efficiency of sampling by dividing a
heterogeneous universe in such a way that:
a) There is as great homogeneity as possible within each stratum;
b) As marked a difference as possible between the strata.

48

Types of Stratified Sampling Plans

There are two types of stratified sample.
a) Proportional stratified sampling plan: the number of items drawn from each stratum is
proportional to the size of the stratum. If the population is divided into five groups,
their respective sizes being 10%, 15%, 20%, 30% and 25% of the population and a
sample of 50 is drawn, the desired proportional sample may be obtained in the
following manner:

From stratum I (BAF II) = (50)(0.10) = 5 students

Stratum II (BBA II) = (50)(0.15) = 8 students
Stratum III (BPA II) = (50)(0.20) =10 students
Stratum IV (LLB) = (50)(0.30) = 15 students
Stratum V (BSc Economics) = (50)(0.25) = 12 students

The proportional allocation of items is considered most efficient and optimal design when:
i)

The cost of selecting an item is equal for each stratum;

ii)

There is no great difference in dispersion from stratum to stratum;

iii)

The purpose of sampling happens to be to estimate the population value of some

characteristic.

b) Non-proportional stratified sampling plan: the strata differ not only in size but also in
variability and it is considered reasonable to take larger samples from a more variable
strata and smaller from the less variable strata. It is possible to account for both
differences in size and in stratum variability by using the disproportionate sampling
design by requiring:

n1
___

n2
=

___

nk
=

49

___

N11

N22

Where

Nkk

standard deviations of the k strata

Ni

sizes of the k strata

N1

sample sizes of the k strata

This is called optimum allocation in the context of disproportionate sampling.

To summarise the following are the responsible factors or variables, which show the
difference when preparing for the strata in the stratified sampling.
i)

Differences in stratum size

ii)

Differences in stratum variability

iii)

Differences in stratum sampling cost

Issues to be discussed:
i)

How to form a strata

ii)

How should items be selected from each stratum

iii)

How many items be selected from each stratum or how to allocate the sample size
to each stratum

An Example:
A population is divided into three strata so that (BPA II LGM) N1 = 5,000, (BPA II PSM) N2 =
2,000 and (BPA II HRM) N3 = 3,000; and their respective standard deviations are 1 = 15, 2 =
18 and 3 = 5. How should a sample of n = 84 students be allocated to each strata if we want
an optimum allocation using disproportionate sampling design?

n1

84 x 5,000 x 15
------------------------------------------------(5,000 x 15) + (2,000 x 18) + (3,000 x 5)

n2

84 x 2,000 x 18

50

50

-------------------------------------------------

24

10

126,000
n3

84 x 3,000 x 5
-----------------------------------------------126,000

B.

Systematic sampling

It is selecting one unit at random and selecting additional units at equal spaced intervals. It is
also called the quasi-random sampling method. This is because once the initial starting point is
determined the remainder of the items selected for the sample are predetermined by the
sampling interval. It is continuously done until the sample has been formed. This method is
popularly applied in those cases where a complete list of the population is available. The list
may be prepared in alphabetical, geographical, numerical or some other order. The items or
elements are serially numbered. The first item/element is selected at random by using random
numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. Then, subsequent items are selected by taking
every kth item from the list where k refers to the sampling interval or sampling ratio, the ratio
of the population size to the size of the sample.
k

N
--n

where k

sampling interval

population size

sample size

Example:
In BAF II there are 137 students with registration numbers 1 to 137. The Faculty of
Commerce of the Mzumbe University would like to take a sample of 14 students to represent
the Faculty in the University competition in Arusha in July 2004.
Required:
51

Use a systematic sampling to determine the sample size.

Solution:
k

N
-n

137
=

----

9.78

10

14

Thus, the first student between 1 and 10 will be selected at random and then we will go on
selecting every kth (10th) student.

C.

Cluster sampling (Multi-stage sampling)

It is a type of sampling procedure that is carried out in several stages. If the total area of
interest happens to be large, a convenient way in which a sample can be taken is to divide the
area into a number of small non-overlapping areas and then to randomly select a number of
these smaller areas (usually called clusters). The total population is divided into relatively small
subdivisions which are themselves clusters of still smaller units and then some of these clusters
are randomly selected for inclusion in the overall sample.

Illustration:
Suppose we would like to take a sample of 154 households from Kondoa District. We know
that the District is divided into several Wards and each Ward can further be subdivided into
several villages and a sample of villages can be taken at random. The next stage to select a
number of households at random at each of the villages selected. If clusters happen to be some
geographic subdivisions they are regarded as area sampling.

NON-RANDOM (NON-PROBABILITY) SAMPLING METHODS

A.

Judgmental Sampling

It is also called purposive or deliberate sampling. The choice of the sample elements depends
exclusively on the discretion of the investigator. It implies that an investigator exercises his/her

52

judgment in the choice and includes those items or elements in the sample, which he/she thinks
are most typical of the population with regard to the characteristic(s) under investigation.

This method of sampling is justified for use under specific circumstances:

i)

When only small number of sampling units is in the population, simple random
sampling may miss the more important elements whereas judgment selection would
certainly include them in the sample.

ii)

When we want to study some unknown traits of a population, some of whose

characteristics are known, we may then stratify the population according to these
known properties and select sampling units from each stratum on the basis of
judgment. This method is used to obtain more representative sample.

iii)

In solving everyday business problems and making public policy decisions,

executives and public officials are often pressed for time and cannot wait for
probably sample designs. Judgment sampling is then the only practical method to
arrive at solutions to their urgent problems.

Example:
If a sample of fifteen (15) BPA II students were to be selected from the class of 140 students
for analysing the students accommodation problem at the Mzumbe University, the investigator
would select 15 students who, in his opinion, are representative of the class.
B.

Convenient Sampling (the Chunk)

A convenient sample is obtained by selecting convenient population units. A fraction of a

population being investigated which is selected neither by probability nor by judgement but by
convenience.

A sample is obtained from readily available lists such as student registration from the Mzumbe
Universitys Admission Office. It is a convenience sample even if the sample is drawn from the
list at random. Convenient samples are usually regarded as providing a lot of biases but they
are often used for making pilot studies.

53

C.

Quota Sampling

It is a type of Judgment Sampling. The quotas are set up according to some characteristics
such as income group, age, political and religious affiliations. Each investigator has to deal
with certain number of respondents who constitute his/her quota.

Within the quota the

selection of the sample items depend on personal judgment. Quota sampling designs are often
used in public opinion studies.

Example:
The study of the mass failure of students who sat for PUB 113 the Principles of Management
subject in Semester I in the academic year 2003/2004: The interviewers required to administer
interviews to 60 people within the University. That means they were required to interview at
least 8 members of academic staff, 20 passed students, 12 failed students, 3 members of the
Senate, 3 members of the Institute Board (IPA), 3 members of the Faculty Board (Faculty of
Science and Technology), 3 members from the Board, Faculty of Commerce and 8 members
from the top management of the Mzumbe University. Within the quota the researcher is free to
select the respondents to be interviewed.

54

CHAPTER FOUR
RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING
4.0 Introduction
There is no ideal, single, standard format of a research proposal (Stlen, 1991). McLean (1989)
provides a number of generally accepted standards of what a well-written research proposal
should contain. It depends, among other things, on a type of research you plan to undertake. The
approach may be oriented towards the theoretical or the more practical side of research.
There are two main types of research proposals. The first is the self generated research proposal
of the type prepared by academics seeking funds for a research project of their own devising or by
students seeking approval for research for a project or thesis/dissertation on the topic of their own
choosing. The second type is the responsive research proposal prepared by consultants responding
to research briefs prepared by potential clients.
a) Self generated research proposal;
b) Responsive research proposal or expression of interest
4.1 Types of Research
Naustdalslid (1988a) classifies research on the basis of the purpose of research as clearly
presented by Clark (1972). Clark (1972: 9) asks three basic questions that would be necessary to
justify such classification. The first question asks whether research wants to resolve or clarify the
theoretical question arising in the discipline or it is oriented to the solution of a practical problem
in one enterprise. The second question centres on the dominant channel for diffusing the results of
the research. Eventually, it focuses on the direction of the involvement of the researcher with
his/her audience.
These three questions may be combined to produce a taxonomy of types of research as described
by Naustdalslid (1988a). The research types can be distinguished along the continuum from basic
theoretical research, applied theory oriented research, evaluation research, action research and
basic objective. This classification has some advantages because one can distinguish research
from the one which is oriented to the development of the theory and research designed to solve
practical problems (Clark, 1972: 9). Table 1 shows five types of research.
Table 1 Five Types of Research

55

Research Type

Evaluation

Researchers Problem
Orientation
Theoretical problem
arising in basic
discipline
General practical
problem arising in
many contexts
Practical problem

Applied

Practical problem

Action

Practical problem with

theoretical relevance

Pure basic
Basic objective

Dominant diffusion
channel
Learned journals

Single or mixed
audiences
Scientists (single)

Learned and
professional journals

Scientists (and
practitioners)

Mainly sponsoring
enterprise
Only sponsoring
enterprise
Report to sponsor;
and
Learned and
professional journals

Sponsor (and
practitioners - mixed)
Sponsor (single)
Sponsors
Scientists,
Practitioners
(mixed)

Source: P.A. Clark. 1972. Action Research and Organizational Change, London: Harper and
Row, page 10
There is a great need to have adequate preparation when one wants to write a comprehensive
research proposal (Minja and Chonya, 1988). Mwakasungura et al (1987) once pointed out that
many researchers are quite deficient in the disciplines of scientific research because they are not
fully prepared to carry out rigorous investigations. Improving research management has become
a new priority by many people. People at different levels of management have a direct and
interrelated impact on a research system, and each must adhere to

accepted standards of

improved management to influence the system as a whole. It must be noted that poor research
proposal is a symptom or a reflection of the lack of competence amongst researchers in various
aspects of research methodology. It can also be accepted that some researchers can never deliver
a poor research work even if their research proposal application is inadequate.
The main objective of this paper is to present some guidelines or hints for writing or preparing
good research proposals and at the same time present a scheme which may be used by students
when writing/preparing research proposals. We cannot provide all the evidence about the
importance of research for development. Writing and preparing a research proposal is a single
most important process in research project. The subsequent actions of implementation,
monitoring, and evaluation are effective only to the extent that research was properly planned.
4.2 Definition

56

The research proposal is a document which shows the research process to be carried out by the
researcher.

It is the statement of justification for the objectives, methods, resources, and

management of the project (McLean, 1989). It is the first document in the life cycle of a research
project which pulls together project purposes, plans and budgets. It acts like a compass which
shows the direction on which the researcher intends to take. It locates the scope of knowledge or
understanding of the research to be conducted.
4.3 Elements or Components of a Research Proposal: PROPOSAL FORMAT
1.0

Cover page: Title, Plus Name of the researcher (s), qualification, affiliation and so on. It
must be emphasized that all major characteristics of the research work be reflected in the
research title. Thus, the cover page should contain the title of the study, the surnames and
first names of the author(s), the total duration of the study in (weeks or months) and the
scheduled starting date for the research study.

2.0

Abstract, Synopsis, Conspectus or the Summary. One to several paragraphs can be

sufficient. The author needs to explain the essential components of the project: the major
issues in the study, the final goal of your work, the methodological approach to be used
and the expected results.

3.0

Table of Contents: Other people would never read all of your text but they would like to
read two things only in your research proposal: (i) The summary (ii) Table of Contents. It
is wise to place it soon after the title page.

4.0

Research Description: I recommend to apply the Logical Framework Approach

(Logframe) when preparing the research components. Logframe can be used to clarify the
logical links between the research components: research inputs and objectives; research
activities and outputs; broader purposes and the ultimate goal. The logframe can also be
used to identify the indicators by which the research progress is monitored and evaluated,
and the conditions necessary for the project to achieve the expected results.

57

Table 2 Sample Logframe

Narrative
summary

Objectively
measurable
indicators

Means of
verification

Important
assumptions

Ultimate
objective

Measures to
verify
accomplishment
of goal. Quality,
Quantity and
Time (QQT)

Documentation,
surveys & other
sources of data

To attain the
long term
objectives

Purpose

impact of your
research

Quality,
Quantity and
Time (QQT)

Research
reports & other
sources of data

Factors needed
to attain the goal

Outputs

research aims:
deliverables

QQT

Research
reports & other
sources of data

To attain the
purpose

Actions

Budget

Sources of data

To accomplish
outputs e.g.
trained staff etc.

Goal

Activities or
inputs

4.1

Introduction: It must be short but clear. Give an introduction to the research

problem. Other people call it as the Background to the Study.

4.2

Statement of the Problem: state clearly the research interest by elaborating on the
problem to be studied. Narrow down your research project. Careful analysis of
known and suspected facts, explanation of the existing information and knowledge
that may have some bearing on the problem: the spelling out of specific factors
giving rise to the basic difficulty, of their interrelationships, and of their relevance
to the problem area.

4.3

Objectives of the Study: Specific and general objectives to be stated. Objectives

should be of the study and not of the author. Make sure that you describe and
identify the problems to be solved or addressed. Show also an indication of the
areas to be studied. Distinguish long term (General) objectives from the short term
(Specific) objectives to avoid ambiguity. Avoid also an over ambitious research
work!

4.4

Hypotheses, Questions to be answered, Models to be tested: This is a reflection of

the research objectives. They are shadows of the research objectives according to
Plato! They must be well constructed. The rule is that each hypothesis must have
the opposite hypothesis called a null hypothesis (refer to H 0 and HA concepts in
58

the non parametric methods of data analysis; the paper by Milanzi, 1994b). Note
that you must formulate research hypothesis in a form of a statement, which the
results of your study will confirm or invalidate. Your hypothesis must stem from
the key problem and the objectives set! Avoid constructing hypotheses from your
mind just for the sake of doing it! An hypothesis must be deterministic and thus
must be either deductive or inductive in nature.
4.5

Literature Review: it refers to the most recent studies which articulates the
significance of your research work. Thus, show the major results from similar
studies, missing links and current knowledge in the area. Avoid duplication of
work and knowledge. Where to do some literature review/search? The first place
is in the library; and next the documents from the institution where you are going
to carry out the study! Why do we conduct a literature review? to evaluate
different theoretical frameworks, to evaluate or select a feasible methodology, to
pick practical ideas from other work concerning research, to point out the
differences and similarities between our work and that of others, to avoid
plagiarism, to develop, verify, discard, falsify, change, amend or improve theories,
laws and other scientific principles and practices. There are five types/approaches
of literature review: inclusive, evaluative, exploratory, instrumental, and content
literature review (Veal, 1992).

4.6

Rationale/Significance or Justification of the Study: Describe in detail the key

problems to be addressed by the study together with its theoretical framework, if
necessary. Give the background on the issue to be addressed and then specify the
manner in which the study will contribute to the improvement of the (theoretical
and/or practical) problem under investigation. The relevance of the subject in
relation to the context and its scope (in relation to the coverage) must be
underscored.

4.7

Definition of terms and abbreviation: clarity in the definitions of key terms and
variables especially constructs. Use operational definitions whenever possible.

4.8

Scope, Limitation and delimitation of the study (narrowing of focus): Give a

sufficient delimitation of the problem area. That is, narrowing the scope without
becoming concerned with a trivial problems. Limitation gives a factor which will
affect the study but is not under the control of the researcher. Delimitation is
usually controlled by the researcher. The researcher sets a parameter on his/her
study (Krathwohl, 1977).

4.9

Outline of the remainder of the proposal

59

5.0

Research Methodology:

The research proposal must specify research operations a researcher is going to undertake and the
way he/she will interpret the results of these operations in terms of the central problem. An
argument is as to why these tasks add up to the best attack on the problem. The main focus of this
part is to present the research design and describe the instruments which will be used to verify
your hypotheses.
In order to make a choice of methodology it involves a consideration of the three criteria of
evaluation (Gill and Johnson, 1997: 128). The proper balance is needed to select a
methodology. In addition to that researchers are required to consider the nature and
organisational context of the substantive problem to be investigated as well as the
consideration of resources they have at their disposal and any potential ethical dilemmas.
Summarily, the key methodological choices include:
1)

The balanced evaluation criteria for selection

2)

The nature and the organisational context of the substantive problem to be investigated

3)

The consideration of resources the researchers have at their disposal (Consider time,
money, materials such as equipment)

4)

Potential ethical dilemmas

5)

Philosophical assumptions researchers implicitly or explicitly make by adopting a mode

of engagement. Empirical research is not only a choice of a method but it is part of a wider
process that constitutes and renders a subject amenable to study in distinctive way

There are three criteria for evaluation

1)

Internal validity: It refers to whether or not what is identified as a cause or stimulus

(causes or stimuli) actually produces/produce what have been interpreted as the effects or
responses.

2)

External validity: It refers to the extent to which any research findings can be
generalised or extrapolated beyond the immediate research sample or setting in which the
research has been conducted. External validity is subdivided into:
Population validity which deals with the extent to which it is possible to generalise from
the sample of people involved in the research to a wider population
Ecological validity in which it is possible to generalise from the actual social context in
which research has taken place and data thereby collected, to other contexts and settings.

60

This refers to or relates to the issue of how artificial or atypical the research setting is
relative to natural contexts typical of normal, everyday life (Gill and Johnson, 1997: 1289).
3)

Reliability: It refers to the consistency of results obtained in research. Is it possible for

another researcher to replicate the original research using the same subjects and the same
research design under the same conditions? (Gill and Johnson, 1997: 129).
5.1

Research design: how, what, why etc: Experimental Design, Survey Design and
Case Design: Design considerations: the research should test possible solutions, to
existing and defined problems. Keep it simple, limit duration, objectives and
hypotheses. Check also reliability and validity of data collection instruments.
Reliability, Internal, and external validity must be checked and controlled.

5.2

Area of the study: Why have you selected that area? Locate it! Which criterion of
selection?

5.3

Units of Inquiry: How, why, who, where, when, what etc

5.3.1

Population of the Study; why that population and not others. Is it finite or
infinity? The population parameters and characteristics.

5.3.2

The Sampling Frame: must be up to date, complete, no foreign elements

and non duplicate.

5.3.3

Sample and sample size: clear description of samples studied; mode of

selection

5.3.4
5.4
5.4.1
5.4.2
5.4.3
5.4.4
5.4.5
5.4.6
5.4.7
5.4.8
5.4.9
5.4.10
5.4.11
5.5

Sampling Methods and procedures

Data to be collected (Any one and/or a combination of these!)

Objective data
Subjective data
Natural data
Provoked
Primary data
Secondary data/documentary data
Ordinal data
Metric data
Qualitative data
Quantitative data
Historical data

Research Instruments: Note that a model of research instruments (Questionnaire,

interview Guides, Observation Kit such as a observation grid) must be attached with the
Research Proposal.

61

5.5.1

Questionnaires: (which type? Distribution? What type of information do you want

to collect? etc, how many types of questionnaires? why? How will it be
administered?

5.5.2

Interviews: structured or unstructured? Interview guide? what do you want to

conduct interviews? Who to interview? How to get such information? Why? Will
there be an interview guide? Have you prepared it? Will you triangulate it?

5.5.3

Observation: What do you want to observe? Skills? Activities? Behaviour?

Operations? How? etc! Have you prepared the observation kit?

5.5.4

Documentary Sources or secondary data sources: where? How? What kind of

information? Relevance! Privacy and confidentiality of such sources?

5.6

Limitations of the methodology Employed (Methodological/theoretical assumptions).

On what? Data Collection? Data Analysis? Data Interpretation? etc Methodology, theory,
model, principle, law, proposition etc! Any Plan for unanticipated events such as the
operational problems, interference from politics and any other cataclysmic events?

5.7

Data Analysis: It is a weakest part of the research proposal. The method of analysis is a
clue which should guide the researcher and enlighten him/her in his/her approach.
5.7.1

Describe the variables to be used; data recording, editing, coding, and designing of
variables

5.7.2

Techniques of analysis (descriptive or exploratory); Data Analysis procedure

5.7.3

Facilities and methodology of analyzing and processing data; mode of integration

of different approaches.

5.7.4
5.8

Mode of Data interpretation; mode of integration of different approaches.

Work Plan or the Research Implementation Schedule (Time Plan)

EXAMPLE I:
5.8.1 Preparation of the research proposal and the start-up activities eg. (2 weeks)
5.8.2 Questionnaire development, interview guide preparations, observation kit
arrangements eg. three weeks
5.8.3 Literature review eg. (3 weeks)
5.8.4 Data collection eg. four weeks
5.8.5 Data cleaning and coding eg. 2 weeks
5.8.6 Data analysis and interpretation e.g. 2 weeks
5.8.7 Report writing e.g. 4 weeks
5.8.8 Submission of the report
Total 20 weeks [Example only]

62

EXAMPLE II
Table 3 Research Timetable and Work Plan
Activity/Weeks or months

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

5.9

Redefine research
topic
Redesigning
methodology
Defining the
population
Sampling Frame
Sample and Its
Procedures
Literature review
Access negotiation
Refinement of topic
Meetings
Design of
questionnaire
Design of interview
guides
Design of observation
kit
Pilot stage
Data collection
Data analysis
Data Interpretation
Writing up
Dissemination of
results/Report
submission
New Problem
area/Research
opportunity

10

11

12

Available Facilities and services: such as Calculators, computers (PCs), stationary,

typewriters. Specify everything related to facilities in terms of their availability and access.

5.10

5.11

Research budget: It needs to be reasonable and itemized:

5.10.0 Budget Summary
5.10.1 Personnel Costs eg. nights, allowances etc
5.10.2 Operating expenditure e.g. secretarial services, stationary, data analysis
costs etc
5.10.3 Travel expenses
5.10.4 Other expenditure etc.
5.10.5 Grand total.
5.10.6 Budget Justification
Organization of the Study or the Structure of the Argument [Chapterisation; Report
Outline] - Normally optional. This is purely indicative and it should always serve as a
63

guide. It implies that slight modifications could be made to it in the future. Pay much
attention to the consistency and the logic which exists between the objectives of the study
and the report outline. I mean that the organization of your work should finally make it
possible to provide an answer to the questions raised!
5.12

Monitoring and evaluation techniques to be employed: Unfortunately, this section is often

omitted. The omission can seriously affect the quality of project evaluation later on.

5.13

Research Follow - up and dissemination: such as a report, research findings to be

disseminated in the conferences, workshops etc. How will the results be used. The
research results should never be left to gather dust in the shelves!

5.14

Bibliography or References (as many pages as necessary) providing a full citation for each
of the bibliographic work mentioned in your proposal. Note that you must only provide a
list of publications or books whose use is envisaged for the research.

5.15

Appendix: Attach a copy of the following questionnaire, interview guide, curriculum vitae
and any other documents (such as maps, tables, charts) used to form part of appendices.

4.4 Conclusion
It is not necessary that all these elements be included in a research proposal! This schedule
provides a standard of the research proposal. The chronology of the elements of the proposal may
differ depending a number of factors. The components of the research proposal vary from one
researcher to another depending a number of factors:
1.
Type of research
2.
Purpose of the research
3.
Duration of the research
4.
Knowledge of the researcher about the area
5.
Education and training of the researcher
6.
Research funding and budget
7.
Research environment
Naustdalslid (1988b) suggests ten points as guidelines on how to improve the skills to formulate
good and feasible research proposals. He calls them ten commandments:
1.

The research question should never be formulated before you have taken into
consideration the basic constraints for carrying out the research.

2.

Never plan a research which is beyond your professional abilities

3.

Spend plenty of time on formulating your research problem

4.

Plan for small and manageable research works

5.

Take maximum advantage of the research opportunities in the local environment

64

6.

You should not feel that desk research or library research is inferior to research based on
primary data

7.

You should steal from other researchers whenever possible; and do not plagiarise but
acknowledge the sources.

8.

Seek advice and help from others (and offer your own help to tour colleagues whenever
requested)

9.

You should never forget your most important and precious skill for becoming a better
researcher is your ability to read.

10.

Be more inventive!

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Casley, D.J. and Lury, D.A. 1989. Data Collection in Developing Countries, Oxford: Clarendon
Press.
Clark, P.A. 1972. Action Research and Organisational Change, London: Harper and Row
Gran, T. 1990. On Social Science Methods in Research on Organizations and Administration,
IDM Mzumbe and the University of Bergen.
Holme, I. 1989. Compendium Workshop on Research Methodology held at Institute of
Development Management (IDM) Mzumbe, Part I and II, Agder College, Kristiansand.
Krathwohl, D.R. 1977. How to Prepare a Research Proposal, Syracuse: Syracuse University
Press
McLean, D. 1988. `The Logical Framework in research planning and evaluation,' ISNAR Working
Paper 12, International Service for National Agricultural Research, The Hague.
McLean, D. 1989. Research Project Proposals and Workplans, ISNAR Staff Note Number 89 52, International Service for National Agricultural Research, The Hague
Milanzi, M.C. 1990. Tacoshili: Background and Statement of the Problem, IDM, Mzumbe
August 1990.
Milanzi, M.C. 1994a. Some Guidelines for Writing Research Proposals, IDM Mzumbe, May
1994.
Milanzi, M.C. 1994b. The Archetype, Embryonic and Schizoid Incoherence of IDM Security
System, A Mini-Research Report presented at the IDM Inter-Disciplinary Forum on 7th June
1994.
Minja, J. 1984. Some Guidelines for Assessing Research Reports in the Social Sciences, IDM
Mzumbe, September 1984.
Minja, J. and Chonya, 1988. Research Proposal: the Cause of Bad Research, Paper Presented at
the Workshop on Research Methodology, IDM Mzumbe 25th - 29th April 1988.

65

Msambichaka, L.A. 1994. `Reflections on Research Challenges and Strategies for Tanzania: An
Agenda for the 21st Century,' in Msambichaka, L.A., H.Moshi and F.Mtatifikolo (Eds)
Development Challenges and Strategies for Tanzania, Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University
Press pp 431 - 455.
Mwakasungura, A.K. et al. 1987. Proposals for Organization of Research at IDM, Working
Paper from the IDM Local Committee.
Naustdalslid, J. 1988a. Approaches to Social Science Research, Paper presented at the
"Workshop on Management Research Needs in Tanzania," IDM Mzumbe 8th - 9th February
1988.
Naustdalslid, J. 1988b. The Usefulness of Social Science Research, Paper presented at the
"Workshop on Management Research Needs in Tanzania," IDM Mzumbe 8th - 9th February
1988.
Sanga, O.K.M. 1985. Methods of Scientific Research, IDM: Mzumbe
Stlen, Jan A. 1991. Assessing Research Project Proposals, Paper presented at a workshop on
Research Proposals Writing Skills, at IDM Mzumbe 18th - 22nd March 1991.
Veal, A.J. 1992. Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism: A Practical Guide, London: ILAM

66

CHAPTER FIVE
SAMPLE RESEARCH PROPOSALS
EXAMPLE I
Research Proposal:
The Impact of Micro Finance Institutions on the Poor: The Case Study of Karagwe
Micro Finance Institute [KAMFI]
5.0 Introduction
There are two types of financial services available in Karagwe district. First, the formal
financial services operated a network of the national banking and financial institutions located
at Kayanga and Omurushaka towns. The people in Karagwe district depend on the National
Microfinance Bank Ltd (NMB), the Tanzania Postal Bank and the Cooperative and Rural
Development Bank Ltd (CRDB Bank) as the financial agents with branches only at Kayanga
and Omurushaka towns. In addition to that there are emerged formal micro-financial services
in the district have not been properly and effectively developed. There are also some efforts to
establish a branch office by FINCA in the district in order to deal with some poverty alleviation
measures through credit provision to some limited sector of the population.
The second type of financial services are informal ones. The earlier studies confirm that people
and institutions in Tanzania obtain the initial capital funds from personal savings. These
informal financial services range from personal savings, money from relatives, friends and even
from infant credit and savings societies. The loans from government and micro finance
intermediaries accounts for only 5 percent of all credits in Tanzania in 1969 and 3 percent in
1979.
One of the major constraints in rural finance in Karagwe district is the absence of microfinancial institutional support. The sector suffers from the lack of an enabling environment,
discouraging policies by government, high failure rates and the general lack of dedicated and
qualified capacity builders who are willing and able to establish, promote, supervise and
accredit various local micro financial institutions and intermediaries. Formal financial systems
in Karagwe have played very limited role in promoting economic and entrepreneurial
development to low-income sector of population particularly to the farmers. Currently, the
formal financial institutions have shown some limited interest and capacity to provide financial
services to intermediary micro finance institutions (MFIs) particularly the Savings and Credit

67

Cooperative Societies (SACCOS), Agriculture Marketing Cooperative Societies (AMCOS),

and the Savings and Credit Associations (SACAS). The rural communities do not have the full
access to the existing financial services in the district.
In Karagwe district there is a definite need and demand for the provision of financial services
particularly micro financial services to the rural-based population. The traditional micro
financial services such as the support from relatives and members of the same family are
currently not reliable and sometimes not available. Currently there are about five formal micro
finance operators in the district. The Tanzania government, KAMFI, FINCA, KADERES and
KARADEA offer and promote some limited lending services (that is, micro finance services)
within the district to specific segment of the population. For instance, there is a Tanzania
government fund established in 1998, which provides loans to women and youth in two
administrative wards in the district. KADERES has shown some interest and effort to promote
micro financial services in the district. It has organised more than 260 economic groups mostly
women for the purpose of creating organised income generating project in order to increase the
incomes of these individuals. FINCA and KARADEA are involved in the projects related to
generating peoples capacity by empowering these local communities. One way of it is to
encourage the establishment of economic groups in the district so as to eradicate poverty.
The district constitutes over 491 community - based groups that have been created to deal with
a wide range of social and economic issues affecting the village life. These community based
organisations span from herding and farming to social and ceremonial/welfare, women,
employee savings and income generating groups. The establishment of KAMFI would facilitate
the institutional need for micro finance development in the district, which would stimulate
socio economic development of the district.
5.1 Micro Finance Institutions as Promoters of Financial Access to the Poor
Micro finance institutions (MFIs) are specialised organisations established to provide financial
services to low-income households, small-scale farmers and micro entrepreneurs in Tanzania.
The majority of these people live in rural areas where services from formal financial institutions
are currently not available. These people have largely been able to access neither the services
from existing commercial banks nor the services from other mainstream financial institutions.
MFIs are considered as one of alternatives to providing savings facilities, loans and other
financial services to the majority of the people residing in rural Tanzania who have practically
no access to formal financial and banking services. The MFIs provide some loans that are
68

normally small and they do not require collateral. The objectives of these institutions may vary
from profit, poverty alleviation, self-help or other motivations.
5.2 Statement of the Problem
Despite the growing number of financial institutions in Tanzania little has been done to improve
the access to basic financial services by people particularly from rural Tanzania. Moreover,
even if there are micro finance institutions established these institutions have failed to capture
the needs of the poor. It has been clearly stated in the micro finance policy for Tanzania that
financial institutions have been created in order to build institutional competition, which would
in turn provide more efficient and effective financial system in Tanzania in order to serve the
low income segment of society, and thereby contribute to economic growth and reduction of
poverty. The financial sector reforms that were instituted in 1991 have failed to make even
basic financial services readily accessible to the poor majority in Tanzania. It is currently noted
that over 82 percent of savings done by people is kept at their homes.
There is a growing institutional gap that exist in the provision of basic financial services in
Tanzania. The majority of the poor cite the absence of financing as one of the principal
impediments to the acquisition of assets by the poor and effective participation in income
generating activities. The lack of market opportunities discourage rural farmers from engaging
themselves in viable businesses. The farmers blame both informal finance and existing formal
financial institutions for their failure to capture the needs of rural farmers. There is need to rely
on the domestic financial system, which is able not only to mobilise the required resources but
allocate these scarce resources to the most productive uses. In addition to that the existence of
informal financial activities in Tanzania signify the necessity for the establishment of the formal
micro finance institutions and micro finance policy. The variety of informal financial
arrangements provide the evidence, which the wide range of financial services demanded by
people could be met.
Thus, there is a growing fear that micro finance institutions in Tanzania are the replacement of
the failed and limping cooperative unions. The micro finance institutions emphasise on
solidarity group lending. There is a possibility that these micro finance institutions are to
commit similar mistakes done by cooperative societies. The demand for credit by the poor in
Tanzania has currently remained unmet despite the proliferation of banking and non banking
institutions in the country. Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) are forces to rely on self

69

financing. For instance, in 1960s and 1970s over 95 percent of SMEs initial capital funds came
from personal savings.
5.3 Objectives of the Study
The study aims at attaining the following objectives:
1) To determine the degree to which Karagwe Micro Finance Institute has managed to attract
the poor to accessing its financial services;
2) To identify barriers that impede the poor from accessing the financial services from KAMFI;
3) To analyse the suitability of approaches applied by KAMFI to finance the poor through the
establishment of peoples own savings and credit associations;
4) To identify the dominant access to credit approach that is applicable, run and managed by
KAMFI.
5.4 Theoretical Underpinning of the Study
5.4.1 The Need for Best Microfinance Practices
The National Microfinance Policy for Tanzania (2000) identifies three key practices that can
develop the required capability of microfinance institutions to deal with the poor. The first
requirement is pricing. The pro-market pricing mechanisms should be adopted to ensure that
microfinance institutions set the prices themselves in accordance to the demands of the market.
The government, donor institutions and the central bank should not encourage the pro-state
approaches which distort prices. The second requirement is delinquency control, which ensures
loans are repaid by the poor accordingly. Financial institutions such as MFIs lending to
customers is subject to financial disciplines. There are three requirements that a borrower must
comply before the loan is extended to him/her. The first point requires the customer to show a
high degree of honesty, integrity and standing. Secondly, credibility is another requirement to
which a MFI has to be satisfied. The MFI is not going to lend to limping or loss making
individuals with weak capital structures. The borrower must indicate signs of financial stability
and ability to meet its debt commitments once called upon to do so. Eventually, to guide itself
against risk of loss of funds and MFI will also demand a pledge of securities from its clients.
The third requirement for the best practice principles identified by the policy is the good
governance. A MFI need to have sound governing structures to ensuring that proper and
effective management and accountability is readily available within each microfinance
institution.

70

5.4.2 Residual Claimant Theory and the Poverty Reduction Model

The study has selected the Residual Claimant Theory (RCT) as propounded by Alchian and
Demsetz (1972) to provide the theoretical explanation of the study. The current National
Microfinance Policy for Tanzania possesses both the pro-state and pro-market values. The
policy encourages the public sphere at the expense of individual sphere in the provision of
loans to individuals through group solidarity lending approach. The Residual Claimant Theory
understands that modern work operations are organised in teams and there exists some
interdependence among the efforts of individual members of the team. The Residual Claimant
Theory acknowledges that group effort hides individual effort and hence, there is need to find
out the individual contributions, which a member in the group puts. The theory emphasises the
superiority of private ownership over public ownership (Pitelis and Clarke, 1993: 55).
The National Microfinance Policy emphasises the significance of access of financial services by
the poor. It does not much dwell on the individuals beneficiaries but microfinance institutions.
This is opposed to the requirements of the Residual Claimant Theory which wants to promote
individuals at the expense of groups. On the contrary, the Policy promotes microfinance
institutions including financial intermediaries in order to render microfinance services to the
poor. The Policy does not inform how the poor as individuals are prepared to have access to
these institutions.
The field oriented organisation of microfinance is needed. The proposed model is that of
Grameen Bank of Bangladesh. The Bank is a microfinance institution, which caters for the
needs of the poor (Todd, 1996). The Group Recognition Test (GRT) needs to be employed in
order to meet the requirements of the Residual Claimant Theory (RCT).
5.5 Literature Review
The focus of this study is different from earlier studies conducted in Tanzania and elsewhere.
For instance, Temu (1998) looks at the impact of financial institutions reforms since 1991 on
the small and medium size enterprises (SMEs) financing. In addition to that she focused on the
approaches used by the financial institutions in SMEs financing. The study did not focus on the
impact which the poor get from the services from microfinance institutions in Tanzania. The
demand for credit has been highlighted as one of the important barrier to poverty reduction in
rural Tanzania. Low credit volume allocated to SMEs has been attributed to the number of
reasons namely high risks, high administration and monitoring costs, lack of collateral and
unreliable customers in the rural Tanzania (Temu. 1998: 68). Bagachwa (1993) states that
71

SMEs rely heavily on personal savings, from relatives, friends and some money from savings
and credit societies. The banks and the governments in Tanzania finance the poor less than 5
percent of all loans.
Gibbons (1996) identifies problems of the Grameen Bank Model particularly on collective
responsibility of members through groups. In the study on Nirdhan Nepal he found out that
there is an inadequate group recognition test instituted within the solidarity groups. In addition
to that some members pass on their loans to their spouses, the members are not told to form
their own groups but microfinance institution officials are active in forming groups. The
members of the groups are asked some questions which focus much on memory recall of
microfinance rules rather than members understanding and acceptance of the rules and
constitution of the association/group.
5.6 Research Methodology
5.6.1 Research Design
The expected research design in this study is the case study. The case design focus on the
particular cases and be able to provide some generalisation/conclusions. Conclusions and
lessons to be drawn from the study in Karagwe District can be used for making inferences to
other studies elsewhere in Tanzania. A case study allows an investigation to retain the holistic
and meaningful characteristics of real life events of microfinance activities in Karagwe District.
It provides detailed information, which may be useful for policy decisions. A case study
attempts to answer two questions: How and Why? A case study takes place at a particular time
in particular places with particular people. In a case study our interest is to examine some
contemporary events on microfinance impacts on the poor in Karagwe District as opposed to
historical events of banking and financial institutions in Tanzania. Case studies provide a rich
portrait of a particular social phenomenon, its antecedents and its aftermath.
5.6.2 Area of the Study
The study will be carried out in Karagwe District. Karagwe is one of the five districts in
Kagera region. It covers an area of 7,716 km2. The district is located in the northwestern
corner of Tanzania. It borders the Republic of Uganda in the North, the Republic of Rwanda in
the West, Muleba and Bukoba districts to the East, and the districts of Ngara and Biharamulo
in the South. The population census of 1988 showed that there were 400,000 staying in the
district. It was estimated that in 1999 there were 403,000 people in the district with the annual

72

population growth rate of 2.7 percent. Fifty three percent of the population in the district are
females whereas the dependency ratio in the district is at 72 percent.
The district is divided into four (4) divisions, which is then divided into 28 wards and 118
registered villages. The district is fairly isolated from the rest of the country. However, there
are currently some substantial improvements and developments in communication and
transport network in the district, which have stimulated new markets from neighbouring
countries of Rwanda and Uganda, and from the neighbouring regions of Shinyanga and
Mwanza within Tanzania.
The main economic activity of the district is agriculture (53 percent). Subsistence smallholder
farming for local consumption and domestic market dominates the economy in the district.
Coffee, bananas and beans are the main cash crops in the district. Livestock keeping is the
second economic activity in the district (20 percent). Other types of economic activities in the
district are mat making and weaving, local brew production and selling, petty business, and
some industrial and commercial developments. Industrial and commercial development in the
district is very marginal but it is hoped that the steady increase of rural electrification in the
district industrial, commercial and tourism activities will develop. There are 491 community
groups, which are active in small-scale economic enterprises.
5.6.3 Population of the District
Based on Population census of 1988 the population of the District in 2002 is estimated to be
436,532. The annual rate of population growth in 1988 was 2.7. The dependency ratio in the
District is 72 percent of the population (Milanzi and Mnzava, 2001). Hence, the economic
active population in the District is 28 percent of the total population, that is 122,229.
Information from other literature and studies confirms that at least 20 percent of the population
in Tanzania have accounts in the formal financial institutions. It implies that in Karagwe
District there were at least 24,446 residents with bank accounts in the formal financial
institutions in Kayanga and Omuroshaka towns. Those who might have savings in their homes
is 98,783 people.
5.6.4 Description of the Study Population
In October 2001 there were 10 Savings and Credit Associations in Karagwe District that work
under the umbrella of KAMFI. The associations had the total of 223 members. The majority of
these members are women as depicted in Table 1. These members (223) are also residents of
73

Karagwe District (98,783). There is need to include the non association members as part of the
population of the study.
The studys target population is the rural people in Karagwe District who are members of
Savings and Credit associations administered by KAMFI. The joiners are those who have been
continuing to be members ever since they first joined when the programme was introduced by
KAPETFU.

Table 1 The Women Profile of the Savings and Credit Associations under KAMFI
Name of Association
KAEFO
SAWATA Kanyabuleza
Abateganda
Tumusime
Umoja ni Nguvu
Upendo Nyakahanga
Balimi
Mbelu
Kishao
UWAKA
TOTAL

Members Percentage of Female

Members
30
41
16
13
22
100
25
100
21
66
22
100
19
11
30
100
21
52
17
100
223

Mean Age of
Members
36
59
34
32
41
34
43
35
46
38

5.6.5 Sample and Sampling Frame

5.6.5.1 The Sample
The simple random sampling technique shall be employed in the selection of the sample. The
simple random sampling implies that the probability of a respondent being selected from the
population into the sample has equal chance of being chosen.
We would like to select 40 respondents from the population of 223. The probability of any
association member being included in the sample will be 40 223 = 0.18. There are
{223 40}different ways of selecting 40 respondents. Our sampling frame is 223. It is the figure
which we are going to obtain the sample. The criterion of obtaining the sample size could not
be clearly identified due to the lack of data on microfinance. However, the size of the sample is
definitely small due to the huge difference between the population of Karagwe District without
access to formal financial services and the total number of members of Savings and Credit
associations under KAMFI.

74

5.6.5.2 The Correction of Sampling Error

The two way sampling method will be applied in order to correct the sampling error. In
addition to that the pilot study shall be conducted so that errors in sampling can be noted
beforehand and then corrected.
5.6.5.3 The Consideration of the Sampling Distribution
The unimodal and symmetric distribution of the sample will be preferably selected. The normal
distribution of the sample will be selected.
5.6.6 Research Instruments
Three types of data collection instruments will be used in the study; questionnaires, interviews
and documentary sources.
1.6.6.1 Questionnaire
Two types of questionnaires will be prepared in order to collect data from respondents. The
first type of questionnaire will solicit some information from KAMFI staff in Karagwe. The
second type of questionnaire will collect some pieces of information from the poor respondents
who use the services from the microfinance institutions in Karagwe District.
5.6.6.2 Interviews
Interviews will be conducted in order to collect additional information mainly qualitative
information which the questionnaires could otherwise not able to collect. An interview guide
has been prepared in order to have consistency in asking questions.
Both individual and panel interviews will be conducted in order to get the full fledged answers
from different types of respondents.
5.6.6.3 Documentary Sources
The documentary sources of data will be collected from KAMFI files and office records at
Kayanga in Karagwe District. This method will be used to acquire secondary information. Such
data as the number of members in the association, applications for credit, loan loss rates and
constitutions of individual associations managed by KAMFI.
5.7 Significance of the Study

75

The study will bring into light the performance of microfinance institutions and how these
institutions have managed to meet their objectives. In addition to that the study will provide
further clear picture on the performance of MFIs in alleviating poverty among the poor in
Karagwe District. This become an important source of information for policy makers and
implementers in regard to which reasons could decide to emphasise on and which ones they
could be de-emphasised.
5.8 Methods for Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics will be used to analyse the responses from respondents using bivariate
analysis and multivariate analysis. The bivariate analysis will be conducted in order to test
which of the independent variables is associated with impact on the poor caused by being a
member in the Savings and Credit association under the management of KAMFI. The
multivariate analysis (nested logit) will be conducted to determine how each of the independent
variables affects access to financial services and the choice on the type of access to credit
provided by the microfinance institution.
Using the descriptive and t-test or Chi square the researcher will be able to identify the
relationship between dependent and independent variables on each of the four objectives
identified in this proposal. The logit model will be used to prove whether by being in the
KAMFI Savings and Credit association one is likely to be better off.
5.9 Limitations of the Study
a) Precision problems with sampling compared to the total number of population in the District
without access to formal financial services;
b) The sample size of 40 might be too small;
c) The study is limited to only one District and one microfinance institution;
d) The respondents are members of Savings and Credit associations managed by KAMFI.
Bibliography
Abeid, S.K. 2001. Microfinance: The Emerging Industry, The Accountant, 13 (3), 20 24
Adams, D.W. 1991. Taking a Fresh Look at Informal Finance, in Financial Systems and
Development in Africa (Callier, P. [ed.]), EDI Seminar Series, Washington D.C.: The World
Bank, pp 29 - 42
Alchian, A. and Demsetz, H. 1972. Production, information costs, and economic
organisation, American Economic Review, 62 (4), 777 - 795
76

Bagachwa, M.S.D. 1993. Impact of Adjustment Policies on the small scale Enterprises Sector
in Tanzania, in Small Enterprises and Changing Policies: Structural Adjustment Financial
Policy and Assistance Programmes in Africa, (Helming, A.H.J. and Kolstee, T. [Eds.]),
London: IT Publications, 91 -113
Davies, A. and Kearns, M. 1989. Banking Operations: UK Lending and International
Business, London: Pitman
Gibbons, D.S. 1996. Nirdhan Nepal, in Cloning Grameen Bank: Replicating a Poverty
Reduction Model in India, Nepal and Vietnam, London: IT Publications (Todd, H. Ed.), pp 14
- 34
K-rep. 1997. Demand for Rural Financial Services in Tanzania, Report to Bank of Tanzania;
The Promotion of Rural/Micro Financial Services in Tanzania, Nairobi
Long, M. 1991. Financial Systems and Development, in Financial Systems and Development
in Africa (Callier, P. [ed.]), EDI Seminar Series, Washington D.C.: The World Bank, pp 159 171
Milanzi, M.C. and Mnzava, J.A. 2001. The Assessment of Karagwe Micro Finance Institute,
Consultancy Report, Mzumbe: Department of Short Courses and Consultancy; IDM
Milanzi, M.C. and Mtengwa, A. 2002. Research Tools for Monitoring, Evaluating and
Controlling Microcredit Financing, Discussion Paper, Mzumbe: Mzumbe University
Roe, A. 1991. Financial Systems and Development in Africa, in Financial Systems and
Development in Africa (Callier, P. [ed.]), EDI Seminar Series, Washington D.C.: The World
Bank, pp 5 - 28
SAWATA. 2001. Habari za KAMFI, Karagwe
Tanzania, United Republic of, 2000. National Microfinance Policy, Dar es Salaam: Government
Printer
Temu, S.S. 1998. The Impact of Finance Institutions Reforms on Small and Micro Enterprise
Financing in Tanzania, Business Management Review, 5 (2), 56 -78
Todd, H. (Ed.). 1996. Cloning Grameen Bank: Replicating a Poverty Reduction Model in
India, Nepal and Vietnam, London: IT Publications

77

EXAMPLE II
TROPICAL DISEASES AND HEALTH FINANCING
(FINANCE)
The Effects of User Charges on the Behaviour of Suppliers of Health Services in
Tanzania
Project Summary
The behaviour of health suppliers in Tanzania is a crucial element to be looked for the
efficient and effective health sector reform in Tanzania. Various health suppliers are required
to work together in order to provide services necessary for the achievement of a national goal
of health for all by the year 2000. It is hoped that the reform which tallies positively with the
actual needs of the Tanzania health sector can be of value to shape the behaviour of these
suppliers in five administrative regions of Tanzania.
Both parametric and non parametric methods will be used to determine the actual impact of
the user charges on patients suffering from malaria in the selected regions. The methods to be
employed will also be used to determine the levels of user charges to be provided to different
type of health service recipients throughout Tanzania.
1.0
Introduction
The colonial government did not bring the Western medicine in Tanzania. It was the
Missionaries who introduced it through the creation of dispensaries and hospitals. History tells
us that in 1877 the Church Missionary Society (CMS), stimulated by Livingstone, opened the
first hospital at Mamboia. These early endeavours by voluntary agencies made little impression
on the health and health practices of the then Tanganyika. The history of organized medical
services properly began in 1888 with the period of German administration. The Germans laid
down the foundations of a hospital system and then followed by the British colonialism from
1920. The British inherited the health care system which was based on curative/hospital based
health supply system.
The Missionaries were the voluntary agencies which were involved in their respective
hospitals. These hospitals still charge fees for all patients seen either as inpatients or
outpatients. There are three main reasons as to why these agencies impose charges. First, it is
thought that patients ought to pay something if they can; secondly, the existence of charges is
said to control the demand on the hospitals limited facilities and thereby helped to maintain
standards for those who used them; and many of the voluntary agencies are forced to charge
to make ends meet (Titmus, 1964: 66).

78

The tradition of free medical attention to citizens in Tanzania at hospitals has led all sections of
the population to regard the hospital as the right place to go with any kind of illness or injury.
It is hoped that a hospital is a place which provides care of a kind which cannot be provided
adequately or economically elsewhere (Titmus, 1964: 120). Both the central and local
governments in Tanzania for long time have been the largest providers of medical care
throughout the country. For instance in 1961 Tanganyika had the population of 7.5 million
with 70 government hospitals, 510 public dispensaries of which 443 were maintained by local
authorities and 69 mission hospitals (URT, 1970).
Since independence the provision of equitable health care has been one of the priority concerns
of the Tanzanian government. The principal objective of medical development in Tanzania is to
bring about a society of healthy Tanzanians and to obtain medical aid when he/she needs it. The
purpose of hospitals is to apply appropriate health technologies and care services to meet the
health needs of the population served (Schulz and Johnson, 1983). It is required that the basic
health care services available to the vulnerable groups who together make up over two thirds
of the Tanzanias population. An effective government is required. Its is the government which
provides the proper means for making the public service more responsive to the challenging
demands and increasing complexities of statehood and nation building. Bentil (1984: 26) shows
how several African governments had experienced some difficulties in maintaining
administrative systems capable of coping effectively with the changing needs of the society.
Much of the effort made is often wasted and there have been continuing frustrations.
The 1989 health indicators for Tanzania show that the infant mortality rate was 110, life
expectancy was 52, maternity mortality rate was between 200 and 400, population with safe
water was 40 percent and the calorie supply per person was 2,314 (Kiwara, 1994: 275).
Policies and strategies for the health sector in Tanzania are based on the Arusha Declaration of
1967. The strategies proposed by this declaration sought to restructure the health sector to suit
the new ideological inclination of the country. In short, health care services in Tanzania aims at
establishing a viable rural health care network within the spirit of self reliance, making health
care comprehensive, universally accessible and free of out of payments; make preventive and
promotive health care a part and parcel of the health care package; train middle level health
care workers to man rapidly expanding health care network and reverse the budgetary
allocation to reflect rural concentration.

79

Tanzania is not the first country to introduce user charges in a formerly free of charge public
health sector and allow private practice where it never existed officially before. The user charge
is used to finance part of recurrent expenditure of the government. During the British colonial
period Dr Predie, the Chief Medical Officer to the Colonial Office, proposed that all patients in
Tanganyika with the exception of the indigent should be charged for hospital treatment. He
acknowledged that user charges might be difficult to administer in Tanganyika due to the
shortage of administrative skills and trained administrators at every level of health service
administration (Titmus, 1964: 137). Kajwahura (1993: 13) mentions how the patients at Tumbi
hospital in Coast Region in Tanzania were negative towards user charges based on the
economic and ideological reasons. Respondents questioned the legitimacy of the second phase
government on imposing fee in the hospitals.
The lessons drawn from Swaziland and Kenya reveal that the introduction of the user charges
had decreased the average attendance and hospital facilities. In Thailand the results from the
establishment of user fees of hospital services depict the expansion and growth of the private
hospitals and pharmacies which have both negative and positive consequences for the health
care system. These reforms have encouraged the better off patients to use private hospital
services and thus free public resources to serve the poor. On the other hand the expansion of
the private sector hospitals in Thailand has siphoned trained professionals from public to
private sector. This has resulted into a two tier health care sector in the country.
Kajwahura (1993: 2) relates the free provision of medical services in Tanzania with the policy
of socialism and self reliance which was introduced in 1967. The majority of the population
were mobilized to construct health facilities particularly dispensaries and health centres on the
basis of self reliance. The government assisted them with the provision of some finance where
necessary to cover the cost of building materials such as cement, nails and corrugated iron
sheets. The user charges were introduced in the 1993/94 financial year in order to finance part
of the recurrent expenditure of the regional and referral hospitals. It was envisaged that funds
to be collected will be retained and spent at the point of collection to improve the quality of
care. Amonoo-Lartson et al (1984) agree that there was a heavy infusion of health care
resources in Tanzania. This is revealed through the growth of health manpower, increased
number of hospital beds. To date one can claim that the standards of health in Tanzania has
risen significantly based on the necessary indicators: life expectancy, child and mortality rates.
The establishment of user charges would like to bridge the gap between

the growing

populations in Tanzania and the declining levels of public resources (Kajwahura, 1993: 3).
80

2.0 Research Objectives

The objectives of this study is the following:
A.

General Objectives
i) To identify the type and amount of incentives to be provided to health care
providers in relation to the application of user charges to patients suffering from
malaria in Tanzania.
ii) To determine the impact arising from the introduction of the user charges to
patients suffering from malaria from both the government and private hospitals.
The impact will be considered in terms of different groups of people namely by
sex, age, income groups, place of domicile (urban or rural), and level of
education of the respondents.
iii) To determine the conditions under which user charges can lead to the
improvement in the utilization and health outcomes of the patients and to the
type of health service provided.
iv) To determine the required type and amount of user price levels (user fee). It
means that the modalities for effecting the cost sharing strategy should further
be elaborated.
v) To improve the current/existing managerial capability in the health sector.

B.

Specific Objectives
i) To provide equitable health care (both preventive and curative) services in the
efforts to eradicate high incidents of malaria in Tanzania.
ii) To identify the appropriate organisational structures which would act as one of
the major incentives to encourage appropriate care for malaria.

3.0 Rationale of the Study

This proposed study will remedy the misunderstandings which exist between the introduction
of user charges in our hospitals in Tanzania and the health suppliers behaviour resulted from
the introduction of the fee system. In addition to that the study will provide the lessons to
decision makers and implementors of user charge system in Tanzania.
4.0 Research Design
This is a case study in which five regions have been selected: Dar es Salaam, Mtwara,
Mwanza, Singida and Mbeya. Dar es Salaam and Mtwara are the two regions located along the
Indian Ocean. Mwanza region is situated along Lake Victoria in the north western part of the
country whilst Singida is near the central part of the country. Mbeya region is along the
southern highlands of Tanzania. Generally the selected regions have regional, districts, local
government and private hospitals scattered unevenly in the respective regions. In addition to
that Dar es Salaam, Mbeya and Mwanza regions have referral hospitals.
5.0 Description of the Methods to be Employed
Type of Data to be Collected

81

5.1 Qualitative Data

The study will collect the qualitative data in order to provide the non numerical information
about the health suppliers behaviour in different types of hospitals in Tanzania. Such pieces of
information will concentrate on things like education, type of training attained, perception and
attitude towards user charges and opinions related to health sector reform in Tanzania. The non
parametric methods will be employed in order to collect the required data.
5.2 Ordinal Data
The pieces of information will be gathered and organised into a particular order or rank. This
type of data will include items like the management, patients and stakeholders attitude
towards the user charges and its efforts to reform the health sector. Respondents will be asked
to order or rank issues according to their levels of perception and understanding of the
research problem.
5.3 Metric Data
The research study will gather quantitative pieces of information about the effects of user
charges on the suppliers behaviour of health services in Tanzania. The data to be collected will
focus on the behaviour of the health care providers versus health care receivers. The data will
be quantified into numbers or amount user charges collected and its expected recurrent use in a
given period of time.
5.4 Methods of Data Collection
In determining the data collection methods in this study the following factors are going to be
taken into consideration:
i) The general level of education and understanding of the respondents from whom
different pieces of information are gathered.
ii) Ethical issues connected or related to the study.
iii) The financial and time resources allocated to conduct this study.
iv) The reliability of the methods to be employed.
Data will be collected using the following main techniques:-

5.4.1 Primary Data Sources

5.4.1.1 Questionnaires
A questionnaire will be designed and then administered in order to gather
pieces of information related to the nature of user charge system and its

82

relevance within the health sector in Tanzania. Two types of questionnaires will
be designed and distributed to respondents in order to solicit for some pieces of
information regarding the type of health care services he/she receives, duration,
frequency, the owner of hospital in which he/she receives such services, changes
that may have occurred and been noted by the respondents regarding the
provision of health services.
5.4.1.2 Interviews
Interviews will be conducted in order to collect additional pieces of information mainly the
qualitative information which the questionnaire has failed to collect. An interview guide will be
designed in order to preserve the consistency in asking questions and its responses. However,
this will facilitate editing, coding and classifying responses from different respondents. An
interview guide will be prepared in order to tap some pieces of

information regarding

attitudes, behaviour and perception of respondents toward the operationalisation of user

charge system in the selected hospitals in Tanzania.
It has been decided that both individual and panel interviews will be conducted in order to get
a full fledged answers from different types of respondents. Both factual and non factual forms
of information will be solicited from respondents so as to determine the appropriate pricing
levels necessary for a better health services.
5.4.2 Secondary Data Sources
This includes some relevant documents about the reforms in the Tanzanias health sector and
its relationship with the establishment of user charges in the regional, privates and referral
hospitals. The files from the Tanzanias Ministry of Health, World Health Organization at Dar
es Salaam will be scrutinized in order to be more conversant with the topic in question.
5.4.3 Area of the Study
The project will be carried out in five regions in Tanzania. The five regions were randomly
selected. The area represents one fifth of all regions in the country: Mtwara, Dar es Salaam,
Mwanza, Singida and Mbeya.
5.4.4 Units of Analysis
Two types of respondents will be considered in the study: First, those respondents who are
grouped in the set of the health providers employed in the hospitals as nurses, doctors,

83

managers and pharmacists owned by the central government, local government, NGOs and
other private individuals. Secondly, it includes the health receivers who are expected to pay for
a fee after receiving some services from those hospitals and health centres. These respondents
will include the patients and other interested parties like the government and the international
organizations namely the World Health Organization, World Bank, the International Monetary
Fund and the United Nations Institution for Children and Education Fund.
The target population in the study will be 3000 respondents. It will include, among others,
people working in the hospitals and bureaucrats in the Ministry of Health, NGOs and Private
hospitals. The size of each group to be selected in the sample will be computed and carefully
determined later.
5.4.5 Sample and Sampling Frame
The are covered by this research constitute five administrative regions. The research will base
on the 1988 census results to determine the sample size, the composition of the target
population, costs involved in terms of time, skills, size of the area under investigation and the
main characteristics of the sample. The relevant information from the Demographic Health
Survey 1993 for Tanzania provides some technical information about the health situation in
Tanzania.
A simple random technique will be used in order to identify the respondents from the sampling
frame.
5.4.6 Correction of the Sampling Error
The two way sampling method will be used to correct the sampling error. In addition to that
the pilot study will be conducted so that errors in sampling can be noted and corrected
beforehand.
5.4.7 Data analysis procedures and interpretation
The collected data will be accumulated and arranged into a more workable framework which is
supposed to be classified, organized into tables, graphs and summaries. The analysis of data
will be carried out in the following stages:- First, the marginal cost pricing model. Second, the
proportional marginal cost pricing model and lastly the alternative price model. These three
models will focus on service expansion and improvement of health care decisions regarding
user charges. The nature and extent of deviation of the price (user charge) from marginal cost;
84

the elasticity and magnitude of the demand function and the determination of welfare gain
resulted from service expansion. In addition to that the alternative pricing model will focus on
the application of constant user charges and its effect on optimal expansion/improvement
decisions of the suppliers.
Thus, health service demand is expected to have a linear relationship or logarithmic in nature.
This is described as:log Q = (log A - B log P); or Q = (A - BP)
where,
P = User charge
Q = quantity or volume of service offered/rendered
A = Constant
B = Coefficient of P which shows different elasticities when multiplied by P
6.0 Work Plan
The Project is expected to take off in October 1996. The duration of the project will be thirty
months (2.5 years). The time scheduled and work plan of the project is expected to be as
follows:

Submission of Periodic Progress Reports

Data Collection
Literature Review

Final
Submission

Report Writing

Pilot study
Data Analysis & Interpretation
Data Collection

Design of
Instruments
October,
April, 1997
1996
Milanzi, 1996

October,
1997

April, 1998

October,
1998

April, 1999

7.0 Ethical Considerations of the Study

The Institute of Development Management, Mzumbe will provide the clearance letter to every
institutions where this study will be conducted in the five regions identified earlier. The
Institute of Development Management has been authorized to undertake research in line with
the Institutes Guidelines for Conducting Research July, 1994. This study is a social economic

85

type of research which will dwell on behaviour, attitudes, perception and opinions of the
respondents in question.
8.0 Critical Assessment of the Study
It is expected that the political and donor influence might have limited the attainment of the
objectives cited in this proposal. However, the Principal Investigator would like to confirm that
such events may be beyond the control of the Principal Investigator.
9.0

Bibliography

Amonoo - Lartson, R., G.J. Ebrahim, H.J. Lovel and J. P. Ranken (1984) District Health Care
Challenges for Planning, London: Macmillan Press.
Bentil, M. A., (1984) `The Strategies and Problems of Administrative Reform in African
States, in AAPAM, African Public Services: Challenges and a Profile for the Future, New
Delhi: Vikas Publishing House
Blunt, P. (1995), `Cultural Relativism, `good Governance and Sustainable Human
Development, Public Administration and Development, Vol 15, 1 - 9.
Kajwahura, P. L. (1993) Health Sector Financing in Tanzania: A Case Study on User Charges
in the Coast Region, Research Report, IDM, Mzumbe.
Kikwawila Study Group, (1994) Qualitative Research Methods, Resource Paper No 3, WHO.
Kiwara, A.D. (1994) `Health and Health Care in a Structurally Adjusting Tanzania, in
Msambichaka, L.A., H.P.B. Moshi and F.P. Mtatifikolo (Eds) Development Challenges and
Strategies for Tanzania, Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press, pp 269 - 290.
La Monica, E.L. and P.I.Morgan, (1985) Management in Health Care, London: Macmillan.
Schulz, R. And A.C. Johnson, (1983) Management of Hospitals, New York: Mc Graw Hill.
Semboja, J.J. (1994) `Trends in Government Recurrent Expenditures and Lessons for the
Future, in Msambichaka, L.A., H.P.B. Moshi and F.P. Mtatifikolo (Eds) Development
Challenges and Strategies for Tanzania, Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press, pp
229 - 244.
Titmus, R.M. (1964) The Health Services of Tanganyika: A Report to the Government,
London: Pitman.
United Republic of Tanzania, (1970) The Second Five Year Plan for Economic and Social
Development, Vol I General Analysis, Dar es Salaam: Government Printer.
United Republic of Tanzania, (1993) Guidelines for the Preparation of the Second Rolling
Plan and Forward Budget 1994/95 - 1996/97, Dar es Salaam: Government Printer.

86

United Republic of Tanzania, (1994), The Rolling Plan and Forward Budget for Tanzania for
the Period 1994/95 - 1996/97, Vol I, Dar es Salaam: Government Printer.
UNPF (1993) Inventory of Population Projects in Developing Countries around the World,
UNDP.
WHO, (1993) Tropical Diseases Research Progress 1991 - 92, Geneva.
Yoder, R. (1989) `Are People Willing and Able to Pay for Health Services? Social Science in
Medicine, Vol 29 No 1, pp 35 - 42

87

EXAMPLE III
EXPRESSION OF INTEREST
FOR
Consultancy on Farmer/Pastoralists Conflict Resolution and Reconciliation Programme
in Kilosa District
1 Background
There is a long-standing conflict between farmers, agro-pastoralists and pastoral tribes in some
parts of Tanzania. The conflicts and clashes between farmers and pastoral tribes have been
experienced in Kilosa District for some years. The livestock owned by pastoral tribes damage
crops in the farms owned by farmers in the area causing some clashes, conflicts and bloodshed
since 1970. These clashes, conflicts, bloodshed and misunderstandings between people with
different economic activities have persisted for many years. At least 42 people have lost their
lives in Kilosa District between January 1998 and December 2000.
2 The Main Purpose of the Assignment
The main purpose of the assignment is to alleviate farmer/pastoralists conflicts and improve
social-economic interaction including the living standards and good relationships between
pastoralists, pastoral-farmers and farmers in Kilosa District in Tanzania.
In achieving the above purpose the following objectives will be achieved:
1)

To find out the nature (type and form) of conflict relationship between conflicting
tribes/groups in Kilosa District;

2)

To find out reasons and sources of conflicts, clashes and misunderstandings (both
potential and actual) between farmers and pastoral tribes in Kilosa District;

3)

To identify and determine some reactions or outcomes, which result from conflict
or non-conflict relationship and interaction within and between conflicting
tribes/groups in Kilosa District;

4)

To discuss and agree among parties on the causes of conflict between members of
the parties;

5)

To study the reporting relationships and administration in the management and

handling of conflict at the ward, village and district levels;

6)

To find out solutions to solving the problems of conflict between tribes with
different socio-economic activities in Kilosa District;

7)

To prepare the conflict resolution programme discussed and accepted by all parties;

88

8)

To identify the conflict resolution structures and mechanisms put in place both in
the central government, local government and local mechanisms in villages;

9)

To determine the appropriate mode of land administration that needs to be put in

place in the District.

3.0 Scope of the Task

To attain the above objectives three consultants from Mzumbe University are applying to
undertake the assignment in accordance with the scope of work outlined in the given Terms of
Reference (TOR). The assignment will examine and propose the conflict resolution and
reconciliation programme among tribes/groups in Kilosa District.
The assignment requires consultants to pay particular attention to the following:
Analysis of written documents related to this assignment.
It involves the revision and analysis of various documents and a literature

review and

provide background information on:

Livestock-farmer conflict in Tanzania especially on causes, resolution processes and the
aftermath;
Various relevant laws and policies which have some relationship with livestock-farmer
conflict;
Highlight some past and current task forces/committees on matters related to conflict
handling, resolution and management in Tanzania;
To have a documentary search and review on livestock-farmer conflict in Kilosa District
with special attention to the following:
Parties involved and nature of their involvement;
Analysis of real and perceived causes of conflict from various weltanschauungen;
The nature and impact of conflict on economic, social, cultural and political relations;
Conflict resolution processes and mechanisms currently applied and their possible
results;

89

To establish a conflict resolution mechanism/framework that show:

Strategic, tactical, and operational interventions for conflict resolution and
containment;
Time frame for implementation of different conflict resolution processes;
A preliminary costing for each activity;
Responsibility, accountability and roles assigned to each stakeholder from the
household up to the national level including the nature of their involvement.
4.0 Approach and Methodology
Consultants intend to use systems approach in order to guide our work. The approach is
considered appropriate since it tends to look at the total farmer-pastoralist interaction in their
day-to-day context of their life. In addition to that systems approach facilitates the
identification of some emergent properties within the farmer-pastoralist context, which enhance
some synergy, interrelationships and dependencies amongst variables in the development and
identification of conflict and conflict resolution in Kilosa District. The simple model of systems
approach will be used which looks at inputs, process and outputs with feedback and control
mechanisms put in place within the system. The approach will assist consultants to capture the
objectives of this assignment.

The methodology that will be used in this assignment is underpinned by both ethnomethodology and positivism. Ethno-methodology has been selected in order to collect some
information and data about the problem based on the individual accounts of key
people/respondents. Ethno-methodology takes into account the respondents account during
interview and panel discussions (between respondents and consultants) that will be used as
units of analysis. Some enactments and accomplishments will be determined based on the
evaluation of perceptions and opinions on best method to handle such conflicts. The cross-case
examinations of these enactments and accomplishments on perceptions, opinions and facts on
conflict resolution will be evaluated aiming at developing a framework for Conflict Resolution
and Reconciliation Programme in Kilosa District. Ethno-methodology would be mainly useful
to tap the non-structured and operational issues related to conflict and conflict resolution
processes in Kilosa District. The structured issues (positivist approaches) can be tapped from
the analysis of written documents and the information derived from the mini-questionnaire that
90

will be prepared to collect some data to triangulate the qualitative data obtained from
interviews and panel discussions.
In addition to that a participatory method will be employed in order to obtain information on
various aspects of the assignment. Scientific method of obtaining representative sample from
the sampling frame will be employed. This will be applied to areas where there are conflicts
prone among the Maasai, Barbaigs, Wakaguru, Wasagara, Wasukuma, Wahehe, and Wagogo in
the District. The key personnel in the Kilosa District shall be included in the sample. This
includes the District Commissioner, District Executive Director, and some selected government
and non-government employees including the affected tribes.
The descriptive method will be used mostly to analyse the collected data. The assignment and
the report will be prepared and written in accordance of the TOR, but where there are specific
recommendations for action, an action plan for the same indicating responsible officers or
institutions will be made.

4.1 Work Plan

The assignment will be carried out as advised in the Terms of Reference. It is planned to take
14 days:
i. Day 0: Preparation of Consultancy Instruments: interview guide, a
mini-questionnaire, and some notes on farmer-pastoralist conflict in
Tanzania;
ii. Day 1: Consultants travel to Kilosa. Presentation of the Proposal at
the DCs, DEDs, DALDOs and LOs offices.
iii. Day 2: Extensive specific literature review and fine tuning;
iv. Day 3 11: Fieldwork; data collection in selected villages, wards and
from government and non-government officers.
v. Day 12 13: Data coding, analysis, interpretation, preparation and
presentation of the draft report; De-briefing;
vi. Day 14: Report adjustment:
vii. Day 15: Departure from Kilosa.
viii.Day 20: Submission of the Final report.

91

4.2 The Detailed Work Plan

Day 1: Preparation and Background
The team assembles, team briefings on the terms of reference, agrees on logistics and
consultancy administration in collaboration with the Institute of Public Administration of the
Mzumbe University meeting with the client, collection of general and specific documents and
the critical study of the background materials, checking the state of art and the preparation for
the next set of activities.

Day 2: Preparation for Field Work

Preparation for fieldwork on the basis of organisations to be visited and respondents to be
interviewed and given questionnaires. Designing interview guide and a mini-questionnaire
suitable for each organisation and person identified. On the basis of identified organisation and
persons start to make some appointments and receive some confirmation.
Day 3 11: The Actual Field Work
1) Interviews with the selected farmers, agro-pastoralists, government officers,
pastoralists, and people working in NGOs in the area;
2) Interviews with leaders of the village governments;
Day 12 & 13: Data Analysis and Report Writing
The submission of the inception report, which is an output from analysis and interpretation of
data. The production and distribution of the report for presentation to the client.
Day 14: Adjustment of the Report
The correction and adjustment of the report after the discussion with the client.
Day 15: Departure from Kilosa
The final departure from Kilosa District after the presentation of the first draft of the report.
Day 20: The Submission of the Final Report
The submission of the final report after adjustment of the report and comments from the client.
***

92

CHAPTER SIX
DATA TABULATION AND PRESENTATION
6.0 Introduction
Data is collected by using the primary and secondary data sources that we have already
covered in the earlier chapters. The answers that have been presented by respondents during
research activity of data collection need to be analysed. The analysis can be done by the
classification and tabulation of collected information. Classification and tabulation can provide
the clear picture of the significance of the material arranged that no further analysis is required.
6.1 Classification of Data
Classification implies the arrangement of related facts into categories or classes. Facts in one
class must be different from those of classification. Classification of data can be equated to the
process of sorting letters in a post office.
6.1.1 Aims of Classification of Data in Research
In research the scientists classify data in order to attain the following objectives:
a) To condense the mass of data in such a way that similarities and differences can readily be
apprehended;
b) To facilitate comparison;
c) To describe the most significant features of the data at a glance;
d) To give prominence to the important information gathered while dropping out the
unnecessary elements;
e) To enable a statistical treatment of the material collected.
6.1.2 Types of Data Classification
Data can be classified into the following categories:
a) Locational/Geographical such as cities, towns, villages, districts;
b) Chronological: on the basis of time;
c) Qualitative: according to some attributes;
d) Quantitative: in terms of magnitudes.
Geographical Classification
It is a type of classification on the basis of locational differences between various items. The
classifications should be listed in ascending or descending order for easy reference. Sometimes
items may be listed by size or magnitude.
93

Table 6.1 Agricultural Development in the Big Four Regions in Tanzania

REGION

PERCENTAGE
ENCOURAGIN
G

AN INTEGRATED
SYSTEM

Iringa

67.00

83.00

Mbeya

82.50

47.00

Rukwa

38.40

46.00

Ruvuma

46.60

15.30

TOTAL

234.20

191.30

Average

58.55

47.80

Source: Table 4.1 from Milanzi (1994: 84).

Chronological Classification
When data are observed over a period of time the type of categorisation is known as
chronological classification. Time series are usually listed in chronological order, normally
starting with the earliest period.
Table 6.2 Some Inside-out strategies introduced and Implemented through politics
CAMPAIGN
Siasa ni Kilimo (Politics is
Agriculture)
Mtu ni Afya (Man is health)
Kilimo cha Umwagiliaji Maji
Mashambani (Irrigation
Farming)

Kilimo cha Kufa na Kupona

(Agriculture is a Matter of
Life and Death)
Ujamaa Vijijini (Villagisation
Programme )

ESTABLISHED
FROM
1972
1973
1974

From 1974 to 1975

From 1974 to 1976

Source: Table 4.3 Milanzi (1994: 90).

94

MAIN OBJECTIVE
To bring about some improvements
in the agricultural sector
Health for all Tanzanians
To educate farmers on the
usefulness of controlling their
environment. That is agriculture
can be done without the need for
rainfall. The artificial rain is
irrigation.
The importance of agriculture in
Tanzania as a backbone of the
Tanzania's economy.
To gather people together so that
they may work together in the
large communal farms.

Qualitative Classification
Data are categorised on the basis of some attributes or quality such as sex, colour of hair,
literacy, religion, tribe. The attribute or characteristic under study cannot be measured: one can
only find out whether it is present or absent in the units of the population under study.
Table 6.3 Family Members Attitudes towards Christianity
Family Member
Montanus
Scholastica
Edson
Edwin
Basuta
Bruno
Patricia
Gerard
Sauda
Mzee Rajabu

Religious Inclination (Christianity)

1
4
3
2
4
3
2
1
0
0

Key: 0 means the lowest/weakest inclination to Christianity whereas 5 means the strongest
inclination to Christianity
Quantitative Classification
It refers to the classification of data according to some characteristics that can be measured
such as weight, height, income, expenditure, sales, profits, production and many more.
Table 6.4 Weight of Family Members
Family Member
Montanus
Scholastica
Edson
Edwin
Basuta
Bruno
Patricia
Gerard
Sauda
Mzee Nassoro

Weight in Kilograms
99
80
73
67
47
34
22
9
58
70

6.2 Tabulation of Data

95

Tabulation means presentation of data into tables. Tables enable an analyst to present a huge
mass of data in a detailed orderly manner within a minimum space. Hence, tabular presentation
is a cornerstone of statistical reporting.
Tabulation is important because of the following advantages:
1) It simplifies complex data;
2) It facilitates comparison;
3) It gives identity to the data;
4) It reveals patterns.
Parts of a Table
a) Table number;
b) Title of the table;
c) Caption (column headings);
d) Stub (row headings or designations);
e) Body of the table;
f) Headnote; and
g) Footnote.
The following is the specimen of table showing the constituent parts of it:
Table Number

Headnote

Title
Stub
Heading

Caption
Column heading

Stub
Entries

Body

Footnotes

Source

In the following table (Table 6.5) identify the main constituents of the tabulation.

96

Table 6.5 Women Profile of the Savings and Credit Associations under the Karagwe Micro
Finance Institute (KAMFI)
Name of Association
KAEFO
SAWATA Kanyabuleza
Abateganda
Tumusime
Umoja ni Nguvu
Upendo Nyakahanga
Balimi
Mbelu
Kishao
UWAKA
TOTAL

Members
30
16
22
25
21
22
19
30
21
17
223

Percentage of Female Mean Age of

Members in the Group Members
41
36
13
59
100
34
100
32
66
41
100
34
11
43
100
35
52
46
100
38

Source: Milanzi, M.C. (2002: 10).

6.3 Data Presentation through Diagrams, Maps and Graphs
Researchers can also present results through diagrams, maps and graphs. Evidence of this can
be found in newspapers, newsletters, magazines, journals and advertisements. There are
various ways in which statistical data can be displayed pictorially such as different types of
diagrams, graphs and maps. Tables contain precise figures whereas diagrams give only an
approximate idea. Exact values can be read from the table. In addition to that tables usually
need much closer reading and are more difficult to interpret than diagrams, maps and graphs.
More information can be presented in one table than either in one graph, maps or diagrams.
Graphs, diagrams and maps have visual appeal and thus, prove to be more impressive to an
ordinary person.
6.3.1 General Rules for Constructing Diagrams, Graphs and Maps
a) Title: Every map, diagram and graph must have a suitable title;
b) Proportion between width and height must be maintained;
c) Selection of scale which show the values. All lettering should be readable. The values should
be in even numbers or in multiples of five or ten such as 25, 50, 75, or 20, 30, 40, 50;
d) Footnote may be provided at the bottom of the map, diagram or graph as a key, legend or a
mere footnote;
e) Index, which illustrate different types of lines, shades, and colours;
f) Neatness and cleanliness: They must be absolutely neat and clean; and

97

g) Simplicity: They should be simple and the reader should be able to understand their meaning
clearly and easily.
Examples of diagrams:
1) Bar diagrams or histograms;
2) Rectangles, squares and circles;
3) Cubes, cylinders and spheres and
4) Pictograms and cartograms.
Examples of Graphs:
a) Graphs of Time series or line graphs: e.g. range charts, band graphs, ratio charts,
histograms;
b) Graphs of frequency distributions: frequency polygon, ogives, etc.
(To be completed in the next edition/revision)

98

CHAPTER SEVEN
DATA ANALYSIS
7.0 Introduction
The aims of data analysis in research is to make some statistical analysis in order to get one
single value that describes the characteristic of the entire mass of unwieldy data. There are
several ways in which scientists can use statistical analysis in research:
a) Using the measures of central tendency/value;
b) Measures of dispersion;
c) Measures of skewness, moments and Kurtosis;
d) Correlation analysis;
e) Regression analysis;
f) Association of attributes;
g) Index numbers;
h) Analysis of Time series;
i) Statistical inferences - tests of hypotheses
7.1 Measures of Central Value
It is a single value that represents a group of values.
i) Average
It is a single value selected from a group of values to represent them in some way - a value
which is supposed to stand for whole group, of which it is part, as typical of all the values in
the group. There are two main objectives of averaging: first to get a single value that describes
the characteristic of the entire group. Secondly, it facilitates comparison.
Types of averages:
a) Arithmetic mean: simple and weighted;
b) Median: middle value in a distribution, quartiles, deciles and percentiles;
c) Mode: the value in a series of observations which occurs with greatest frequency;
d) Geometric mean: Nth root of the product of N items or values;
e) Harmonic mean.
Arithmetic Mean
It is an average and its value is obtained by adding together all items and by dividing this total
by the number of items. There are two types of arithmetic mean:
1) Simple arithmetic mean, or

99

2) Weighted arithmetic mean.

Calculation of the Simple Arithmetic Mean
If frequencies are not given the calculation of an arithmetic mean becomes very simple.

(To be continued)
References
Bharadwaj, S. 1989. Case Study Method: Theory and Practice, New Delhi: National Book
Organisation
Chelimsky, E. 1989. Evaluating Public Programmes, in Handbook of Public Administration
(Perry, J.L. [ed.]), San Francisco: Jossey Bass, pp 259 - 273
Ormerod, R.J. 1997. An observation on Publication habits based on the analysis of MS/OR
Journals, Omega, Int. Mgmt Sci., 25 (5), 599 - 603
Reisman, A. and Kirschnick, F. 1995. Research strategies used by OR/MS workers as shown
by analysis in flagship journals, Opns. Res, 43, 731 - 740
Shaw, M. and Clifford, R. 1971. Case Study Method, London: Collins
Stein, H. 1948. Introduction: On Public Administration and Public Administration Cases, in
Public Administration and Policy Development: A Case Book, (Stein, H. [Ed.]), New York:
Harcourt, pp ix - xlv

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CHAPTER EIGHT
ORTHOGONALITY IN RESEARCH
Abstract
Orthogonality in research is one of the most important issues to be considered by researchers
before embarking in any research activity. The normality and homoscedasticity in the
distribution of dependent variables should be clearly defined and the representation of the
relationship between variables need to be placed in orthogonal axes. Orthogonality in
research is a key concept which calls for attention by every researcher. When research is
claimed to be orthogonal there is a better chance for its results to be understood and even be
applied in real world situation.
The author in this chapter answers the question which he poses about orthogonality in
research: `When research is said to be orthogonal? In other words, the author would like
some researchers to sieve homoscedasticity from non-homoscedasticity, normality from nonnormality in order to reduce possible research errors and multi-collinearity. It is claimed that
orthogonality in research guarantees the attainment of the best improved observations which
are primarily hypothesised that observations are related as views on the same object. Second,
it is tested whether this object allows one to distinguish repeated from non repeated
observations from varying circumstances. Third, if a distinction proves possible, the object is
accepted as identifying stable bounds, that is bounds the observation of which is transferable.
8.0 Introduction
The word `orthogonal has been derived from two Greek words namely `ortho which refers
to `straight, upright and perpendicular; and `gni which means an angle especially the rightangle. The notion of orthogonality derives from geometric interpretation of statistical
associations and refers to situations in which the relationship can be represented by means of
perpendicular or orthogonal axes. Orthogonality represents a standard in research. It identifies
a case that one can improve on the observational part of an action without having to look at
the actional part. In order to improve on the observational part one should look for those
observations or reports of events that belong together adequately to be combined into an
observation which individuals accept as a replacement for their own observations.
8.1 Four Meanings of Orthogonality
The word `orthogonal, therefore, refers to many meanings and interpretations. In this paper
we can at least distinguish four meanings of the word: First, in its mathematics sense
orthogonal is used to refer to perpendicular in relation to a pair of orthogonal co-ordinate axes.
Conditions for orthogonality in the first meaning can be expressed in vector notation, for if the
scalar product of two vectors vanishes, A . B = 0. This implies that the two vectors are
perpendicular to each other or orthogonal. The concept is generalised to n-dimensional space
by assuming two quantities with components Ai, Bi (i= 1, 2, ..., n) and they are then orthogonal
if

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AiBi = 0
i= 0

The second meaning can be described in relation to a set of mathematical functions such that
f1(x), f2(x), ..., are orthogonal within the range (a, b) (that is a x b) if
b

a fm(x)fn(x)dx = 0 where m n
Frequently, by convention, the functions are standardised so as to make the integral equal to
unity if m = n. In statistics they are sometimes said to be orthogonal in relation to the
distribution F(x) if
b

a fm(x)fn(x)dFx = 0 where m = n the range of x being from a to b.

The third meaning of orthogonal is used in relation to two variates or two linear functions of
variates that are statistically independent. We can identify a special case of orthogonal
functions that arise in many physical problems in the study of distribution functions, and in
some other situations where one approximates fairly general functions by polynomials. For
instance, each set of orthogonal polynomials is defined with respect to a particular averaging
procedure. The average value of a suitable function f is denoted by E{f}. In general, the
averaging procedure has the following form of equation
1

E{f} = -1f(x) dx
shown in the following equation, where is a distribution.

E{f} = - f(x) d (x)

function, that is, an increasing function with (- ) = 0 and (+ ) = 1
Two functions f and g are said to be orthogonal with respect to the averaging procedure if
E{fg') = 0 where the prime (') denotes a complex conjugation. By the system of orthogonal
polynomial associated with the averaging procedure is meant a sequence P 1, P2, P3, ... of
polynomials Pn having exact degree n, which are mutually orthogonal, that is, E{P mP'n} = 0 for
m n. This condition is equivalent to the statement that each P n is orthogonal to all
polynomials of degree less than n. Thus, P n has the form Pn(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ... + anxn
where an 0 and is subject to n conditions E{xkPn} = 0 for k = 0, 1, ..., n-1.

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The last meaning of orthogonal is used in research and statistics in relation to an experimental
design, which is called orthogonal if certain observed variates, or linear combinations of them,
can be regarded as statistically independent. For instance, in orthogonal regression given by a
set of bivariate values (x, y) represented as a set of points with Cartesian co-ordinates (x, y),
the so called `orthogonal regression is the straight line such that the sum of squares of
perpendiculars from the points on to the line is a minimum. For the purpose of this paper the
important point to note is that if we assume homoscedasticity and normality for the distribution
of dependent variable, then it can be shown that orthogonality implies statistical independence.
In many situations where there are more than two categories of data or variables being
compared in research, it is desirable to make a number of specific comparisons that have been
designated in advance of the testing procedure and that are based on theoretical interests. For
instance, the research which involves five groups, one of which is a control group and the
remainder is subject to different sets of research manipulations. We are assuming here that the
second and third groups have authoritarian leaders and have been subjected to moderate and
high degree of frustration, respectively. The fourth and fifth groups might also have been
subjected to moderate and extreme frustration but might have been involved democratic
leadership experiences. We might want to compare the control group or independent variable
with all four experimental groups or variables, but we might also want to compare the two
authoritarian groups with the two democratic, or the two moderate - frustration groups with
the two that have received extreme frustration. If we know the results of one comparison such
results can not automatically shed light on some of the others. The systematic way of deciding
about the comparison is required. The need is to make the variables statistically independent. In
other words, by making them orthogonal.
8.1 Orthogonality in Research
There is a general tendency of most research scientists and managers to assess research in
terms of the wider research environment alone. Adedeji and Hyden (1974: ix) show that most
African governments are positive to social science research since research in Africa offers
answers to questions that bother government decision makers. However, they indicate that the
research environment in Africa has some implications both at the theoretical and the
methodological level. Msambichaka (1994) identifies three constraints of research environment
in Tanzania: limited financial spending in research, lack of diversity of highly qualified
manpower and weak political commitment. Issues of orthogonality in research are generally
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ignored and rarely mentioned. There is need to embark into issues which look at research in
terms of the capability of researchers to separate and make a distinction between dependent
and independent variables in a very skilful way. For instance, it is evidently convenience in
carrying out regression analysis if the estimators 'i are uncorrelated: in fact, if the j are
normally distributed, so will the 'i be, since they are linear functions of Y, and lack of
correlation will then imply independence. Such regression analysis with uncorrelated estimators
is called orthogonal.
Orthogonality in research refers to the improvement of two parts of action: first, the series of
events that an actor can take as given in an action (observational part) and secondly, it consists
of the series of events which an actor can produce (actional part). A researcher can improve
an observational part of action by increasing the number of observations as given, and as
predictable from events in the actional part. Improving the actional part implies that one
excludes as many events as possible, and allow these to be moved to the observational part.
This will make precision less costly in what is to be achieved, and will help to avoid non
desired effects. There is need to stick to the general condition which is required to fulfilled
when one wants to improve an action through research: improvement on either of the two
parts should not impede each other, but should contribute to improvement of action, apart and
in conjunction. When the observational and action parts of an action satisfy this criterion they
are called orthogonal (Figure 1). Orthogonality provides a criterion of sufficiency in research.
It is a criterion which tries to identify a scientific object. De Zeeuw (1996) has pointed out that
a convention was introduced by Popper to decide what it is accepted as observation and a
framework to compare observation. He comes up with two conditions to distinguish a
scientific object from non scientific objects: The first condition is that one should be able to
identify whether an observation is part of the observed or not.

If the conclusion is that the

observation is part of the observed, the classical convention introduced by Popper does not
hold. A number of alternatives has been developed to deal with this type of situation. The aim
is to redesign the process of observation such that it does not need to be part of the observed.
The second condition is that it should be possible to identify the level of sameness among sets
of observations so that one can identify and compare differences among the observations in the
set.
Figure 1 Orthogonality in research
Y
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Organisation

This is the last moment

we can intervene (action)

This is the first moment

we can only observe
(Time)
0

Action part
Observational
(organisation) part

X
Actional part
(definition of the target)

Figure 8.1 shows an actor trying to hit the target. We can ask a number of questions
concerning this action: who is the actor, what instruments is he/she using and many other
questions. There are questions, which seem to be in line with what researchers often ask. These
are the `step out questions. These questions relate to the possibility of not doing what is
intended. That means, not hitting the target when the aim is to do so. Answering such `step
out questions does not seem too different from doing research.
There are three possible categories based on the selections of an actor. Lets call an actor as an
archer. The first selection appears at its starting point, the moment it becomes clear that the
arrow will deviate from the target: deviation is most clearly visible when the arrow stops
moving and it is least clearly when the arrow starts to move. Somewhere in between is the
best moment to predict deviation, in particular the moment one sees the arrow not going up
any longer and starting to go down. It is somewhere in the middle of the trajectory of an arrow.
This is the best time to intervene. In this case it seems impossible to change the course of the
arrow. Yet we can make some predictions by studying the movement of an arrow. By knowing
the parabolic path as well as the law of gravity we can make some predictions.
The second possibility is the separation of the last moment of action by the archer and the first
moment of pure observation. That is, observation not influenced by action. This is another step
forward to identify a research object. The third selection takes an archer into account and the
way he/she organises the shooting of an arrow. This may include changing the bow and
making it stronger. Or getting some extra exercises and follow organisation prescriptions. In
order to improve hitting the target one must make sure that all elements of the archers
organisation inform each other. To make an improvement implies that there is need for
intervention in organisation. The better intervention is the one which helps to achieve hitting
the target.

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Figure 8.2 can clearly illustrate the need to set a criterion of sufficiency in order to identify the
scientific object. Three conditions have been put in place: closure over observations,
computability or measurement and defensibility against values.

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Figure 8.2 The criterion of sufficiency of the scientific object

Externally observed
properties and values (V*)
supplied by users
V*

Internal values (V*) imported

from outside
Lets look at each of these conditions in turn:
8.2 The closure over observations
Observations can be closed if and only if a property has been established over the elements
under investigation. The property can be achieved through research by applying several tactics
for scientific advancement. There four major research strategies which can be used to close
observations namely inductive, deductive, retroductive and abductive research strategies.
Ormerod (1997) and Reisman and Kirschnick (1995) identify seven research strategies:
1) Ripple: it extends the earlier work incrementally;
2) Embedding: two or more models are used together in the same study;
3) Bridging: it fills the gap that has been identified in the earlier studies;
4) Transfer of technology: it applies an approach or methodology that was originally used in
another context;
5) Creative application: some innovative and creative ideas are used;
6) Structuring: a new organisation is created; and
7) Statistical modelling: mathematical explanations and descriptions are created.
Inductive research strategy operates with two important assumptions about observations: First,
the assumption that all science starts with observation and secondly, that observation provides
a secure basis from which knowledge can be derived. Thus, the strategy tries to make careful
observation, conduct experiments, rigorous analyses on data obtained in order to produce new
discoveries and new theories. It is claimed that inductive research strategy excludes personal
opinions in order to arrive what is believed to be objective knowledge. Observations and

107

experience are not restricted to what can be perceived directly by human senses. It includes the
use of machines and other instruments which extend the senses, the readings from which can
be inspected and interpreted. Direct and indirect observation are theory dependent, through the
concepts and theories which explicitly or implicitly make it possible for a scientist to observe at
all, and through the theories that are used to construct the instruments.
Figure 8.3 Induction versus Deduction
Laws and theories

INDUCTION

DEDUCTION

Facts acquired through

observation

Predictions and
explanations

Induction has the following stages:- First, all facts are observed and recorded without selection
or guesses as to their relative importance. Secondly, these facts are analysed, compared and
classified without using hypotheses. Then, from this analysis, generalisations are inductively
drawn as to the relations between them. And eventually, these generalisations are subjected to
further testing.
The second strategy is called deductive research strategy which refers to the hypotheticodeductive or falsificationist approach or the method of conjecture and refutation. Karl Popper
advocated about it. It consists of a set of hypotheses or propositions which are arranged in
such a way that they form some of propositions as premises all other propositions follow. Such
a theory has the form of a logical argument which leads to certain conclusions. You should
first attempt to refute the hypotheses, to falsify it. It starts with a problem or a question that
needs to be understood or explained. Instead of starting with observations, the first stage is to
produce a possible answer to the question, or an explanation for the problem.
A research scientist has a great freedom to propose a theory but has to hand over to nature the
task of deciding whether any of the conclusions drawn from it are false. A falsificationist sees
science as a set of hypotheses that are tentatively proposed with the aim of accurately
describing or accounting for the behaviour of some aspect of the world or universe.

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Poppers strategy of deduction

1. Begin by putting forward a tentative idea, a conjecture, a hypothesis or a set of hypotheses
that form a theory;
2.

Deduce a conclusion or a number of conclusions (with the help of other previously

accepted hypotheses or by specifying conditions under which the hypotheses are expected
to hold).

3. Examine conclusions and the logic of the argument that produced them. Compare this
argument with existing theories to see if it would an advance in our understanding. If you
are satisfied with this examination:4. Test the conclusion by gathering appropriate data, make the necessary observations or
conduct the necessary experiments.
5. If the test fails, that is, if the data are not consistent with the conclusion, the theory must be
false. The original conjecture does not match up with reality and must therefore be rejected.
6. If, however, the conclusion passes the test, that is, the data are consistent with it, the theory
is temporarily supported - it is corroborated; not proved to be true.
The third research strategy is called retroduction. Retroduction is adopted by the realist
approach. Three steps are followed by those researchers who adopt this strategy: First, it
begins in the domains of the actual. Secondly, it postulates the existence of real structures and
mechanisms which, if they existed, would explain the relationship. Lastly, it attempts to
demonstrate the existence and operation of these structures and mechanisms.
Retroduction is the construction of hypothetical models as a way of uncovering the real
structures and mechanisms which are assumed to produce empirical phenomena. Retroduction
aims at building some models in order to explain some observed regularity.
In order to explain observable phenomena, and regularities that obtain between them, scientists
must attempt to discover appropriate structures and mechanisms. Secondly, since these
structures and mechanisms will typically be unavailable to observation, we first construct a
model of them, often drawing upon already familiar sources. Third, the model is such that,
were it to represent correctly these structures and mechanisms, the phenomena would then be
causally explained. Fourth, we then proceed to test the model as hypothetical description of
actually existing entities and their relations that is, through empirical testing. Fifth, if these
tests are successful, this gives good reason to believe in the existence of these structures and
mechanisms. Sixth, it may be possible to obtain more direct confirmation of these existential
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claims, by the development and use of suitable instruments, and eventually the whole process
of model building may then be repeated, in order to explain the structures and mechanisms
already discovered.
The last research strategy is abduction. Abduction goes beyond description to explanation and
prediction. It involves the construction of theory which is derived from social actors.
Abduction uses language to attain meanings which are then translated into theories. Abduction
is the process used to produce social scientific accounts of social life by drawing on the
concepts and meanings used by social actors, and the activities in which they engage.
The social world is the world perceived and experienced by its members - from the inside.
Hence, the task of the social scientists to discover and describe this insider view, not to impose
an outside view on it. Thus, it discovers why people do what they do. It is by unfolding tacit,
mutual knowledge, the symbolic meanings, intentions and rules which provide the orientations
of their actions. It is about how people structure their world.
1. Everyday concepts and meanings provide the basis for,
2. Social action and interaction about which,
3. Social actors can give accounts from which,
4.

Social scientific descriptions can be made either for which or understood in terms of;

5. Social theories which can be generated and/or social theories or perspectives

Abduction is a process of moving from lay descriptions of social life, to technical descriptions
of the social life, that the notion of abduction is applied.
How can we grasp their standards? It is by learning the language of the alien culture. It may be
possible to discover the rules which people follow - and hence to understand their activities as
they understand them.

8.4 Computability or Measurement

Measurement is concerned with assigning numbers to objects or observations such that the
numbers are amenable to manipulation. It also involves the establishment of qualitative
empirical relations between variables. Measurement in social science research involves the
ordering or spacing of observations or objects along a dimension. These analyses and
manipulations are conducted according to mathematical rules. These rules have the advantage
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which encompasses numerous well validated and universally accepted arguments and theorems
which may be applied to empirical propositions using a common language. There are two
evaluating measures namely reliability and validity. Peck and Shapiro (1990) are more positivist
to explaining the two evaluating measures. Reliability addresses the question of consistency,
that is, does the measure as a whole, and do the items comprising the measure, give roughly
the same kind of results when used under the same circumstances? Validity addresses the
question of whether a device is a true measure of the characteristic being assessed.
There are four types of measurements in research namely nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.
First, the nominal measurement involves the determination of the presence or absence of a
characteristic by naming of a quality (categorical measurement). It tries to measure
distinctions. Second, an ordinal measurement ranks or otherwise by determining an order of
intensity for a quality. It provides and identifies the relative intensity of a characteristic. It
shows a relative position such as a socio economic status of people in a certain country. Third,
an interval measurement involves a continuum composed of equally spaced intervals shown in
scales such as F or C. It measures an arbitrary amounts, for example, of temperature
variations - heat. The fourth one is ratio measurement which measures actual amounts. It
involves a continuum that includes a value of zero representing the absence of quality. For
instance, age is a ratio measurement. Table 1 gives the philosophical differences between
validity, reliability and generalisability in research.

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Table 8.1 Validity, Reliability and Generalisability with philosophical viewpoint adopted
S/
N
1

Criterion
choice
Validity

for Positivist viewpoint

Reliability

Generalisability

Phenomenological viewpoint

- Does an instrument measure - Has the researcher gained

what is supposed to measure? full access to the knowledge
and meanings of informants?
- Will the measure yield the - Will similar observations be
same results on different made by different researchers
occasions (assuming no real on different occasions?
change in what is to be
measured)?
- What is the probability that - How likely is it that ideas
patterns observed in a sample and theories generated in one
will also be present in the setting will also apply in other
wider population from which settings?
the sample is drawn?

Source: After Easterby-Smith et al (1991) Management Research: An Introduction, London:

Sage, page 41
The following description helps to identify the type of research measurement necessary for a
particular research problem. Since there are four key types of measurement (nominal, ordinal,
interval and ratio) a researcher is required to be equipped with a clear knowledge of the type of
measurement he/she is going to apply. This is a necessary condition for orthogonality.
Lets start with the use of the measures of central tendency in research. These are averages.
There are two types of averages namely positional averages and mathematical averages. The
positional averages used in research are median and mode; and there are four mathematical
averages used namely arithmetic mean, weighted mean, geometric mean and harmonic mean.
The choice of suitable measurement is governed by the ultimate purpose of investigation so
long as the proper choice is made, the comparison with other series and conclusions drawn will
be trustworthy. There are other averages which have less advantage than others. For instance,
the geometric mean can be useful in situations where there are small values and outliers whilst
the harmonic mean gives an added advantage of being capable for further algebraic treatment
and it can not be affected by fluctuations of sampling so as the geometric mean.
The measures of dispersion indicates the extent to which the individual values fall away from
the average or the central value. These measures include the range, inter quartile range, deciles,
percentiles, quartile deviation, average deviation, standard deviation and Lorenz curve. There
is also a need to consider the measure of skewness, moments and kurtosis in order to

112

understand the extent of symmetry or asymmetry in a distribution. Four types of relative

measures are used here: Karl Pearsons coefficient of skewness, Bowleys coefficient of
skewness, Kellys coefficient of skewness and the measure of skewness based on moments and
kurtosis (leptokurtic, mesokurtic and platykurtic).

Mean, median and mode are used in

measuring skewness of the distribution.

There are other types of measures that can be used in research: regression and correlation
analysis, non parametric tests such as Chi- square (), Mann Whitney test; time series and
index numbers. Index numbers provide specialised averages judged to be representative of the
whole. Index numbers can be expressed in percentage form so as to show the extent of
relative change and they measure changes not capable of direct measurement; and above all
they are used for comparison. They compare changes taking place over time or between places
or in like categories.
The employment of these tools of analysis should always be governed the ultimate purpose of
investigation and the justification of employing them must be determined by an appeal to all the
facts and in the light of peculiar characteristics of the different types.
8.5 Defensibility against Values
It is a process which creates the context such that observations can be selected about which we
can talk as belonging together in terms of an object (Figure 2). A disadvantage with this type of
solution is that people may bring in their own or other peoples values. That is, people may
tend to defect and if this happens the properties will not emerge. To be able to satisfy the
criterion for sufficiency one is to be able to introduce and maintain the agreed values (V*)
either through training or force (instruction). The second possible alternative is to introduce
the process of negotiation over the values (V*) among people who indicate to be willing to
exchange observations on how they act. Through negotiation people may identify values to
serve as conditions under which each participant is able to produce what can be observed by
others. Then, the values become part and product of what some call a conversational process.
This will ultimately allow the combined participants to show properties which satisfy the
criterion of sufficiency.
It is possible to identify other defensible ways or solutions in research. However, the two
solutions outlined above do not represent theories about how individuals interact.

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8.6 Conclusion
Orthogonality in research is a key issue to be addressed by every researcher. Research should
always aim at information transfer. Research constitutes only one instance, that is,
observations which conserve information.

If research variables become statistically

independent (orthogonal) we can be sure of the possibility of attaining observations which

conserve information.
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Blaikie, N., (1993) Approaches to Social Enquiry, Cambridge: Polity Press
Blalock, H.M. (1960) Social Statistics, New York: McGraw Hill
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School of Management, UK
Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. and Lowe, A., (1991) Management Research: An
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Peck, D.F. and C.M.Shapiro, (1990) `Guidelines for the Construction, Selection and
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CHAPTER NINE
RESEARCH REPORT WRITING
EXAMPLES OF REPORTS
The Problems of Local Security at the Institute of Development Management in
Tanzania
Introduction
This paper reports on the results of the study (conducted between January and March 1994)
which seeks to obtain insights about the trends of the security system at the Institute of
Development Management (IDM), Mzumbe in Tanzania. It, therefore, examines the extent to
which the system of security management at IDM contributes to the surfeit theft which seems to
escalate. A meiotic analysis has been made on condition that the causes and reasons of the
problems are to be disclosed as well as recommending on the steps to be taken to a better
management of the security system at the Institute.
This paper has been organized into six sections. The first part is an introduction which provides a
brief account of the IDM's security system since her establishment in 1972. The second part
which forms one of the hubs of the paper looks at the objectives of conducting this study. The
research questions through hypothesis tests have been posed in this section so as to provide a
yardstick in the analysis of the findings and conclusions.
The third section provides an arena for data collection and methods implemented to facilitate this
research. The researcher has attempted to collect the general data. The data collected in this
study are not been thoroughly studied to understand the critical features of each respondent. The
data collected in this study need not to be taken from the normally distributed population! The
reason for this is the strong influence of the quirks in respect to security at IDM which have
affected the selection of the sample in the population. The limitations in the population rest on the
sample selection which justifies and rationalizes the choice of the method and techniques of data
analysis.
The fourth part, the results, provides the findings which is the product of manipulation of data
collected suitable for this research. The dissemination of the results have been used in determining
various relationships. The relationship between different variables has been determined in the
study. The testing of the hypotheses form the basis of discussion in the fifth section. The fifth part
is the discussion which provides an analysis of the results depicted in section four. The discussion

116

renders the efforts in the interpretation of the results. The last part is the conclusion and
recommendations which sum up the details of the findings and the study.
Archetype is the term used in this study refer to the strong influences between theft incidents at
the institute and the attitudes of the security guards towards the eradication of such theft
behaviour. Archetype looks at the values and the way on how each of them influences one
another. Embryonic coherence centres on how disagreement between the values can be identified
and interpreted in such a way that the stated objectives can be met. The schizoid incoherence
refers to the incoherence in the security office resulted from a number of inconsistencies such as
the organisational structure, communication lines and the division of roles amongst the decision
makers.
Research (Study) Objectives
This study has the following objectives:- First, the study aims at determining the extent of
security improvement at IDM and finding out the causes of poor security practices as revealed by
the security guards working at the institute. Secondly, the study focuses on the analysis of the
effects of laxity on the side of the administration of the security authority at IDM in respect of the
security improvement efforts in the IDM community. Thirdly, the study aims at finding out the
reasons and causes of theft (at least the reported incidents) which takes place despite the fact that
there are security guards at IDM. In other words, the author wishes to prove whether the IDM's
security guards contribute to the theft events taking place now and then at the institute.
The fourth objective centres on the finding out why some IDM residents fail to be positively
security conscious in security affairs of the institute; and fifthly, to see and evaluate the steps and
measures being taken by IDM's management in combating the problems mentioned above. After
the investigations, to recommend on the measures to be taken by different parties involved in the
improvement of IDM's security thus enabling the residents in the community enjoy the operations
of the IDM's security guard system. Above all, the study would benefit other institutions for the
findings are going to be disseminated in diverse ways and techniques. The `bandwagon effect' is
assumed to take place after the output of this research has been disseminated.
Research Hypotheses
The researcher has attempted to use inferential statistics to make decisions about the value of each
parameter. One of the most commonly used procedures for making such decisions is to perform
an hypothesis testing. Hypothesis testing is the procedure whereby theory and reality are brought
117

face to face with each other. A hypothesis in this study is simply refers to a statement that
something is true. In this study the two types of hypotheses will be examined in detail. One type
of hypothesis is called a null hypothesis [HO] and the other is called the alternative hypothesis
[HA].
The researcher had conceived the four sets of hypotheses for an effective decision making rule in
the variables selected. A test of hypothesis H is a rule that specifies for each possible set of values
of the observations whether to accept or reject the hypothesis, should these particular values be
observed. The major aims of hypothesis are: to test theories, to suggest theories and to describe
social phenomena. Above all hypotheses try to promote change. The researcher tested the
following hypotheses in the study for that sake:
SET I:
H1O = IDM's Security Guards Contribute to the Security Problems at the Institute.
H1A = IDM's Security Guards do not Contribute to the Security Problems at the Institute
SET II:
H2O = Provision of Security Gears Influences the Effectiveness of the Security system at
the Institute.
H2A = Provision of Security Gears does not Influence the Effectiveness of the Security
system at the Institute.
SET III:
H3O = Senior Security Guards are more keen to their jobs.
H3A = Senior security Guards are not more keen to their jobs.
SET IV:
H4O = IDM's Management is involved in Security issues in keeping the community
security conscious.
H4A = IDM's Management is not involved in Security issues in keeping the community
security conscious.
Data and Method
Data and Types of Data Collected
The qualitative and ordinal data have been gathered in the study. The collection of these types of
data is advantageous: The qualitative data has generally very little expenditure of time, money
and effort. In addition to that a qualitative data has helped the researcher to understand the
substantive area in which he has decided to study. The researcher did not embark on the thorough
collection of the metric information because the real nature and characteristics of the population
was not thoroughly studied and scrutinised by the author.

The methods employed, non-

parametric ones, allow for the possibility of a researcher to incorporate qualitative variables such
as culture, perceptions, attitudes, opinions of the selected sample. However, the researcher opted

118

for the distribution free methods on condition that the problem of reductionism may be eradicated
or minimized. It is also assumed that to avoid suspicion over the security issue at the institute the
researcher relied most of his analysis on the distribution free methods in which feelings,
impressions, perceptions, views and opinions of the respondents can be coded and edited for
interpretation.
The non parametric methods are based on explicitly weaker assumptions than such classical
parametric procedures as student's t-test and analysis of variance.

The methods are less

demanding; have no specific distributional assumptions; and the parameters that have desirable
invariance properties under modifications in scale of measurement.
There are several reasons for the selection of this method instead of the normal theory
(parametric) procedures. The two major reasons prevail: Populations are not normal and the
non-parametric procedures have the concern about occasional outliers.

That is the non-

parametric procedures or techniques are quite sensitive to even a few extreme or outlying
observations. The median and other tools employed in the free distribution methods are more
resistant than normal theory methods to distortion by a few gross errors.
Data Collection Methods
Data was collected from interviews, observation, self administered questionnaires and the
utilization of the secondary data sources available at the Institute of Development Management
(IDM)'s libraries and offices. The sampling frame constitutes the population of security guards
employed at the Institute of Development Management, Mzumbe from July 1971 to December
1993. Nineteen questionnaires (19) were prepared and distributed to two pairs of sample [Sample
A and sample B]. Thirty eight point seven eight percent of the population were included in the
sample by being given a self administered questionnaire (Table I).

119

Table I Percentage of the Sample from the Population

S/No

Method

Sampling
Frame

Selected Sample

Percentage of the
sample from the total
Population
B

Questionnaire

49

10

38.78

Interviews

49

12.24

Observation

49

11

19

61.22

Secondary Data

Reasonable

Used

The sample selected was a non-probability sample from the sampling frame of the IDM's security
guards. The chance of each respondent to fall in the sample carries a characteristic of being
accidental; hence a non-probability sample. The interviews both structured and unstructured
ones have also been conducted to collect additional information in the topic under discussion.
Two major interviews were conducted with three respondents in each sample who were
conversant with the security system at the institute. The interviewees represented 12.24 percent
of the sampling frame of 49 security guards.
Thirty respondents were observed by the researcher in the course of their work. They represented
61.22 percent of the target population. The researcher observed the selected security guards in
order to measure attitudes of the respondents in respect of the theft at the institute. The
knowledge, feeling and action components of the respondents were observed by the researcher at
different time intervals.
Techniques Employed
The following methods were employed in this study: The goodness-of-fit-test or Chi-square, the
hypotheses testing, the sign-test, Wilcoxon-Signed rank test, Mann-Whitney test and the rank
correlation. None of the efforts were made to incorporate any test which needed some obvious
parameters.
Data Analysis and Interpretation
The data analysis and interpretation employed in the study took the advantage of the statistical
packages at the IDM's computer centre. The Minitab application programme, Wordperfect and

120

Lotus 1-2-3 were used to process, analyze, interpret data and finally preparation of this report
ready for dissemination.
There were twenty two variables in total which were then developed into six sets of code
categories. The code categories were designed in such a way that they match with the research
objectives. The coding scheme outlines twenty nine coding parts or responses. Table II illustrates
the choice of the coding categories based on the questionnaire designed by the researcher.

121

Table II Code Categories Designed in the Study [Security Guard Questionnaire]

S/N

Code Categories

POSITION

EMPLOYMENT

Coding Scheme

Number of Variables

II

THEFT

III

GEARS

IV

11

11

ASSISTANCE

CAUSE

VI

Results
This study in the first set of hypotheses asserts that: The respondents wondered to hear from
members of the community that they have made an insignificant contribution to the security
problems at the institute. Seventy five percent of the interviewed respondents believed that they
are not the contributory agents to the theft and other related problems at the campus.
SET I:
H1O = IDM's Security Guards Contribute to the Security Problems at the Institute.
H1A = IDM's Security Guards do not Contribute to the Security Problems at the Institute
The researcher considered at the H1O and H1A in terms of the extent or the degree to which the
institute's security guards assist or not assist in maintaining the security system in the campus. A
rank correlation was employed to determine such relationship between involvement, noninvolvement, and neutral (Table III). Thus the null hypothesis in this set is rejected.

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Table III Security Guards Contribution to the Security of the Institute

S/N

Year

Rank

Year

Rank

d=u-v

D2

1989

1993

10

-6

36

1975

1990

-5

25

1978

1990

-5

25

1992

1986

1993

1982

36

1982

1991

-5

25

1988

1975

25

1983

1989

1993

1991

1986

-3

10

Total 190
Source: Milanzi, M.C. (1994) Questionnaire: Utafiti Juu ya Hali ya Ulinzi Hapa Chuoni,
March.
The Rank Correlation: rs = 1 - [6Sd2]/[n(n2-1)]
where,
n = the sample (n=19)
rs = rank correlation
d = the difference between ranks of Sample A and Sample B
Computation:
Rank correlation,
rs,0.05 = 1 - [6Sd2]/[n(n2-1)]
= 1 - [1140/6840]
= 1 - [0.166]
rs,0.05 = 0.60 (from the rank correlation table)
rs,0.05 = 0.833 Reject the Null Hypothesis, H1O, because rs,0.05 = 0.833 falls in the rejection
region.
The second set of hypothesis focuses on the provision of work gears for security guards working
at the institute. The questionnaire and the interviews conducted revealed that the provision of
security gears needs a lot to be desired. The security guards fall short of the necessary working
tools and implements. The interviews conducted show that over 60 percent of the respondents
complained over the inadequacy of the gears. The questionnaire results reveal that 74 percent of

123

the respondents had received no gears to enable them work comfortably in the last six months (the
study was conducted in March 1994).
One respondent was reported that "I have decided to buy some boots for self protection. The
Institute has failed to provide us with such good item." Another respondent was heard saying:
"Kila vazi lina mwendo wake. Mwanamke aliyevaa vizuri huringa. Vile vile kwa
askari anayepata vifaa vyote vya kazi ataipenda kazi yake."
Literary translation: "Every garment put on by someone has its own walking style. A woman who
has put on a nice clothes is proud of herself. Similarly, a security guard who has all necessary
gears will be proud of his/her work."
SET II: Hypotheses
H2O = Provision of Security Gears Influences the Effectiveness of the Security system at
the Institute.
H2A = Provision of Security Gears does not Influence the Effectiveness of the Security
system at the Institute.
Figure 1 The Provision of Whistle and Uniform to IDM's Askaris
3.0+
*
Whistle 2.0+
*
*
*
1.0+
5
2
*
0.0+ 3
*
*
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------------------------------------0.0
1.2
2.4
3.6
4.8
6.0
Source: Data Computed from Conducted interviews, March, 1994.

124

Uniform

The multiple regression in the provision of these gears seem to be not possible. It suggests that
management attention is obviously required.
The Chi-Square test (X2) has been attempted to determine the goodness of fit in the 19
respondents administered through the questionnaire.
Table IV Chi Square Test for Security Gears
Item/Gear

Observed
Frequency
(O)

Expected
Frequency
(E)

d
(O-E)

d2
(O-E)2

D2/E

Whistle

-1

0.50

Uniform

-3

2.25

Boots

-4

16

4.00

Pullover

-2

2.00

Rain coat

-2

2.00

Torch

-1

0.50

Gun/Other

-1

0.50

Telephone

-1

1.00

Wall clock

-1

1.00

Handcuffs

-2

2.00
t - statistic 15.75

The t-statistic is 15.75; the critical values X2a where the degree of freedom (df) is k - 1; where k is
a number of categories in the sample. The significance level a is 0.05 and the df = k - 1 = 10 - 1 =
9. The chi-square (X20.05) = 16.919 (You can get this figure from the Chi-Square distribution
table).
Thus do not reject the null hypothesis because the t-statistic, 15.75, does not lie in the rejection
region. It is clear that the provision of security gears has a direct influence in the security of the
institute.
The distribution of these (gears) work tools and implements to the security guards at the institute
seem to be doubtful. It is shown in figure 3 which the percentage distribution of eleven security
guards gears.

125

Analysis of hypothesis under set III:

The third set of hypothesis reveals that there are complaints which exist betwixt security guards
working at the institute. There are cultural and symbolic behaviours which appear to be true
amongst the security guards at the institute. It is obviously clear that the seniority list amongst the
security guards at the Institute of Development Management is not followed or observed at all.
The Mann-Whitney test was applied in order to describe a non-parametric procedure for
comparing two populations.

The assumption is that there is a random sample from each

population and the samples were taken independently of each other; and thirdly the population of
19 has approximately the same shape (Refer to Table I). That is variances between sample A and
sample B are approximately equal. The n1=4.5 represents the median of the first population and
n2=5 is the median of the second population.
SET III:
H3O = Senior Security Guards are more keen to their jobs.
H3A = Senior security Guards are not more keen to their jobs.
Table V Mann-Whitney Test on Attitudes to Security Based on Seniority
S/No

YEAR

RANK A

YEAR

RANK B

D=A - B

D2

1989

10

1993

19

-9

81

1975

1990

13

-12

144

1978

1990

12

-9

81

1992

16

1986

64

1993

17

1982

12

144

1982

1991

14

-10

100

1988

1975

49

1983

1989

11

-5

25

1993

18

1991

15

1986

-7

49

10

Total 746
The sum of the ranks W in the Mann-Whitney test = 3 + 7 + 12 + 8 = 30. Reject the null
hypothesis.

126

Analysis of Set IV of hypothesis:

SET IV:
H4O = IDM's Management is involved in Security issues in keeping the community
security conscious.
H4A = IDM's Management is not involved in Security issues in keeping the community
security conscious.
Table VI Security Guards' Attitudes Over Management of IDM in Security Issues
S/N

Selected Sample

Sample

AE

BE

10

19

11

11

19

19

30

12

17

22

25

30

4
where,

A = Observed frequency for Sample A

B = Observed frequency for Sample B
AE = Expected frequency for Sample A
BE = Expected frequency for Sample B
Table VII Chi Square Independent Test for sample A
OBSERVED
FREQUENC
Y
[O]

EXPECTED
FREQUENC
Y [E]

[O - E]

[O - E]2

[O - E]2/E

1.50

??

11

11

0.00
Total 1.50

Thus the Chi-Square for Sample A is (X 2) = S[O - E] 2/E, df = (r - 1) (c - 1) = (1.50 - 1) (23 1) = 11.50
That is X20.95 = 5.226

127

Therefore reject the null hypothesis because 5.226 falls within the rejection region.

128

Table VIII Chi Square Independent Test for Sample B

OBSERVED
FREQUENC
Y
[O]

EXPECTED
FREQUENC
Y [E]

[O - E]

[O - E]2

[O - E]2/E

10

16

??

19

19

0.00

2.67

Total 2.67
Thus the Chi-Square for Sample B is (X 2) = S[O - E] 2/E, df = (r - 1) (c - 1) = (2.67 - 1) (32 1) = 1.67 x 31 = 5.177
That is X20.95 = 1.145
The null hypothesis in sample B is not rejected.
Discussion
In brief there are different conclusions derived from the testing of the four sets of hypotheses.
It is therefore obvious that the theft and other related incidents at the institute are not
contributed by the security guards alone. This contention proves us that it is the task of every
one of us who are staying at this institute to be security conscious. The letter written to the
Institute's community by Mr Habi in March 1979 highlights the need to have a security
conscious community at the Institute of Development Management, Mzumbe. Such incidents
which took place in December 1987 show that to become a security guard is not a good job.
It is therefore interpreted here that security guards at the Institute of Development
Management have a partial contribution to the security problems. There was a time during the
interview when one anonymous security guard told the researcher that, "we are blamed so
much as if we are planning together with the thieves to come and steal some properties." The
OCD once was heard saying "Chuo kinashindwa kuwatumia maaskari wake vizuri."
The test to the second set of hypothesis is quite discouraging. The null hypothesis has been
upheld because it has some kind influence to the performance and motivation of the security
guards. It is sometimes very difficult for someone to distinguish between a security guards and
a common person. They have no uniforms at all and if there are any the security guards put on
them at their own convenience.

The security guards at the Institute of Development

129

Management, Mzumbe may come to work with the clothes which does not allow him/her to
run or chase a thief.

The parade and any other sort of drills which any military person is

required to perform seems to have no roots at the Institute of Development Management,

Mzumbe. The seniority list in the security unit is not observed to the positive. The seniority
culture which is to be followed as in the army does not exist altogether. It is in this spirit the
Mann-Whitney test of the third set of hypothesis suggests that the null hypothesis be rejected.
This set of hypothesis stultifies the first set of hypothesis in that the burden of most of the
incidents taking place at the institute are to be born by them. In fact the security guards have
to be responsible any way! But such responsibility should be within the limits of the law. The
security guards at the institute have never been given a sufficient responsibility to enable them
to perform the utmost and appreciable work. A reasonable number of the security guards
know the environment of the institute since they are the long timers.
The controversy in the two type sample when testing the fourth set of hypothesis reveal that
there is a piece of truth that IDM's management needs to change her orientation towards this
unit. The scheme of service for security guards is very crude: "Standard VII, experience or
passed in the National Service and willing and to do the security guards job." Training should
be seen as necessary if the prevailing situation is like this.
The organisational structure needs to be revisited because the head of the security section is
answerable to the chief executive of the institute. In fact the chief executive is overloaded with
a lot of strategic issues than security affairs which are mostly administrative in nature.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The research study unveils that there are a number of inconsistencies within the security office
at the Institute of Development Management, Mzumbe. Some of them are structural; while
others are administrative; some are strategic while others are operational. It is in line of this
spirit the author calls for the pulling together of our energies in order to find out the long
standing solution to these problems. The documentary sources show that the security incidents
started to escalate from October 1975 when the watchmen meeting was held (23/10/1975) to
discuss about the crucial issues such as gears, provision of the security office at the institute.
The author recommends the following measures in order to rectify the situation:
1.

Immediate Recommendations

130

i)

The community at the institute needs to become more security conscious. The
neighborhood watch groups need to be formed in order to culture the security
consciousness amongst the people.

ii)

Employment of security guards who are conversant with the security issues. It
is advised that applicants from the National Service (Volunteers) should be
employed as security guards. The effect of this will minimize the need for
training at least for the first five years.

iii)

More incentives should be given to these people.

The cafeteria approach

should be used in order to encourage them work tirelessly for the benefit of the
institute.
iv)

The working gears need to be given to them. The provision of these elements
should be seen as compulsory by the employer. They should be included in the
IDM's collective agreements so that the employer becomes bound.

v)

There should be a time limit of walking or loitering around during the night
around the campus. The security guards should be given some power or
authority to ask any person who is moving around the campus after midnight.

2.

Intermediate Recommendations
i)

The Security Guards Union [SGU] should be formed under the Organisation of
Tanzania's Trade Unions in order to protect the rights of its members.

ii)

Overtime payments should not be discriminatory as it is the case now. All

senior security guards interviewed and given questionnaires were dissatisfied
against their boss. The Chief Security Officer applies the "Divide and Rule"
[Divide et Impera] approach. There is the absence of harmony in this office.

iii)

The telephone system is required in order to give feedback to the main office or
charge room. The mobile phones seem to be appropriate.

iv)

The code of ethic for security guards need to be designed. Smoking and being
drunk during working hours is unethical and it is subject to summary dismissal
and other possible permissible penalties as stipulated in the Security of
Employment Act of 1964.

v)

Only the guard commander should have been given a gun and all others must
have the weapons inferior to the gun. There is a danger of the security guards
shooting to anyone who is seen passing during the small hours of the nights.

3.

Ultimate Recommendations

131

i)

The fence or an enclosure need to be built surrounding the area designated as

the Institute of Development Management, Mzumbe.

ii)

The road and some lights to be constructed along the borders of IDM and the
surrounding area. This road will enable the security guards to patrol. This idea
contradicts with the current exercise that the security guards are not aware
about the area designated as IDM.

iii)

The structural relationship of the security section should be changed. The head
of this section must be answerable to the Principal Manpower Management
Officer [PMMO]. This will relief the chief executive from the trivial issues
taking place in the security office.

iv)

There should be a training programme for security guards so that they cope
with the changes in technology and other tactics suitable for them. Periodic
training of every six months is hereby suggested.

iv) Build the security guard's main office at the main entrance of the institute in order to be
more functional than it is the case now.
v) Privatise or outsource the security function.
Notes and References
Letter with Ref No MGR/AD.41/93 of 26/11/91: Chijumba's minute to the Director of Studies.
He calls the guns as scarce items simply because they are new to IDM's security system.
Dr Habi's Letter of 27/03/79 `Matatizo ya Ulinzi Chuoni.'
IDM, (1975) Mkutano wa Maaskari 23/10/1975
Ingram, J.A. and Monks, J.G. (1990) Statistics for Business and Economics, Philadelphia: The
Dryden Press.
Institute of Development Management, Mgambo, IDM.OF/N.2/3
Institute of Development Management, Watchmen, IDM.OF/R.1/9
Institute of Development Management, Walinzi (Security Guards), IDM.OF/S.1/13.
Building and Estates Manager, (1987) Martel Kuletea Vurugu Walinzi Getini 4/12/87 Ref
BEM/PD/192.
Milanzi, M.C. (1994) Interview Notes, Ofisi ya Ulinzi IDM, March, 1994.
Ryan, B.F., Joiner, B.L., and Ryan, T.A.Jr. (1985) Minitab, Boston: Duxbury Press.
Weiss, N.A. and Hassett, M.J. (1987) Introductory Statistics, Reading: Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company.

132

APPENDIX A (QUESTIONNAIRE)
CHUO CHA UONGOZI WA MAENDELEO
MZUMBE
UTAFITI JUU YA HALI YA ULINZI HAPA CHUONI
MAELEKEZO: Tafadhali sana jaribu kujibu maswali yaliyoko katika fomu hii. Jibu lako
uliweke katika nafasi zilizoachwa wazi ili kuweza kufanikisha utafiti huu.
1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

6.

Cheo changu ni __________________________________

Nilianza kazi ya ulinzi mwaka ____________________________
Tangu nilipojiunga na ulinzi hapa Chuoni nilikuwa na matukio yafuatayo ya wizi katika
lindo langu:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Tangu nimeajiriwa hapa Chuoni vifaa vifuatavyo nilipewa na mwajiri wangu. [Eleza pia
ulipewa mara ngapi?]
i)
Filimbi
______________________
ii)
Uniform
______________________
iii)
Viatu
______________________
iv)
Sweta
______________________
v)
Koti la mvua
______________________
vi)
Tochi
______________________
vii)
Silaha ukiwa kazini
______________________
viii) Simu kwenye lindo
______________________
ix)
Saa za ukutani
_____________________
x)
Pingu
_____________________
Unataka Chuo kikusaidie nini ili kazi yako iwe mzuri zaidi?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________
Je unadhani ni kwa sababu gani kuna matukio ya wizi hapa chuoni? [Toa
ushauri/pendekeza]
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

TANBIHI:

UKISHAJAZA FOMU HII NAKUOMBA UIRUDISHE KWA MWALIMU

MILANZI, KOMPYUTA SENTA.

133

APPENDIX B
INTERVIEW GUIDE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

Ask about employment of the respondents: When, why, how?

Ask the respondent about his/her position in the job
The name of the respondent is not required but try to encourage him/her to explain about
his/her feelings, participation and knowledge about the job.
Ask him/her to give some suggestions related to his/her job.
Now introduce the security problems prevailing at IDM.
Why does she/he think that there are such problems? Separate opinions, feelings from
truth. Encourage more!
Each respondent should be able to give solutions regarding his/her job.
What shall management of this institute do to help them? Individually, collectively?
Working tools and gears: Are they adequate? How? Why?
The leadership of the security section: Satisfied, Not satisfied or other etc.
The IDM's management in security affairs: Satisfied, Not satisfied or other ?
Any other relevant question: Ask here.
***

134

EXAMPLE II
MZUMBE UNIVERSITY

A Report on the Identification of Training Needs of the Private Sector in Kondoa District:
Based on the Results of the Roundtable Discussions carried out between Kondoa District
Council and Selected Private Sector Players, 11th to 15th December 2001

Prepared by:
Montanus C.Milanzi
Mzumbe University
Institute of Public Administration
P.O. Box 2
Mzumbe
Fax: 023 2604382
Tel: 0744 393 414; 0748 393 807
Email: mcmilanzi@hotmail.com
30th December, 2001

135

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements

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Executive Summary ...

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List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ...

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List of Appendices

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1.0 Introduction

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1.1 The Private Sector Development in Tanzania

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2.0 Objectives of the Assignment

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2.1 Location of Kondoa District Council

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2.2 Population ...

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2.3 The Economy

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2.4 Kondoa District Council and the Private Sector Players ...

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3.0 Discussion on Methodology and Approach

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3.1 Data Collection and the Type of Intervention

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3.2 Comments on the Approach

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3.3 Facilitation of the Assignment

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4.0 The Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations

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4.1 The General Findings

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4.2 Assessing the Training Needs of the Private Sector

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4.3 Training Contents for Private Sector Development

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4.4 Proposed Methods of Conducting Training

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5.0 Conclusions and Recommendations

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5.1 Conclusions

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5.2 Recommendations ...

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5.3 Needs to be Done ...

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18

Appendices

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This is the report prepared by the Entrepreneurship Development Centres (EDC) consultant,
which aimed at facilitating the roundtable discussions that took place in Kondoa District
Council in December 2001. The Kondoa District Council requested the EDC to provide the
expertise on facilitation of the roundtable discussion and thereafter the consultant was required
to submit the comprehensive report, which considered a number of items as identified in the
letter showing the Terms of Reference. The Terms of Reference did not request me to prepare
the training manual. Hence, I was not expected to produce a training manual but I was
required to produce the comprehensive report in accordance to the following terms of
reference officially given to me. I was supposed to:1) Write a comprehensive report on the training needs of the private sector in Kondoa District;
2) Write a proposed training contents for the private sector in Kondoa;
3) Propose a method of conducting training; and
4) Suggest any other issue that may happen to be significant in the course of doing such
interventions.

Special thanks are to be delivered to the District Executive Director (DED) of Kondoa District
Council including the whole management team which facilitated this assignment. Mr G.E.
Meena and Mr Mtiga, working in the Trade Department in the KDC, worked tirelessly with me
to ensure that the roundtable discussions continue according to the plan.

M.C.Milanzi
Mzumbe University

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Government of the United Republic of Tanzania as well as the Kondoa District Council
recognise the paramount role of the private sector for socio-economic development of the
Kondoa District. The private sector in Kondoa is the engine of growth and development of the
District. Councillors in the District continue to realise the importance of business for the
development of the people throughout the District. The actual improvement of the business
environment must be facilitated by the Kondoa District Council in collaboration with the
central government including the key stakeholders for private sector development.

The roundtable discussions were carried out by a consultant from the Entrepreneurship
Development Centre of the Institute of Development Management, Mzumbe in December
2001. The roundtable discussions aimed at collecting some data and first hand information on
the need and requirements for private sector development in Kondoa. The Kondoa District
Council had facilitated the assignment by providing resources to the consultant to carry out the
assignment. The Council has also organised the roundtable interventions by randomly selecting
the private sector players to participate in the discussions, which tool place in the premises of
the Kondoa District Council.

More than fifty business persons from Kondoa Town participated in the roundtable discussions
arranged in several sessions. Males and females were involved in the discussions concerning
the need to promote business within the private sector in Kondoa. Female business persons
were well represented in the discussion groups during roundtable discussions. The findings
reveal that there are some impediments that hinder private sector development in Kondoa
Town. It was noted that there are legal, administrative and regulatory frameworks/structures
within the central government at large and Kondoa District Council (KDC) in particular that
hinder private sector development and growth. In addition to that there tax and business
license obstacles impede private sector development in the District. Thirdly, there are
infrastructural problems such as telecommunication problems and difficulties in the road
transport to and from Kondoa town which makes the transportation of goods from rural areas
and from other urban centres to Kondoa town expensive. Fourth, there are operational
problems that are contributed by both the Kondoa District Council (KDC), central government
and the people themselves in Kondoa town. Eventually, the people themselves in Kondoa town
have not changed much to cope with the free market forces, which dictate the rules of the

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game facilitated by the government and the Kondoa District Council (KDC). Business persons
in Kondoa District need to look for the lucrative and attractive business opportunities and be
able to secure loans from formal and informal financial institutions, SACCOS, SACAS, among
others, and mobilise these savings for further business investment. It seemed that almost every
business person in Kondoa Town is willing to take a loan to expand his/her business given an
opportunity to do so.

The study specifically identified the following problems as key to private sector development in
Kondoa District:1) Inadequate possession of business skills and knowledge among business persons;
2) Inadequate investment capital when starting the business;
3) The absence of effective micro finance activities and support in the District;
4) Lack of creativity and innovation among business persons in order to improve their
respective businesses;
5) Seasonal character of some businesses due to seasonal availability of goods;
6) Inexperienced business people to handling large sums of money;
7) Failure to acknowledge the significance of business licences and taxes;
8) Poor markets to absorb various business activities in Kondoa town;
9) Competition for customers among businesses;
10) High transport costs of goods from rural Kondoa and from Arusha, Dodoma and Dar
es Salaam;

Training has been identified as one of the key solutions to problems of unsatisfactory private
sector development and growth in the District. Several areas for training have been selected as
critical to private sector development in the District:
a) Basic technical training in order to improve the operational competence of business persons
in their respective businesses. This includes the maintenance of machines and equipment
associated with their businesses, prevention of agricultural produce against destructive
insects, preservation and storage of crops or produce, and elementary catering and
veterinary training;
b) Training on the management of their businesses. This includes such basic training in
bookkeeping, basic management of business, training on access to credit and credit facilities

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and various ways to handling credit, debts, accounts receivables from family and solidarity
group members and the concept of withdrawals;
c) Training on Marketing and Business Administration. The concept of business and marketing,
how to start a business, resources in business and how to match supply and demand. Other
issues are the basic topics on customers and how to handle them, competition in business
including some training on pricing, advertising and the general knowledge of the market and
market behaviour;
d) There is the Facilitation role of the Central Government and Kondoa District Council in
Kondoa town. It is the understanding of their role to promote private sector development of
the district. Understanding of government taxes and revenues and business licenses. Basic
laws which enable the government to collect taxes and other revenues. Facilitative role of
the government on transport, eradication of corruption, and the quest for effective and
efficient government will help to streamline the private sector participation in the socioeconimic development of Tanzania.

Training should be carried out in Kondoa District using adult learning approach. Formal
training will be kept at the minimum. Fishbowling and business skits are two methods of
training that have been proposed to achieve behavioural change for private sector development
in Kondoa District. Trainers shall enact business situation during training in Kondoa in order to
transfer to learners the task of modelling the business skills and behaviours that are required for
effecting change. This type or method of training is called the business skit. The second method
is called the fishbowl where the special kind of discussions are initiated among discussants and
the audience on the particular issue. The emphasis in this approach is on group process in order
to encourage group solidarity when doing business.

It is advised that business persons in Kondoa District to organise themselves in order to

promote private sector development. The Tanzania Chamber of Commerce, Industry and
Agriculture should work together with business people in the District. Micro finance
intermediaries such as KOSEPRO and financial institutions should also make their contribution
by making themselves known to people so that business persons can take loans from them.

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

DED

District Executive Director

EDC

Entrepreneurship Development Centre

GOT

Government of Tanzania

HADO

Hifadhi Ardhi Dodoma

KD

Kondoa District

KDC

Kondoa District Council

KOSEPRO

Kondoa Seed Fund Project

MU

Mzumbe University

PSD

Private Sector Development

PSDS

Private Sector Development Strategy

TPSF

Tanzania Private Sector Foundation

SID

Society for International Development

TCCIA

Tanzania Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture

TNBC

Tanzania National Business Council

Tshs

Tanzanian Shillings

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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1

The Letter Showing the Terms of Reference ...

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Appendix 2

Work Plan and Time Schedule...

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. 22

Appendix 3

Proposed Training Areas and Contents

...

...

...

...

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...

. 20

. 23

A Report on the Identification of Training Needs of the Private Sector in Kondoa

District
Based on the Roundtable Discussions between Kondoa District Council and Selected
Private Sector Players

1.0 Introduction
The economic, social and political landscape in Tanzania has changed fundamentally
over the last decade. The Government of the United Republic of Tanzania is
responding in a number of ways across a variety of sectors to the new situation. The
share of private sector employment dropped in Tanzania from 72 percent in 1963 to
26.9 percent in 1985. From 1985 onwards this trend had changed. The substantial
growth of the private sector has been experienced since the second half of 1980s. The
general approach is set out in the Tanzania Development Vision 2025. The main
objective of this Development Vision is to awaken, coordinate and direct peoples
efforts, minds at village, district, regional and national resources towards those core
sectors that will enable people achieve the development goals at the same time
withstand the expected intensive economic competition ahead of them. Leadership as
an instrument of empowerment invoked the previous vision of socialism and selfreliance. The new vision envisions Tanzania, which is people-centred, democratic, just
and inclusive, Tanzania where people and civil society groups are subjects of
development and not mere objects.
The Development Vision identifies the new characteristics of the economy and of
the society:
I. Political and economic pluralism;
II. The exposed limitations public sector led development, and a centrally planned
and controlled economy;
III. The recognition of individual initiative, and the private sector as the central
driving forces for building the economy;
IV. The state welfare responsibilities are more focused on cost-effective ways of
enhancing access to, and quality of social services;
V. Economic behaviour is being transformed by globalisation and regionalism,
trends, which undermine inward-looking economic nationalism; and
VI. Fast changing market conditions and technological developments.

Peoples participation and the Governments responsiveness towards serving the

people are two inseparable characteristics of governance. Opportunities for peoples
participation for social, economic and political development depend on existing
governance mechanisms and system including the degree of access to the political
process that is in place. In the context of Tanzania, participation through local
government, civil society organisations and the private sector have been singled out as
three areas of critical significance. Currently, special attention is accorded to the need
for a comprehensive devolution of powers and strengthening of local government
institutions in Tanzania in order to provide the people with opportunities for
influencing their own development.
The private sector is one of the three key players among which participation is
necessary for the promotion of the socio-economic development. The private sector is
associated with economic ventures normally meant for profit. In addition to that
private sector in Tanzania has increasingly involved in the provision of social services
that facilitate the promotion of economic enterprises. Tanzania is the state, which was
initially heavily involved in the provision of goods and services is receding and the
private sector is now recognised as a partner in development and as a key to the
provision of goods and services to the society. The Development Vision 2025 informs
that private sector participation requires the Tanzania society as a whole to value a
competitive development mindset together with the culture of nurturing self-reliance
among the people. Participation of people in preparing, designing, implementing and
evaluating the plans is significant to the attainment of peoples development.
1.1

The Private Sector Development in Tanzania

In Tanzania there are a number of impediments on the growth and development of the
private sector. The following are reasons for the poor and ineffective private sector
development and growth in this country.
I. Lack of commercial attitude among business persons and entrepreneurs;
II. Weak entrepreneurial capacity;
III. Weak enabling environment at all levels;
IV. High production costs of goods and services;
V. High transition costs;
VI. Weak financial sector and inadequate financial services;

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VII.

Weak business associations.

There are three key considerations that need to be taken into account in order to
promote private sector development in Kondoa District. First, the private sector in
Kondoa district should be able to provide essential goods and services to society, the
people in the district. Secondly, the private sector is a key actor in the governance
system in Kondoa district particularly on matters of accountability, responsiveness and
participation; and finally, the private sector in the district is a key to employment
creation.
The private sector in the district has a number of activities, which makes it interact
with the central government, local government, non-government institutions and other
government agencies in the district. Among the key areas of interaction is on matters
regarding taxation, licensing and procurement. In addition to that the private sector in
the district is now much involved in the provision and delivery of goods and services.
Hence, the private sector in Tanzania has currently been given wider latitude and the
state searches for the new role, which is limited to policy formulation and facilitation of
conducive investment environment, competitive market and the flourishing private
sector.
Thus, the Government of Tanzania (GOT) has defined the Private Sector Development
(PSD) as one of the major overriding priorities. The government understands that the
private sector is the key catalyst for economic growth, job creation and income
generation. The private sector plays a central role in the Tanzanian Public Service
Reform Programme (PSRP). By 2003 the Government of Tanzania plans to prepare
and develop a Private Sector Development Strategy (PSDS) to ensure an effective
coordination between the government and other key stakeholders.
2.0 Objectives of the Assignment
The main objective of this assignment is to facilitate discussions between the Kondoa
District Council (KDC) and the selected key private sector players in Kondoa
town. In the course of such roundtable discussions the following specific
objectives were identified:I. To prepare a comprehensive report on the training needs of the private sector
participants in Kondoa District;

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II. To propose and advice on the training contents for the private sector
participants and entrepreneurial development in the district;
III. To propose a method of conducting training of the private sector participants in
Kondoa District; and
IV. To do any other issue or output that has happened due to the interventions
carried out in 1, 2, and 3 above.
2.1

Location of Kondoa District Council

The district covers an area of 13,210 square kilometres and it is located north of
Dodoma Region. Dodoma is the headquarters of the region. Dodoma Region
consists of four administrative districts namely, Kondoa, Dodoma Rural,
Dodoma Urban and Mpwapwa. For administrative purposes, the Kondoa
District is divided into 8 divisions, Farkwa, Kwa Mtoro, Bereko, Mondo,
Goima, Pahi, Kondoa Town and Kolo. These divisions are divided into 32
Wards and 162 villages.
All administration of the District Council is controlled from Kondoa Town where the
offices of Kondoa District Council are based. Kondoa District is, for the
purposes of local government administration in the country is graded as class
IV Council.
2.2

Population

Statistical data issued by the Bureau of Statistics in Tanzania show Kondoa District to
has a population of 401,700 people according to the national census of 1988. The
population growth rate of the district is at 2.4% per annum.
The population is very sparsely distributed in the district. According to 1994 Statistical
Abstracts, Kondoa District has an average of 29 people per square kilometre making it
the lowest density in the region.
2.3

The Economy

The economy of Kondoa district is traditional based on the natural endorsement of the
district e.g. land, forests, other natural resources. The following are the main economic
activities in the District.

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2.3.1 Agriculture and Livestock

These are the main contributors to the economy of the district. The crops grown in the
district do not fall in the category of traditional export earners of Tanzania. They are
basically food crops grown for the needs of the people of the district but which are also
sold as cash crops where these is a surplus. Some food crops have recently been
grown mainly for cash e.g. sorghum, bulrush millet, sunflower, finger millet,
groundnuts and sesame.
Most of the farmers also keep cattle, poultry and goats, which are usually sold to
supplement income.

The farming systems are mostly arable with scantily use of

tractors and animal pulled ploughs. Cattle are kept on free grazing methods, which are
unfortunately destroying most of the good land for agriculture.
2.3.2 Bee-keeping
A large part of the Kondoa District is suitable for the bee-keeping industry. This
industry is being run on traditional methods, which is highly disorganised and its
market statistics, undocumented.

Neither the District Council nor the Central

Government has reliable data to show the exact potentials that exist in this industry in
the District.
2.2.3 Industry and Commercial Sector
It has been stated that the economy of Kondoa District is based on traditional sources
of income. The majority of the population in the district do not engage in industrial
activity. However, there are small and insignificant industrial activities taking place in
Kondoa Town and other minor settlements deep in the district.
Commercial activities also fall the same path. Kondoa Town is the dominant and
inherently the commercial centre of the District. Other minor settlements are fast
growing in commerce serving mostly the population living in the inner parts of the
district.
2.2.4 Tourism

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There are basically no organized tourism activities in the district. The few tourists who
visit the district to see the rock paintings are in the first instance not charged and come
mostly with tour operators based in the north circuit tourist centres of Arusha and
Moshi towns.
There are a number of attractions to see in Kondoa District such as the rock paintings,
the water spring just within the borders of the town, the HADO forests, the hunting
blocks, the traditional life of Wasandawi, just to mention a few. These have not been
exploited for the economic interests of Kondoa District. Only a small amount of fees is
received for use of the hunting blocks in the district.
2.2.5 Roads
The once most famous road in Africa which connects the Cape with Cairo, the Great
North Road passes through Kondoa District. This is the only road in the district that is
sufficiently maintained to make it passable throughout the year. The other roads,
which connect Kondoa with other districts, are usually in a poor state.

Those

connecting villages can only be passed in the dry seasons.

This situation tells a lot about the difficulties of the district to interact with its own
villages and other districts by road. However efforts are being made through donor
assistance and the World Bank to improve this poor road situation. Kondoa District
Council using own funds as well as support from other sources including grants from
the central government maintains all district and village feeder roads.
2.4

Kondoa District Council and the Private Sector Players

The Kondoa District Council does not have a reliable tax base system. Its tax base is
rather fragile. It depends on the performance of agriculture, which is still undeveloped,
of small scale, and highly unpredictable due to weather conditions. There are a number
of bylaws, which have been passed by Kondoa District Council for the purpose of
collecting revenue. Most of these sources depend on the performance of agriculture.
A small tax base, which is unpredictable, cannot take the development of the council
very far. Kondoa District Council has therefore a duty to see itself as a promoter of
other economic activities in the district. These activities can be in many forms but

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most agro-based activities. The success of these other activities may act as a catalyst
for future development and growth of agriculture in the district. This will improve the
tax base of the district.
Hence, the need for involving the private sector in order to expand the tax base of the
district is an important factor to be taken into consideration. One way of doing it is by
improving by engaging the private sector in business and commercial activities.
Previous studies noted that most of business activities carried on in the district merely
support actual production because they are in the area of trade and provision of
consumer services.
3.0 Discussion on Methodology and Approach
The client did not provide the specific methodology to be adopted during the
intervention. However, it was generally proposed that a consultant should facilitate
several roundtable discussions between the Kondoa District Council and the selected
private sector players (Appendix 2). The discussion was expected to last for six days
and then the consultant was required to prepare the required outputs based on the
facilitated roundtable discussions (Appendix 1). The outputs of the assignment have
been described in the given terms of reference or objectives of the assignment. The
devils advocate was applied as a method for data collection during the intervention.
3.1 Data Collection and the Type of Intervention
Data collection was done through interviews and panel discussions during the
roundtable discussions. Devils advocate interviews were conducted in order to solicit
more information and data to enable the consultant attain the four objectives of the
assignment. The approach of data collection had four main stages namely, group
formation, assumption testing, dialectical debate and finally synthesis or agreement. In
the first stage, the group formation, the main motive was to structure groups of the
selected private sector players so that productive discussions and operations of later
stages of the methodology are facilitated. As many individual participants who have a
potential bearing on the definition of the problem discussed in the roundtable
discussions sessions, and its proposed recommendations, should be brought together. It
should be put in mind that as many possible perceptions of the problem as can be
surfaced are included. These individuals within the group are encouraged to show their
respective advocates of their particular strategies, their vested interests, time

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orientation and possible individual personality characteristics. The aim in this stage was
to maximise similarity of business activities perspective among stakeholders within
each group of roundtable discussion in order to attain a coherent group activity of
orientation.
The second stage is to test assumptions within each group. Each group was required to
develop a preferred strategy or solution regarding business activities in the district. The
aim of this stage is to assist each group uncover and analyse the key assumptions or
proposals upon which its preferred solution rests. Three main techniques were
employed during roundtable discussions in order to surface assumptions. Stakeholder
analysis, assumption specification and assumption rating were applied in order to come
up with the proposed solutions within each group. The consultant assisted the groups
by asking them some questions particularly leading questions.
The third stage is the application of the dialectical debate within each particular and
individual group. Some members of each group had a list of key assumptions on
display ready for discussion within a group. Open debate was allowed within each
group. Each member in a group was required to make some adjustments on the
adjustments he/she has made. The final stage is synthesis, which wants to achieve a
compromise on assumptions from which a new higher level of solution can be derived.
Assumptions within each group had continued to be negotiated and modifications to
key assumptions made. A list of agreed assumptions within each group were drawn up.
The devils advocate approach had been used in order to reach into consensus.
3.2 Comments on the Approach
The consultant mainly dictated the approach in order to get the required benefits. The
devils advocate approach was used in order to extract more information from
discussions. The participants during the roundtable discussions were asked to state and
explore deeply the topics under discussion that are perceived to be of their concern.
3.3 Facilitation of the Assignment
The consultant from the Institute of Development Management, Mzumbe facilitated
the discussions. The consultant prepared some instruments for training needs
assessment that was used during discussions and data collection phases.

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3.4 Units of Analysis

The four groups were set in order to have the roundtable discussions. The members of
the groups were the selected Kondoas District people. The groups constitute both
men and females who are involved in doing business for some months and years.
4.0 The Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations
4.1 The General Findings
It was found out that the following are the main issues raised during the roundtable
discussions:I. Inadequate possession of business skills and knowledge among business
persons;
II. Inadequate investment capital when starting the business;
III. The absence of effective micro finance activities and support in the District;
IV. Lack of creativity and innovation among business persons in order to improve
their respective businesses;
V. Seasonal character of some businesses due to seasonal availability of goods;
VI. Inexperienced business people to handling large sums of money;
VII.

Failure to acknowledge the significance of business licences and taxes;

VIII.

Poor markets to absorb various business activities in Kondoa town;

IX. Competition for customers among businesses;

X. High transport costs of goods from rural Kondoa and from Arusha, Dodoma
and Dar es Salaam;
4.1.1 Inadequate Possession of Business Skills and Knowledge
It was observed that over 80 percent of the respondents lacked some business skills
and business knowledge to enable them conduct business accordingly. The majority of
them placed the complaints on the government and the Kondoa District Council as to
why there are high taxes which make them be out of the business. The study asked the
respondents if they had some basic bookkeeping and record keeping to enable them
have a good track of their individual businesses. Over 60 percent of the respondents
admitted that they had some kind of record keeping but could not describe the
accountability mechanisms installed to ensure that books are kept clean all the time.

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4.1.2 Inadequate Investment Capital when starting the Business

The amount of money placed for investment among small business persons ranges from
Tshs 60,000 to Tshs 500,000 where Tshs 500,000 was a rare case (an outlier). The
average investment amount that a small business person can start a business in Kondoa
Town was Tshs 65,000. This amount is not exclusively meant for business purposes.
The business person uses part of the investment money for non business purposes such
as to support his/her family. It has been observed that some business people in Kondoa
do not observe the basic principle of bookkeeping of separating the business from the
owner.
4.1.3 The absence of effective micro finance activities and support in the District
There are no formal financial institutions which provide micro finance services to small
and medium size entrepreneurs. The National Microfinance Bank Limited at Kondoa
offer some loans with a very stringent conditions. In addition to that there is an
emerging micro finance intermediary called KOSEPRO 1 which has started to be
established in the District. KOSEPRO provides the seed trust fund to some of its
members in the district. Its main effort now is on institutional development to enable
itself be able to provide micro finance services in Kondoa District. The respondents
stated that there was also a private owned organisation that provide loans to people in
the Town. This organisation charge at the higher rate. They were in the opinion that
small and medium size entrepreneurs could not have taken some loans from this
organisation due to stringent conditions imposed by the owner of the business. It was
stated that the scheme was much suited to employed staff who have a regular income.
However, credit leverage was seen lacking among the people interviewed during the
discussion. In addition to that it was noted that business persons lacked knowledge on
credit and micro finance despite the fact that they have some information of it. They
were aware that it is possible for them to expand their capital from outside. At least 50
percent of the respondents knew that they could get the loan from friends, relatives,
KOSEPRO and formal financial institutions. They, however, realised that most of them

The Kondoa Seed Fund Project (KOSEPRO). During the assignment we were not
able to make some contact with the management of this institution. The information we
have is based on what was stated during the stakeholders discussions about the
organisation.
1

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do not have collateral to secure the loans. Most of them preferred that the government
should help them with capital to start the business.
4.1.4 Lack of creativity and innovation among business persons in order to improve
their respective businesses
The study found out that the majority of people who participated in the discussion
placed the blame on the government or the Kondoa District Council. They stated that
the socio-economic changes that are taking place in Tanzania have made them suffer a
lot. Hence, they are not able to cope with the current changes. One reason for this is
failure on the part of the business people to innovate and become creative. Creativity
and innovation lack in most of them in order to manage their businesses. The culture of
dependence has been always identified as significant in Kondoa. Over ninety percent of
the people discussed complained that the government or the Kondoa District Council
should support them. The respondents were told that the task and role of the
government has changed. The government is no longer an actor but a facilitator who
creates a platform which several players/actors can work.
In addition to that most of the respondents (90 percent) did not have any idea about
the qualitative and technical aspects of the goods they are providing. They do not have
any knowledge as regards to quality, volume, size, uses, weight, suitability and
measures. Only 10 percent of the respondents had some scanty idea. Above all, almost
half of the businesses are relatively new. This shows that people keep on opening and
closing them. This may be associated with lack of business, sales, creativity and
innovative skills among business persons. The majority of them felt that they are not
able to select minimum risk businesses and productive businesses that carry less risk.
The idea of collective investment was introduced but the people had no idea at all on
how it can practically be implemented.
4.1.5 Seasonal character of some businesses due to seasonal availability of goods
and services
Most businesses selected and mentioned by people in the roundtable discussion were
seasonal in character. The business does not last long because of the inadequate supply
of raw materials whose availability is seasonal. In addition to that the quantity of such
raw materials is few. They cannot be stored for future due to low technology. The

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goods that were mentioned were tomatoes, groundnuts and other agricultural
products.
4.1.6 Inexperienced business people to handling large sums of money
Over seventy (70) percent of the people doing business in Kondoa town lack some
experience to handle large sums of money. It has been observed that they are not able
to separate themselves from their businesses. Hence, financial discipline may not be
sufficiently available among business people. They associated the income earned from
their respective businesses to be used to support the family. They do to have set the
amount which the business person can have for purposes other than his/her business.
This happens particularly when the person holds large amount of money which belongs
to the business.
4.1.7 Failure to acknowledge the significance of business licences and taxes
There is a general dissatisfaction among participants in the roundtable discussion on
the imposition of taxes and business licenses. The point is not to remove them but to
regulate them so that they are set at the level which is acceptable by the people in the
District. Currently the business license fees are very high so as to several taxes
imposed by the government. It seems that the majority of them do not acknowledge
importance of taxes and revenues collected by the Kondoa District Council for the
development of her people in the District. The Tanzania Chamber of Commerce
Industry and Agriculture (TCCIA) branch in Kondoa town should support the private
sector in collaboration with other stakeholders in the District.
4.1.8 Poor markets to absorb various business activities in Kondoa town
The participants during the roundtable discussion identified that lack of markets is one
of the critical problem in Kondoa Town. Some markets are not located in Kondoa
Town. They are in Dar es Salaam, Arusha and Dodoma. It means that if one wants to
conduct business he/she has to travel to these cities and towns. Some business persons
during the discussion insisted that they are doing business because they are used to do
business. In fact they do not have opened their markets in order to expand their
business. It should be noted that over 70 percent of the business activities carried out
in the District support the actual agricultural production. Most of these businesses are
in the area of trade and provision of consumer services.

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In addition to that previous studies confirm that over three-quarters of the business
persons do not bother to look at the market information of their business during the
business or when they want to initiate the business.
4.1.9 Competition for customers and raw material among businesses
Most business people deal with the same type of customers and raw materials in
Kondoa Town. Hence, there is a growing competition for customers and raw materials
among business persons in the District. The same business persons sell some similar
food items in the Kondoa main market. They also look for the same market or
customers to serve. The possibility for competition is high since business persons are
providing the same goods and services.
4.1.10 High transport costs of goods from rural Kondoa and from Arusha, Dodoma
and Dar es Salaam
It was observed that the majority of business persons buy goods some 30 or more
kilometres away from Kondoa town. These goods are to be transported to Kondoa
town. The transport costs add the to the price of the commodities or goods.
Agricultural products have to be transported from rural villages around Kondoa so that
they can reach the customers. Business persons transport these agricultural products
by lorries to Kondoa town. Sometimes farmers themselves transport the farm products
such as maize, groundnuts and other crops to Kondoa town. This depends on the
demand and supply factors of the agricultural products. Business persons who are
engaged in retail business buy their goods in Dar es Salaam, Dodoma and Arusha. The
transport cost of goods from these towns and cities are high. In turn the goods
transported by buses and lorries are sold at high prices when they reach Kondoa town
since the transport costs are added to the goods carried by the transporter. Consumers
have to pay more to buy the same product due to the increased transport charges
added to the product.
This state of affairs discourage consumers as well as business persons since the prices
of goods and services are high caused by high transport costs.
4.2 Assessing the Training Needs of the Private Sector

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The training audit of the private sector stakeholders was carried out during the
roundtable discussion in Kondoa. The survey of training needs was conducted during
discussions at the Kondoa District Council. The following objectives were set during
the identification of training needs exercise:
i) To identify specific problem areas which require that business persons in Kondoa
District to be trained;
ii) To identify some specific learning deficiencies among the participants of the
roundtable discussion in order to serve as a basis for future designing of training
programmes;
iii) To determine the bases of future learner evaluations;
iv)To determine the costs and benefits of training programmes and activities in order
to get some organisational support.
The training gaps have been identified during the roundtable discussions between the
consultant and the selected private sector stakeholders. There were a number of
indicators that showed that there is such a gap(s) on the performance of business
persons in the District. Those indicators presented by respondents are: level and degree
of complaints over the government raised by participants during discussions, the
request by participants to the government especially Kondoa District Council to fully
support private sector development in the district, dissatisfaction over business licenses
and taxes collected by the government, the failure to distinguish business and the
owner and poor logistic operations in the transportation of goods to Kondoa town.
Hence, the general performance of business persons in the District is not impressing.
For instance, one business woman informed the audience that she started her business
in 1967. The business was doing well in the first 10 years. In 1992 her husband died
and she started to manage the business on her own. She insisted that to conduct
business nowadays is very difficulty. There are a number of reasons that can explain the
changed nature of business in Kondoa town:
a) There is too much competition in the shop business;
b) The government taxes and business license fees are high. This state of affairs
discourage business persons to engage themselves in business;
c) Lack of enough customers to make the business stand on its own;

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d) Lack of modern business skills among business persons in Kondoa town. This
results into poor business performance; and
e) High transportation costs of goods to Kondoa.
4.3 Training Contents for the Private Sector Development in Kondoa District
These are the proposed training contents that need to be included in the training
programme in order to improve the business skills and business performance of
business persons in Kondoa District:
a) Basic technical training in order to improve the operational competence of business
persons in their respective businesses. This includes the maintenance of machines
and equipment associated with their businesses, prevention of agricultural produce
against destructive insects, preservation and storage of crops or agricultural
produce, and elementary catering and veterinary training;
b) Training on the management of their businesses. This includes such basic training in
basic bookkeeping, basic management of business, training on access to credit and
credit facilities and various ways to handling credit, debts, accounts receivables
from family and solidarity group members and the concept of withdrawals: The
subjects include: Basic Bookkeeping, Principles of Management, and Management
of Small Businesses;
c) Training on Marketing and Business Administration. The concept of business and
marketing, how to start a business, resources in business and how to match supply
and demand. Other issues are the basic topics on customers and how to handle
them, competition in business including some training on pricing, advertising and
the general knowledge of the market and market behaviour;
d) There is the Facilitation role of the Central Government and Kondoa District
Council in Kondoa town. It is the understanding of their role to promote private
sector development of the district. Understanding of government taxes and revenues
and business licenses. Basic laws which enable the government to collect taxes and
other revenues. Facilitative role of the government on transport, eradication of
corruption, and the quest for effective and efficient government will help to
streamline the private sector participation in the socio-econimic development of
Tanzania.

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Appendix 3 gives a detailed training contents and activities related to the need to
improve the business skills and business performance of the people in Kondoa District.
4.4 Proposed Methods of Conducting Training
It has been proposed that adult learning approach should be applied in order to train
business persons in the District. The classroom training shall also be used but it must
be kept at the minimum. The two methods have been proposed in order to enhance
business skills and business performance of the people in Kondoa. The first approach is
the use of fishbowl, which calls for discussion among participants over a particular
business issue. There are key speakers who are required to fully participate in the
meeting. The participants set the agenda for discussion regarding business issue. Then
the audience during fishbowling follows the discussion. In this approach the discussant
sets the motion on and the audience contributes it. The most important this in this type
of approach is the presence of the moderator who can regulate the discussion. The
main emphasis in fishbowl is on group processes in order to encourage group solidarity
among business people in Kondoa District. The second training method which will be
used is the business skit. The business skit enacts the business situation by participants
themselves during training in order to transfer the business skills and training to
individual business persons. There is the task of modelling business skills and business
behaviours that are needed for effecting change in the District.
5.0 The Conclusions and Recommendations on the Roundtable Discussion
The following are the conclusions and recommendations drawn from the roundtable
discussion conducted in Kondoa District Council (KDC) from 10th to 15th December
2001. The detailed training interventions and contents have been presented and
proposed in Appendix 3 below.
5.1 Conclusion
Tanzania business environment has significantly changed in the recent years. The free
market forces is the main dictate of business environment growth and development in
the country. This is true to Kondoa district where business community engage
themselves in the free market economy. KDCs role should be facilitation and
promotion of harmonious business environment throughout the District. The role of
the Kondoa District Council (KDC) is to support the private sector so that business

158

persons can freely engage in business. The Kondoa District Council is the government,
which operates at the local level where business people work. The KDC is the
facilitator and promoter of growth and socio-economic development in the District.
The Council should not be seen or considered as the creator of obstacles to the
businesses. The Council is to be the enabler, facilitator, promoter and enhancer of
business opportunities in Kondoa District.
First, it was observed that the training gap has been identified and some measures are
required in order to promote private sector development in the District. Secondly, the
training contents are here proposed in the next section for private sector development
in Kondoa District. Thirdly, the attached appendix (Appendix 3) proposes the training
interventions including the appropriate methods to be used in such training. In the light
of these three outputs we would like to recommend the following issues and
interventions as explained in the next section.
5.2 Recommendations
The following recommendations are proposed in order to tackle the problems and
issues raised above.
1) To undertake the basic training in the areas identified by this study as shown in
Appendix 3;
2) To create the capacity within Kondoa District Council by supporting the District
Trade Officers to manage the enhancement and promotion of private sector
development in the District. The capacity building programme is proposed to ensure
that people working with the District Trade Office in Kondoa receive the required
training that would enable them to cooperate with the private sector in Kondoa
District. This can be done by providing the District Trade Officers with short term
training tailored to managing small enterprises and businesses and how to interact
with business persons;
3) To use the adult learning technique to train business persons in Kondoa District. It
has been observed that the majority of business people know how to read and write.
Over 80 of them have not attained the ordinary level of secondary education.
Hence, the adult learning approach would be appropriate to them. Actual classroom
training shall be kept at the minimum. The fishbowl and business skits have been

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proposed as tools for training interventions which will be carried out in the near
future.
5.3 Needs to be Done
i) It is proposed that the training material be prepared by the training institution,
which will be selected by the client organisation based on the proposed training
contents and methods for conducting training identified in this report.
ii) The training material should be written in Kiswahili to enable the targeted
participants have the fully understanding of objectives of such training.
iii) The evaluation of such training will be based on the attainment of the proposed
training interventions to promote private sector development in the District.
iv)Training of business persons of Kondoa District should be conducted in Kondoa
town. There can be some field visits outside Kondoa District provided that financial
resources are available. The officials from the District Trade Department can have a
formal training outside their work premises on improving their skills in managing
small business projects through partnership with the private sector. May be the
tailor made programme can be prepared which will incorporate other experts in
trade and business in order to share some experiences with them in the particular
area under discussion.

160

APPENDICES

161

APPENDIX 1
The Letter Showing the Terms of Reference

INSTITUTE OF
DEVELOPMENT
MANAGEMENT
MZUMBE
Entrepreneurship Development Centre
__________________________________________________________
Ref No. IDM.OF/I.1/68/15
04th December 2001.
P.O.Box 63
Mzumbe
Fax: 023 260 4382
Tel: 023 260 4380 4
District Executive Director
Kondoa District Council
P.O. Box 1
Kondoa
Attn: Mr G.E.Meena
Fax: 026 2320153 or 026 2320088
Dear Sir,
RE: FACILITATION OF THE ROUNDTABLE DISCUSSIONS BETWEEN
THE COUNCIL AND THE SELECTED PRIVATE SECTOR PLAYERS
We acknowledge the receipt of your fax message dated 29th November this year (Your
Reference KDC/B/BL/Vol. III/51).
In principle, the Entrepreneurial Development Centre (EDC) of the Institute would like
to participate in the facilitation of the 6-days programme. We have appointed a
consultant who will come to facilitate the discussion and then he/she will be able to
prepare the required outputs:
I. The comprehensive report on the training needs of the private sector in Kondoa
district;
II. The proposed training contents for the private sector in Kondoa;
III. The proposed method of conducting training; and
IV. Any other issue/output that may happen due to the interventions carried out in
1, 2 and 3 above.
The consultant will prepare the instruments that will be used to determine training
needs assessment during discussions and data collection interventions.
162

We have reviewed our budget as advised. Our financial proposal is compatible with
your set limit:
I. Per diem of the consultant: 08 days x TShs XXXX = XXXX
II. Travel and transport expenses: (Taxi and bus) XXXXX
III. Professional/institutional fee: TShs XXXXX x XXXX days = XXXX
IV. Total cost:
TShs XXXX
Note that:
I. It is proposed that training costs of stationary (50 pens, 3 flip charts, 50 files, 4
mark pens, discussion room/venue, transport within Kondoa etc) to be born by
the client (KDC);
II. It is proposed that the assignment be carried from 10 th December to 15th
December this year.
Should you need further information or discussion regarding this facilitation
intervention, please do not hesitate to contact the Entrepreneurship Development
Centre (EDC).
Sincerely,
Signed
for PRINCIPAL

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APPENDIX 2
WORK PLAN AND TIME SCHEDULE
Sunday, 09 December 2001
Travelling to Kondoa
Monday, 10 December 2001
Literature and Documentary Review on Kondoa District
Tuesday, 11 December 2001
Roundtable discussion (08:30 am 01:30pm)
Wednesday, 12 December 2001
Roundtable discussions (08:30 am 01: 30 pm)
Thursday, 13 December 2001
Roundtable discussions (08: 30 am 02:00 pm)
Friday, 14 December 2001
More data collection based on the discussions
Saturday, 15 December 2001
Departure

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APPENDIX 3
PROPOSED TRAINING AREAS AND CONTENTS
A. BASIC TECHNICAL TRAINING
This course should focus on the need for improvement of the operational competence
of the business persons pertaining to their business. It includes the following topic to
be covered during training.
Introduction
- Definition and concept
- Understanding of operating instructions of the machine or equipment
- Induction and orientation related to the job and equipment
Maintenance of Machines and Equipment
- Procedures and steps to be used
- Understanding of parts of the equipment
- Knowing the nearby servicing individuals and companies
Preventive Measures
- Equipment failures
- Coping with problems in your work such as crop protection against weeds,
destructive insects, preservation and storage, elementary catering and veterinary
training
- Other business activities such as bee keeping, pastoralism, and hunting
B. BASIC BOOKKEEPING
1) Double entry bookkeeping
2) Recording business transactions
3) Trading transactions
4) Cash and Bank Transactions
5) Simple cash budgeting
C. PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
1) Management: scope and meaning
2) Managerial functions
3) Organisation for management
4) Organisation dynamics
5) Communication
D. MANAGEMENT OF SMALL BUSINESSES
1) Introduction: meaning and concept
2) Establishment of the small business; legal requirements, market opportunities,
location and site, organisation and supervision.
3) Financing of the small business
4) Developing a comprehensive business plan
E. MARKETING AND SMALL BUSINESS TRAINING
1) Understanding the customer market
2) Understanding the producer market
3) Analysing Market opportunities
4) Local market measurement and forecasting

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5) Planning and organising marketing

6) Pricing, distribution, and promotion
****

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EXAMPLE III
(KADERES)
Karagwe Development and Relief Services

Baseline Study Report on:

Support to Gender Equality, Human Rights, Democracy and Good Governance
in Karagwe District
Prepared by Montanus C.Milanzi (PhD)
for KADERES
Montanus C.Milanzi
Mzumbe University
Institute of Public Administration
P O Box 5
Mzumbe
Tanzania
Email: mcmilanzi@hotmail.com
September 2002

167

Table of Contents
Acknowledgements

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List of Abbreviations ...

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Executive Summary ...

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List of Annexes

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1.0 Introduction

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1.2 The Mission and Vision of KADERES

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2.0 Feasibility and Appropriateness of KADERES Plans

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3.1 Training Programme

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3.2 Methods of Conducting Training ...

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4.0 Conclusions and Recommendations

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4.1 Conclusions

1.1 Objectives of the Study

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This is a report prepared for the Baseline Study on Support to Human Rights,
Democracy and Good Governance in Karagwe District in Tanzania. It aims at forming
a basis for establishment of the programme to enable the community members in the
District to understand their rights, democracy and good governance.
The Karagwe Development and Relief Services (KADERES) has identified this need
to undertake a baseline study to determine the training and capacity building required
in the district in order to make the community members be aware of the above
mentioned themes.
The Client drafted the Terms of Reference which focused on three main priority areas:
a) Gender equality within the District;
b) The Civic education and political awareness; and
c) Participatory development.
Thus, Terms of Reference identified three main tasks which were pegged in those three
priority areas:
1) To assess the feasibility and appropriateness of KADERES plans, current and future
capacity for implementing the programmes falling within the three priority areas;
2) To conduct meetings and workshops for KADERES, District Officials, cell leaders,
members of the village governments and community members in order to make the
SWOT analysis related to the above mentioned priority areas; and
3) To collect data in order to prepare a proposal on how to deal with the identified
weaknesses, opportunities and threats.
Special thanks are to be delivered to the Karagwe District Commissioner, Honourable
Ole Terere, for his continuous encouragement and support that he always given to the
study team when carrying out the assignment. The study was conducted during the
national census but he was ale to speak to us despite of his many pressing
commitments he had. The District Executive Director (DED), Mr Samwel Mashindike,
the District Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM) Chairman, Honourable Audax Kagaruki, the
District Cooperative Officer (Mr Muhizi), the Member of Parliament of Kyerwa

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constituency (Honourable Benedict Mtungirehi) and the Council Chairman Honourable

S. Kalabamu.
Honourable Councillors did a very commendable job in their respective Wards for their
efforts to convene the meetings and workshops for this baseline study. I would like to
extend and express my gratitude to the rural community of Karagwe District for
becoming the main laboratory units of this study particularly people residing in the
visited areas who attended the meetings and make some invaluable contributions of
ideas. I am sure that without them this assignment would not have achieved very little.
In addition to that the consultant extends the special thanks to the management and
secretariat of KADERES who were available to answer questions I was asking. Above
all, the contacts to different people and institutions in Kayanga, Omurushaka towns
and rural Karagwe were tirelessly done by the KADERES Secretariat. I was able to
discuss and interview the DED, Karagwe District Council Chairman, TAWOVA
Coordinator, SAWATA, KAMFI, KAMEA, Community Development Office,
CHEMA, Tindamanyike Photo Studio, members of KADERES Secretariat, village
leaders of Songambele, Katembe, Kakanja, Igurwa, Kigarama, Nyabwegira, Kitwe,
Kikukuru, and Nyabishenge villages.
Many people have been involved and participated in this study particularly in
information sharing and provision. I remain sincere to all of you for the support
provided to accomplish this challenging assignment. I wish to thank my employer,
Mzumbe University, who allowed me to carry out the assignment. However, I accept
the full responsibility for contents, blames and praise that may be present in this report.

Montanus C.Milanzi
Consultant
September, 2002

170

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CBOs

Community Based Organisations

CCM

Chama cha Mapinduzi

CHEMA

Community Habitat Environmental Management

DC

District Commissioner

DED

District Executive Director

DRDP

District Rural Development Programme

KADERES

Karagwe Development and Relief Services

KADENVO

Karagwe Development Network of Voluntary

Organisations

KAMEA

Karagwe Media Association

KAMFI

Karagwe Micro Finance Institute

KARADEA

Karagwe Development Association

KDC

Karagwe District Council

MU

Mzumbe University

NGOs

Non Governmental Organisations

RFA

Radio Free Africa

RTD

Radio Tanzania Dar es Salaam

SACAS

Savings and Credit Associations

SACCOS

Savings and Credit Cooperative Societies

SAWATA

Saidia Wazee Tanzania (Help the Aged Tanzania)

SWOT

Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats

TAWOVA

Tanzania Women Volunteers Association

LIST OF TABLES

171

Table 1 Number of Women Attending Meetings during Workshops ...

Table 2 The SWOT Analysis ...

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Table 3 KADERES Confrontation Matrix

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The provision of training services to community members in Karagwe Districts is
recognised as a key factor in supporting gender equality, democracy, political
awareness and community participation.
The Karagwe District is one of the five districts in Kagera Region in north western
corner of Tanzania. The district covers an area of 7,716 square kilometres. The 1988
population census had to total population of 403,000. Males were 49.5% whereas
females were 50.5% of the total population. The dominant ethnic group is the
Wanyambo but the District has been receiving immigrants from other ethnic origins
namely Wakiga, Wanyarwanda and Wahima. Karagwe District has also a significant
number of Wahaya and Wasubi from other districts in Kagera region who have decided
to settle in the district.
Gender inequality still exists among the people in Karagwe. Women are seen more
inferior than men though this trend has started to change. The gender issues are not
much discussed by people in the villages. Some of them seem to be insignificant among
the males since the problems fall in their black spots.
The residents have a strong interest in politics. They portray a high degrees of interest
and efficacy in politics. However, the residents and respondents could neither manage
to name correctly nor name their political leaders and political parties.
Community participation and participatory development are two key issues that need
to be addressed among residents.
There are some recommendations presented in this paper: The establishment of Radio
Karagwe and KADERES Newsletter. In addition to that training programme in the
three areas identified in the study.

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1

Governance Structure of KADERES ...

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Annex 1

Terms of Reference

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Annex 2

Work Plan and Schedule

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Annex 3

Project and Activities Currently Conducted by KADERES ...

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Annex 4

An Interview Guide

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Annex 5

Internet Services form Afsat Communications (T) Ltd

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Annex 6

Proposed Training Programme

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The Baseline Study Report on: Support to Gender Equality, Human Rights,
Democracy and Good Governance in Karagwe District
1.0 Introduction
KADERES is a non government organisation that was established by twenty four (24)
diversified members from Karagwe District in June 1997. A year later, in May 1998,
the organisation gained its legal status when it was registered under Societies
Ordinance to become a non government organisation vide certificate of registration
number SO 9331. It is a local non governmental organisation duly registered with the
Ministry of Home Affairs. The organisation works with the people at the grassroots
level, which stresses on peoples participation, involvement and ownership of the
activities in which KADERES becomes one of the supporters of such activities. Its
members are the local people from three administrative divisions in Karagwe District.
KADERES deals with the promotion, sensitization and stimulation of a number of
community based development initiatives and activities in Karagwe District. The
Karagwe District Council classifies KADERES as a non governmental organisation
whose mission is to provide health and welfare services in the District.
The organisation has increasingly been involved with empowering the communities
and community based institutions in the District in mobilising, sensitizing, promoting
and stimulating individuals and groups on a number of local initiatives in order to
prepare the groundwork for effective civil society organisations and sustainable private
sector groups for growth and development in the District. KADERES has been
classified by the District as a non government organisation, which deals with the
provision of health and welfare services to the most vulnerable people in the District.
In addition to that KADERES provides some relief services throughout the District
particularly in rural areas. It has been supporting a number of social economic groups,
which in due course have emerged and voluntarily managed to sustain and transform
the community based organisations (CBOs) into sound Savings and Credit
Associations (SACAS), and the Savings and Credit Cooperative Societies (SACCOS)
in Kituntu/Mabira, Kaisho/Murongo, and Bugene/Nyaishozi Divisions.
Furthermore, the organisation has also carried out a number of activities including:-

176

i) Mobilisation, sensitisation, awareness creation, establishment and support of

economic groups such as women and youth groups in the District;
ii) Environmental conservation and rehabilitation activities such as raising and
distribution of seedlings to villagers and schools;
iii) Primary health care services to local communities particularly the rehabilitation and
construction of dispensaries in rural areas in the District; and
iv) Promotion, formation and establishment of micro finance institutions in order to
upgrade the community members economic position that will in turn contribute to
the improvement of their living standards in a sustainable and equitable way.
1.1 The Objectives of KADERES
Article 4 of the Constitution of KADERES identifies the following objectives:
1) To promote national and international policies and strategies in order to improve the
socio-economic and cultural positions of the underprivileged members of the
community in Karagwe District;
2) To facilitate dissemination of information and experience in sectors of agriculture,
environment, water and sanitation, health, women, youth empowerment,
appropriate technology, relief services and research development in those areas;
3) To mobilise financial, technical and material in support of local and national
programmes for disadvantaged people or groups such as women, children, elderly,
orphans, widows, widowers, destitute, disabled, unemployed groups and extend
possible assistance during emergency situation;
4) To promote developmental activities of environmental friendly nature and those
focusing on environmental protection;
5) To establish development and economic programmes in collaboration with the
government, other civil society organisations and institutions for empowering
disadvantaged groups;
6) To conduct research and studies in development and relief work aiming at
improving the well being of disadvantaged groups including the effectiveness and
efficiency of organisations;
7) To create community awareness on prevailing problems such as HIV/AIDS and
sexually transmitted diseases (STD) and different ways of preventing them;
8) To assist all efforts, which are geared towards the improvement of the health of
women and children;
9) To cooperate with other civil society organisations, both local and international;

177

10)

To promote productive health and population control programmes in the

District;
11)

To carry out organisation studies, study tours and educational trips inside and

outside the country as part of the continuing education programme in the

organisation; and
12)

To carry out relevant operations in such a way that KADERES is sustainable.

1.2 The Mission and Vision of KADERES

a) Mission
The mission of KADERES is to be a leading non government organisation in Karagwe
district which encourages and helps community members to improve their political,
cultural and socio-economic status in order to upgrade their economic position that
will contribute to the improvement of their living standards in a sustainable and
equitable way.
b) Vision
The vision of KADERES is to be in a fore front in Kituntu, Igurwa, Kimuli, Kaisho
and Isingiro Wards in the efforts to improve the living conditions of all people in the
District.
c) Implementation of Activities by KADERES
KADERES has been able to participate in the implementation of various activities and
projects with or without donor support. The institution has adapted the system
whereby every project implemented it keeps its own accounting books and accounting
system with consideration of respective donor directions and financial guidelines
proposed by the donor.
KADERES prepares in each financial year an audited accounts for every project and
donor funded activity implemented and the same is submitted to the General meeting,
which is the highest organ charged with policy and decision making on all matters of
KADERES.
d) Governance of KADERES

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KADERES is governed in accordance with the requirements of its constitution. The

structure of the organisation and governance of KADERES has been presented
hereunder in Figure 1.
KADERES
GENERAL MEETING

MANAGEMENT
BOARD

KADERES
SECRETARIAT

KADERES
SUB
COMMITTEES

Figure 1 The Governance Structure of KADERES

The details shown in Figure 1 indicate that the highest organ charged with policy and
strategic issues of the organisation in the General Meeting. All members of KADERES
attends the General Meeting as per requirements and procedures defined in the
Constitutions. The next organ is the Management Board which is headed by the
Chairman of KADERES. This organ is charged with the management of the
organisation in terms of policy implementation and gives some directives to the
Secretariat. The third organ is KADERES Secretariat which is under the Secretary
General. The organ is empowered to run the routine and day to day implementation
activities received and directed by the Management Board. Lastly, there are sub-

179

committees which are formed by General Meetings. They are given terms of reference
for various activities in projects and programmes.
e) KADERES Relationship with Other Institutions and Community Members
KADERES has established and always maintains the positive relationship with its
members, community leaders, target groups and other institutions and NGOs in
Karagwe District. The majority of ongoing activities are located in the target area. In
all villages where KADERES activities are implemented local community participation
is sought in order to enhance community ownership of the project as well as to
stimulate the future sustainability of the project.
KADERES has always managed to maintain a positive relationship with the
government institutions in Karagwe particularly the Karagwe District Council. The
Council has supported KADERES in order to facilitate its activities and projects in
rural Karagwe. In addition to that KADERES is an active member of Karagwe
Development Network of Voluntary Organisations (KADENVO). It is a network of all
NGOs working and operating in Karagwe. Above all KADERES maintains a close
cooperations with organs such as KARADEA and private organisations in Kagera
region.
1.3 The Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the assignment / consultancy are clearly stated in the terms of
reference (Annex 1) as follows:
a) To assess the feasibility and appropriateness of KADERES plans, current and future
capacity for implementing training and support to gender equality, human rights,
democracy and good governance in Karagwe District;
b) To conduct meetings and workshops for KADERES and District Officials, cell
leaders, members of the village governments and community members in order to
make SWOT analysis of the training programme;
c) To prepare a proposal that would be used to determine training interventions in
order to promote and support gender equality, human rights, democracy and good
governance;
2.0 FEASIBILITY AND APPROPRIATENESS OF KADERES PLANS

180

2.1 Assessment of KADERES Plans

The study revealed that there are two types of plans possessed by KADERES.
1) Facilitation/Descending Plans; and
2) Enabling/Ascending/Empowerment Plans.
Facilitation or Descending Plans
KADERES involves itself in the activities and initiatives which support the community
in the provision of a number of services. KADERES assumes that it helps the
communities in Karagwe District so that there is the right disposition of things
particularly on growth and development of the people. For instance, the construction
and rehabilitation of health centres and facilities at Kagenyi, and Songambele villages.
KADERES has recently submitted the request of financial support

for the

construction of three rural dispensaries in Kanoni, Kibimba/Mkunyu and Songambele

villages in the District. KADERES members, villagers, District leaders and the servants
in the Ward participate fully in the implementation of the project or various activities in
order to promote growth and development of the people in the villages. Since 2000
KADERES has also been involved in the promotion and formation of rural financial
institutions in Karagwe District. The main aim of KADERES is to encourage and help
community members to form and run micro finance institutions in order to upgrade
their economic position that will contribute to the improvement of the members living
standards in a sustainable and equitable way. The organisation, that is, KADERES, has
selected the villages in Kituntu, Igurwa, Kimuli, Kaisho and Isingiro wards as pilot
villages to start the micro finance programmes in the District.
Empowerment or Ascending Plans
These are plans prepared for the purpose of enabling or giving power to the people of
the particular locality or in villages. The good example is the promotion of micro/rural
finance institutions in selected Wards as outlined under the descending approach. There
are no bottom line set in such type of activities or projects. For instance, the number of
women participating in these activities, human rights practices that can be cited in the
different interventions and issues of good governance.
2.2 Results from Meetings, Discussions and Workshops with Respondents during
Data Collection Sessions

181

There were some planned meetings and panel discussions held during data collection
sessions. The aims of the discussions and meetings were to do the following:
a) To collect data and information on the feasibility and appropriateness of KADERES
plans from:
KADERES organisation including its management;
Community Members in Igurwa, Katembe, Kikukuru, Kaisho, Nyabishenge,
Songambele, Kitwe, Nyabwegira and Kakanja villages;
Cell leaders and members of the District, Ward and village Governments. The
District Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM) Chairman Mr Audax Kagaruki, the
Songambele Village Chairman Mr S.Mariceli and other leaders were consulted
during the data collection phase such as Syvand Bazimula, Ferdinand John
Ngemera, Ferdinand Bashasha, Anthony

Tibyampasha, Honourable Benedict

Mtungirehi, Honourable S.R.Kalabamu and Mr S.Mashindike;

b) To collect data and information during workshops and meetings for KADERES and
Karagwe District Officials, cell leaders, members of the village governments and
community members in the villages and Wards visited.
There were meetings in every village we visited. The nature of the meetings were
informative. Attendants were informed about the role of KADERES and then they
were encouraged to respond or ask some questions regarding community and
development of the area. Three key main areas were focused namely the attitudes of
people on gender, the civic education and political awareness and thirdly, participatory
development in the community.
2.3 SWOT Analysis and the Presentation of the Confrontation Matrix
The following analysis is based on the random interviews and panel discussions carried
out in selected villages in Karagwe District between 01st September 2002 and 10th
September 2002. The analysis is based on the need to look at three aspects of the
assignment: the status of gender equality in the district, civic education and political
awareness, and community participation.
a) Gender Equality:
It was not easy to determine the degree of gender equality during the meetings and
discussions with people. However, some variables were measured in order to

182

determine the level gender equality in the District. For instance, the number of
women participating in the meetings and income generating activities, the level of
participation of women in decision making, discussions and dialogue during these
meetings.
There are still some men who feel that women should take the back seat in various
socio-economic activities in the Wards. However, during these meetings women
were seen very active and they actively participated in decision making and
discussions. Women during these meetings were active enough to stimulate debates
and discussions to promote gender equality among people. The following table
(Table 1) shows the participation of women in meetings and workshops.
Table 1 Number of Women Attending Meetings during Workshops
Venue/Village

Males

Songambele
Katembe
Igurwa
Kitwe
Nyabwegira
Kikukuru
Nyabishenge

7
16
54
70
2
42
15

Females

% of Women
Participation
during
Discussions

0
54
19
23
1
42
6

Total Number
of Participants

0
45
60
50
10
40
30

7
70
70
93
3
84
21

Source: Collected Data

The participation of women in discussions during meetings was increasing. Women
were able to attract more listeners when they spoke to the audience and they had
some confidence in providing some inputs during discussions. Women have started
to be accepted by male counterparts as equals Karagwe District.
b) Civic Education and Political Awareness:
The level of civic education among the people in rural areas is very low. KADERES
has less involvement in civic education programmes and political awareness among
the people. The lions share of KADERES activities are mainly the promotion of
income generating activities, rural financial schemes and enhancement of health
services at Kagenyi, Songambele and other remote villages in the District.

183

There is need for KADERES to embark on the provision of civil education and
political awareness of the people in rural areas. One reason for this is lack of
appropriate information from RTD and other radio stations that are relevant to the
people.
c) Community Participation:
The degree of community participation is high particularly in non economic activities.
The community members are keen in participation in activities such as burial services,
traditional ceremonies, religious activities. Women have started to form income
generation groups in some villages resulted from donor intervention such as
KADERES efforts to promote micro finance activities in several Wards in the District.
The level of women participation in community activities and income generation
activities is increasing.
Table 2 provides the SWOT analysis that was conducted during workshops and data
collection in several villages in Karagwe District. The focus was in the strength of
KADERES in the attaining of the goals and aims it set to achieve, challenges and
opportunities that KADERES faces in the course of attaining its mission and vision.
Table 2 SWOT Analysis
Strengths
Clear mission,
objectives and
strategies of
KADERES
Reasonable
capacity building
capability

Weaknesses
Difficult to separate
development from
relief services

Experienced and
qualified Districts
staff

Shortage of staff
due to increase of
KADERES
activities
Over-stretched
KADERES
Secretariat

KADERES
leadership is strong

Over-reliance on
workshops and
meetings between
KADERES staff
and villages

Opportunities
KADERES can still
do more through
community
participation
Possible training of
KADERES staff
and selected
villagers in gender
equality, community
participation and
political awareness
KADERES can
cooperate with
government and
NGOs
More lessons and
learning to be
available

184

Threats
Relief services
could be
undermined
Possible shortage of
staff

Relationship with
KADERES might
be loose
Failure to meet
deadlines set by
different donors and
funders of the

Strengths

Weaknesses

Opportunities

A market leader

Exploration of the
new things - going
to unknown. It is
risky.
To many loyalties
and lines of
command to be
managed by the
Secretariat

The path finder of

the District

Lack of effective
internet facility and
information
dissemination
channels such as
media and website
External donor
dependence is high

KADERES can
think of introducing
the media
programme such as
the Newsletter and
the radio station
The market leader
and chances for
sustainability

Lack of funding and

operating costs to
run the radio station
and media such as
KADERES
Newsletter.
Problems if funding
is reduces or ceases

Ad hoc meetings
not helpful to
change peoples
behaviour and to
learn
KADERES would
do what the District
government wants

A forum to
stimulate dialogue
and discussions

Difficult to accept
the real impact to
the people through
ad hoc meetings.

A well organised
institution:
financial,
managerial,
marketing,
promotional
procedures and
guidelines
Adequate MIS:
reporting,
controlling,
coordinating,
planning and
monitoring system
Impressing history
and records of
running
programmes/projec
ts
Village networks
with KADERES

Supportive District
authority

Knowledge of the
rural people in
Karagwe District

Leading the other

NGOs in Karagwe
District.

Cooperation and
acceptance by the
Government to
promote socioeconomic
development of the
District
Urban bias
Development of
especially in rural
rural financial
financial institutions schemes in many
villages

Ownership
approach to
projects/activities

Dominance of
agriculture

Community based
activities

Limited products,
limited markets

Threats
projects
Competition with
other NGOs and
CBOs in the
District
Problems if donor
funding is reduced
or ceases

Political influence
would probably
spoil KADERES
plans. Politicians
would probably
have the say in
KADERES plans.
Not sustainable
rural financial
schemes due to
poor support of the
outreach areas
Climate and
Lack of reliable
weather in the
market and
District is
dependence of one
supportive
type of activity is
risky
Community
The group or
empowerment and
community-think
development can be which can impede
possible
innovation and

185

Strengths

Weaknesses

Opportunities

Attendance in the
village meetings is
impressing

People attend the

meetings to listen
and accept what
KADERES or the
government want
them to do or
accept.

Change can be
effective because
the majority of the
people are
receptive.

Threats
creativity
Dependence
perpetuation among
villagers and
people.

Table 3 presents the confrontation matrix which maps strengths of KADERES with a
number of related opportunities to the promotion of socio-economic development of
the people in Karagwe District. The matrix takes each strength and maps with various
opportunities.
Table 3 KADERES Confrontation Matrix
Strengths

Opportunity 1

Opportunity

Opportunity

Clear mission,
objectives and
strategies of
KADERES

KADERES is a
natural
community
leader in
development
and relief
projects

2
Experience in
the provision
of goods and
services for
over four year

3
The market
leader in the
delivery of
goods and
services

Reasonable
capacity
building
capability
exists within
KADERES

KADERES can
facilitate
community
empowerment
activities in
various villages

KADERES to
organise
training and
workshop
activities for
human rights,
gender
equality and
community
participation

Experienced
and qualified
district staff

Community
level
participation
between the
local
government and
KADERES

KADERES
draws some
expertise from
the Karagwe
District
Council
(KDC)

186

Opportunity

4
Accepted by
villagers
because of the
involvement of
the community
members in
various
projects
Community
Karagwe
empowerment Radio to be
Centre can be established in
established
order to
under
enhance and
KADERES
build capacity
among the
rural
population:
Radio
Tweyambe.
The
The
Councillors
Community
realise the
Development
existence of
Office
can
NGOs in the
work together
District. Inter
with
institutional
KADERES
participation is Secretariat to
necessary.
attains goals of
KADERES

Strengths

Opportunity 1

KADERES
leadership is
strong

KADERES
would be the
leading NGO in
the provision of
goods and
services in the
District

A well
organised
institution:
financial,
managerial,
marketing,
promotional
procedures and
guidelines

Support all
necessary
development
and relief
services in the
designated
Wards

Adequate
management
information
systems:
reporting,
controlling,
coordinating,
planning and
monitoring
system

Introduce the
media
dissemination
programme in
the District

Impressing
history of
running and
managing
projects

Running
different types
of projects
increases
experiences
among the staff

Village
networks with
KADERES

Effective
communication
between actors

Opportunity

Opportunity

2
Increase the
number of staff
in the
Secretariat in
order to cope
with increased
number of
activities and
projects

3
Acquire more
resources and
equipment
such as
transport,
photocopy and
printing
services, and
information
dissemination
services
Supply
Establish
KADERES
Village and
strategic plan
Ward
to all its
Counselling &
stakeholders in Training
the District in Services to
order to
promote
enhance
development
transparency
and openness
KADERES
Radio
Newsletter
Tweyambe
can be
can be
introduced in
introduced in
order to
Karagwe in
inform
order to
villagers on
broadcast
various issues information
such as gender about
equality,
development
community
and human
participation,
rights
political
awareness
More staff
KADERES
who are
can think of
conversant and expanding her
competent to
services to
manage donor other Districts
funded
in Kagera
projects
region.
KADENVO
and KAMEA
can also
benefit from
KADERES
187

KADERES
becomes more
accepted by
community
members in

Opportunity
4
Train the
members of
the
management
board and
secretariat to
manage the
complexity of
the
organisation
More
improvements
in the financial,
managerial,
marketing and
promotional
procedures

Different
information
dissemination
centres can be
created in
order to
disseminate
information
throughout the
District and
beyond

KADERES to
cooperate with
other NGOs
and the local
government in
order to
stimulate
development in
the District
To open
KADERES
information
dissemination
posts within

Strengths

Opportunity 1

Opportunity

Opportunity

Opportunity

2
networks

3
promoting
various
projects

4
the village
government
offices

3.0 PROPOSED TRAINING PROGRAMME

Capacity creation and building among the communities in Karagwe District is
significantly necessary to improve the communities in the district. Residents in the
District are staying in the area were national media services are not always available.
The reception of the national radio namely Radio Tanzania Dar es Salaam (RTD) in the
District is highly unreliable and not always available. In addition to that national
newspapers are mostly available in big cities and towns. Little information on
newspaper reach the poor and communities in rural Karagwe. Even if some households
may have the capacity to buy newspapers their awareness to gender issues, community
participation and civic education has been impeded by lack of training and educational
programmes that would inform them on these new issues. Communities and villages in
Karagwe District do not have sufficient and formal educational programmes that
would enable them to build the sustainable impact in behavioural change and skill
acquisition at grassroots levels.
3.1 Training Programme
We are proposing the following training programmes to be installed in Karagwe
District in order to stimulate and enhance gender equality, democracy, promotion to
human rights, political awareness, community participation and good governance:
i) Training in Gender Equality
Training in gender awareness and sensitization is proposed to start and then followed
by the thorough study on gender equality. The facilitators should focus at the practical
level and how equality between sexes can be naturally enforced among people in
Karagwe District. The study of gender roles, equality, sexual harassment and gender
discrimination should be taught to members through panel discussions in rural villages.
It is proposed that community members should be a mixture of males and females and
they have to encourage each other to speak.
ii) Human Rights and Democracy

188

The people in rural Karagwe needs to have some training in democracy and human
rights especially through radio programmes and news papers. The study found out that
the national radio, RTD, is not accessible in the majority of the District. The reception
of RTD is mainly in the morning and late at night. Even if the RTD can be listened
during the day but its reception is very weak. The RFA can easily be heard with other
radio stations from neighbouring countries (See Annex 4). The training in human rights
and democracy would be helpful to the people and residents of the District.
iii) Training in Civic Education and Political Awareness
It is proposed that training in civic education and political awareness be designed in
order to make residents aware of the political environment in the District. The
knowledge about election and political parties among the residents in rural Karagwe is
very scanty. The Village Executive Officers and members of the Ward Development
Committee are the main sources of information delivery and dissemination. In most
castes the weltanschauungen of these leaders become the thinking and view point of
the majority of villagers and residents.
The interview conducted on the media and supply of newspapers at Kayanga and
Omurushaka towns showed that only 5 percent of the government staff buy
newspapers. The main newspapers that have found some readers in Kayanga and
Omurushaka towns were Business Times, The East African, Mzalendo, Nipashe, Kiu,
Rai, Maisha and rarely Uhuru. It was observed that over 150 newspapers are return to
Bukoba town every Wednesday because there were no buyers in Karagwe (Annex 4).
The Tindamanyire Newspaper shop indicated that there are some travellers from
Bukoba who come in Karagwe with newspapers to read. The number of readers in
Karagwe is very small.
It is proposed that the KADERES or Karagwe Newsletter be established in order to
disseminate information and news from and to rural Karagwe. In addition to that the
Radio station be established in order to have more outreach programmes throughout
the District.
iv) Training in Participatory Development (Community Participation)

189

Community members should be taught that associational life can be extended to

economic activities as well. Community participation has been found to be very
important in rural areas. The participation among community members is effective in
areas of ceremonies such as in religious, traditional and burial ceremonies and other
non economic activities. The area has a uniform type of social structure that can easily
affect the diffusion of information among community members through community
participation. KADERES has recently been active to promoting community
participation in the micro finance programme in four Wards in the District.
The creation of Karagwe Radio will necessitate and enhance community participation
by the introduction of various radio programmes. It is proposed that the experts on
Radio installation look at the possibility of establishing the Radio Station in Karagwe.
The socio-cultural variables show that the need for the Radio Station in Kayanga Town
is obvious. There is need to look at the possibility of supporting the technical study on
the possibility of installing the radio station for the District.
3.2 Methods of Conducting Training
It has been proposed that adult learning approach should be applied in order to train
course participants in their respective villages or Wards. The classroom training shall
also be used but it must be kept at the minimum. The two methods are proposed in
order to attain the objectives of training: The first approach is the fishbowl, which calls
for discussion among participants over a particular gender, political awareness,
democracy and good governance issues It is expected to identify key speakers who will
participate in the meetings. The participants have to set the agenda for discussion
regarding the main topics for discussion. Then the audience during fishbowling follows
the discussion. In this approach the discussant sets the motion on and the audience
catches it. The most significant of fishbowl type of training method is the presence of a
moderator who will regulate the discussion. The main emphasis in fishbowling is the
group processes in order to enhance group solidarity amongst members. The second
method to be applied during training intervention is the use of business skits. The
business skit enacts the real situation by the help of participants themselves during
training in order to transfer that modelled skills and training to individual participants.
There will be the task of modelling in order to create required behaviours needed for
effecting change in the District.

190

4.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

There are both conclusions and recommendations drawn in this study.
4.1 Conclusions:
The main conclusions drawn from the study are the following:
i) It was found out that the people in the District run short of gender equality and
practice. There are significance degree of gender discrimination and possible sexual
harassment prevalent among communities;
ii) The majority of the people in the District do not have adequate knowledge of
political awareness and knowledge on democracy;
iii) Community participation and participatory development are key to the
development of the people in the District. The associational life is high in the non
economic activities and it is low in economic and production activities. KADERES
is trying hard to promote participatory development among the population in the
District.
4.2 Recommendations:
a) The training and education programme on gender equality among the rural Karagwe
residents should be conducted in order to enhance gender sensitization and
awareness among community members. The contents of the training programme is
attached in Annex 6 of this report;
b) The training programme on political awareness and democracy should be
introduced in the District. Various leaders of political parties and Karagwe District
Council staff should participate in the training programme in order to enhance and
promote democracy in the District;
c) Community participation and participatory development among people should be
encouraged. KADERES has always been trying to promote community
participation and participatory development in the projects it is supporting and
facilitating;

191

ANNEXES

192

ANNEX 1
TERMS OF REFERENCE
Introduction
Karagwe Development and Relief Services (KADERES) is a local non governmental
organisation based in Karagwe District, in the Kagera Region in Tanzania. KADERES
intends to establish the programme with the aim of enabling our community to
understand their rights, democracy and good governance in our district.
Context of the Assignment
The Great majority of the Karagwe people do not know their basic rights, democracy
and good governance within the priority areas of:
i) Gender equality;
ii) Civic education and political awareness; and
iii) Participatory development.
KADERES has currently identified the need to undertake a baseline study to determine
the training and capacity building required in the district in order to enable the
community to be aware if the above named sub topics.
Mission and Objectives of the Consultant
1) To assess the feasibility and appropriateness of KADERES plans, current and future
capacity for implementing the above named programme;
2) To conduct meetings and workshops for KADERES and District Officials, cell
leaders, members of the village Governments and community members in order to
make the SWOT analysis of the above named programme; and
3) To collect data which will enable the consultant to draw up a proposal on: How to
deal with the identified weaknesses, opportunities and threats. The performance
targets that will assist KADERES in its plans for the programme.
Deliverables
a) A Study Report
b) Proposal for dealing with identified weaknesses, opportunities and threats.
ANNEX 2
THE WORK PLAN AND SCHEDULE

193

Note: Proposed dates: 01st September 2002 to 11th September 2002

Day
Sunday, 01
September
2002
Monday, 02
September
2002
Tuesday, 03
September
2002
Wednesday,
04 September
2002
Thursday, 05
September
2002
Friday, 06
September
2002

Saturday, 07
September
2002
Sunday, 08
September
2002
Monday, 09
September
2002

Activity
Travelling from Mzumbe to Kilimanjaro
International Airport (KIA) then to Bukoba
(Precision Air from KIA to Bukoba via
Mwanza)
Travelling to Karagwe

Briefing and Documentary review

Shaperning of the study instruments:
observation kit, panel interview documents
Courtesy call to the District Commissioner,
DED, District Community Development
Officer, Political Parties Offices, Civil
Society Organisations offices
Visit to the Civil Society Organisations at
Kayanga, and Omurushaka: NGOs, CBOs,
Churches, mosques, cooperative associations,
TAWOVA, KAMFI, KADERES,
KARADEA, KAMEA, CHEMA, FINCA etc
Kituntu/Mabira Division
Meeting with community members, village
government leaders, workshops with village
governments. Two to three villages can be
visited.
As above

Remarks
A night in Arusha
(31st August 2002)
A night in Bukoba
Town
Kayanga Town, stay at
KDC Hostel!
Travel arrangements
by KADERES
KADERES
09:00 am - 05:00 p.m.

09:00 12:00
02:00 - 05:30 p.m.
To be arranged by
KADERES.

To be arranged by
KADERES

Briefing, documentary review and reconfirmations of data at KADERES

KADERES
12:00 - 04:00

Kaisho/Murongo Division

To be arranged by
KADERES

Meeting with community members, village

government leaders, workshops with village
governments. Two to three villages can be
visited.
As above

Tuesday, 10
September
2002
Wednesday,
Compilation and data analysis
11 September Preliminary Findings
2002
Thursday, 12 Leaving for Dar es Salaam: Precision Air
September
2002

194

To be arranged by
KADERES
KADERES
KADERES
The plane leaves at
03:00 am

Day
Friday, 13
September
2002
14 - 25
September
2002
Monday, 30
September
2002
October
onwards

Activity
Leaving for Mzumbe

Remarks

Data analysis and report writing

Mzumbe University

Submission of the Baseline Study Report.

Via Electronic mail

and a hard copy by
post
Preparation of
Training Interventions
when Required by the
Client.

Some reflections on Training Interventions

based on the Report submitted to KADERES

195

ANNEX 3
PROJECTS AND ACTIVITIES CURRENTLY CONDUCTED BY KADERES
1) Enhancement, implementation and construction of Kagenyi dispensary;
2) Construction of modern dispensary building at Songambele village;
3) Small scale Income Generating Projects:
Shoe making and repairing Facility at OmugaKorongo;
Carpentry Youth Groups (CYG);
Women Weaving Groups in Igurwa and Kamuli Wards;
Sale of Second Hand Clothes in Kituntu and Igurwa Wards;
Poultry rearing units in Katembe and Kituntu Wards;
4) Food Security Initiative in Karagwe District. Drying (storage) of foodstuffs in
villages;
5) Promotion and Formation of Micro Finance Institutions/Groups; and
6) Construction of excavated water tank at Kikukuru.

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ANNEX 4
AN INTERVIEW GUIDE
Questions on:
1) Community members access to the media.
2) What kind of access?
3) What is accessed? What kind of information is accessed?
4) How access is made?
5) What use of such information? Who uses such information?
6) Who is accessing it?
7) Where is it accessed?
Type of Media in the District:
A. Newspaper Media
1) The Guardian;
2) Nipashe
3) Financial Times
4) Observer
5) Taifa Letu
6) Kasheshe
7) Komesha
8) Alasiri
9) Lete Raha
10)

Majira

11)

Business Times

12)

Dar Leo

13)

Maisha

14)

Spoti Starehe

15)

Mtanzania

16)

Rai

17)

The African

18)

Dimba

19)

Bingwa

20)

Mchana

21)

Mwananchi

197

22)

Mwanaspoti

23)

Daily News

24)

Sunday News

25)

Uhuru

26)

Mzalendo

27)

Ijumaa

28)

Uwazi

29)

Championi

30)

Amani

31)

Kiu

32)

Risasi

33)

Hamu

34)

Mtandao

35)

Yanga

36)

Msemakweli

37)

Nyakati

38)

Kiongozi

39)

Mwenge

40)

Mlezi

41)

Cheko

42)

Tamasha

43)

Kwetu

44)

Michapo

45)

Motomoto

46)

Mfanyakazi

47)

Burudani

48)

Jitegemee

49)

Spoti Staa

50)

Raha Tele

51)

Msanii Afrika

52)

The Arusha Times

53)

Rumuli

B. Television Media

198

1) Televisheni ya Taifa (TVT)

2) Independent Television (ITV)
3) Dar es Salaam Television (DTV)
4) Star Television
5) CTN
6) Abood Television
7) Coast to Coast Television (C2C)
8) Television Zanzibar
9) Tanzania Entertainment Network (Channel Ten)
10)

Kenya Broadcasting Television

11)

Uganda Broadcasting Television

12)

Rwanda TV

C. Radio Stations
1) Radio Tanzania Dar es Salaam
2) Radio Tanzania Zanzibar
3) Radio Free Africa
4) Radio Habari Maalum
5) Radio One
6) Redio Tumaini
7) Redio Ukweli
8) Redio Abood
9) Redio Maria
10)

BBC Idhaa ya Kiswahili

11)

Sauti ya Amerika - VOA

12)

Idhaa ya Kiswahili ya Sauti ya Ujerumani

13)

Idhaa ya Kiswahili Redio Iran

14)

Idhaa ya Kiswahili Redio Saudi Arabia

15)

Idhaa ya Kiswahili Redio Channel Africa

16)

Idhaa ya Kiswahili Redio Rwanda

17)

Idhaa ya Kiswahili Redio Burundi

18)

Redio Kwezira

19)

Magic FM

20)

Clouds FM

199

21)

PRT ya Redio Tanzania

22)

Kiss FM

23)

East African Radio

24)

Redio ya Sauti ya Kurani

25)

Times FM

26)

Idhaa ya Kiswahili ya Redio Vatican

27)

Redio Chemchem

28)

Radio 5

29)

Redio West

30)

Redio Kigezi

31)

Bud FM

32)

Capital Radio

33)

Radio One Uganda

34)

LTV Uganda

D. Newsletters, Magazines and Books

1) Kibiriti Ngoma
2) Sani
3) Bongo
4) Jumbo
5) Tabasamu
6) Shabaha
7) Kingo
8) Femina

E. The Role of Civil Society Organisations to promote Democracy and

Community Participation
1) Faith organisations;
2) CBOs and NGOs,
3) Political parties in Karagwe District;
4) Training institutions;
5) Extra curricular activities.

200

ANNEX 5
INTERNET SERVICES FROM AFSAT COMMUNICATIONS (TANZANIA)
LTD
Contact Address:
Afsat Communications (Tanzania) Limited)
PPF Tower, 12th Floor, Ohio/Garden Avenue
P.O.Box 6154
Dar es Salaam
Tel: 255 22 2120700/1
Fax: 255 22 2120208
Email: infotz@afsat.com
Capital Cost: It varies and Government taxes not included in the estimates. Hence,
this proposal should be regarded as indicative.
a) DirecWay, DW 4000 (2 way): 1.2m oval satellite antenna, DPC 1W Ku-band, DPC
2 - way ITU and IRU IDUs, IFL PVC Coax Type 3 100 connectors, and lightning
arrestors. The Unit cost is US$ 3,950;
b) Full installation: including site survey, initialising and site commissioning: US$
1500;
c) Operational cost: 128kbs shared in route satellite bandwidth to the hub and 4.5 mbs
broadcast outbound: US$ 1,350 per month.
d) Total start up cost: US$ 3,950 + 1,500 = US$ 5,450 plus operational monthly cost.

201

ANNEX 6
PROPOSED TRAINING PROGRAMME
Duration of the Programme: 10 days
Venue: Kayanga, Karagwe
Course Contents
Module 1
Introduction to Gender Studies and Analysis
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Gender and Gender Roles
1.3
Gender Relationships
1.4
Gender and Employment
1.5
Equal Opportunity
Module 2
Introduction to Governance, Democracy and Political Awareness
2.1
Introduction
2.2
The Notion of Governance and Democracy in families and institutions
2.3
Democracy in institutions
2.4
Politics, Awareness and Sensitization
Module 3
Participatory Techniques and Tools for Development
3.1
Introduction
3.2
Methods and Techniques for Participation
3.3
PRA, RRA, Focus Group Discussions
3.4
Group and Individual Problem Solving
3.5
Grass roots participation and Development
***

202