Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A Conspicuous Absence:
Teaching and Research on India in Pakistan
S Akbar Zaidi
1Introduction
57
speciAl article
and extent of teaching and research taking place in higher institutions of learning in Pakistan with a focus on India. Following
the presentations of interviews, Section 3 looks at the largest research area on India in Pakistan security and strategic studies.
Section 4 tries to explain the very noticeable absence of India in
Pakistans institutions of higher learning and research by talking
about the context the state of social sciences in Pakistan in general in which the findings from the earlier sections need to be
placed. Are additional explanations to be found in Pakistans
social science structure and institutions for the fact that India
remains so under-researched and under-taught? Since India is
perceived by many and especially by Pakistans military and
security establishment to be its main adversary and biggest
threat, I also examine some other possible explanations as to why
India is not taught or researched enough in Pakistans academic
and research institutions. This section is then followed by
Section5, which looks at those areas where research on India
does take place. Finally, I conclude by asking the question,
whether Pakistan is at all unique in that it does not study India
as much as it ought to.
2.1Theses
Data provided by the Council of Social Sciences, Pakistan (COSS),
an independent body which collects data and publishes books,
reports and newsletters about the state and issues related to the
social sciences in Pakistan, shows an extraordinary statistic: in
the 56-year period of 1947-2003, there have only been 1,202
58
theses submitted, both at the MPhil and PhD level, at all the universities in Pakistan2 in a very broad range of subjects which COSS
categorises as social science.3 A keywords search based on the
COSS database using the titles and subjects of the 1,202 MPhil and
PhD theses showed that there were 41 theses for the word India,
24 for Pakistan-India and 14 for Kashmir.4
Of the 41 theses which had India in their subject or title, 30
were in the related areas of international relations, strategic and
defence studies looking at nuclear issues, the relationship with
Pakistan, of India and China, and the US and similar themes.
Some of the illustrative titles are The Indo-Pakistan War 1965,
The US Policy of Nuclear Non-Proliferation in South Asia with Special Reference to Pakistan: Evaluation and Implications (1947-90),
Indias Strategic Policy in South Asia, India as a Factor in Pak-US
Relations, Indo-US Relations in Post Cold War Era. Three theses
have been submitted in philosophy and three in history. The titles
in the latter are Trade of Moenjodaro, Muslim Politics in Indo-
Pakistan Subcontinent from 1876 to 1892 and Organisation for
War and Peace in Ancient India (600 BC to 700 AD). Of these 41,
there are only five which look specifically at issues related internally to India; the others look at issues around, including and involving India, but perhaps not specifically at India. These five
theses are as follows: Ethnicity and Communalism in India: Role
of BJP, Khalistan Movement 1984-1996, The Impact of Structural
Adjustment Programmes on Human Development: A Case Study of
India, Origin and Impact of Khalistan Movement and, Muslims in
India: A Political Study. Clearly, Pakistani research on India at the
postgraduate level seems to be almost non-existent, especially if
we look at the quantity of work more focused at what is happening within India, rather than research of a comparative kind in
the international relations and strategic studies discipline.
All the 24 theses which showed up using the Pakistan-India
category also showed up in the India category discussed above.
Of the 14 in the Kashmir category, most theses are in the international relations discipline, where issues of the Kashmir conflict
and dispute are examined.
A few look specifically at Azad Kashmir, where some issues of
political, economic and regional development are examined. Of
the 1,202 theses, the search for Security brought up 16 theses,
and Nuclear 13. Of the 92 MPhil and PhD theses in political
science from all 11 universities in 56 years, only three were on
India. What is perhaps most interesting regarding them was that
the term used most often in the title was Islam (18 theses) and
that there was not a single thesis which looked at theory. There
were none on the military or armed forces, the bureaucracy,
defence, or even on elections.
Another data set, that of the university of Karachis Faculty of
Arts total number of MPhil and PhD degrees awarded in the
1958-2002 period, shows an even grimmer picture about research
on India. A total of 239 MPhil and PhD degrees were awarded by
the faculty, including in subjects like languages, which are not
part of the social sciences under COSS categorisation. Of the 184
PhDs awarded by the University of Karachi more than 30% are in
Urdu. There are 12 each in Arabic, clinical psychology and philo
sophy. For the social science disciplines that we are considering, 14
are in economics/applied economics, nine were in international
september 19, 2009 vol xliv no 38 EPW Economic & Political Weekly
special article
2.2Curricula
If one examines the curriculum at the masters level for economics
at the university of Karachi,5 or the course content at the MPhil
level and Masters of Applied Sciences in Economics courses at the
same university, there is absolutely no mention of India or its economy. There is the standard curriculum found in all mainstream
neoclassical schools worldwide except that Pakistans curriculum
and its readings list in Economics is at least three decades too old.
Significantly, there is very little heterodox or radical economic
theory. There is also not a great deal of applied economics of countries despite the name of the degree with the exception of some
development economics. Pakistans economy, however, is taught
at all the masters level courses all over Pakistan.6 It is quite fair to
say that India and its economics/economy are non-existent in the
economics teaching programmes across Pakistans universities.
One could add that it is improbable that many economics teachers
at the postgraduate level have anything more than very basic
information about Indias economic developments. And this is des
pite the fact that economics is the most prestigious and sought-
after of all the disciplines in the social sciences in Pakistan.7
The masters degree in political science at the university of Karachi has a number of courses related to theory as well as courses
which have an applied/case study component. Along with standard modules on Locke, Hobbes and Rousseau, there are courses on
Islamic Political Theory and Institutions, International Law,
Comparative Local Government, Public Administration, etc. In
Comparative Local Government there is one module out of six
which looks at comparative systems in six countries, one of which
countries is India.8 The course called Public Administration was
taught with reference to Pakistan, the US, UK and France. A course
entitled Political System of the Developing Countries looks at
comparative politics of Pakistan, Iran, Turkey and India, but in its
list of 38 recommended books there was no book by any Indian
author. Other courses such as Studies in Political Systems and
Theory and Practice of Modern Government, looked at China,
Japan, Indonesia and Malaysia in the former course, and the UK,
USSR (sic), USA, Switzerland, France and Pakistan in the latter.
Economic & Political Weekly EPW september 19, 2009 vol xliv no 38
59
speciAl article
In the Islamic history MA syllabus, a course entitled the Evolution of the Muslim Community in the Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent 610-1947 CE is, not surprisingly, even less inclusivist than the
general history paper, and here even the British do not get a mention or make a presence. However, it needs to be mentioned that
in the readings provided for the general history courses, there
are a number of non-Muslim Indian authors, such as Beni Prasad,
R C Majumdar, Jadunath Sarkar, Tara Chand and R P Dutt. On
the other hand, in the Islamic history course, all references are of
either British historians or of Muslim authors, some of whom,
such as Abul Kalam Azad, Aziz Ahmad and Khaliq Ahmad
Nizami, are Indians. There are no non-Muslim Indian historians
whose books have been recommended for the course which deals
with India in the period 610-1947.10
Sage
60
september 19, 2009 vol xliv no 38 EPW Economic & Political Weekly
special article
3Studying Security
In terms of the five social sciences considered, there are none in
which any research or teaching related to India takes place.
However, there is one large and buoyant research industry in
which India is central. In most security-related studies and
publications, comparisons are made of/with India, and in fact,
almost the entire discipline, with a few exceptions focuses
squarely on some aspect of India which threatens or affects
Pakistan. It is probably true to say, that most of Pakistans
research and publications that take place in the social
sciences with the exception of economics, increasingly take
place in the very broad arena of security/strategic studies. Many
social scientists trained in political science and international
61
speciAl article
double spread
62
september 19, 2009 vol xliv no 38 EPW Economic & Political Weekly
special article
double spread
Economic & Political Weekly EPW september 19, 2009 vol xliv no 38
63
speciAl article
relations, as well as some physicists in the anti-nuclear movement, have been writing largely on India in the context of security and related issues, as do numerous journalists and columnists.16 However, despite the presence of a number of independently-minded well-known and highly prolific social scientists
trained in different disciplines, perhaps the monopoly of all wisdom relating to security and strategic studies (especially with
regard to India), rests with institutes and personnel who speak
for and on behalf of the government.
The Institute of Regional Studies, supposedly an independent,
non-profit research centre devoted to the region around Pakistan,
and the more overtly partisan Institute of Strategic Studies, both
in Islamabad, are at the apex of the governments institutions
where some nature of social science (but more specifically,
security/strategic studies) research takes place. While there are
other academic departments where such research also takes
place, the importance in government circles of these two institutes is particularly relevant.
While the Institute of Regional Studies claims that it studies
the region around Pakistan, south Asia, south-west Asia (Iran,
Afghanistan), China, central Asia as well as the Indian Ocean
region, its research output is predominantly on issues of a strategic and security nature related to India. In its numerous series of
publications including books, reports and a journal, India features far more frequently than all the other areas combined.
However, while there is a security/strategy focus, there are a
number of publications which do deal with issues specific and
internal to India, rather than in a comparative perspective or
related to Pakistan. For example, apart from the standard security/strategy issues which are published in the institutes publications, there are a large number of publications including titles
such as: The Maneka Factor, Bombay Textile Workers Strike and
its Impact on Trade Unioninsm, Ethnic Cleansing in Gujarat, CivilMilitary Relations in India, Antarctica and Indias Interests, Politics of Dams in India: A Study of the Sardar Sarovar Project,
A Decade of Indian Economic Reforms and the Inflow of Foreign
Investment, Assam Assembly Polls (2001) and Preceding Developments, The Uttarakhand Movement: A Perspective, and Rashtriya
Swayamsevak Sangh Genesis, Agenda, Apparatus. This is just
an illustrative list of the over 300 papers, books and publications
that the Institute has produced since its inception in 1982. It may
not be wrong in suggesting, that the output from the Institute
of Regional Studies in terms of quantity, far exceeds that of
many organisations in the private, public or non-governmental
organisation sector, accentuating the earlier claim, that security/
strategic studies are the largest component of research in
Pakistan on India.
The reasons for this overabundance of output in this sector
are believed to be based on the nature of Pakistans securitydriven state policy and its national security state apparatus.
Pakistans state has been obsessed with security concerns and
with its various Kashmir policies. Sections of, what in Pakistan
is called, the Establishment have propagated research often
with an overtly propagandist viewpoint where academic or research objectivity is not a value of much significance. Hence, it
might be stretching the point to label official security/strategic
64
special article
65
speciAl article
september 19, 2009 vol xliv no 38 EPW Economic & Political Weekly
special article
at the end of south Asias cold war has allowed ideas to cross the
border more easily.
A third avenue which allows for the greater learning and understanding of India, is Pakistans growing intellectual/academic
and student diaspora. Although numbers are difficult to come by,
there is growing anecdotal evidence which shows that many
Pakistani students going abroad are moving away from the more
traditional field of economics and are moving into disciplines
such as cultural anthropology and other non-traditional subjects.
In addition, some of these scholars, not hampered or hassled by
Pakistans intelligence agencies, are able to look at Partition,
nationalism, ethnic identity across the divide, and other issues
pertaining to India. As a second generation of migrant Pakistanis
grows up in the west and constraints such as passports and visas
are removed by acquiring other nationalities, access to India has
become less difficult. For those interested in research and
academic careers, particularly with regard to and with interest
specifically in India, this offers unique opportunities.
Notes
1 See Social Science Research Council (SSRC)
(2002), Social Science Capacity in South Asia: A
Report, SSRC Working Paper, Vol 6, New York and
S Akbar Zaidi (2002), The Dismal State of the
Social Sciences in Pakistan, Economic & Political
Weekly, Vol 37, No 35.
2 The number of universities where social sciences
were taught in Pakistan were 11, but may have increased since 2003.
3 The subjects that COSS includes in their list for
social sciences are as follows: mass communications/journalism, sociology, philosophy, history,
political science, economics, area studies, social
work, education, library sciences, geography,
Pakistan studies, international relations, psychology, law, public administration, archaeology, administrative sciences, defence and strategic studies and Islamic culture. The largest number of
MPhil and PhD theses are in economics (246 out
of 1,202), followed by psychology (159), the numerous area studies (152), history (143), Pakistan
studies (99), political science (92), education (81),
and international relations (74). Almost 50% of
the theses (597) have been completed at the
Quaid-e-Azam university, Islamabad, followed by
Karachi university (171) and the University of the
Punjab (139).
way India is taught and researched in Pakistan? Many social scientists think, given all the additional constraints mentioned in
an earlier section, it was beyond the scope and even capabilities
of Pakistani scholars to study India, and perhaps the question
does not itself arise.
With Pakistan itself poorly researched and badly taught, perhaps there needs to be a level of research affluence to allow
scholars to look at other countries. While there is no doubt that
India is still central to Pakistans existence, perhaps there is a
greater need for Pakistanis to first increase the quality and quantity of research on Pakistan itself.
There is no denying the fact that there is very little research
on India in Pakistan. Many of the reasons for this have been
discussed in this paper, but perhaps what also seems interesting
is why other countries are also not doing enough research on
south Asia. Christian Wagner examining the status of south
Asian research in Germany, finds that a majority of German
research on south Asia is done on classical Indology and more
than 50% of all German south Asia specialists belong to
philological disciplines, with the remainder belonging to nine
other disciplines. He shows that there is a growing interest in
modern topics like nationalism and foreign policy, but the academic infrastructure of German universities shows considerable
gaps in the field of social sciences and contemporary South
AsianStudies.19
Not many Pakistani scholars have the skills and training to do
research on their own society, leave alone on other societies, and
that too on a diverse and complex society as India, specially given
the numerous non-academic constraints. Moreover, there are just
a very small handful of Pakistani scholars who do good research
on Pakistan itself, in the first place. Perhaps the more interesting
question, given Indias huge pool of social scientists and researchers and its abundant research affluence is: Why is there no
quality research in India on Pakistan?
Economic & Political Weekly EPW september 19, 2009 vol xliv no 38
67
speciAl article
10
11
12
13
14
15
Appendix 1
Scholars and Commentators Interviewed
Mohammad Waseem, Lahore University of
Management Sciences.
Shaeen Akhtar, research scholar, Institute of
Regional Studies, Islamabad.
1857
Essays from Economic and Political Weekly
A compilation of essays that were first published in the EPW in a special issue in May 2007. Held together with an introduction by Sekhar
Bandyopadhyay, the essays that range in theme and subject from historiography and military engagements, to the dalit viranganas idealised in
traditional songs and the unconventional protagonists in mutiny novels converge on one common goal: to enrich the existing national debates
on the 1857 Uprising.
The volume has 18 essays by well known historians who include Biswamoy Pati, Dipesh Chakrabarty, Peter Robb and Michael Fisher. The articles are
grouped under five sections: Then and Now, Sepoys and Soldiers, TheMargins, Fictional Representations and The Arts and 1857.
september 19, 2009 vol xliv no 38 EPW Economic & Political Weekly