Lab Notebook

OSE 3052 L
Introduction to
Photonics Laboratory
Laboratory
notebook
OSE 3052 L - Introduction to Photonics Laboratory

Laboratory notebook
Contents
Syllabus
List of experiments - week-by-week calendar
Instructions for maintaining your laboratory notebook and report writing 6

How your laboratory notebook will be graded
How your formal laboratory report will be graded
Lab #1: Lenses I
10
Lab #2: Lenses II $ III (2 weeks)
15
Lab #3: Imaging I & II (2 weeks)
20
Lab #4: Imaging III: Keplerian and Galilean telescopes
30
Lab #5: Chromatic Aberration
40
Lab #6: Polarization of Light
49
Lab #7: Interference & Diffraction I: Youngs double-slit experiment
58
Lab #8: Interference & Diffraction II: Apertures of various shapes
64
Lab #9: Reflection Gratings: The Littrow configuration
66
Lab #10: Transmission Gratings
71
Lab #11: Monochromatic Aberrations
76
Course Syllabus
OSE 3052 L - Introduction to Photonics Laboratory
Instructor:
Prof. Axel Schlzgen

Email: axel@creol.ucf.edu
Phone: 407-823-1746
Office: CREOL A115
Office hours: Wednesday 2:00 3:00 pm
Class location:
CREOL A210
Class meeting days:
Wednesday
Class meeting time:
5:00 7:50 pm
Class website:
UCF Webcourses
Credit Hours:
1 credit hour 2 contact hours
Co-requisite:
OSE 3052 Introduction to Photonics or equivalent
Objective:
The objective of this lab to become familiar with the fundamental properties of light, explore
optical phenomena in a laboratory setting, make careful measurements, and draw own
conclusions about the models and theories that describe these phenomena.
Description:
The laboratory course is designed to reinforce the concepts discussed in class with a handson approach and to allow the students to learn laboratory techniques for observing optical
phenomena and quantitative experimental characterization in geometrical optics, polarization,
interference, and diffraction.
Learning outcomes:
After successful completion of this course, students will be able to:
Comment on basic concepts and principles of geometrical optics, dispersion, aberration,
polarization, interference, and diffraction
Discuss the nature of light, its propagation, polarization and reflection and refraction at
planar interfaces
Describe basic optical phenomena and their applications
Handle and align optical elements and set up basic optical experiments
Operates optical devices and equipment
Present their observations and conclusions in a clear informative document
Course Materials and Textbook:
Introduction to Optics, F. Pedrotti, L. Pedrotti, and L. Pedrotti, Addison-Wesley, 3rd

Edition, 2006.
Fundamentals of Photonics, B. E. A. Saleh and M. C. Teich, Wiley, 2nd Edition, 2007.
Relevant theoretical background material for the experiments will be provided on the
course website https://webcourses.ucf.edu/
Course Requirements:
The student is expected to review the textbooks, notes, and the lab handout and come
to lab prepared to perform the scheduled experiment.
A laboratory notebook must be used to properly document all experimental procedures,
observations, data, and measurements during the laboratory session. All entries must be
in ink. Lab notebooks will be examined and graded at the end of each lab.
A type-written, clear, and informative laboratory report (in Word or PDF format) must be
prepared for each experiment. The report must include the experiment title, objective,
introduction and theory, experimental method, results and data analysis, observations,
conclusions, and references.
Grading policy:
The final grade will be based upon:
Laboratory participation
20%
Laboratory notebooks
60%
Formal laboratory report
20%
Lab notebooks will be handed out to you on the first day of the course and collected after
the experiments are completed.
Absences and Makeup Lab Sessions:
Because of the fluid nature of the lab with the experimental setup changing every
week, there will be NO MAKEUPS ALLOWED except in cases of genuine emergency.
It is expected and encouraged that students finish their experiments within the
assigned class time on Thursdays. However, with prior arrangements with the
teaching assistant, students may be allowed to access the lab before and after the
class time of the same week.
The instructor reserves the right to change or modify any portion of this schedule
without prior notice or recourse by the students.
Grading Scale (%)
100 93
90
80
70
Rubric Description
90
87 83

77
73
67 63
60
80
70
60
Excellent, has a strong understanding of all concepts

and is able to apply the concepts in all experiments. Has
full mastery of the content of the course and lab report
writing.
Good, has a strong understanding of most or all of the
concepts and is able to apply them to defined laboratory
experiments. Well written lab report.
Average, has a basic understanding of the major
concepts of the course and is able to apply to basic
experimental situations.
Below average, has a basic understanding of only the
simple concepts and is able to apply to only a limited
number of the most basic experiments.
Demonstrates little to no understanding of the course
content.
University Rules on Professionalism and Ethics

Per university policy and plain classroom etiquette, mobile phones, etc. must be silenced during
all classroom lectures, unless you are specifically asked to make use of such devices for certain
activities.
Academic dishonesty in any form will not be tolerated!!! If you are uncertain as to what constitutes
academic dishonesty, please consult The Golden Rule, the University of Central Florida's Student
Handbook (http://www.goldenrule.sdes.ucf.edu/) for further details. As in all University courses,
The Golden Rule Rules of Conduct will be applied. Violations of these rules will result in a record
of the infraction being placed in your file and the student receiving a zero on the work in question
AT A MINIMUM. At the instructors discretion, you may also receive a failing grade for the course.
Confirmation of such incidents can also result in expulsion from the University.
Academic Ethics Specific to This Lab Course
It is the nature of a laboratory course that you will be working in groups. Obviously, those of you
who are lab partners will be using the same raw data. You are encouraged to discuss your
observations and insights with your lab partners; however, each of you has to write your own
ORIGINAL lab reports.
Cheating and plagiarism are serious breaches of the UCF Code of Honor as described in the UCF
Golden Rule and the UCF Creed, and will not be tolerated in this course. All cases will be reported
to the Office of Student Conduct (OSC).
Definitions
Cheating: any unauthorized assistance in graded, for-credit assignments.
Plagiarism: appropriating the work of others and claiming, implicitly or explicitly, intentionally or
unintentionally, that it is your own.
With increased use of the internet, digital plagiarism is becoming more of a problem on campuses
everywhere. You are encouraged to use the internet; however, electronic copying and pasting of
material directly into reports and papers without proper reference of the source is blatant
plagiarism. Always reference the sources of information.
Providing a fellow student with experimental data from an experiment in which he/she did
not participate is also forbidden. All parties that are involved in such practice will be
reported to UCF Office of Student Conduct (OSC).
If there is any question concerning acceptable practice in this laboratory course, dont hesitate to
ask the instructor.
Students with Special Testing/Learning Needs
Students with special needs and require special accommodations must be registered with UCF
Student Disability Services prior to receiving those accommodations. Students must have
documented disabilities requiring the special accommodations and must meet with the instructor
to discuss the special needs as early as possible in the first week of classes. UCF Student
Disability Services can be contacted at http://www.sds.sdes.ucf.edu/, or at (407)823-2371.
Financial Aid and Attendance:
As of Fall 2014, all faculty members are required to document students' academic activity at the
beginning of each course. In order to document that you began this course, please complete the
following academic activity by the end of the first week of classes, or as soon as possible after
adding the course, but no later than August 27; Certify that you have been educated in laser
safety procedures. Failure to do so will result in a delay in the disbursement of your financial aid.
Class Website: Materials used for classes will be available on UCF Webcourses for download
before each class.
List of Experiments (week-by-week calendar; subject to modifications)

1
January 13
Introduction
Lenses I: Measurements of the optical power of a lens
January 20
Lenses II: Measurements of focal lengths of lenses
January 27
Lenses III: Newtonian and Gaussian lens equations
February 3
Imaging I: Object magnification and demagnification
February 10
Imaging II: Imaging with more than one lens, pupils and
stops
February 17
Imaging III: Keplerian and Galilean telescopes
February 24
Chromatic Aberrations: Measurement of axial chromatic

aberrations
March 2
Polarization of Light: Working principles of polarizers

and waveplates
March 16
Interference & Diffraction I: Youngs double-slit

experiment
March 23
Formal Report I: Prepare draft of formal report
10
March 30
Interference & Diffraction II: Apertures of various shapes
11
April 6
Reflection Gratings: The Littrow configuration
12
April 13
Transmission Gratings: Multi-slit interference
13
April 20
Monochromatic aberrations: Observation and mitigation

of spherical aberrations
May 2
Formal Report II: Revised formal report due
5|Page
Instructions for maintaining your laboratory notebook and report writing

This laboratory notebook contains all the experimental directions and spaces for your
observations, results, tables, plots and responses to questions for each laboratory experiment
you will conduct this semester. There is also space reserved to enter your informal lab notes.
However, you should keep these notes in a neat and organized manner, so that your lab partners,
and your lab instructor can easily follow what you have written, and (most importantly) so that you
can come back later and read what you did long after you have forgotten the details. As an
engineer, keeping detailed notes that allow you or others to understand and reproduce your work
will be a requirement of whatever job you have.
You will complete your lab notes in each class session and turn this lab book in for grading at the
end of class. There is no other formal report required just complete the lab notes section for
each experiment fully and take good informal notes.
This lab book is also available online so that you can read ahead for future experiments if you
wish.
One formal laboratory report will be required as the final examination for this laboratory course.
A draft of this report will be due mid-semester. After receiving feedback on this draft, you can
complete the report and turn it in by the date of the final examination.
6|Page
How your laboratory notebook will be graded

When you turn in your work, you should have answered all questions in a neat and clear
manner.
You should also be sure that your informal notes, experimental setup sketches table and
plots are clear.
Make sure you have taken and reported all required data and presented in in the manner
asked for. If you choose to present the data in additional ways then you can do so, but
you should state why. Be sure that all your error analysis is complete where appropriate.
Explicitly answer all questions asked about the data , experimental method, etc.
Ensure that you fully answered all of the discussion and analysis questions (those that
require you to answer questions beyond your actual lab measurements). While your
answer should have depth, they should also be concise do not try to use long
sentences to mask a lack of understanding. It is important that your answers are in
complete, readable sentences.
For each laboratory, you will be graded according to the following rubric.
Item
Organization, neatness and
readability of informal notes
Correctness and presentation of
results (Including, where
appropriate, tables, plots, error
analysis)
Depth and conciseness of answers
to Discussion and Analysis
questions)
Maximum
score (%)
Your
Score
25%
35%
25%
Responses in complete sentences

and paragraphs.
15%
Total
100%
7|Page
How your formal laboratory report will be graded

In any field of science and engineering, once a significant amount of experimental work has been
performed, the results of the work should be written up formally. Among other things, this could
be in the form of a written report to you supervisors, or to a funding agency, or could be the results
of new research that are submitted to a research journal for publication.
It is a requirement of this laboratory course that you take one of your assigned laboratory
experiments and write this up in a formal report, in the style of a journal publication. You may
choose which laboratory to write up, in conjunction with the lab instructor. You will use your own
data and you may not select the same experiment as any of your lab partners.
The report should contain the following sections:
Abstract
Introduction
Experimental methods
Results
Discussion of results
Conclusions and recommendations for future experimental work.
References.
The following rubric will be used to grade your report: Each section will be weighted by a 5-point
scale, poor (max points 0 , fair (max points 4 , good (max points 2 , very good (max points
3/4 , excellent (max points )
Max
points
5
Item
Title
Describes lab content concisely, adequately, appropriately
Abstract
Conveys a sense of the full report concisely and effectively
10
Introduction
Successfully establishes the context (concept/lab procedure) of
the lab
Effectively presents the objectives and purpose of the lab
Presents interesting questions or issues related to the lab
15
Experimental Methods
Gives enough details to allow for replication of procedure
Lists equipment used and shows sketches where approriate
15
Results
Opens with 1 or 2 sentence(s) describing main finding of lab
Presents visuals clearly and accurately
Presents verbal findings clearly and with sufficient support
Successfully integrates verbal and visual representations
8|Page
20
Discussion of Results
Opens with explanation of how findings link to the context of lab
Addresses questions & issues related to the lab & discusses the
answers
Sufficiently addresses other issues pertinent to lab
10
Conclusions
Convincingly describes what has been learned by doing the lab
Recommendations for future experimental work
10
Presentation
Citations and references adhere to proper format
Format of tables and figures is correct
Report is written in scientific style: clear and to the point
Grammar and spelling are correct
10
Overall aims of the report: the student...

(a) accurately analyzes data of lab findings
(b) has successfully learned what the lab is designed to teach
100
9|Page
OSE 3052L Introduction to Photonics Laboratory

Lab #1: Lenses I
Objective:
The purpose of this lab is to become familiar with basic properties of lenses which are key
elements of optical components and systems. Students will measure the optical power of lenses
using a Geneva gauge. From these measurements the focal lengths of the lenses will be
determined.
Background:
Lenses are used throughout optical technology, ranging from microscopes and telescopes to
shaping beams devices. Knowing their basic properties such as optical power and focal length is
important for any optical system design. This lab introduces one method to measure these
properties.
The Geneva gauge (or spherometer) is a device that measures the sag of a spherical surface.
It consists of three steel prongs, the outer two of which are fixed, and an inner prong that is free
to move along its axis. The inner prong is connected to an indicator gauge through a mechanical
linkage.
The measure sag is related to the radius of curvature of the surface by:
R zs 2 rs2 R 2
zs2 rs2
.
2zs
r
zs
(rs, zs)
r
Geneva Gauge
R
R- zs
(0,R)
Knowing the radius of curvature the optical power of a lens can be determined when the refractive
index is known. The gauge is calibrated to calculate the optical power of the surface assuming a
value for the lens refractive index (typically n=1.523).
K surface
n 1 0.523
R
R
10 | P a g e
Experimental:
Generally, measurements made with a Geneva gauge are accurate to 0.25 diopters. A
Geneva gauge can be easily checked for rough accuracy by pressing it against a piece of
window glass (or other flat surface) to see if it reads zero optical power. It is important,
when using a Geneva gauge, to make sure that it is perpendicular to the surface being
tested.
The gauge is pressed onto one surface of the lens to be tested, and the surface power is
read directly from the dial.
Repeat the above procedure at least five times and calculate the mean, deviation from the
mean, and standard deviation of the lens power to get a quantitative measure of the
accuracy of this technique.
The procedure is then repeated on the other surface of the lens.
The total procedure is then repeated for another lens.
Thin lens:
The net optical power of a thin lens, in diopters (reciprocal meters), is the algebraic sum
of the two readings.
The focal length, in meters, is the reciprocal of the optical power.
If the thin lens being tested has an index of refraction other than 1.523, and the actual refractive
index nlens is known, the focal length of the thin lens with nlens can be calculated from the original
fmeasured (assuming n=1.523) using:
f true
0.523
f measured
n lens 1
Record your notes here. (Include your set-up and measurement data)
11 | P a g e
12 | P a g e
13 | P a g e
Real (thick) lens:
Measure the thickness, t, of the bi-convex lens with a micrometer or an appropriate

caliper.
Using the measured optical power obtained from the Geneva gauge for each
surface of the lens K1 and K2 the two radii of curvature, R1 and R2, is obtained from:
Ri
0 .523
Ki
Along with the thickness, t, the actual refractive index, n, and the two radii of
curvature R1 and R2, the focal length of the thick lens is obtained from:
1 n 1 1 n t n 1 1 n
F
R1
R2
n R1
R2
14 | P a g e
Discussion:
Based only upon the uncertainty of your measurements, what are your estimated accuracies
(in %) for the optical powers and focal lengths of both lenses measured by the Geneva gauge?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------How much error results in the calculation of the focal length of the real lens when making the thin
lens assumption (t=0 m) for the particular lens you measured?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------How much error would be introduced in the Geneva gauge measurement if there were an error
of 0.1 in the refractive index of the lens?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
15 | P a g e

Lab #2: Lenses II
Objective:
The purpose of this lab is to become familiar with basic properties of lenses which are key
elements of optical components and systems. Students will estimate and measure the focal
lengths of various lenses using the methods of imaging of distant sources and the auto-collimation
technique, respectively.
Background:
Lenses are used throughout optical technology, ranging from microscopes and telescopes to
shaping beams devices. Knowing their basic properties such as optical power and focal length is
important for any optical system design. This lab introduces two methods to estimate and
measure the focal lengths of various lenses, respectively.
The simplest method to estimate the focal length of a lens is to image a distant light source such
as a flashlight or a lamp. If the distance between the light source and the lens is much larger than
the focal length of the lens an image of the light source will be formed approximately at one focal
length away from the lamp.
One of the simplest methods for locating the focal point of a lens is the auto-collimation technique
illustrated in Figure 1 below. Light from a fiber illuminator source (white light source) passes
through a slit and then through the lens whose focal point is to be found. After passing through
the test lens, the beam is reflected by a plane mirror tilted very slightly so that the return beam
does not pass back though the slit, but forms a small spot to one side of it.
The distance
between the slit and the test lens is then adjusted until the size of this slit image reaches a
minimum. At this position the image of the slit lies at the focal point of the lens and the focal length
can be measured.
Fig. 2.1. Auto-collimation technique to measure the focal point of a lens.
16 | P a g e
Experimental:
Distant light source imaging:
Adjust the distance of a lens from a white piece of paper to obtain an image of the room
lamps. At this position, measure the distance between the lens and the white paper using
a ruler. Repeat this 5 times using a ruler (mm scale).
Repeat this experiment using a flashlight held in considerable distance from the lens.
Perform these experiments for a plan-convex and a bi-convex lens.
17 | P a g e
Auto-collimation experiment
Set-up an experiment as shown in Fig. 1 using a white light source and an optical rail with
the indicated optical components
Make sure that the light emerging after the slit is centered on the lens.
Adjust the distance between the slit and the test lens by moving the carriage upon which
the lens is mounted until the size of the slit image reaches a minimum.
Record the position of the lens on the optical rail.
For this experiment, determine the focal length of the lens by merely measuring the
distance between the lens and the pinhole with a ruler (mm scale).
Repeat at least five times and calculate the mean, deviation from the mean, and standard
deviation to get a quantitative measure of the accuracy of this technique for determining
the focal length of the lens.
Repeat the experiment for 3 different lenses, a plan-convex, a bi-convex, and a cylindrical
lens.
18 | P a g e
19 | P a g e
Discussion:
Based only upon the uncertainty of your measurements, what is the estimated accuracies (in %)
for the focal lengths measured by the two techniques?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Discuss the trade of between accuracy and time consumption between the two techniques?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------How does the accuracy of the performed experiments compare with the focal length
measurements using the Genever gauge?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
20 | P a g e

Lab #3: Imaging
Objective:
The purpose of this lab is to become familiar with basic properties of paraxial imaging systems.
Measuring the location and sizes of images and applying the Newtonian and Gaussian lens
equations students will determine the focal lengths of various lenses.
Background:
Imaging of objects is one of the most common uses of optical systems. Newtonian and Gaussian
lens formulas connect image distances and sizes with the focusing properties of the applied
lenses. This lab is designed to make students familiar with both lens formulas by applying them
to obtain the lens properties from measured image positions and magnifications.
The Newtonian distances are defined as the distance x from the object to the front focal point and
the distance x from the back focal point to the image.
P
P'
F'
x
f
L
h'
F'
f'
x'
h'
L'
Fig. 3.1. Newtonian distances in an imaging system.
The Newtonian distances x and x are related to the front focal distance f (distance from the front
principal plane to the front focal point) and the back focal distance f (the distance from the back
principal plane to the back focal point). From the graph:
h'
h
x'
f'
h h'
x f
ff ' xx '
For an optical system in air:
F f ' f
F 2 xx'
This is known as the Newtonian lens equation. The product of the two Newtonian distances x and
x; is the square of the focal length of the thick lens or lens system.
21 | P a g e
P'
F'
f'
L1
h1'
L1'
Fig. 3.2. Enlarging imaging system.

The focal length of a lens or lens system and the location of the cardinal points can also be
measured using the reciprocal magnification method, which utilizes the fact that for a given objectto-image distance D there are two possible positions of the lens that will produce a sharp image
of the object, as shown above and below.
P'
P'
F'
h2'
f'
L1
L1'
L2
L2'
d
D
Fig. 3.3. Down-sizing imaging system.
In each position Li is the directional distance from the front principle plane to the object and Li is
the directional distance from the back principle plane to the image.
The Gaussian lens equations at each of the two positions are:
1
1
1
L' 2 L2 F
&
1
1 1

L'1 L1 F
1
1
1
1

L'1 L1 L' 2 L2
22 | P a g e
Since the distance between the object and the image D has not changed, a shift of distance d
in the position of the lens system results in:
L'1 L'2 d
L1 L2 d
1
1
1
1
L' 2 d L2 d L'2 L2
d L2 L'2 0
In terms of the system magnification M2 at the second position, the conjugate equation at the
second position is:
1
L2 F
M2
1
1
1
L' 2 L2 F
L'2 F 1 M 2
M2
L' 2
L2
d
1 F 1 M 2 F F M 2
M 2
M2
The focal length is given by:
d
M 2 1 M 2
Therefore, the focal length of the system can be determined from the shift distance d of the lens
between the two imaging positions and a measurement of the magnification M2.
Similarly, it can be shown that:
d L'1 L1
and
1 M 1 M 1
where M1 is the image magnification in the first position.

Since the focal length of a system is a property of the optical system independent of the object
then:
M1 1 M 2
i.e., the magnification at the two positions are reciprocal.
23 | P a g e
Experimental:
Determining the two Newtonian distances x and x:
Fig. 3.4. Setup for determining Newtonian distances. Fiber illuminator and fiber carrier are
interchanged between front and back.
Step 1: Front auto-collimation - Location of the front focal point:
Mount the fiber carrier, the iris and the lens (or lens system, represented by the principle
planes P and P) on the optical bench. The iris is intended to limit the size of the beam
passing through the lens.
Use the auto-collimation method (Fig. 5) to produce a parallel beam with the primary
focal point located in the plane of the slit.
Record the position of the lens on the optical rail using the Vernier scale for accuracy.
P P'
A
Fig. 3.5. Auto-collimation setup for positioning of lens 1.
24 | P a g e
Step 2: The front Newtonian distance x:
Place a second slit B at an arbitrary place in the image space.
Move the lens (or lens system) to a new position where it forms a real image of slit A in
the plane of slit B (Fig. 6, you may increase the distance between the two slits to get a
real image).
Record the new position of the lens carriage on the optical bench.
The difference between the two readings is the distance from the object to the front focal
point, which is the Newtonian distance x (for a given separation between the two slits).
P P'
F'
f'
x'
Fig. 3.6. Setup for determining Newtonian distances. Move the lens by a distance x to
get an image of slit A in the plane of slit B.
Step 3: Back auto-collimation - the back Newtonian distance x:

P P'
F'
f'
x
x'
Fig. 3.7. Setup for determining Newtonian distances. Measure the distance x that you
have to move the lens in order to go from the imaging position to the focal length away
from slit B.
Use the auto-collimation technique in the backward configuration with slit B illuminated
and the mirror on the other side of the lens (or lens system). Move the lens until the rear
focal point of the system in the plane of slit B.
Record the position of the lens carriage on the optical bench.
The difference between the readings taken in Steps 2 and 3 is the second Newtonian
distance x.
The focal length is the square root of the two distances x and x.
25 | P a g e
If the lens system is set as in Step 1, the principle plane P is located by measuring one focal
distance from slit A in the direction of the system. In a similar manner, the rear principle plane
P is determined from the configuration of Step 3 by measuring one focal length from slit B.
26 | P a g e
Measurement of focal lengths by the method of reciprocal magnification:
Fig. 3.8. Setup for determining image sizes and magnifications.
Set-up an experiment as shown in Fig. 8 using a white light source and an optical rail with
the indicated optical components
Position 1:
Use the ruler millimeter scale as the object. Position the observation screen in the image
plane a distance at least four times the estimated focal length (L > 4F) from the object.
Move the lens (or lens system) to Position #1 such that a sharp image of magnification
greater than unity is formed on an observation screen.
Record the position of the lens on the optical rail (reading A).
Remove the observation screen and slide the carriage holding the microscope until the
real aerial image of the millimeter scale is in focus.
Lock positions of the carriage holding ruler (object) and the microscope (assures L will
remain constant).
Position 2:
Move the lens (or lens system) to Position # 2 such that a sharp image of magnification
less than unity is formed in the image seen through microscope.
Record the position of the lens on the optical rail (reading B).
The difference between the two readings of the bench carriage is position shift parameter
d :
d AB
27 | P a g e
Measurement of the Magnification:

The magnification may be measured at either position of the lens system by using the microscope
to measure the actual distance between a given number of divisions and dividing by the actual
distance by the number of divisions at the transilluminated millimeter scale as the object plane.
Align a mark on the reticle in the measuring microscope with a mark on the image of the
millimeter scale.
Record reading a on the translation stage upon which the measuring microscope is
mounted.
Translate (perpendicular to the rail) the measuring microscope through a known number
of divisions (of separation h) on the image of the millimeter scale.
Record reading b on the translation stage upon which the measuring microscope is
mounted.
The magnification is given by
M1
a b 2
h
Note that :
h'1
or
h
M 1M 2 1
M2
a b 2
h
h' 2
h
The focal length of the lens or lens system is now calculated using the expression:
d
M 2 1 M 2
or
1 M 1 M 1
For the lens, compare your result with that calculated by the auto collimation technique
and with the curvature measurements obtained with the Geneva gauge.
28 | P a g e
29 | P a g e
Discussion:
Based only upon the uncertainty of your measurements, what is the estimated accuracies (in %)
for the focal lengths measured by the two techniques?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Discuss the trade of between accuracy and time consumption between the two techniques?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------How does the accuracy of the performed experiments compare with the focal length
measurements using the Genever gauge and the auto-collimation methode?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
30 | P a g e
OSE-3052L Introduction to Photonics Laboratory

Lab# 4: Imaging with more than one lens, apertures and pupils
Objective:
The purpose of this laboratory is to experimentally observe and measure how images are formed
using more than one lens. Keplerian and Galilean telescopes will be compared and the effects
of apertures on the imaging will be measured and observed.
Theoretical background:
For a single lens, we can find the image using principal rays as sketched below or by using the
thin lens equation,
F
/ .
The magnification is given by
For two or more lenses, the image produced by one lens just becomes the object for the next:
We can still use the object-image relation:
and
, where,
The overall magnification is given by
all we need to do is apply it twice:
31 | P a g e
Simple refracting telescopes:

There are two simple refracting telescopes that can be made with just two thin lenses:
1. Keplerian or astronomical telescope
A Keplerian telescope uses a positive objective along with a positive ocular (eye lens), producing
.
inverted images. Here, | | | | (in contrast to the compound microscopes where
In this case, for both object at infinity (distant object) and image at infinity (relaxed eye), the lens
(infinite conjugate or afocal configuration), where both focal
separation is given by
lengths are positive.
As the object is at infinity, we describe performance in terms of angular magnification:
2. Galilean or terrestrial telescope
Galilean telescopes use positive objectives along with negative oculars, producing erect (upright)
images. Again, | | | | and the lens separation is given by,
where fe is negative.
This permits Galilean telescopes to be relatively shorter. The angular magnification,

/ is positive in this case.
Exit pupils
32 | P a g e
Assuming the objective lens (or an aperture at the position of the objective, forms the aperture
stop (AS) and an entrance pupil (EnP). DEnP and DExP are the diameters of the objective
lens/AS/EnP and the exit pupil (ExP), respectively.
Marginal ray
Principal ray
ExP
DEnP
DExP
Marginal ray
Principal ray
DEnP
DExP
ExP
The respective magnifications are given by:
Angular magnification:
Transverse magnification:
/
/
Location of entrance pupil:

Location of exit pupil:
The angular field of view of a telescope might be defined as:
33 | P a g e
Experimental procedure:
Imaging with a single lens.
Using a fiber light source to illuminate a translucent object, place a
15
focal length lens
at a distance greater than the focal length from the object in order to produce a slightly magnified
image on a screen. Measure the object and image distances and the magnification of the image.
Record these quantities. Sketch the setup with positions of the lens, object and image.
Are the object and image distances, focal length and magnification what you expect? Explain!
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Align an iris on the optical axis, as close as possible to the lens. Observe the image as you
open and close the iris.
What do you observe? Can you explain what you observe?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
34 | P a g e
Imaging with two lenses.

Add a second
15
focal length lens to the setup in order to create a new real image of
the object. Record the lens-lens spacing and the final image position. Measure the magnification
of the image. Sketch your setup and show on your sketch all relevant distances between lenses,
objects and images.
Calculate the expected position of the final image and the magnification of the complete system.
Do your measurements agree with the calculations?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Compare the quality of the images obtained with the single lens and two lenses. Do you
observe any differences? Why might you expect differences?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
35 | P a g e
Keplerian (astronomical) telescope

Now position the two
15 lenses so that they are approximately spaced by the sum of
their focal lengths. Remove the light source from the setup. Look through the lenses so that you
can see a distant the wall. Place an object to observe on the wall and adjust the lens spacing so
that you can comfortably see an image of the object.
Draw your setup and describe what you observe. What do you expect the angular magnification
of this telescope to be?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Stops and Pupils

Align an iris on the optical axis, as close as possible to the objective lens. (The lens closest to
the object.) Observe the image as you open and close the iris. Describe what you see.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Assuming the iris acts as the aperture Stop (AS) for the system, calculate where the entrance
(EnP) and exit (ExP) pupils are located and add these locations to your sketch.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
36 | P a g e
Now place a diffuse light source to the left of the objective lens and use a screen to locate the
image of the iris. This is the locations of the ExP. Is it where you calculated? Why might the
observed position not be exactly the same as the calculated position?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Now remove the light source and screen and observe the object on the wall through the telescope.
Have your partner open and close the iris as you move your eye slowly away from the eye lens
to the position of the exit pupil.
What do you observe when closing the iris while your eye is at the position of the exit pupil?
Contrast this with when your eye is close to the eye lens. How is the image quality affected by
closing the iris?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Now place another aperture near the focal plane of the objective lens, between the two lenses.
How does this affect what you see when you look at the image?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Of the two apertures now in the system, which would you say acts as the aperture stop (AS), and
which as the field stop (FS)?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------With FS partly closed, measure the angular field of view of the telescope and the diameter of
/ 0.
the FS. Compare this to the value calculated using
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
37 | P a g e
Replace the
15
eye lens with a
2.5
lens, again ensuring that the lens spacing
is approximately the sum of the focal lengths. Try to keep the field stop in the same position and
with the same diameter. Adjust the lens spacing so that you can observe the object again. What
do you see now? Is the field of view altered?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------What is the calculated angular magnification of this telescope?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Can you suggest a way to measure the angular magnification experimentally?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Where is the exit pupil for this telescope? If the AS is 2 cm in diameter, what is the diameter of
the exit pupil?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------38 | P a g e
Galilean (terrestrial) telescope

Now replace the
15
eye lens with a
2.5
spacing is approximately the sum of the focal lengths.
lens, again ensuring that the lens
After again adjusting the lenses so that you can see the object on the wall through the telescope,
describe what you see. Compare this Galilean telescope with the Keplerian telescope of the
same magnification.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Calculate the position of the exit pupil. How does the position of the exit pupil affect the usability
of this telescope?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The FS cannot be placed in the Galilean telescope. Measure the angular field of view of the
telescope and discuss what controls this field of view.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
39 | P a g e
Discussion:
How would you design a telescope to be used in low-light conditions?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Compare and contrast the Keplerian and Galilean telescopes. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of each? Suggest where you might find application for each one.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Based on your observations, how do the AS and FS affect the quality of the image?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
40 | P a g e

Lab #5: Observing and Measuring Chromatic Aberration
Objective:
The purpose of this lab is to observe and become familiar with the effects of chromatic
aberration in the image of a point source using white light. The longitudinal (or axial)
chromatic aberration of a simple positive lens will first be observed qualitatively.
Quantitative measurements of longitudinal chromatic aberration will then be made for the
simple positive lens, as well as the residual secondary chromatic aberration of an
achromatic doublet.
-
The variation of the refractive index of optical materials with the light wavelength is called
dispersion.
Due to dispersion, the angle of refraction at an interface between two optical materials (Snells
Law) will vary with wavelength.
An optical spectrum is produced upon refraction.
2.0
Blue
Red
1.5
Red
Red
Blue
Blue
The refractive index of a material is typically specified for a few selected wavelengths that
correspond to spectral lines associated with specific elements.
It is common to use the C (red 656nm), d (yellow 588nm), and F (blue- 486nm)
spectral lines to characterize the dispersive properties of the medium.
nF-nC
nF
nd
nC
nd-1
nd-nC
1.0
F
-
Glass dispersion properties are commonly specified by the V or Abbe number:
Vd
nd 1
nF nC
41 | P a g e
The ideal image is when a point source in the object plane is mapped to a point in the image
plane. Due to dispersion of the lens, different colors of light from the same point in the object
maps into different locations in the image planes. This unwanted effect is called chromatic
aberration.
Longitudinal Chromatic Aberrations:

It is defined as the chromatic variation in the location of the image.
L ' L ' F L 'C

The conjugate equation is:
1
1
KF
L' F L
Yellow
Blue
Red
1
1
KC
L 'C L
L'F
L'd
L'C
The longitudinal chromatic aberration is: L' L'C L' F
K
Kd
L' d2 d
V
V
L ' F L 'C L 'C L ' F K C K F

For a simple lens:
K n 1C1 C 2
n 1
Kd
nd 1
n nF
L' F L'C L'C L' F C
nd 1
K d
Here Ki is the optical power of the lens at a certain wavelength.

Measured axial chromatic aberration for a singlet (simple) lens:
A singlet is a lens that is consisted of only one material. The chromatic aberration of singlets
directly reflects the dispersion properties of the material they have been made from.
42 | P a g e
Achromatic doublet:
-
An achromatic doublet is two lenses (in contact) made with different glasses
(different V numbers).
The powers at the center wavelength of each lens are selected such the total
power of the system is unchanged:
K d K d ,1 K d ,2
-
The V numbers for the glass of each of the two lenses are selected such that:
Kd ,1 Kd ,2
0
Vd ,1 Vd ,2
-
The chromatic aberrations will be eliminated at two wavelengths (lines F and C) while
maintaining the element power.
Those two wavelengths will be focused at the same spot, but other wavelengths will not.
The residual chromatic aberration is called a secondary spectrum.
Secondary
spectrum
Image
point
Blue
Red
Measured Chromatic aberration of an achromatic doublet lens
Transverse (lateral) chromatic aberration

In addition to axial chromatic aberration, most lenses also show transverse chromatic aberration.
The transverse chromatic aberration occurs when different wavelengths are focused at different
positions in the focal plane (because the magnification and/or distortion of the lens also vary with
wavelength.
43 | P a g e
Experimental:
Qualitative observation of chromatic aberration:
Use a white light source and spatial filter assembly (excluding pinhole) to illuminate the
clear aperture lens provided as shown.
With a singlet lens (Plano-convex Lens: Edmund Catalog No. 32975. (F~150mm)) used as
the test lens, observe and study the effects of longitudinal chromatic aberration upon the onaxis image of a point source of white light.
Note the colored images produced by the (uncorrected) lens as you observe the image
through-focus.
For comparison repeat using an achromatic doublet (Doublet: Newport No. PAC 086.
(F~150mm)
First look at the doublet lens itself. Can you see two parts that are glued to each other?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Describe your qualitative observation of the through-focus effects of longitudinal chromatic

aberration upon the on-axis image of a point source of white light. Qualitatively compare the
effects for the singlet and the achromatic doublet lens. Provide sketches.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
44 | P a g e
Do you observe any transverse chromatic aberration for the singlet and doublet?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Helpful hint: By using an iris right before the lens and an aperture diameter down to
approximately 10-15 mm effects of spherical aberration can be drastically reduced.
45 | P a g e
Quantitative measurement of longitudinal (axial) chromatic aberration:
Replace the spatial filter assembly source with a monochromator (minichrom) as shown above.
Place a mask over the test lens to only allow two small pencils of light through the lens.
Place a knife-edge on a two-axis translation stage as shown in the set-up above.
Image the monochromator output slit with the test lens.
Make sure the system is aligned to minimize the effects of off-axis aberrations.
The focal length (at the reference wavelength of 550 nm) of both the plano-convex lens and the
doublet test is F=150 mm.
Focus the measuring microscope upon the back vertex of the lens and record its position A on
bench.
Determine the location of the image by positioning the knife-edge such that it cuts through the
two pencils of light uniformly (precisely at the crossover point).
Record the reading on the translation stage that is holding the knife-edge and moves along the
direction of travel a(550 nm).
Focus the microscope on the knife-edge and record the new microscope position as B.
Determine the image location L' for the middle wavelength (550 nm) from: L' A B ,
where is the directional distance from the back vertex of the lens to the rear principle plane of
the lens.
Estimate or use the measured value.
Measure the difference in image location L' (relative to L at 550 nm) for 8-10 different
wavelengths spanning the visible spectrum (400 nm-700 nm). The wavelength can be varied by
turning the dial on the monochromator.
Measuring the longitudinal chromatic shift is done as before by positioning the knife-edge such
that it cuts through the two pencils of light uniformly (precisely at the crossover point).
46 | P a g e
Record the translation stage reading a() for each wavelength. This again is the position of the
translation stage that is holding the knife edge.
Measure a() several times, and average, for each wavelength. Now L' ( ) is given by either
L ' ( ) a ( ) a (550 nm ) or L ' ( ) a (550 nm ) a ( ) , depending upon the direction in
which the translation stage is moved.
Clearly L' ( ) is positive (negative) if is greater than (less than) 550 nm.
Calculate and plot the relative longitudinal chromatic aberration L' / L' as a function of
wavelength.
Repeat above measurements for the achromatic doublet.
47 | P a g e
48 | P a g e
Discussion:
Define and briefly discuss chromatic aberration.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
How well does the achromatic doublet used in this experiment correct longitudinal chromatic
aberration (reduction factor in L' / L' from that of the simple lens) over the spectral range
0.42 < < 0.65 and for the spectral range 0.47 < < 0.65?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
49 | P a g e

Lab #6: Polarization of Light
Objective:
The purpose of this laboratory is to experimentally investigate some elementary polarization
properties of light, gain some insight into polarization behavior, and learn basic methods to
change the polarization of a light beam.
Polarization is a property of waves that can oscillate with more than one orientation at a given
plane. In most cases, electromagnetic waves, such as light, and gravitational waves are
transverse waves that exhibit polarization. The polarization (the electric field) is perpendicular to
the wave's direction of travel. In contrast, sound waves in a gas or liquid are longitudinal waves
that do not have polarization because the medium vibrates only along the direction in which the
waves are travelling.
By convention, the polarization of light is described by specifying the orientation of the wave's
electric field at a point in space over one period of the oscillation. The polarization state of a field
is described by the shape traced by the instantaneous electric field vector or in a fixed plane by
the electric vector as time change (the plane wave passes over it).
For a wave of angular frequency propagating in the z direction in a uniform medium, the electric
field is of the form:
E E 0 x cos( kz t x ) x E 0 y cos( kz t y ) y
In general, the shape traced by the electric field in a given plane is an ellipse
E y2
E x2
Ex E y
2 cos
2 sin 2
2
E0 x Eoy E0 y
E0 x
Ey
with y x
The radii (a, b) and orientation angle of the ellipse
are given by:
Ex
a 2 E 02x cos 2 E 02y sin 2 E 0 x E 0 y cos sin( 2 )

b 2 E 02x sin 2 A02y cos 2 E 0 x E 0 y cos sin( 2 )
with
tan 2
2E0 x E0 y
E 02x E 02y
cos .
50 | P a g e
Special cases:
Linear polarization:
The electric field is oriented in a single direction when the two field components are in
phase.
x y
tan E 0 y E 0 x ; a
E 02x E 02y ;
b0
Circular Polarization:
The electric field rotates on a circle as the wave travels when the two field components
are equal and are quarter wave out of phase.
E0 x E0 y E0
y x 2
a b E0
Elliptical Polarization:
Otherwise the electric field rotates on an ellipse as the wave travels.
Experimental:
Align your laser beam and
establish your optical axis
along the rail:
As shown in the
picture
(left),
the
HeNe laser will be
mounted off the rail
and
two
steering
mirrors will be used to
guide the beam along
the rail (optical axis).
The HeNe laser as well as the two steering mirrors will be mounted on moveable magnetic
bases.
Be sure to account for the height of the optical elements on the rail before beginning
alignment. Once your height has been established, you can adjust the height of the laser
and mirrors accordingly and begin to adjust the steering mirrors to establish the optics
axis.
Remove everything from the rail. Mount one iris along one of the center screws on a
carriage and bring the carriage to the front of the rail (close to mirror 2) and lock it in place,
adjust the height of the iris to the height that you have pre-determined for your setup. Now
place a second iris on a second carriage, adjusting the height of the iris to the predetermined height as well. Place this second iris at the back of the rail.
51 | P a g e
Your beam should be roughly guided along the optical rail, although it will not be going
straight along the optical axis. To establish the optical axis, use mirror 1 closest to the
laser source to align the beam through the first pinhole.
Use mirror 2, the one furthest from the source, to guide the beam through the second iris.
Note, when you adjust the second the mirror, you will lose your placement of the beam
through the first iris. However, through an iterative process of adjusting mirror 1 to align
the beam through the closest iris, and adjusting mirror 2 to align the beam through the
furthest iris (walking the beam), you can establish the optical axis.
Determination of the State of Polarization (ellipticity and orientation):

The state of polarization of a laser beam can be determined using only a linear polarizer and a
laser power meter.
The transmission axis of the linear polarizer is aligned with the zero and 180 marks on the
rotary polarizer mount.
Set the rotary mount to 90 (transmission axis horizontal), then rotate the polarizer to
obtain a maximum signal on the laser power meter. Make sure the beam is centered on
the power meter sensor.
Record the position of the rotary mount and calculate the orientation angle. (record on
next page)
Record the power meter reading, Pmax (proportional to irradiance of beam). (record on next
page)
Rotate the linear polarizer 90 and record the power meter reading, Pmin, for the orthogonal
polarization. (record on next page)
Calculate the ellipticity, b/a, that is given by
Repeat five times and average the results.
Pmin / Pmax .
On the opposite page, draw a schematic of your measurement set-up.

What is the ellipticity of your beam? Present the mean and standard deviation.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------X says she can change the polarization by simply rotating the laser itself. Do you agree with her?
Why? Do you think she can generate an arbitrary state of polarization this way? Explain why.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
52 | P a g e
Record your notes and data here. (Include your set-up and measurement data)
53 | P a g e
Understanding how polarizers are used
Set polarizer 1 to the rotation angle of maximum transmission. Add polarizer 2 to the path of
the laser beam and study the effect of its rotation on the beam. Measure and plot on the next
page the transmitted power for every 10 degrees of rotation of polarizer 2. (record on next
page)
Find the exact angle of the polarizer 2 for which the laser beam power is at a minimum. (record
on next page)
In how many locations per rotation can you see a minimum in transmitted power? Can you
justify the number?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Now rotate the first polarizer by 10 degrees from the minimum transmitted power position.
Find the angle of rotation for the second polarizer that minimizes the output for this situation.
(record on next page).
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Predict the relation between the rotation angles of the first and second polarizers.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
54 | P a g e
55 | P a g e
Changing the State of Polarization using Wave Retardation Plates:
Rotate the first polarizer to the maximum transmission position and insert a half-wave plate
between the two polarizers with a 45 angle relative to the axis of polarizer 1.
Propose a set-up that enables you to determine the orientation and the ellipticity of the
beam and sketch this experiment on the opposite page.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
What are the orientation and the ellipticity of the beam leaving the half-wave plate?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Repeat the experiment using a quarter-wave plate instead of the half-wave plate.
What is the orientation and ellipticity of the beam?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
From this data explain how wave-plates change the state of the polarization.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
56 | P a g e
57 | P a g e
Discussion:
In the absence of marking on the polarizer, suggest a method of telling whether the beam
transmitted through the polarizers is vertically or horizontally oriented?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sketch and describe an experiment that you would propose to determine the handedness
(direction or rotation) of an elliptically polarized beam.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2.) X claims that she put either of the waveplates in the set-up and for a specific rotation angle,
she observed no change in the polarization state of the beam. Is that possible? Draw a diagram
that shows the polarization of the input beam and the orientation of the waveplates in this case?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
58 | P a g e

Lab #7: Interference & Diffraction I: Youngs double-slit experiment
Objective:
The purpose of this laboratory is to investigate interference and diffraction effects in optical
systems. The Young double-slit experiment connects the concept of two-beam interference to the
diffraction caused by two apertures. Students should observe and describe the
interference/diffraction pattern generated when light passes through two narrow slits.
Youngs double slit experiment:
a: Slit separation
D: Distance from slits to screen
S: Slit width
For D >> a with tan
For D >> a << 1 tan

sin
Far field diffraction angle: /

Constructive interference/light maxima:
sin
with D >> a
59 | P a g e
Experimental:
Youngs double slit experiment:
This is the classic experiment that demonstrates interference of light and its diffraction. The light
(= 632.8 nm) that passes through two slits, diffracts and interferes to generate a substantially
different pattern in the far-field. The set-up of the experiment is shown below.
For an aperture with the width of S, how far from the aperture can you see the Fraunhofer
diffraction?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Observe the interference/diffraction pattern of various double-slits (4 pairs of slits on one slide)
on a cardboard placed near the end of your optical rail.
Measure (several times) and record (on the next page) the distance between the slit and
the screen.
For the first set of slits measure (several times) and record (on the next page) the envelope
of the diffraction pattern to estimate the slit widths. Compare it to the nominal width.
For the first set of slits measure (several times) and record (on the next page) the fringe
spacing (period) of the diffraction pattern to estimate the slit separation. Compare it to the
nominal slit separation.
Now use the slit pair #2 with the larger slit separation and repeat the experiments of point
two and three. Do you observe any changes besides different measurement values?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Now repeat the experiments of point two and three use slit pairs #3 and #4 that have larger
slit widths.
60 | P a g e
61 | P a g e
For large patterns, the far-field occurs further away from the aperture. One way to bring the farfield closer to the object, is to use a Fourier transform lens. In your classes you will learn/have
learned that because of its shape, a lens adds sufficient phase to the wavefront to bring the farfield into exactly the focal point.
Use the set-up below to get the far-field, hence the diffraction pattern of a larger double slit at the
focal point of the lens.
Move a piece of paper from the slit slide to the lens and from the lens to some distance away to
observe transition from near field to far-field. Describe your observation.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Record images of the diffraction pattern for the various double slits on the slide. Compare these
to the diffraction patterns observed without the Fourier transform lens.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
62 | P a g e
Record your notes, data, and pictures here.
63 | P a g e
Discussion:
What is the role of the iris in this experiment?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------This experiment is one of the few ways to measure the wavelength of light in absolute terms
without using any known reference. Estimate the accuracy that can be achieved for such a direct
measurement of the wavelength of light.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
64 | P a g e

Lab #8: Interference & Diffraction II:
Diffraction patterns of apertures with various shapes
Objective:
The purpose of this laboratory is to further investigate diffraction effects in optical systems.
Students should observe and describe the Fresnel (near-field) and Fraunhofer (far-field)
diffraction patterns produced by a variety of aperture sizes and shapes.
Aperture diffraction occurs when light passes through small openings, such as slits or pinholes.
The amount of diffraction is directly related to the size of the aperture; smaller apertures will result
in greater diffraction. The diffraction patterns depend on the aperture shapes. If multiple closely
spaced apertures are present interference effects will shape the observed diffraction patterns.
Experimental:
Rebuild the set-up below that you used last week to observe the far-field diffraction pattern of a
double-slit. The trick is again to use a lens (Fourier transform lens) to bring the far-field
(Fraunhofer diffraction) to a distance close to the object. Before placing the lens, observe the
transition from Fresnel to Fraunhofer diffraction as light travels away from the object slide. All
pictures taken should be collected in Appendix to Lab# 8 and printed at the end of class.
Observe and record the diffraction patterns of small and large single slits (from near field to farfield) as well as circular apertures (small and large pinhole). Collect pictures of in Appendix to
Lab# 8. Note how Fraunhofer diffraction patterns scale with aperture size.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Observe and photograph the near field and far-field diffraction patterns of a small hexagon and
square. Again note the symmetry and add pictures to Appendix to Lab# 8.
65 | P a g e
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Observe and photograph the Fraunhofer diffraction patterns of circular, rectangular, triangular,
parallelogram, and semi-circular apertures. Add pictures to Appendix to Lab# 8. Note the
symmetries. Comment on the aspect ratio of Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of rectangular aperture
relative to aspect ratio of the aperture itself.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Can you find features of both the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern from a circular aperture and a
rectangular aperture in the pattern of the semi-circular aperture?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Compare the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of the triangle with that of the hexagonal aperture.
Can you explain the differences in the nature of the diffraction flares?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Observe the effect, upon the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern, of a narrow rectangular obscuration
across the diameter of a circular aperture. Speculate upon the reduction of the peak irradiance
from that without the obstruction. Observe the effect of telescope secondary mirror spiders upon
the image of a star (3 spiders and 4 spiders).
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
66 | P a g e

Lab #9: Diffraction Gratings
Objective:
The purpose of this laboratory is to investigate the properties of diffraction gratings. The
monochromatic diffraction properties of the grating will be used to determine the grating
properties. The spectral properties of the grating will be used to determine the wavelength of
light.
1. The grating equation:
a sini sinm m
a : Grating period
i : Incident angle
m : Diffraction angle
m : Diffraction order
67 | P a g e
2. Blazed and unblazed reflection gratings:
3. Littrow configuration:
The Littrow configuration is a special geometry, in which the blaze angle B is chosen such that
diffraction angle and incidence angle are identical. For a reflection grating, this means that the
diffracted beam is back-reflected into the direction of the incident beam (blue beam).
In this case the grating equation simplifies to:
2d sinm m
68 | P a g e
Experimental:
Set-up the experiment according to the sketch above using a HeNe laser ( = 632.8 nm)
an iris and blazed holographic diffraction grating #1.
Rotate the grating to find the angle at which the zero order is reflected back into the
direction of the incident beam and determine the blaze angle B .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Rotate the grating until the Littrow condition is satisfied for the +1 order. Record the
position of the rotary stage and calculate 1 .
Repeat for the 1, +2, and -2 diffracted orders and calculate -1, 2, and -2 .
Calculate the grating period for each diffraction order measurement using the grating
equation.
Average the result for the grating period and calculate the average number of groves per
millimeter of the diffraction grating.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
69 | P a g e
Repeat the same set of experiments using diffraction grating #2.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
70 | P a g e
Discussion:
Name several applications of diffraction gratings, not all involving their dispersive properties.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Name at least two different techniques for manufacturing diffraction gratings and comment upon
their relative advantages and disadvantages.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
71 | P a g e

Lab #10: Transmission Gratings and multi-slit interference
Objective:
The purpose of this laboratory is to investigate the multi-slit diffraction and interference patterns
and the properties of transmission gratings. The students will study how the far-field diffraction
patterns evolve form the double-slit experiment through few slit experiments and finally to
transmission gratings with hundreds of slits.
For a transmission grating the same grating equation also

holds:
a sini sinm m
a : Grating period
i : Incident angle
m : Diffraction angle
m : Diffraction order
Thus the following question arises: how does the diffraction pattern transitions between that of
the double slit and a typical grating pattern when the number of slits is successively increased?
72 | P a g e
Experimental:
Prepare the following set-up to observe the diffraction of multiple slits (slide no. 9165c). Notice
that since the spacing between the slits is very small, the far-field pattern is at reasonable distance
from the aperture slide. Therefore, there is no need for a Fourier transform lens.
Iris
laser
Piece of paper
Multiple slit
slide
translation
stage
Rail
Fig. 10.1. Set-up for observing the multi-slit diffraction patterns.
Observe the interference patterns produced by two, three, four, and five equally
spaced slits of finite width and sketch them on the next page.
What are the similarities and differences of these interference patterns with the
double-slit interference pattern?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
As the number of slits increases, how does the peak and width of each of the lobes
evolve?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Can you predict what would be the diffraction pattern of a slide with 100 slits of the
same spacing and width as the above one?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
73 | P a g e
Measurement of the grating period of transmission gratings and light wavelength:
Diffracted Orders
Grating
m = -1
m=0
m = +1
Incoming Laser Beam
Wall
O pti ca
l Benc
Fig. 10.2. Set-up for measurements on transmission gratings.
74 | P a g e
Replace the multiple-slit slide of Fig. 9.1. with the transmission grating slide #1.
Using a He-Ne laser (= 632.8 nm) at normal incidence onto the transmission grating,
determine the diffraction angle of the first few diffracted orders by measuring their
displacement from the zero order on the observation screen, and the distance of the screen
from the grating.
The diffracted angle is then given by the angle whose tangent is the ratio of those two
distances.
tan
Hint: In order to mitigate errors related to the fact that the grating is not precisely
perpendicular to the beam, measure the distance between the +1 and -1 diffracted orders
and divide by two. Likewise measure the distances between the +2 and -2 orders, and +3
and -3 orders, etc.
Calculate the grating period from the grating equation and estimate the experimental error.
Repeat the experiments for transmission gratings on slides #2 and #3.
75 | P a g e
Discussion:
Compare your results with the expected values for lines per mm.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------How does the diffraction pattern change when a laser with a shorter wavelength of about 500 nm
is used?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Discuss and compare advantages and disadvantages of transmission and reflection gratings that
might be important for specific applications.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
76 | P a g e

Lab #11: Monochromatic Aberrations of a Point Source
Objective:
The purpose of this laboratory is to observe and become familiar with third-order monochromatic
aberrations in the image of a point source, including spherical aberration and astigmatism.
An ideal paraxial imaging system is assumed

to image point/line objects into ideal
point/line images.
However, spherical surface do not direct a
parallel bundle of rays into a single point.
For a bundle of rays close the axis, a
spherical surface may be assumed to be a
parabolic surface directing a parallel bundle
of rays into a single point.
However, rays in real optical systems do not
behave according to the paraxial optics
predictions (finite bundle size).
Rays from an object point will not meet at a

single image point and the image will not be
located on a single plane.
Monochromatic aberrations are the result of the
departure of the real rays from the common
intersect point in the ideal image plane
predicted by paraxial optics.
Equivalently, monochromatic aberrations are
the result of the departure of the real
wavefronts from ideal spherical wavefronts
predicted by paraxial optics.
While wavefronts originating from an object
point are spherical, the emerging wavefronts
are no longer spherical.
A list of important low-order monochromatic aberrations and their effect on images are given on
the next page.
77 | P a g e
Transverse Focal Shift (Tilt):

Vertical shift in the location of the
focal point.
O'
Reference
Sphere
Longitudinal Focal Shift

(Defocus):
Wavefront
Reference
Sphere
Axial shift of the focal plane.
O'
Wavefront
Spherical Aberrations:
Rotational symmetric aberration
characterized by a variation of the
focal position with the radial zones
of the beam.
Field
curvature
Field Curvature:
A flat object normal to the optical
axis is not a flat image plane.
O'
Object
plane
Image
plane
Distortion:
A rectangular grid would be imaged
with a barrel (positive) or
pincushion (negative) shape
Coma:
Variation of image location and
size with zonal radius in the pupil.
Astigmatism:
Cylindrical deformation of the
wavefront resulting in two line foci
located at different planes.
78 | P a g e
Experimental:
Qualitative observation of spherical aberration
Spherical aberrations which are characterized by variation of the focal position with the radial
zones of the beam are always present (no clear focal point, but focal line). In order to observe
other type of aberrations, spherical aberrations need to be minimized in order to have a
reasonably well defined focal plane. This is achieved by reducing the beam size to reduce
spherical aberrations (more paraxial rays). However, the smaller size beam will have more
pronounced diffraction.
Fig. 11.1. Set-up for observing the multi-slit diffraction patterns.
Set up equipment as shown above. Use a HeNe laser as the light source.
Make sure the beam is aligned parallel to the optical bench as you will need to observe
image over a long focal range.
Remove the spatial filter and make sure the heights and axial positions of all other
elements is correctly aligned.
On the spatial filter carriage orient a translation stage so that propagation is perpendicular
to the optical axis.
Mount the spatial filter assembly and screw a 20x microscope objective into its holder in
the assembly.
Adjust the height of the spatial filter assembly so that the laser light propagates through
the center of the objective.
Insert the pinhole in the focal plane of the objective so that light is transmitted through it.
Now fine adjust the position of the objective relative to the pinhole, using the micrometer
screws built into the spatial filter assembly, until you get a large beam that exits from the
pinhole. You might also have to adjust the position of the pinhole to center it on the focused
beam. Be very precise during this process as this is a tedious step.
Once you have a large beam exiting the pinhole place your collimating achromatic doublet
lens at a position on the rail so that the beam is collimated after passing through the lens.
Your beam should be very uniform.
79 | P a g e
Use an iris after the doublet lens to limit the size of the beam.
On a new carriage mount a rotational stage, a post holder and a plano-convex test lens.
Use the test lens to image the point source (pinhole), using the proper orientation of the
lens (curved side facing the incident uniform beam) for minimum spherical aberration.
Reduce the size of the iris diaphragm (stop down) to approximately 1cm diameter.
Setup a new carriage with two translation stages to allow for x and y translation. On this
carriage mount your CCD fixed with a 10x microscope objective.
Position the CCD camera to observe and record images. The CCD camera must be
plugged into the computer with a USB cable. Open the viewing program on your desktop
titled uEye.
If your image is to bright adjust the laser light intensity using one or two polarizers.
Align the test lens to get a rotationally-symmetric image (no off-axis aberrations).
Observe the image noting alternating bright and dark spots on axis. Reduce the size of
the pinhole to make this more evident.
Study symmetry about best focus, compare to the illustrations below.
Measure and record the axial distance, d, between the 1st two dark spots on either side
of paraxial focus.
Record images at several focal positions with CCD camera for printing an attachment to
the lab notebook.
Fig. 11.2. Aberration-free through-focus diffraction image.
80 | P a g e
Spherical Aberrations:
Open up the aperture to substantially increase spherical aberration, and again observe
through focus image. Note symmetry (or lack thereof) about best focus.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Can you readily discern the soft and the hard side of best focus? Can you locate the
paraxial focus?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Record images at several focal positions with CCD camera for printing an attachment to
the lab notebook.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
81 | P a g e
Astigmatism:
Reduce the size of the aperture (stop

down) to reduce spherical aberration
to a negligible level.
Tilt the lens using the rotation stage
10 degrees to produce astigmatism
as shown on the right.
By moving through the focus,

observe and record the sagittal,
medial, and tangential astigmatic
image with the CCD camera for
printing an attachment to the lab
notebook.
Repeat the observations and recordings for tilting the lens by 20 degrees.
Can you determine the focal position that produces the circle of least confusion?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Fig. 11.3. Sagittal astigmatic diffraction image.
Fig. 11.4. Medial astigmatic diffraction image.
82 | P a g e

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OSE 3052 L

OSE 3052 L - Introduction to Photonics Laboratory

List of experiments - week-by-week calendar

Instructions for maintaining your laboratory notebook and report writing 6

How your formal laboratory report will be graded

Lab #1: Lenses I

Lab #2: Lenses II $ III (2 weeks)

Lab #3: Imaging I & II (2 weeks)

Lab #4: Imaging III: Keplerian and Galilean telescopes

Lab #5: Chromatic Aberration

Lab #6: Polarization of Light

Lab #7: Interference & Diffraction I: Youngs double-slit experiment

Lab #8: Interference & Diffraction II: Apertures of various shapes

Lab #9: Reflection Gratings: The Littrow configuration

Lab #10: Transmission Gratings

Lab #11: Monochromatic Aberrations

Prof. Axel Schlzgen

Class meeting days:

Class meeting time:

1 credit hour 2 contact hours

OSE 3052 Introduction to Photonics or equivalent

Course Materials and Textbook:

Introduction to Optics, F. Pedrotti, L. Pedrotti, and L. Pedrotti, Addison-Wesley, 3rd

Excellent, has a strong understanding of all concepts

University Rules on Professionalism and Ethics

List of Experiments (week-by-week calendar; subject to modifications)

Lenses II: Measurements of focal lengths of lenses

Lenses III: Newtonian and Gaussian lens equations

Imaging I: Object magnification and demagnification

Imaging III: Keplerian and Galilean telescopes

Chromatic Aberrations: Measurement of axial chromatic

Polarization of Light: Working principles of polarizers

Interference & Diffraction I: Youngs double-slit

Formal Report I: Prepare draft of formal report

Interference & Diffraction II: Apertures of various shapes

Reflection Gratings: The Littrow configuration

Transmission Gratings: Multi-slit interference

Monochromatic aberrations: Observation and mitigation

Formal Report II: Revised formal report due

Instructions for maintaining your laboratory notebook and report writing

How your laboratory notebook will be graded

Responses in complete sentences

How your formal laboratory report will be graded

Overall aims of the report: the student...

OSE 3052L Introduction to Photonics Laboratory

The procedure is then repeated on the other surface of the lens.

The total procedure is then repeated for another lens.

The focal length, in meters, is the reciprocal of the optical power.

Real (thick) lens:

Measure the thickness, t, of the bi-convex lens with a micrometer or an appropriate

OSE 3052L Introduction to Photonics Laboratory

Fig. 2.1. Auto-collimation technique to measure the focal point of a lens.

Perform these experiments for a plan-convex and a bi-convex lens.

Record the position of the lens on the optical rail.

OSE 3052L Introduction to Photonics Laboratory

Fig. 3.1. Newtonian distances in an imaging system.

For an optical system in air:

Fig. 3.2. Enlarging imaging system.

Fig. 3.3. Down-sizing imaging system.

The focal length is given by:

where M1 is the image magnification in the first position.

Step 1: Front auto-collimation - Location of the front focal point:

Fig. 3.5. Auto-collimation setup for positioning of lens 1.