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PlasmodiumVivax
P.vivaxhasthewidestgeographicaldistribution,extending
throughthetropics,subtropicsandtemperateregions.Itis
believedtoaccountfor80%ofallmalariainfections.Itisthe
mostcommonspeciesofmalariaparasiteinAsiaandAmerica,
butismuchlesscommoninAfrica.Itcausesbenigntertian
malariawithfrequentrelapses.
ThesporozoitesofP.vivaxarenarrowandslightlycurved.
Onenteringthelivercells,thesporozoitesinitiate2types
ofinfection.Somedeveloppromptlyintoexoerythrocytic
schizonts,whileotherspersistinthedormantstatefor
varyingperiodsashypnozoites.Theremaybe2distinct
typesofsporozoites,thetachysporozoites(tachy:fast),
whichdevelopsintotheprimaryexoerythrocyticschizont
andthebradysporozoite(brady:slow)whichbecomes
thehypnozoite.
Thepreerythrocyticschizogonylastsfor8daysandthe
averagenumberofmerozoitespertissueschizontis
10,000.
MerozoitesofP.vivaxpreferentiallyinfectreticulocytes
andyoungerythrocytes.
Allstagesoferythrocyticschizogonycanbeseenin
peripheralsmears(Fig.6.5).
Thedegreeofparasitizationisnotgenerallyheavy,each
infectedredcellusuallyhavingonlyonetrophozoiteand
notmorethan25%oftheredcellsbeingaffected.
Reticulocytesarepreferentiallyinfected.
Thetrophozoiteisactivelymotile,asindictedbyitsname
vivax.Theringformiswelldefined,withaprominent
centralvacuole.Onesideoftheringisthickerandthe
othersidethin.Nucleusissituatedonthethinsideofthe
ring.Theringisabout2.53mindiameter,aboutathird
ofthesizeofanerythrocyte.Thecytoplasmisblueand
thenucleusredinstainedfilms.Theringdevelopsrapidly
totheamoeboidformandaccumulatesmalarialpigment
(Figs6.6and6.7).
Theinfectederythrocytesareenlargedandshowred
granulesknownasSchuffnersdotsonthesurface.They
becomeirregularinshape,losetheirredcolor,andpresent
awashedoutappearance.Afewoftheparasitized
erythrocytesretreatintothebloodspacesoftheinternal
organs.
Theschizontappearsinabout3640hours.Itoccupies
virtuallythewholeoftheenlargedredcell.Theschizont
maturesinthenext68hours,withthedevelopmentof
merozoites,eachwithitscentralnucleusandsurrounding
cytoplasm.Thepigmentgranulesagglomerateintoafew
darkbrowncollectionsatthecenter,andwiththe
merozoitesaroundit,thisstagepresentsarosette
appearance.Thereareabout1224(usually16)
merozoitesperschizont.
Erythrocyticschizogonytakesapproximately48hours.
Theredcell,whichnowmeasuresabout10min
diameterisheavilystippledandoftendistorted.Itburststo
liberatethemerozoitesandpigment.Thepigmentis
phagocytosedbyreticuloendothelialcells.
Themerozoitesmeasureabout1.5mandhaveno
pigment.
Gametocytesappearearly,usuallywithin4daysafterthe
trophozoitesfirstappear.Bothmaleandfemale
gametocytesarelarge,nearlyfillingtheenlargedredcell.
Themacrogametocytehasdensecytoplasmstainingdeep
blueandasmallcompactnucleus.Themicrogametocyte
haspalestainingcytoplasmandalargediffusenucleus.
Pigmentgranulesareprominentinthegametocytes.
PlasmodiumFalciparum
Thenamefalciparumcomesfromthecharacteristicsickleshapeof
thegametocytesofthisspecies(falx:sickle,parere:tobringforth).
Thisisthehighlypathogenicofalltheplasmodiaandhence,the
namemalignanttertianorperniciousmalariaforitsinfection.The
diseasehasahighrateofcomplicationsandunlesstreated,isoften
fatal.Thespeciesisresponsibleforalmostalldeathscausedby
malaria.
Schizogony:Thesporozoitesaresickleshaped.Thetissue
phaseconsistsofonlyasinglecycleofpreerythrocytic
schizogony.Nohypnozoitesoccur.Thematureliverschizont
releasesabout30,000merozoites.
Theyattackbothyoungandmatureerythrocytesandsothe
populationofcellsaffectedisverylarge.Infected
erythrocytespresentabrassycoloration.
Ringform:Theearlyringformintheerythrocyteisvery
delicateandtiny,measuringonlyasixth(1/6)oftheredcell
diameter.Ringsareoftenseenattachedalongthemarginof
theredcell,thesocalledformappliquoraccole.
Binucleaterings(doublechromatin)arecommonresembling
stereoheadphonesinappearance.Severalringsmaybeseen
withinasingleerythrocyte.Incourseoftime,therings
becomelarger,aboutathirdofthesizeoftheredcelland
mayhave1or2grainsofpigmentinitscytoplasm(Figs6.8
and6.9).
Thesubsequentstagesoftheasexualcyclelate
trophozoite,earlyandmatureschizontsarenotordinarily
seeninperipheralblood,exceptinverysevereorpernicious
malaria.ThepresenceofP.falciparumschizontsinperipheral
smearsindicatesagraveprognosis.Thematureschizontis
smallerthaninanyotherspeciesandhas824(usually16)
merozoites.Theerythrocyticschizogonytakesabout48hours
orless,sothattheperiodicityoffebrileparoxysmsis3648
hours.
Veryhighintensityofparasitizationisseeninfalciparum
malaria.Inverysevereinfections,therateofparasitizedcells
mayevenbeupto50%.
Theinfectederythrocytesareofnormalsize.Theyshowa
few(612)coarsebrickreddotswhicharecalledMaurers
clefts.Someredcellsshowbasophilicstippling.
Gametogony:Itbeginsafterseveralgenerationsof
schizogony.Gametocytesareseenincirculationabout10
daysaftertheringstagefirstappears.Theearlygametocytes
seldomappearinperipheralcirculation.Themature
gametocytes,whichareseeninperipheralsmearsarecurved
oblongstructures,describedascrescentic,sickle,sausage,or
bananashaped.Theyareusuallyreferredtoascrescents
(Fig.6.10).
Themalegametocytesarebroadandsausageshapedor
kidneyshaped,withbluntroundedendsascomparedtothe
femalegametocytes,whicharethinnerandmoretypically
crescentic,withsharplyroundedorpointedends.Themature
gametocyteislongerthanthediameteroftheredcellandso
producesgrossdistortionandsometimesevenapparent
disappearanceoftheinfectedredcell.Theredcellisoften
seenasarimontheconcavesideofthegametocyte.The
cytoplasminthefemalegametocyteisdeepblue,whileinthe
maleitispaleblueorpink.Thenucleusisdeepredand
compactinthefemale,withthepigmentgranulesclosely
aggregatedaroundit,whileinthemale,itispink,largeand
diffuse,withthepigmentgranulesscatteredinthecytoplasm.
Falciparumcrescentscansurviveincirculationforupto60
days,muchlongerthaninotherspecies.Gametocytesare
mostnumerousinthebloodofyoungchildren,9monthsto2
yearsold.They,thereforeserveasthemosteffectivesource
ofinfectiontomosquoties.
PlasmodiumMalariae
ThiswasthespeciesofmalariaparasitefirstdiscoveredbyLaveran
in1880andthenamemalariaeistheonegivenbyhim.Itcauses
quartanmalaria,inwhichfebrileparoxysmsoccureveryfourthday,
with72hoursintervalbetweenthebouts.
Thediseaseisgenerallymild,butisnotoriousforitslong
persistenceincirculationinundetectablelevels,for50yearsor
more.Recrudescencemaybeprovokedbysplenectomyor
immunosuppression.
Thedevelopmentoftheparasite,inmanandmosquitoismuch
slowerthanwithotherspecies.Chimpanzees
maybenaturallyinfectedwithP.malariaeandmayconstitutea
naturalreservoirforquartanmalaria.P.malariaeoccursintropical
Africa,SriLanka,Burma,
andpartsofIndia,butitsdistributionispatchy.The
sporozoitesarerelativelythick.Preerythrocyticschizogony
takesabout15days,muchlongerthaninotherspecies.Each
schizontreleasesabout15,000merozoites.Hypnozoitesdo
notoccur.Thelonglatencyoftheinfectionisbelievedtobe
duetopersistenceofsmallnumbersoferythrocyticformsin
someinternalorgans.
P.malariaepreferentiallyinfectsoldererythrocytesand
thedegreeofparasitizationislow.Theringforms
resemblesthoseofP.vivax,although
thickerandmoreintenselystained.Theoldtrophozoitesare
sometimesseenstretchedacrosstheerythrocyteasabroad
band.ThesebandformsareauniquefeatureofP.malariae.
Numerouslargepigmentgranulesareseen(Fig.6.11).
Theschizontsappearinabout50hoursandmatureduring
thenext18hours.Thematureschizonthasanaverageof8
merozoites,whichusuallypresentarosetteappearance.
Theinfectederythrocytesmaybeofthenormalsizeor
slightlysmaller.Finestippling,calledZiemannsstippling,
maybeseenwithspecialstains.Thedegreeofparasitization
islowestinP.malariae.
Erythrocyticschizogonytakes72hours.The
gametocytesdevelopintheinternalorgansand
appearintheperipheralcirculationwhenfullygrown.
Gametocytesoccupynearlytheentireredcell.Themalehas
palebluecytoplasmwithalargediffusenucleus,whilethe
femalehasdeepbluecytoplasmandasmallcompactnucleus.
PlasmodiumOvale
Thisparasiteproducesatertianfeverresemblingvivaxmalaria,but
withmildersymptoms,prolongedlatencyandfewerrelapses.Itis
therarestofallplasmodiainfectinghumansand
isseenmostlyintropicalAfrica,particularlyalongthe
WestCoast.Thepreerythrocyticstageextendsfor9days.
Hepatocytescontainingschizontsusuallyhaveenlargednuclei.The
matureliverschizontreleasesabout15,000merozoites.Hypnozoites
arepresent.
Thetrophozoitesresemblethoseinvivaxmalaria,butare
usuallymorecompact,withlessamoeboidappearance.
Schuffnersdotsappearearlierandaremoreabundantand
prominentthaninvivaxinfection(Fig.6.12).
Theinfectederythrocytesareslightlyenlarged.Inthin
films,manyofthempresentanovalshapewithfimbriated
margins.Thisovalappearanceoftheinfectederythrocyteis
thereasonforthenameovalegiventothisspecies.
TheschizontsresemblethoseofP.malariae,exceptthat
thepigmentisdarkerandtheerythrocyteisusuallyoval,
withprominentSchuffnersdots.
Paniker's Textbook of Medical Parasitology, 7E (2013)
1.2.
siklus hidup
2.2.
epidemiologi
Malariatodayisgenerallylimitedtothetropicsandsubtropics,
althoughoutbreaksinTurkeyattesttothecapacityofthisdisease
toreappearinareasclearedoftheagent.Malariainthetemperate
zonesisrelativelyuncommon,althoughsevereepidemic
outbreaksmayoccurwhenthelargelynonimmunepopulationsof
theseareasareexposed;itisusuallyunstableandrelativelyeasy
tocontroloreradicate.Tropicalmalariaisusuallymorestable,
difficulttocontrol,andfarhardertoeradicate.Inthetropics,
malariagenerallydisappearsataltitudesabove6000ft.
PlasmodiumvivaxandPfalciparum,themostcommonspecies,
arefoundthroughoutthemalariabelt.
Plasmodiummalariaeisalsobroadlydistributedbutconsid
erablylesscommon.PlasmodiumovaleisrareexceptinWest
Africa,whereitseemstoreplacePvivax.Allformsofmalaria
canbetransmittedtransplacentallyorbybloodtransfusionorby
needlessharedamongdrugmisuserswhenoneisinfected.Such
casesdonotdevelopaliverinfection;thus,relapsedoesnot
occur.Naturalinfection(otherthantransplacentaltransmission)
takesplaceonlythroughthebiteofaninfectedfemaleAnopheles
mosquito.
Malariacontroldependsoneliminationofmosquitobreeding
places,personalprotectionagainstmosquitoes(eg,screens,
pyrethrintreatednetting[seeFigure4611D],protectiveclothing
withsleevesandlongtrousers,andrepellents),suppressive
drugsforexposedpersons,andadequatetreatmentofcasesand
carriers.Eradicationrequirespreventionofbitingcontact
betweenAnophelesmosquitoesandhumanslongenoughto
preventtransmission,witheliminationofallactivecasesby
treatmentandbyspontaneouscure.Theresultsofmassiveefforts
inhighlyendemictropicalareashavebeenunsuccessful.Costly
eradicationprojectsundertakenbetween1955and1970have
beenreplacedwithcontrolprogramsspecificallygearedtothe
mosquitovectorecologyandmalariaepidemiologyofeacharea.
Theseprogramsmustbecontinuedaspermanentpublichealth
responsibilities.AmajorWHOledefforttorollbackmalariais
nowunderway.
Currently,thereisnovaccineavailableformalaria.Asporozoite
surfaceantigenhasbeentriedasanantisporozoitevaccine,butits
initialtestinginhumanswasnotsuccessful.Asynthetic
tripeptidevaccine,SPf66,hasbeentestedin
Colombiaandwasfoundtobepartiallyeffective(<50%).A
completeprophylacticvaccinewouldhavetobeactiveagainst
bothsporozoitesandmerozoitesofthetargetspecies,withan
antigametocytocidaleffecttocurbtransmission.Withincreased
reportsofmultidrugresistantfalciparummalariaandthe
complexandvariableregimenssuggestedfordifferentareasfor
bothprophylaxisandtreatment,referraltotheCentersfor
DiseaseControlandPreventionforcurrentrecommendationsis
advised(http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/;CDCMalariaHotLineat
7704887788;CDCVoiceInformationSystem1888CDC
FACT).
Jawetz,Melnick&Adelberg'sMedicalMicrobiology,26thEdition
2.3.
2.4.
etiologi
pathogenesis dan patofisiologi
Theincubationperiodformalariaisusuallybetween9and30
days,dependingontheinfectingspecies.ForPvivaxandP
falciparum,thisperiodisusually1015days,butitmaybe
weeksormonths.TheincubationperiodofPmalariaeaverages
about28days.Falciparummalaria,whichcanbefatal,must
alwaysbesuspectediffever,withorwithoutothersymptoms,
developsatanytimebetween1weekafterthefirstpossible
exposuretomalariaand2months(orevenlonger)afterthelast
possibleexposure.
Plasmodiumvivax,Pmalariae,andPovaleparasitemiasare
relativelylowgrade,primarilybecausetheparasitesfavoreither
youngoroldredcellsbutnotboth;Pfalciparuminvadesred
cellsofallages,includingtheerythropoieticstemcellsinbone
marrow,soparasitemiamaybeveryhigh.Plasmodium
falciparumalsocausesparasitizedredcellstoproducenumerous
projectingknobsthatadheretotheendothelialliningofblood
vessels,withresultingobstruction,thrombosis,andlocal
ischemia.Plasmodiumfalciparuminfectionsarethereforefar
moreseriousthantheothers,withamuchhigherrateofsevere
andfrequentlyfatalcomplications(cerebralmalaria,malarial
hyperpyrexia,gastrointestinaldisorders,algidmalaria,
blackwaterfever).Considerationofmalariainthedifferential
diagnosisinpatientswithasuggestivepresentationandhistory
oftraveltoanendemicareaiscriticalbecausedelaysintherapy
canleadtosevereillnessordeathwithfalciparummalaria.
Periodicparoxysmsofmalariaarecloselyrelatedtoeventsinthe
bloodstream.Aninitialchill,lastingfrom15minutesto1hour,
beginsasasynchronouslydividinggenerationofparasites
rupturetheirhostredcellsandescapeintotheblood.
Nausea,vomiting,andheadachearecommonatthistime.The
succeedingfebrilestage,lastingseveralhours,ischaracterized
byaspikingfeverthatfrequentlyreaches40Cormore.During
thisstage,theparasitesinvadenewredcells.Thethird,or
sweating,stageconcludestheepisode.Thefeversubsides,and
thepatientfallsasleepandlaterawakesfeelingrelativelywell.In
theearlystagesofinfection,thecyclesarefrequently
asynchronousandthefeverpatternisirregular;later,paroxysms
mayrecuratregular48or72hourintervals,althoughP
falciparumpyrexiamaylast8hoursorlongerandmayexceed
41C.Asthediseaseprogresses,splenomegalyand,toalesser
extent,hepatomegalyappear.Anormocyticanemiaalso
develops,particularlyinPfalciparuminfections.
Normocyticanemiaofvariableseveritymaybedetected.During
theparoxysms,theremaybetransientleukocytosis;
subsequently,leukopeniadevelops,witharelativeincreasein
largemononuclearcells.Liverfunctiontestsmaygiveabnormal
resultsduringattacksbutreverttonormalwithtreatmentor
spontaneousrecovery.Thepresenceofproteinandcastsinthe
urineofchildrenwithPmalariaeissuggestiveofquartan
nephrosis.InseverePfalciparuminfections,renaldamagemay
causeoliguriaandtheappearanceofcasts,protein,andredcells
intheurine.
Pathogenesis
Allclinicalmanifestationinmalariaareduetoproductsof
erythrocyticschizogonyandthehostsreactiontothem.The
diseaseprocessinmalariaoccursduetothelocal
orsystemicresponseofthehosttoparasiteantigensandtissue
hypoxiacausedbyreducedoxygendeliverybecauseof
obstructionofbloodflowbytheparasitizederythrocytes.
Liverisenlargedandcongested.Kupffercellsare
increasedandfilledwithparasites.Hemozoinpigments
arealsofoundintheparenchymalcells(Fig.6.13).
Parenchymalcellsshowfattydegeneration,atrophy,and
centrilobularnecrosis.
Spleenissoft,moderatelyenlarged,andcongestedin
acuteinfection.Inchroniccases,spleenishardwitha
thickcapsuleandslategreyordarkbrownorevenblack
incolorduetodilatedsinusoids,pigmentaccumulation,
andfibrosis(Fig.6.13).
Kidneysareenlargedandcongested.Glomerulifrequently
containmalarialpigmentsandtubulesmaycontain
hemoglobincasts(Fig.6.13).
ThebraininP.falciparuminfectioniscongested.
Capillariesofthebrainarepluggedwithparasitized
RBCs.Thecutsurfaceofthebrainshowsslategreycortexwith
multiplepunctiformhemorrhageinsubcorticalwhite
matter.
Anemiaiscausedbydestructionoflargenumberofred
cellsbycomplementmediatedandautoimmune
hemolysis.Spleenalsoplaysanactiverolebydestroyinga
largenumberofunparasitizederythrocytes.Thereisalso
decreasederythropoiesisinboremarrowduetotumor
necrosisfactor(TNF)toxicityandfailureofthehostto
recycletheironboundinhemozoinpigments.
CytokinessuchasTNF,interleukin(IL)1,and
interferon(IFN)gammaplayapivotalroleinthe
pathogenesisofendorgandiseaseofmalaria.
Paniker'sTextbookofMedicalParasitology,7E(2013)
2.5.
2.6.
2.7.
2.8.
2.9.
manifestasi
diagnosis dan diagnosis banding
tatalaksana
komplikasi
proagnosis
Ifdiagnosedearlyandiftheappropriateantibioticsareavailableand
used,theprognosisofmalariaisverygood.
Worldwide,malariaisresponsiblefor500,000800,000deathsper
year.ThemajorityofvictimsareyoungchildrenfromsubSaharan
Africa.Deathisusuallyduetolackofavailabletreatmentoraccessto
treatment.
P.falciparumtendstobethespeciescausingthemostcomplications
andhasahighmortalityifuntreated.
Cerebralmalaria,acomplicationofP.falciparummalaria,hasa20%
mortalityrateeveniftreated.
http://www.medicinenet.com/malaria_facts/page5.htm
2.10. pencegahan
Morfologi
https://books.google.co.id/books?
id=4_nU4J09RtkC&pg=PA179&dq=morfologi+anopheles
&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=morfologi
%20anopheles&f=false
a.Telur anopheles diletakkan satu persatu di atas permukaan air
sehingga seperti membentuk perahu yang bagian bawahnya konveks,
bagian atasnya konkaf dan mempunyai sepasang pelampung pada
lateral.
b. Larva anopheles tampak mengapung sejajar dengan permukaan air,
spirakel pada posterior abdomen, tergel plate pada tengah sebelah
dorsal abdomen dan sepasang bulu palma pada lateral abdomen.
c.Pupa anopheles mempunyai tabung pernafasan berbentuk seperti
trompet yang lebar dan pendek , digunakan untuk mengambil oksigen
dari udara
d. Nyamuk dewasa pada jantan memiliki ruas palpus bagian apikal
berbentuk gada (club form) pada betina ruasnya mengecil. Sayap
bagian pinggir (kosta dan vena I ) ditumbuhi sisik-sisik sayap
berkelompok membentuk belang hitam putih, ujung sayap membentuk
lengkung. Bagian posterior abdomennya melancip.
Malaria merupakan penyakit yang dapat bersifat akut maupun kronik,
malaria disebabkan oleh protozoa dari genus plasmodium ditandai
dengan demam, anemia dan splenomegali. Sampai sekarang dikenal 4
jenis plasmodium, yaitu :
a.
plasmodium falciparum sebagai penyebab Malaria Tropika.
b.
plasmodium vivaks sebagai penyebab penyakit Malaria Tertiana.
c.
plasmodium malariae sebagai penyebab penyakit Malaria
Quartana.
d.
plasmodium ovale yang menyebabkan penyakit Malaria yang
hampir serupa dengan Malaria Tertiana.
3.2.
Klasifikasi
Nyamuk Anopheles sp adalah nyamuk vektor penyakit malaria. Di
dunia kurang lebih terdapat 460 spesies yang sudah dikenali, 100
diantaranya mepunyai kemampuan menularkan malaria dan 30-40
merupakan host dari parasite Plasmodium yang merupakan penyebab
malaria di daerah endemis penyakit malaria. Di Indonesia sendiri,
terdapat 25 spesies nyamuk Anopheles yang mampu menularkan
penyakit Malaria.
Anopheles gambiae adalah paling terkenal akibat peranannya sebagai
penyebar parasit malaria dalam kawasan endemik di Afrika, sedangkan
Anopheles sundaicus adalah penyebar malaria di Asia.
Urutan penggolongan klasifikasi nyamuk Anopheles seperti binatang
lainnya adalah sebagai berikut :
Kingdom
: Animalia
Phylum
: Arthropoda
Class
: Hexapoda / Insecta
Sub Class
: Pterigota
Ordo
: Diptera
Familia
: Culicidae
Sub Famili
Genus
: Anophellinae
: Anopheles
3.3.
Habitat
Perilaku saat menghisap darah
Hanya nyamuk betina yang sering menghisap darah nyamuk
Anopheles sering menghisap darah diluar rumah dan suka menggigit
diwaktu senja sampai dini hari (Eksofagik) serta mempunyai jarak
terbang sejauh 1,6 Km sampai dengan 2 Km. Waktu antara nyamuk
menghisap darah yang mengandung Gametosit sampai mengandung
sporozoit dalam kelenjar liurnya, disebut masa tunasekstrinsik.
Sporozoit adalah bentuk infektif.
Untuk terjadi penularan penyakit malaria harus ada empat faktor yaitu:
1.
Parasit (agent / penyebab penyakit malaria)
2.
Nyamuk Anopheles (vektor malaria)
3.
Manusia (host intermediate)
4.
Lingkungan (environment)
Empat faktor terjadinya penularan malaria
Perilaku pada waktu hinggap dan beristirahat
Nyamuk Anopheles lebih suka hinggap di batang-batang rumput, di
alam atau luar rumah (Eksofilik) yaitu tempat-tempat lembab,
terlindung dari sinar matahari, gelap.
Perilaku pada saat berkembang biak (Breeding Place)
Nyamuk Anopheles dapat berkembang biak ditempat-tempat yang
airnya tergenang seperti sawah, irigasi yang bagian tepinya banyak
ditumbuhi rumput dan tidak begitu deras airnya.