L 4

Phases and Microstructure
Fe-Fe3C phase diagram

Iron and Steel
Steel Microstructures
Knowledge Incubation for TEQIP IIT Kanpur
Iron-Iron carbide phase diagram

0.18
0.10
2.11
0.77
0.008 at RT
Identify the terminal phases and its solubility

Dr. Shashank Shekhar
Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

3
Iron-Iron carbide phase diagram

Its not a true equilibrium phase diagram because
iron carbide is not a stable phase

Iron carbide decomposes into iron and carbon
(graphite)
Even at elevated temperature (like 700C), it will take
several years for decomposition
Hence for all practical purpose Iron-Iron carbide
phase diagram represents equilibrium changes
Source: Wikipedia
Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

5
Carbon being a very small atom gets into the
interstitial of ferrite/ austenite phases to form solid

solution
Ferrous metals - based on iron, comprises about 75%
of metal tonnage in the world. Broadly three main
alloys
Iron = C content < 0.008 wt%

Steel = Fe-C alloy (0.008 to 2.11% C)
Cast iron = Fe-C alloy (2.11% to 6.7% C)
Materials Science and Metallurgy by Pollack
Allotropes of Iron and various phases

7
-ferrite (BCC)
1538
Max solubility of C is 0.022 wt %
Temperature
1394
RT solubility of C is 0.008 wt %
-austenite (FCC)
912
768
-ferrite (BCC)
Stable only at high T
Fe3C (iron carbide/ cementite)

Orthorhombic structure
Why is solubility of C higher in

FCC than in BCC?
Intermetallic
Brittle
Transformation Temperatures
8
A1 = Temperature at which austenite begins to form
during heating
A2 = Temperature at which iron becomes nonmagnetic
A3 = Temperature at which transformation of iron
to austenite is completed during heating
A4 = Temperature at which austenite transforms to
delta ferrite
Am = Temperature at which solutionizing of
cementite in austenite is complete
Various Transformation Reactions and

development of Microstructure
9
Peritectic Reaction:
L+
Eutectic Reaction: Eutectic of austenite and
cementite is known as ledeburite
L + Fe3C
Eutectoid Reaction: Eutectoid of ferrite and
cementite is known as pearlite. The ferrite and

cementite phases occur as alternate layers
+ Fe3C
Definition of Microstructure
10
The microstructure of crystalline materials is defined
by the type, structure, number, shape and

topological arrangement of phases and/or lattice
defects .
Elements of microstructure: Point defects,
point-defect clusters, dislocations, stacking faults,

grain boundaries, interphase interfaces are
important elements of the microstructure of most
materials.
Steels
11
Steels can be categorized as

Low carbon steels (C < 0.3 %)
Medium carbon steels (0.3 < C <0.6)
High carbon steels (C>0.6 %)
Steels can also be grouped as (a) plain carbon steels,
(b) low alloy steels (c) stainless steels and (d) tool
steels
Hypoeutectoid steels (C between 0.022 to 0.77) and
Hypereutectoid steels ( C > 0.77)
Several solid state transformations take place in steel
Microstructure of Eutectoid steel

12
When Fe-alloy of 0.77% of C is
cooled slowly it transforms

from single phase of austenite
to pearlite structure, a lamellar
or layered structure of two
phases: ferrite and cementite
In the micrograph, dark
regions are cementite and
bright regions are ferrite
Why layered structure?

13
Layered structures are
formed because of
redistribution of C atoms
between ferrite (0.022 wt %)
and cementite (6.7 wt %) by
diffusion
Mechanical properties of
pearlite are in between that
of ferrite (soft) and
cementite (brittle)
What is the fraction of ferrite
for this eutectoid alloy?
Microstructure of hypoeutectoid steel

14
Microstructure of hypereutectoid steel

15
16
Microstructures of (a) Hypoeutectoid

steel (ferrite + pearlite) (b) Eutectoid
steel (c) Hypereutectoid steel (pearlite
with network of cementite)
Heat Treatment by Rajan, Sharma and Sharma
Microstructure of steel with C < 0.022

17
In this steel content is less than

T3
T4
T5
0.022 wt % so transformation
begins at temperature on
intersection of NM (T3)
Transformation gets completed
by T4, much earlier than for
hypoeutectoid
No change until T5
Below T5, excess carbon gets
rejected in the form of Fe3C
In most practical cases, since
cooling is not slow enough,
microstructure remains 100%
ferrite
Cast Iron
18
Cast Iron, as defined earlier, has C concentration
greater than 2.11 % and less than 6.7%

Cast iron can be further subdivided into two
categories
White cast iron: carbon is present in the form of
cementite
Grey cast iron : carbon is present in the free form as
graphite
Cast Iron
19
Grey cast iron : carbon is present in the free form as
graphite
Contains Si (1 to 3 %) which causes formation of graphite

flakes distributed throughout the cast product upon
solidification
Presence of graphite gives a grey color to the fractured surface
Good vibration damping because of dispersion of graphite
flakes
Internal lubricating qualities which make it machinable
Products made from gray cast iron include automotive engine
blocks and heads, machine tool bases
When chemically treated to form spheroids rather than flakes,
we end up with ductile iron. It is stronger and more ductile
Cast Iron
20
White cast iron: carbon is present in the form of
cementite
Contains 0.5 to 2% Si and lower C content

Formed by rapid cooling of the molten metal
Its hard, brittle and excellent wear resistance
Applications include railway brake shoes
When cast iron is heat treated to separate carbon out of
solution and form graphite, resulting metal is called malleable
(upto 20%)
Malleable cast iron is utilized for pipe fitting and flanges
Microstructures of eutectic cast Iron

21
0.18
On solidification,
0.10
2.11
0.77
0.008 at RT
ledeburite is formed
On further cooling,
excess carbon comes
out as cementite from
eutectic austenite
At 727 C, eutectic
austenite would
contain 0.77 % C and
would decompose
into pearlite
Microstructures of hypoeutectic cast Iron

22
0.18
In this case, at
0.10
2.11
0.77
0.008 at RT
temperature just below

1147 C, consists of
proeutectic austenite
and ledeburite
On further cooling,
excess carbon comes
out as cementite from
proeutectic and eutectic
austenite
At 727 C, both eutectic
and proeutectic
austenite would contain
0.77 % C and would
decompose into pearlite
Microstructures of hypereutectic cast Iron

23
0.18
In this case, at
0.10
2.11
0.77
0.008 at RT
temperature just
below 1147 C, consists
of proeutectic
cementite and
ledeburite
On further cooling,
excess carbon comes
out as proeutectoid
cementite from
eutectic austenite
At 727 C, eutectic
austenite would
decompose into
pearlite
24
Microstructures of (a) Hypoeutectic steel

(ledeburite + pearlite +cementite) (b)
Eutectic steel (ledeburite) (c)
Hypereutectic steel (ledeburite + primary
cementite)
Effect of alloying elements on Iron-Iron carbide

phase diagram
25
Steel consists of several other alloying elements
Cr: improves strength, hardness, wear resistance, hot hardness,

hardenability. In significant proportions, Cr improves corrosion
resistance
Mn: improves the strength and hardness of steel
Mo: increases toughness and hot hardness. Also provides
hardenability and wear resistance
Ni: improves strength and toughness. In significant amounts, it
improves corrosion resistance
V: grain refiner and hence improves strength and toughness
Some alloying elements affect the relative stabilities of
alpha and gamma iron and as such are grouped as ferrite

stabilizers or austenite stabilizers

phase diagram
26
Cr is also a Ferrite Stabilizer

Other elements which tend to stabilize
ferrite are W, Mo, V and Si
These elements are more soluble in phase than in -phase
Most of these elements are BCC
They decrease the amount of carbon
present in the gamma-iron and thus
favor formation of larger quantity of
free carbide
Reduce the austenite region by
lowering A4 point and raising A3 point
For Cr > 12.8%, austenite phase
completely disappeare and -ferrite
and -ferrite merge
Effect of Chromium (Ferrite Stabilizer)

27

phase diagram
28
Ni is also a Austenite Stabilizer

Other elements which tend to
stabilize austenite are Mn and Cu
These elements are more soluble
in gamma-phase than in alphaphase
Most of these elements are FCC
Carbon also has stabilizing effect
(at HT)
Reduce the austenite region by
raising A4 point and lowering A3
point
These elements can make it stable
even at room temperature
Effect of Nickel (austenite stabilizer)

29
Phases and Microstructure

30
Microstructure
of annealed mild
steel (0.1% C)
Microstructure of annealed SS316L

Microstructure of annealed duplex steel
Different grades and their applications

31
(a) plain carbon steels
Low-C: automobile sheet metal

Medium-C : engine parts (crank-shaft)
High-C: springs, blades
(b) low alloy steels:
Various automotive components
(c) stainless steels
Austenitic: chemical & food processing equipment

Ferritic: kitchen utensils to jet engine components
Martensitic: cutlery, surgical instruments
(d) tool steels:
high speed tool, shock-resistant tools, die

Different grades and their applications

32
Dual-phase steel (ferrite + martensite):

Automotive structural parts, longitudinal beams
Duplex stainless steel (austenite + ferrite):
Heat exchangers, turbocharger pumps
Precipitation hardening stainless stee:

Aerospace and nuclear application
Gray cast iron
Automotive engine blocks and heads, machine tool bases
White cast iron
pipe fitting and flanges
Stainless Steel
33
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing by Groover
34
Changing only the C

concentration, itself has
substantial change on the
microstructure and properties of
steel
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing by Groover
Phase transformations
36
Phase diagram only tells

us about the
equilibrium phase. It
does not tell us about
the non-equilibrium
phases
37
Solid Lines are Diffusional

Dotted is Diffusionless
What is Martensite?
38
Martensite forms when
austenite is rapidly cooled

(quenched) to room T.
Martensite is metastable can persist indefinitely at
room temperature, but will
transform to equilibrium
phases on annealing at an
elevated temperature.
Its a Non Equilibrium
Phase: Does not appear on
Phase Diagram
What is Bainite?
39
Upper bainite consists of
needles of ferrites
separated by long
cementite particles
It occurs in the T ~300 540C
Lower bainite consists of
thin plates of ferrite

containing very fine rods
or blades of cementites
It occurs in T~200-300C
Bainite
40
For T~300-450C, upper bainite

consists of needles of ferrite
separated by long cementite particles
For T~200-300 C, lower bainite consists

of thin plates of ferrite containing very
fine rods or blades of cementites
Time-temperature
path to obtain
combination of
microstructures
42
slide borrowed from Dr. Swati Sharma


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Phases and Microstructure

Fe-Fe3C phase diagram

Knowledge Incubation for TEQIP IIT Kanpur

Iron-Iron carbide phase diagram

Identify the terminal phases and its solubility

Knowledge Incubation for TEQIP IIT Kanpur

Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300

Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

Iron-Iron carbide phase diagram

iron carbide is not a stable phase

Knowledge Incubation for TEQIP IIT Kanpur

Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

Carbon being a very small atom gets into the

interstitial of ferrite/ austenite phases to form solid

Iron = C content < 0.008 wt%

Knowledge Incubation for TEQIP IIT Kanpur

Materials Science and Metallurgy by Pollack

Allotropes of Iron and various phases

Max solubility of C is 0.022 wt %

Fe3C (iron carbide/ cementite)

Why is solubility of C higher in

Knowledge Incubation for TEQIP IIT Kanpur

A1 = Temperature at which austenite begins to form

Various Transformation Reactions and

Eutectic Reaction: Eutectic of austenite and

cementite is known as ledeburite

Eutectoid Reaction: Eutectoid of ferrite and

cementite is known as pearlite. The ferrite and

The microstructure of crystalline materials is defined

by the type, structure, number, shape and

point-defect clusters, dislocations, stacking faults,

Knowledge Incubation for TEQIP IIT Kanpur

Steels can be categorized as

Steels can also be grouped as (a) plain carbon steels,

Microstructure of Eutectoid steel

When Fe-alloy of 0.77% of C is

cooled slowly it transforms

Dr. Shashank Shekhar

Knowledge Incubation for TEQIP IIT Kanpur

Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300

Why layered structure?

Layered structures are

Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300

Microstructure of hypoeutectoid steel

Dr. Shashank Shekhar

Knowledge Incubation for TEQIP IIT Kanpur

Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300

Microstructure of hypereutectoid steel

Knowledge Incubation for TEQIP IIT Kanpur

Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300

Microstructures of (a) Hypoeutectoid

Knowledge Incubation for TEQIP IIT Kanpur

Heat Treatment by Rajan, Sharma and Sharma

Microstructure of steel with C < 0.022

In this steel content is less than

Knowledge Incubation for TEQIP IIT Kanpur

Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300

Cast Iron, as defined earlier, has C concentration

greater than 2.11 % and less than 6.7%

Knowledge Incubation for TEQIP IIT Kanpur

Grey cast iron : carbon is present in the free form as

Contains Si (1 to 3 %) which causes formation of graphite

White cast iron: carbon is present in the form of