Copyright 1979 by the South Dakota State Historical Society. All Rights Reserved.

Dakota Resources:
Historical Sketch and Selected
Bibliography of Early Linguistic
Research in Dakota/Lakota Language*

JANETTE MURRAY

Many non-Indians have undertaken the study of the language

of the Sioux Indians for various reasons. In the early nineteenth
century, missionaries studied and learned the language of the
Sioux tribes in Minnesota and Dakota Territories as a necessary
prerequisite to their work. In the 1880s, the federal government
recognized the need for accurate scientific information about the
lives, customs, beliefs, and languages of the Indian tribes inhabiting the Great Plains and the West. Congress, through the
Bureau of American Ethnology, commissioned a number of
scholars to study these diverse tribes and to publish their findings in a series of bulletins and annual reports. After the 1930s,
when English clearly became the dominant language on the reservations, language research became the province of universitytrained scholars in field or applied linguistics.
The Siouan language family, as outlined by J. W. Powell in
1891, covered a large territory, with speakers as far east as North
Carolina and as far south as Biloxi, Mississippi, as well as west to
the Rocky Mountains and north into Canada.' Sioux tribes
This essay was presented in slightly different form on 24 June 1978 at the MidDakota Conference on Local History, Mobridge. South Dakota.
1. J. W. Powell, "Indian Linguistic Families of America North of Mexico,"
Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1885-86 (Washinglon, D,C.:
Government Printing Office, 1891). pp. 1-142.

Copyright 1979 by the South Dakota State Historical Society. All Rights Reserved.

338

South Dakota History

residing in North and South Dakota speak one of three dialects

belonging to the Siouan family. Nakota, or the N dialect, is
spoken by the Yankton on the Yankton Reservation and the
Yanktonai on the Standing Rock Reservation, the Lower Crow
Creek Reservation, and the Fort Totten Reservation.^ Dakota, or
the D dialect, is spoken by the Mdewakantonwan at Flandreau;
the Sisseton on the Sisseton and Fort Totten Reservations; and
the Wahpeton at Sisseton, Flandreau, and Fort Totten. The L
dialect, Lakota, is spoken by the largest group, the Teton, or
Western Sioux. The bands of the Teton are the Hunkpapa and the
Sihasapa (Blackfoot) at Standing Rock; the Minneconjou, the
Sihasapa, the Oohenonpa (Two Kettle), and Sans Arc at Cheyenne
River; the Brule and Oglala at Rosebud; the Brule at Lower Brule
Reservation; and the Brule and Oglala at Pine Ridge.^ There are
only slight differences in pronunciation and vocabulary among
the dialects. A Lakota speaker has no difficulty conversing with a
Dakota speaker.
There are two major periods in the early study of
Dakota/Lakota language though they are closely related and
somewhat overlapping. The first studies were the publications of
the missionaries to the Santee, or Eastern Sioux. The second
group of publications deals mainly with the Teton and was sponsored by the Bureau of American Ethnology.
Missionaries began their work among the Santee living in Minnesota in the 1820s and 1830s. Joseph Renville, of French and
Indian descent, established a trading post at Lac qui Parle on the
Minnesota River in 1826. As was happening throughout the frontier, the traders were soon followed by the missionaries. In 1834,
Samuel Pond and his brother Gideon left their Connecticut
village to settle among the Sioux for the purpose of converting
them to Christianity. Encountering the Sioux at Prairie de Chien,
they began their language study by asking Dakota words for objects. Later, when they settled at Lake Calhoun. they also used
the word lists made up by army officers in the area. In 1836,
Gideon Pond went to Renville's post at Lac qui Parle where he
met Dr. Thomas Williamson, a physician and Episcopal missionary. A year later. Rev. Stephen Return Riggs joined this
"Dakota Mission." The Pond brothers assisted both Williamson
2. While all of these groups were originally Nakota speakers, the N dialect has
now mixed with the D or L dialects in many areas.
3. Ethel Nurge, ed.. Preface lo The Modem Sioux: Social Systems and Reservation Culture (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 1970), pp. xii-xv.

Copyright 1979 by the South Dakota State Historical Society. All Rights Reserved.

Dakota Resources

339

and Riggs in learning Dakota. They began by translating hymns

and simple Bible stories, but their most ambitious project was the
translating of both the New and Old Testament into Dakota.* Ella
Deloria, daughter of the Episcopal minister Philip Deioria, gives
this description of how the work proceeded:
It is a log house, ample and many roomed, for it is the home of the French
and Dakota fur trader, Renville. a man of keen intellect, though without
any schooling to speak of and without any fluency in English. In a hare
room with flickering candlelight he sits hour on hour of an evening after a
hard day of manual work. Dr. Riggs and his helpers are across tne table
from him. They are working on the translations. It is a blessing incalculable for all Dakota missions that Drs. Williamson and Riggs are
scholars. One of them reads a verse in Hebrew, if It is from the Old Testament, or in Greek, if from the New. He ponders its essence, stripped of
idiom, and then he gives it in French. Renville. receiving it thus in his
father's civilized language, now thinks it through very carefully and at
length turns it out again, this time in his mother's primitive tongue. Slowly
and patiently he repeats it as often as needed while Dr. Riggs and the
others write it down in the Dakota phonetics already devised By the Pond
brothers.'

Riggs and Williamson worked together for a number of years.

Their work on a Dakota grammar was supported in part by the
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions and the
Historical Society of Minnesota, In 1852. the Smithsonian Institution printed A Dakota Grammar and Dictionary as part of its
Contributions to Knowledge series. Although the title page noted
that the material was "collected by the members of the Dakota
Mission" and only edited by Riggs, the Pond brothers felt that
they had not been given adequate credit for their part in the contribution." A translation of Pilgrim's Progress, entitled CanteTeca, by Riggs, appeared in 1858.' John Williamson, the son of Dr.
Thomas Williamson, also worked with the Santee, and his DakotaEnglish dictionary came out in 1868, wHh new editions in 1871,
4. John D. Nichols, Introduction to Dakota Grammar. Texts, and Ethnography,
by Stephen Return Riggs (1893; reprint ed.. Minneapolis. Minn.: Ross & Haines,
1973), pp. 2-4.
5. Ella Deloria. Speaking of Indians (New York: Friendship Press, 1944). p. 103.
Deloria further informs us that "parts of the New Testament had been translated
by 1840 and it was completed in 1865. The whole Bible was ready by 1879" (p. 102).
The American Bible Society in New York published the entire Bible in 1879. under
the title Dakota Wowapi Wakan, and credited the translation to Williamson and
Riggs.
6. Nichols. Introduction to Dakota Grammar, p. 4.
7. Doane Robinson. A History of the Dakota or Sioux Indians from Their
Earliest Traditions and First Contact with White Men to the Final Settlement of
the Last of Them upon Reservations and the Consequent A bandonment of the Old
Tribal Life (1904: reprint ed.. MinneapoJis. Minn.: Ross & Raines. 1974). pp. 173 75.

Copyright 1979 by the South Dakota State Historical Society. All Rights Reserved.

3JtO

South Dakota History

WOWIHAMNA ITECECA ;
OICIMANI WAN IYOPTA YE CIN.

OEYUHPE TOKAHEYA.
MAEA kin de ewonkan opta cimani mda
unkan hnuhanna wamaniti wan en wai, qa hen
mistinbe kta c irnunka. Mixtinma unkan wowihanmde wan iwaharana. Wiwahamna unkan
inyun wicaxta wan heyake xica koyake a iye
ti kin en etonwe xni uajin ; wowapi wan nape
ohna yuhe a tapete akan waqin tanka wan
yanka.*
I3a. C4:6; Luke U : 3 3 ; Paa. 38:4.

1886, and 1902. In 1890, an expanded version of the 1852 Riggs

dictionary was republished as the seventh volume in the Contributions to North American Ethnology series of the Bureau of
American Ethnology, a series originally supervised by the U.S.
Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain
Region. Rigg's Dakota Grammar, Texts, and Ethnography was
the ninth and last volume in this series in 1893. Listed as
storytellers in this 1893 volume were four Dakota speakers:
Michael Renville, the son of Joseph Renville; David Grey Cloud, a

Copyright 1979 by the South Dakota State Historical Society. All Rights Reserved.

Dakota Resources

341

Presbyterian preacher; Walking Elk, a Yankton Dakota; and

James Garvie, a teacher at the Nebraska Indian School established by Rev. Alfred Riggs, the son of Stephen Return Riggs."
The inclusion of these stories was significant because it marked
the first printing of native speakers telling their own stories in
their own language rather than Dakota translations of English
stories.
There can be no doubt that the dictionaries, grammars, and
translations were of great value to the many missions in the
Dakotas, and they continued to be used for a number of years.
However, the purposes of Riggs and his colleagues were not to
preserve the culture and language of the Dakota but to use the
language as a vehicle for bringing about the transition to English
and non Indian customs. In the "Ethnography" of his Dakota
Grammar, Texts, and Ethnography, Riggs wrote:
Let a well arranged severalty bill be enacted into law, and Indians be
guaranteed civil rights as other men. and they will soon cease to be
Indians.
The Indian tribes of our continent may become extinct as such; but if
this extinction is brought about by introducing them to civilization and
Christianity and merging them into our great nation, which is receiving accretions from all others, who will deplore the result? Rather let us labor for
it, realizing that if by our efforts they cease to be Indians and become
fellow-citizens it will be our glory and joy."

While the above publications were based on missionary work

with the Santee, other missionaries also worked among the
Lakota, or Teton Sioux. For example. Rev. Eugene Buechel, a
native of Germany, began his official ministry at the Holy Rosary
Mission on the Pine Ridge Reservation in 1907 under the auspices
of the Catholic church. For nearly forty years, he collected
Lakota words for a dictionary. In 1939. he published a detailed
grammatical study, A Grammar of Lakota. His dictionary of
Lakota, which is the best source currently available, was published in 1970. Valuable as all of these scholarly works are, they
do have limitations in the linguistic study of Dakota/Lakota
language. Dr. Franz Boas of Columbia University commented on
Buechel's work: "The analysis of Dakota in Buechel's Grammar is
based on the theory that every syllable has a meaning. The arrangement is that of an English Grammar with Dakota
equivalents. Since much of the material is based on Bible transla8, Stephen Return Riggs. Dakota Grammar, Texts, and Ethnography, U.S.
Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, Contributions
to North American Ethnology, vol. 9 (Washington. D,C.. 1893), pp. 83 152.
9. Ibid., p. 167.

Copyright 1979 by the South Dakota State Historical Society. All Rights Reserved.

South Dakota History

tions and prayers, many unidiomatic forms occur."'" The same is
true of the Riggs work.
Following the Civil War, the United States government turned
its attention to the problems of the western territories. For purposes of treaty-making and administration, the government
needed to locate, identify, and classify the various western tribes
under some sort of central system. In 1879, Congress authorized
the creation of the Bureau of American Ethnology, under the
Smithsonian Institution, to undertake this work, which had
begun earlier under the U,S. Geographical and Geological Survey
of the Rocky Mountain Region in the Department of Interior.
Congress further authorized the publication of a series of
bulletins and annual reports. The Bureau of American Ethnology
ultimately produced 48 volumes in its series of annual reports
and 200 bulletins in its series of anthropological papers, in which
the topics were "as broad as were contemporary interests in the
field of anthropology.""
One of the first publications of the Bureau of Ethnology was
"Indian Linguistic Families of America North of Mexico," compiled by J. W. Powell, in the Seventh Annual Report of the
Bureau of American Ethnology, 1885-86. With comparatively few
changes, Powell's outline has continued to hold up to scholarly investigations to the present time. James Owen Dorsey's "Study of
Siouan Cults" was also published by the bureau in 1894 {Eleventh
Annual Report... 1889-90). Dorsey had been a missionary to the
Ponca Indians in Nebraska from 1871 to 1873. He did comparative
studies of the languages of the Ponca, Omaha, Kansa, Winnebago,
and Biloxi. Unlike other missionaries, Dorsey adopted an objective approach to language and legends. By his own experience, he
discovered a principle that Franz Boas of Columbia University
was to stress with his linguistic students; that is, "it is safer to let
the Indian tell his own story in his own words than to endeavor to
question him in such a manner as to reveal what answers are

10, Franz Boas. Preface to Dakota Grammar, by Franz Boas and Ella Deloria,
Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 23, 2d memoir (Washington,
D.C.. 1941), p. vii.
11. List of Publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology, with Index to
Authors and Titles, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology
Bulletin no. 200 (End of Series) ( Washington. D.C.. 1971), p. iii. See also Frederick
Webb Hodge, ed.. Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico, Smithsonian
Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin no. 30 (Washington, D.C.,
1907). pp. 171 76,

Copyright 1979 by the South Dakota State Historical Society. All Rights Reserved.

Dakota Resources

343

desired or expected."'^ Although Dorsey did not include the

Dakota/Lakota texts, he cites as his native informants John
Bruyier, a Dakota speaker, and George Bushotter, a Lakota
speaker.'^
James Mooney's work "The Ghost Dance Religion of the
American Indian" appeared in 1896 in the Fourteenth Annual
Report... 1892-93. In his introduction, Mooney writes, "the main
purpose of the work is not linguistic, and as nearly every tribe
concerned speaks a different language from all the others, any
close linguistic study must be left to the philologist who can afford to devote a year or more to an individual tribe. The only one
of these tribes of which the author claims intimate knowledge is
the Kiowa."'* His Lakota-speaking informants included American
Horse, Fire Thunder, and George Sword of Pine Ridge, South
Dakota. With the exception of some words and phrases, Mooney
does not include the original language texts in his work on the
Sioux.
Yet another important study published by the Bureau of
Ethnology was Frances Densmore's Teton Sioux Music in 1918.
Densmore listed as informants Robert P. Higheagle, a graduate
of Hampton, and Mrs. James McLaughlin, the Dakota speaking
wife of Major James McLaughlin at Standing Rock, and many
singers from Standing Rock.'^ Densmore recorded the words of
the Lakota songs, but most of the text is in English. The many
reports and bulletins written for the Bureau of American
Ethnology contain a wealth of information about the Sioux. Even
though the scholars did not include the original language versions
in their publications, most of the manuscripts were preserved in
museum collections.
In 1917, the American Museum of Natural History published
The Sun Dance and Other Ceremonies of the Oglala Division of
the Teton Dakota by J. R. Walker. Walker was a physician at the
Pine Ridge Agency who became close friends with many of the
Lakota religious leaders. Although he consulted many sources,
12. James Owen Dorsey, "A Study of Siouan Cults," Eleventh Annual Report of
the Bureau of Ethnology, 1889-90 (Washington. D.C.: Government Printing Office,
1894). p, 365.
13. Ibid,, pp, 362-63,
14. James Mooney, "The Ghost Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of 1890."
Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. 1892-9S. pt. 2 (Washington,
D.C.; Government Printing Office, 1896), pp. 654-55,
15. Frances Densmore, Teton Sioux Music, Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of
American Ethnology Bulletin no. 61 (Washington, D.C. 1918), pp. v. xxvi-xxvii.

Copyright 1979 by the South Dakota State Historical Society. All Rights Reserved.

South Dakota History

Walker relied heavily on the accounts of George Sword. Sword,
an Oglala, was the chief of the Indian police at the Pine Ridge
Agency in the 1890s and had also been a prominent member of his
band before its close contact with the whites."' Although he could
neither write nor speak English, he wrote pages and pages in old
Lakota, using the phonetic forms. Walker wrote of him that he
"was a man of marked ability with a philosophical trend far
beyond the average Oglala."'' Much of what is known about the
societies, mythology, and religion of the Tetons before white contact is derived from the Sword manuscripts. Unfortunately, the
Walker volume also fails to include the entire Lakota texts,
giving only words and phrases.
Research in Indian languages entered a new phase in the 1930s
under the direction of Franz Boas of Columbia University. In his
earlier introduction to the Handbook of American Indian
Languages, published in 1911 by the Bureau of American
Ethnology as Bulletin 40, Boas had given "a clear statement of
fundamental theory and of basic methodological principles which
demonstrate the inadequacy of the old methods and point to new
paths of research which were to lead to impressive results."'^
Basically, Boas stressed that thorough knowledge of the language
was the key to understanding everything else: "we must insist
that a command of the language is an indispensable means of obtaining accurate and thorough knowledge, because much information can be gained by listening to conversations of the natives and
by taking part in their daily life, which, to the observer who has
no command of the language, will remain entirely inaccessible."'''
Boas was conversant in Dakota/Lakota, but he trusted more to
the authority of the native speaker than to the linguist working
through translation. In 1929, Boas invited Ella Deloria to accept a
position as Dakota language researcher in ethnology and
linguistics in the Department of Anthropology at Columbia
University, It was certainly a logical choice.
Ella Deioria was born in 1888. She was raised at Saint
16. J. R. Walker, The Sun Dance and Other Ceremonies of the Oglala Division of
the Teton Dakota. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural
History, vol. 16. pt. 2 (New York, 1917). p. 159.
17. Ibid.. p. 59.
18. Preston Holder, ed.. Preface to American Indian Language (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, Bison Books, 1966), pp. v-vi.
19. Franz Boas, Introduction to Handbook of American Indian Languages,
Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin no. 40, pt, 1
(Washington, D.C, 1911). p, 60,

Copyright 1979 by the South Dakota State Historical Society. All Rights Reserved.

Dakota Resources

345

Elizabeth's Mission on the Standing Rock Reservation where her

father, the Reverend Philip Deloria, was the Episcopal priest.
She grew up in a large circle of relatives and friends, speaking
the Dakota dialect of her parents and the Lakota dialect of the
Hunkpapa. The Riggs and Williamson books were her first textbooks. As teachers arrived from the East, she also learned to
speak and write in English. She was intelligent, eager to learn,
and had a natural faculty for language learning. After completing
secondary school at All Saints School in Sioux Falls, Deloria
studied at Oberlin College and, finally, at Columbia University
(19134914). Deloria was trained in linguistic theory, research
methods, and phonetics. For nearly twelve years, she worked
with Boas. The general arrangement was that she spend half her
time on the Sioux reservations, collecting stories and varifying
accounts, and the other half in New York, editing and transcribing the manuscripts of Bushotter, Sword, and others.^"
Deloria's abilities differed from those who preceded her in two
important ways. Unlike the non-Indian missionaries who learned
Dakota/Lakota as adults working through translations, Deloria
knew the nuances and subtle shades of meaning accessible only to
one who has grown up in the culture. Unlike Sword and other
native informants, she was proficient in English as well. The
results of her work are two remarkable volumes. Dakota Texts,
published in 1932, is a collection of sixty-four tales and legends
recorded directly and exactly from Lakota storytellers from
Standing Rock, Pine Ridge, and Rosebud. One tale, "The Deer
Woman," is in the Nakota dialect from her father. Deloria included the original text in phonetic transcription, literal translations, and free translations with explanatory grammatical notes.
In collaboration with Boas, she produced Dakota Grammar (1941),
which is the most complete and detailed grammar available. This
grammar describes the language in terms of its own structure
and uses categories as they function in Lakota rather than applying the categories as they occur in Latin, German, or English.
Ella Deloria continued her research throughout the 1960s, producing numerous magazine articles and other books, but her
manuscript for a Lakota-English dictionary remained incomplete
at the time of her death in 1971. This manuscript and others are in
the Ella Deloria Collection at the University of South Dakota.

20. Janette Murray, "Ella Deloria: A Biographical Sketch and Literary Analysis"
(Ph.D. diss.. University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, 1974).

Copyright 1979 by the South Dakota State Historical Society. All Rights Reserved.

South Dakota History

During the present decade there has been a revival of interest
in language study. Many young Indian college students, desiring
to maintain their tribal identity and cultural participation, are
seeking to learn the languages of their grandparents. The demand for written texts has resulted in reprints and facsimile
reproductions of many of the earlier works. The following bibliography of Dakota/Lakota language studies includes the major
works discussed in this essay as well as texts and tales printed in
the last decade. It does not, however, include the translations of
the Bible or of hymns and other religious material that were
published abundantly during the latter half of the last century.
Bibliography
DAKOTA/LAKOTA TEXTS

Buechel, Eugene. Lakota Tales and Texts. Red Cloud, S.Dak.:

Lakota Language and Cultural Center, 1978.
Deloria, Ella. Dakota Texts. Publications of the American
Ethnological Society, vol. 14. New York: G. E. Stechert & Co.,
1932. Reprint. New York: A M S Press, 1976: Vermillion:
Dakota Press, University of South Dakota, 1978.
. "Short Dakota Texts, Including Conversations." Internar
tional Journal of American Linguistics 20, no. 1.
"The Sun Dance of the Oglala Sioux." Journal of
American Folklore 42:354-413.
Densmore, Frances. Teton Sioux Music. Smithsonian Institution,
Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin no. 61. Washington,
D.C, 1918. Reprint. New York: De Capo Press, 1972.
Riggs, Stephen Return. Dakota Grammar, Texts, and
Ethnography. U. S. Geographical and Geological Survey of the
Rocky Mountain Region, Contributions in North American
Ethnology, vol. 9. Washington, D.C, 1893. Reprint. Marvin,
S.Dak.: American Indian Culture Research Center, 1977.
DICTIONARIES AND GRAMMARS
Boas, Franz, and Deloria, Ella. Dakota Grammar. Memoirs of the
National Academy of Sciences, vol. 23. 2d memoir,
Washington, D.C, 1941. Reprint. New York: A M S Press, 1976.
. "Notes on the Dakota. Teton Dialect." International Journal of American Linguistics 8:97-121.

Copyright 1979 by the South Dakota State Historical Society. All Rights Reserved.

Dakota Resources

347

Buechel, Eugene. A Dictionary of the Teton Dakota Sioux

Language, Lakota-English: English-Lakota, with Considerations Given to Yankton and Santee: Oie Wowapi Wan, LakotaIeska: Ieska-Lakota. Vermillion and Pine Ridge, S.Dak.: Institute of Indian Studies, University of South Dakota, and Red
Cloud Indian School, 1970.
. A Grammar of Lakota, the Language of the Teton Sioux
Indians. Saint Francis, S.Dak.; Saint Francis Mission, 1939.
Riggs, Stephen Return. A Dakota-English Dictionary. Edited by
James Owen Dorsey. U.S. Geographical and Geological Survey
of the Rocky Mountain Region, Contributions to North
American Ethnology, vol. 7. Washington, D.C., 1890. Reprint.
Minneapolis, Minn.: Ross & Haines, 1968.
. Dakota Grammar, Texts, and Ethnography. Edited by
James Owen Dorsey. U.S. Geographical and Geological Survey
of the Rocky Mountain Region, Contributions to North
American Ethnology, vol. 9. Washington, D.C., 1893. Reprint.
Marvin, S.Dak.: American Indian Culture Research Center,
1977.
Williamson, John. An English-Dakota Dictionary: Wasicun Ka
Dakota, Ieska Wowapi. New York; American Tract Society,
1902.
MANUSCRIPT COLLECTIONS AND GUIDES

Chippewa and Dakota Indians: A Subject Catalog of Books, Pamphlets, Periodical Articles, and Manuscripts in the Minnesota
Historical Society. Saint Paul; Minnesota Historical Society,
1969.
DeMallie, Raymond, Jr. "A Partial Bibliography of Archival
Manuscript Material Relating to the Dakota Indians." In The
Modem Sioux: Social Systems and Reservation Culture,
edited by Ethel Nurge. Lincoln; University of Nebraska Press,
1970. App. 3, pp. 312-43.
Freeman, John, and Smith, Murphy D. A Guide to Manuscripts in
the Library of the American Philosophical
Society.
Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1966.
Vermillion. University of South Dakota. Ella C. Deloria Papers.
STUDIES OF THE SIOUAN LANGUAGE FAMILY

Boas, Franz, and Swanton, John R. "Siouan; Dakota (Teton and

Santee Dialects), with Remarks on the Ponca and Winnebago."

Copyright 1979 by the South Dakota State Historical Society. All Rights Reserved.

348

South Dakota History

In Handbook of American Indian Languages, edited by Franz

Boas. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology
Bulletin 40, pt. 1. Washington, D.C, 1911. Pp. 879 964. This
study does contain one Lakota text by George Bushotter.
Hoijer, Harry. Introduction to Linguistic Structures of Native
America, edited by Cornelius Osgood. Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology, no. 6. New York, 1946. Reprint. New
York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1963.
Pilling, James C Bibliography of the Siouan Languages. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin no.
5. Washington, D.C. 1887.
Powell, J. W. "Indian Linguistic Families of America North of
Mexico." In Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of
Ethnology, 1885-86. Washington. D.C: Government Printing
Office, 1891. Reprint. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press,
1966.

Copyright 1979 by the South Dakota State Historical Society. All Rights Reserved.
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All illustrations in this issue are the property of the South Dakota State Historical Society except those on the
following pages: pp. 291, 292, 293, 313, from the Robinson Museum, Pierre; pp. 295, 301, from the Museum
of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York; p. 296, from the Robinson Museum and the Milwaukee
Public Museum, Wisconsin; p. 297, from the Robinson Museum and the South Dakota Historical Resource
Center, Pierre; p. 298, from the Gold Seal Company, Medora, North Dakota, and Ian M. West, Reigate,
Surrey, England; p. 299, from Fort Buford Museum, North Dakota; p. 300, from the Museum fr
Volkerknde, Berlin, Germany; p. 302, from the South Dakota Historical Resource Center; p. 305, from
George S. Kingsbury, History of Dakota Territory and George M. Smith, ed., South Dakota: Its History and
Its People, Vol. 5 (Chicago: S. J. Clarke Publishing Co., 1915); p. 312, from Otto L. Sues, Grigsbys
Cowboys (Salem, S.Dak.: James E. Patten, 1900); p. 321, from the Quinn Courant, 9 Aug. 1923; pp. 329,
333, from the Sioux Falls Daily Press, 26 and 24 Oct. 1924; p. 335, from the Evening Huronite, 25 Oct. 1924;
p. 340, from Stephen R. Riggs, trans., Cante-Teca: The Pilgrims Progress by John Bunyan, in the Dakota
Language (New York: American Tract Society, ca. 1858); p. 355, from William Seale, Recreating the
Historic House Interior (Nashville: American Association for State and Local History, 1979); p. 375, from the
W. H. Over Museum, Vermillion.