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425 Ellis Street
Burlington, NJ 08016
www.infraspection.com
Standard for Infrared Inspection

of Building Envelopes
2008 Edition
425 Ellis Street
Standard for Infrared Inspection of Building Envelopes

Foreword
This standard outlines the procedures and documentation requirements for conducting infrared
inspections of building envelopes. This standard covers an application which is both art and science.
This document assumes that the reader is generally familiar with the science of infrared thermography.
It is not intended to be an absolute step-by-step formula for conducting an infrared inspection.
The use of this standard is not intended to qualify an individual using it to conduct an infrared
inspection, or to analyze the resulting infrared data without formal training prior to its use.
This document is intended to support infrared thermographers who have been professionally
trained and certified. It must be acknowledged and understood that the misinterpretation of
data that can occur without proper training and experience cannot be avoided simply by using
this standard. In no event shall Infraspection Institute be liable to anyone for special,
collateral, incidental or consequential damages in conjunction with or arising from use of this
standard.
Other Infraspection Institute Standards

Infraspection Institute began publishing guidelines for infrared thermography in 1988. Since their
initial publication, Infraspection Institute guidelines have been adopted by hundreds of companies
worldwide and incorporated into documents published by other recognized standards organizations
such as the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Beginning in 2007, Infraspection
Institute guidelines were renamed as standards to reflect their industry-wide acceptance and the best
practices they embody.
Several standards are available from Infraspection Institute. These standards cover equipment
operation, temperature measurement, and specific applications. A complete list of current
Infraspection Institute standards may be found online at www.infraspection.com.
Infraspection Institute standards represent the work of many practicing infrared thermographers and
other experts. We thank them for their valuable contributions.
Copyright 2008, Infraspection Institute

1
Standard for Infrared Inspection of Building Envelopes

2008 Edition
Table of Contents
1.0
Scope
Page 3
2.0
Referenced Documents
Page 3
3.0
Terminology
Page 3
4.0
Significance and Use
Page 4
5.0
Responsibilities of the Infrared Thermographer
Page 5
6.0
Responsibilities of the End User
Page 5
7.0
Instrument Requirements
Page 6
8.0
Limitations (Applicability of Constructions)
Page 6
9.0
Inspection Procedures
Page 6
10.0
Significant Environmental Parameters
Page 9
11.0
Required Conditions
Page 9
12.0
Data Interpretation
Page 10
13.0
Verification
Page 10
14.0
Documentation
Page 10
Copyright 2008, Infraspection Institute 425 Ellis Street Burlington, NJ 08016
This document may be reproduced for personal use and not for profit, without charge, provided you
include all of the copyright and address information listed above. Failure to include this information
with any reproduction is an infringement of the copyright and is subject to legal action and
consequences.
2
1.0
Scope
1.1
This standard covers procedures for conducting infrared inspections of building envelopes for the
purpose of detecting thermal patterns caused by excess energy loss, latent moisture, or structural
details.
1.2
This standard provides a common document for the end user to specify infrared inspections and for the
infrared thermographer to perform them.
1.3
This standard lists the joint responsibilities of the end user and the infrared thermographer that, when
carried out, will result in the safest and highest-quality inspection for both.
1.4
This standard outlines specific content for documenting the results of an infrared inspection.
1.5
This standard may involve use of equipment in hazardous or remote locations.
1.6
This standard addresses criteria for infrared imaging equipment, such as spatial resolution and thermal
sensitivity.
1.7
This standard addresses meteorological conditions under which infrared inspections should be
performed.
1.8
This standard addresses operating procedures and operator qualifications.
1.9
This standard addresses verification of infrared data using invasive test methods.
1.10 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is
the responsibility of the user of this Standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and
determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
2.0
2.1
Occupational Safety and Health Standards for General Industry 29 CFR, Part 1910. US Department of
Labor. Occupational Safety & Health Administration, Washington, DC.
2.2
Occupational Safety and Health Standards for the Construction Industry 29 CFR, Part 1926. US
Department of Labor. Occupational Safety & Health Administration, Washington, DC.
2.3
Level-l Certified Infrared Thermographer Reference Manual. Infraspection Institute, Burlington, NJ.
3.0
Terminology
For the purpose of this standard,

3.1
Building envelope - those portions of the building that separate conditioned from unconditioned
spaces.
3.2
End user - the person requesting infrared thermographic inspections.
3.3
Exception - an abnormally warm or cool portion of a building that may be a potential problem for the
end user.

3
3.4
Infrared inspection - the use of infrared imaging equipment to provide specific thermal information and
related documentation about a structure, system, object or process.
3.5
Infrared thermal imager (infrared camera) - a camera-like device that detects, displays and records
the apparent thermal patterns across a given surface.
3.6
Infrared thermographer - a person who is trained and qualified to use an imaging radiometer.
3.7
Inspection window - the time period during which infrared inspections of building envelopes can be
successfully conducted.
3.8
Moisture meter probe - an invasive (electrical resistance or galvanometric type) test that entails the
insertion of a meter probe(s) into a material to indicate the presence of moisture.
3.9
Qualified assistant - a person provided and authorized by the end user to perform the tasks required to
assist the infrared thermographer. He/she is knowledgeable of the operation and history of the
building(s) to be inspected and is trained in all the safety practices and rules of the end user.
3.10 Qualitative infrared thermography - the practice of gathering information about a structure, system,
object or process by observing images of different patterns of infrared radiation, and recording and
presenting that information.
3.11 Quantitative infrared thermography - the practice of measuring temperatures of the observed
patterns of infrared radiation.
3.12 Standard - a set of specifications that define the purposes, scope and content of a procedure.
3.13 Thermogram - a recorded visual image that maps the apparent temperature pattern of an object or
scene into a corresponding contrast or color pattern.
3.14 Thermographer - see Infrared thermographer.
4.0
4.1
4.2

The purpose of an infrared inspection of a building envelope is to locate and document abnormal
patterns of infrared radiation from the building envelope (exceptions) that can be potential problems for
the end user.
4.1.1
Conductive exceptions are usually caused by insufficient, improperly installed, damaged or

water-saturated insulation and/or structural components.
4.1.2
Convective exceptions are usually caused by cracks and holes that permit the uncontrolled
movement of air across the building envelope.
4.1.3
Destructive testing is necessary to verify the presence of water in the insulation.
Opinions about the causes of these exceptions, the integrity of the building envelope, or
recommendations for corrective actions requires skills beyond those of infrared thermography.
4.2.1
Infrared thermography will be presented as a visual inspection technique to gather and

present information about the system at a specific time.
4.2.2
Providing destructive testing of any structures for verification of suspected problems is beyond
the scope of infrared thermography.

4
4.2.3
4.3
5.0
Data from infrared inspections may be used to assess the condition of a building envelope or
for quality assurance inspections of new installations, repairs, or retrofits.
This standard does not provide methods to determine the cause of latent moisture within a building
envelope or its point of entry. It does not address the suitability of any particular material or system to
function satisfactorily as waterproofing or insulation.
5.1
Infrared inspections will be performed when environmental and physical conditions such as solar gain,
wind, surface and atmospheric moisture and heat transfer are favorable to gathering accurate data.
5.2
The thermographer will have knowledge of the materials and construction of building envelopes
sufficient to understand the observed patterns of radiation.
5.3
The thermographer will be accompanied by a person who is responsible for the thermographers safety.
5.4
Unless so qualified, the thermographer will not perform any tasks that are normally performed by a
construction tradesperson.
5.5
The thermographer will comply with the security and safety rules of the end user and applicable safety
standards.
5.6
The thermographer will use thermal imaging and/or measurement equipment with capabilities sufficient
to meet the inspection requirements.
5.7
When performing quantitative infrared inspections, the thermographer will assure that all temperaturemeasuring equipment meets the manufacturers standard specifications for accuracy.
6.0
6.1
Prior to the inspection, the end user will inform the thermographer of any past and current problems with
the facility to be inspected and the reasons for conducting the inspection.
6.2
Prior to the inspection, the end user will heat or cool the building to be inspected to a uniform air
temperature throughout when requested by the thermographer.
6.3
The end user will provide, during the inspection, a qualified assistant familiar with the construction and
history of the facility. This person will be responsible for gaining access to, and maintaining the security
of, the end users facilities and premises. When performing air leakage inspections, this person may
need to be qualified to operate and control the buildings HVAC systems.
6.4
For infrared inspections conducted from the inside of the building, it is the end users responsibility to
remove furniture, wall hangings, and other objects that prevent the thermographer from inspecting the
interior wall surfaces prior to the inspection.
6.5
When requested and available, the end user will furnish building drawings and/or blueprints to the
thermographer.
6.6
The end user will take full responsibility for consequences resulting from actions taken, or not taken, as
a result of information provided by an infrared inspection.

5
7.0
7.1
8.0
General
7.1.1
Infrared thermal imaging systems shall detect emitted radiation and convert detected radiation
to a real-time visual signal on a monitor screen. Imagery shall be monochrome or multi-color.
7.1.2
Spectral Range: the infrared imaging system shall operate within a spectral range from 2 to
14 m. A spot radiometer or nonimaging line scanner is not sufficient.
7.1.3
The infrared thermal imaging system shall have a Minimum Resolvable Temperature
Difference (MRTD) of 0.1C or less at 20C.
8.1
Applicable constructions include insulated building sidewalls, exterior insulated finish systems (EIFS),
and other building finishes which can absorb moisture.
8.2
Certain construction details can preclude the detection of exceptions. Examples include, but are not
limited to, stone or brick facades and walls containing dead air spaces.
8.3
Some construction materials can preclude the detection of exceptions. Examples include, but are not
limited to, high density materials such as brick, block, stone, spandrel glass, and metal.
8.4
For materials with highly reflective surfaces in the spectral range of the infrared thermal imager, infrared
inspections are not practical until the surface is naturally or temporarily dulled.
8.5
The wetting rates of construction materials vary according to the type of material and environmental
exposure. Details with insulations that wet slowly, such as EIFS, usually should not be inspected until
they are at least three months old.
8.6
Infrared inspections are not intended to identify the source of the moisture.
9.0
9.1
Prior to conducting an infrared inspection, the end user or the qualified assistant will help the
thermographer identify the areas to be inspected.
9.2
Prior to the inspection, the thermographer should perform a walk-through of the areas to be inspected
with the end user or the qualified assistant.
9.3
9.2.1
In the absence of accurate blueprints or structural drawings, the thermographer will create a
graphic representation of the premises showing wall structures and areas included in the
inspection.
9.2.1.1
The thermographer should consult any available structural drawings to locate wall voids and
other structural areas not readily noticed in a walk-through.
9.2.2
After identifying all the elements of the structure to be inspected, the thermographer should
schedule/allow sufficient time for a proper inspection to be made.
Infrared inspections of buildings are generally performed for one or more of the following reasons: to
detect excess energy loss, latent moisture, or the location of structural details. Procedures and
requirements for these types of inspections are outlined below.
6
9.4
Energy Loss
9.4.1
Infrared inspections may be conducted to detect evidence of excess energy loss due to
missing, damaged or misapplied insulation or air leakage.
9.4.2
Infrared inspections may be conducted from the exterior and/or the interior of a building;
however, inspections performed from the interior are generally more helpful in diagnosing
performance issues associated with occupant comfort.
9.4.3
9.4.3.1
With help from the end user or the end users representative, the thermographer will define
the thermal boundaries of the building envelope.
9.4.3.2
When performing infrared inspections to detect energy loss, the temperature differences
across the building envelope will be at least 10C (18F) between:
9.4.3.2.1 The conditioned and unconditioned surfaces for at least three hours before performing
conduction inspections.
9.4.3.2.2 The buildings inside air temperature and its outside surface temperature when inspecting for
air leakage from the outside of a building that is under positive pressure.
9.4.3.2.3 The buildings outside air temperature and its inside surface temperature when inspecting for
air leakage from the inside of a building that is under negative pressure.
9.4.3.3
These temperature differences for air leakage inspections may be lowered as higher pressure
differences are created across the building envelope.
9.4.3.4
If the building is inspected for air leakage under existing pressure conditions, the
thermographer will determine which portions of the building envelope are under positive,
negative and neutral pressures.
9.4.3.5
The thermographer may use artificial means of creating uniform pressure differences across
the building envelope by using a blower door or by asking the qualified assistant to
temporarily modify operation of the buildings HVAC system to create the desired pressures.
9.4.3.5.1 The thermographer should be qualified in the safe use and operation of blower doors since
heating systems and their exhaust gases can be affected by such equipment.
9.4.3.6
Inspections conducted from the exterior of the building should be performed at night or on
overcast days to avoid errors due to solar reflections and solar loading. Inspections
conducted from the interior of the building may be performed during daytime hours provided
that solar loading of exterior walls is not significant.
9.4.3.7
Infrared inspections should be conducted under normal weather conditions with the HVAC
system operating normally.
9.4.3.7.1 When inspecting commercial facilities at night, it may be necessary to override the buildings
climate controls to duplicate daytime settings.
9.4.3.8
The infrared inspection shall be conducted in an organized fashion to ensure complete

coverage of all areas of interest. Items to be inspected shall include walls, windows, and
doors. For interior inspections, floors and ceilings should be included as well.

7
9.4.3.9
Exceptions may appear as hot or cold, depending upon the thermographers vantage point
and weather conditions.
9.4.3.10 Detected exceptions should be documented with a thermogram and daylight photograph.
These may be substituted by marking the location and size of exceptions on blueprints or
drawings. For large structures, recording thermal imagery to videotape can provide a
dynamic record of the infrared inspection.
9.4.3.11 Detected exceptions should be verified by independent means. This may include visual
confirmation or the use of invasive testing such as moisture meter probes.
9.5
Latent Moisture
9.5.1
Infrared inspections may be conducted to detect evidence of latent moisture within building
materials.
9.5.2
Infrared inspections may be conducted from the exterior and/or the interior of a building.
Vantage point should be selected to provide the greatest probability of detection.
9.5.3
9.5.3.1
the areas to be inspected.
9.5.3.2
Latent moisture generally causes a change in the thermal capacitance and/or thermal
conductivity of building materials. Moisture evaporating from a surface will generally cause a
pronounced cooling in the wet areas.
9.5.3.3
Infrared inspections to detect latent moisture shall be conducted when conditions are most
favorable for gathering accurate data.
9.5.3.4
Inspections conducted from the exterior of the building should be performed post sunset
following a sunny day with calm wind conditions. Exceptions associated with latent moisture
will generally appear warm.
9.5.3.4.1 Inspections conducted from the interior of the building may be performed during daytime
hours provided that solar loading of exterior walls is not significant. Exceptions associated
with latent moisture may appear as warm or cold, depending upon environmental conditions.
9.6
9.5.3.5

coverage of all areas of interest. Items to be inspected shall include walls, windows, and
doors. For interior inspections, floors and ceilings should be included as well.
9.5.3.6
Detected exceptions should be documented with a thermogram and daylight photograph.

9.5.3.7
Detected exceptions should be verified by independent means. This may include visual
confirmation or the use of invasive testing such as moisture meter probes.
Structural Details
9.6.1
Infrared inspections may be conducted to detect evidence of structural details within building
walls, ceilings, roofs, or floors.

8
10.0
9.6.2
Infrared inspections may be conducted from the exterior or the interior of a building. Vantage
point should be selected to provide the greatest probability of detection.
9.6.3
9.6.3.1
the areas to be inspected.
9.6.3.2
Structural details generally cause a change in the thermal capacitance and/or thermal
conductivity of building materials. Examples include, but are not limited to, studs or framing
members within framed walls, fasteners in wall systems, and reinforcing grout details in block
walls. Under the correct conditions, these details may be thermographically detected.
9.6.3.3
Infrared inspections to detect structural details shall be conducted when conditions are most
favorable for gathering accurate data.
9.6.3.4

coverage of all areas of interest.
9.6.3.5
Detected exceptions should be documented with a thermogram and daylight photograph.

9.6.3.6
Detected exceptions should be verified by independent means. This may include visual
confirmation or the use of invasive testing as appropriate.
10.1 Water retained in building materials such as EIFS decreases the thermal resistance and increases the
heat storage capacity of such systems. This can lead to thermal anomalies on the surface that can be
located using an infrared thermal imager. These thermal anomalies depend upon the type of material,
the amount of moisture in the material, and the weather conditions. For a given building envelope, there
are four weather related parameters that can cause significant changes in surface temperatures over
wet areas compared to dry areas. These are: inside to outside temperature difference, the rate of
change of temperature in the hours prior to viewing, the amount of solar loading, and the wind speed.
10.2 Acceptable weather conditions for nighttime infrared imaging inspections will be calm winds with some
combination of a large inside to outside temperature difference, a rapid decrease in ambient
temperature in the late afternoon and a sunny day prior to the inspection. Typically, an infrared
inspection during cold weather relies on a large inside to outside temperature difference. An infrared
inspection during warm weather relies on solar loading.
11.0
Required Conditions
11.1 No appreciable precipitation shall have fallen during the 24 hours prior to the infrared survey.
11.2 At the time of the infrared inspection, all surfaces shall be dry.
11.3 For exterior inspections, winds in the area shall be less than 25 km/h (15 mph) at the time of the
inspection.

9
12.0
Data Interpretation
12.1 The interpretation of infrared data is a process of pattern recognition for the purpose of differentiating
exceptions from those caused by the following:
12.1.1
Variations in the type, thickness, density, or continuity of insulation.
12.1.2
Variations in wall thickness, moisture content, or continuity.
12.1.3
Variations in the type or thickness of wall surfacing.
12.1.4
Variations within the building walls.
12.1.5
Inconsistencies in walls due to damage, repairs, coatings, or overlays.
12.1.6
Variations in temperature behind walls.
12.1.7
Fasteners, flashings, flanges, or projections from walls or discontinuities within them.
12.1.8
Variations in surface emittance.
12.1.9
Infrared radiation from nearby sources.
12.1.10
Hot or cold air from nearby sources.
12.1.11
Moisture or debris on inspected surfaces.
12.1.12
Variations in shape or geometry of inspected surfaces.
12.2 Accurate interpretation of infrared data requires verification.
13.0
Verification
13.1 In order to determine the cause of exceptions, verification of infrared data must be carried out by the
following invasive test methods: visual testing or moisture meter probes.
13.2 Noninvasive testing equipment such as nuclear and capacitance meters may be used to compliment,
but not replace invasive verification.
14.0
Documentation
14.1 The thermographer will provide documentation for all infrared inspections. The following information will
be included in a written report to the end user:
14.1.1
The name and valid certification level(s) and number(s) of the infrared thermographer.
14.1.2
The name and address of the end user.
14.1.3
The name(s) of the assistant(s) accompanying the infrared thermographer during the
inspection.
14.1.4
The manufacturer, model and serial number of the infrared equipment used.

10
14.1.5
A description of the location and construction of the building(s) that were inspected.
14.1.6
When performing air leakage inspections, notations of which parts of the building are under
positive, negative or neutral pressures.
14.1.7
The date(s) of the inspection and when the report was prepared.
14.1.8
When performing a qualitative infrared inspection, the thermographer will provide the following
information for each exception identified:
14.1.8.1 A description of the exception including its exact location and the direction it faces.
14.1.8.2 The time the exception was documented.
14.1.8.3 The weather conditions surrounding the exception including the inside and outside air
temperatures, wind speed and direction, and the sky conditions.
14.1.8.4 Hard copies of a thermal image (thermogram) and corresponding visible-light image of the
exception. When approved by the end user, the thermographer may provide sketches or
drawings in place of, or in addition to, thermograms and photographs.
14.1.8.5 The field-of-view of the infrared camera lens.
14.1.8.6 Notation of any windows, filters or external optics used.
14.1.8.7 Any other information or special conditions that may affect the results, repeatability or
interpretation of the exception.
14.1.9
When performing a quantitative infrared inspection, the thermographer will provide the
following additional information for each exception documented:
14.1.9.1 The distance from the infrared camera to the exception.

14.1.9.2 The emissivity, reflected temperature and any transmittance values used to calculate the
temperature of the exception.
14.1.9.3 The surface temperature of the exception and of a defined reference, if applicable.

11
Standard for Measuring

Distance/Target Size Values for
Infrared Imaging Radiometers
2008 Edition
425 Ellis Street
Standard for Measuring Distance/Target Size Values

for Infrared Imaging Radiometers
Foreword
This standard outlines the procedures and documentation requirements for measuring distance/target
size values for infrared imaging radiometers. This standard covers a technique which is both art and
science. This document assumes that the reader is generally familiar with the science of infrared
thermography.
standard.


1
Standard for Measuring Distance/Target Size Values

for Infrared Imaging Radiometers
2008 Edition
Table of Contents
1.0
Scope
Page 3
2.0
Page 3
3.0
Terminology
Page 3
4.0
Summary of Test Method
Page 4
5.0
Page 4
6.0
Equipment Required
Page 4
7.0
Procedure
Page 5
8.0
Calculations
Page 6
9.0
Documentation
Page 7
10.0
Notes
Page 7
consequences.
2
1.0
Scope
1.1
The purpose of this standard is to provide infrared thermographers with a practical test method for
determining the measurement performance of an infrared imaging radiometer.
1.2
This standard provides a procedure for establishing the Distance/Target Size Value required for
producing accurate temperatures with an infrared imaging radiometer. The desired accuracy
(percentage of target temperature) may be chosen by the infrared thermographer.
1.3
The Distance/Target Size Value can be used to determine the maximum distance from a target to
achieve a desired percentage of measurement accuracy.
1.4
The Distance/Target Size Value can be used to determine the minimum target size required to achieve
a desired percentage of measurement accuracy at a given distance from the target.
1.5
This test method may involve use of equipment and materials in the presence of heated equipment.
1.6
This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is
the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and
2.0
2.1
Standard for Measuring and Compensating for Reflected Temperature Using Infrared Imaging
Radiometers, Infraspection Institute.
2.2
Standard for Measuring and Compensating for Emissivity Using Infrared Imaging Radiometers,
Infraspection Institute.
2.3
Level-II Certified Infrared Thermographer Reference Manual, Infraspection Institute.
3.0
Terminology
3.1
Aperture device - a mechanical device that is opaque to infrared radiation and has an opening through
which an infrared imaging radiometer is sighted during testing.
3.2
Blackbody simulator - a device with an emittance close to 1.00 that can be heated or cooled to a
known, stable temperature.
3.3
Distance/Target Size Value - a numerical value that may be used to determine the measurement area
of an infrared imaging radiometer at a given distance. This value may also be used to calculate
minimum target size at a given distance.
3.4
Emittance or emissivity - the ratio of the infrared energy emitted by an object compared to a blackbody
at the same wavelength and temperature. Emittance is specified as a number between 0 and 1.
3.5
Infrared imaging radiometer (imaging radiometer) - a thermal imager capable of measuring

temperature.
3.6
3.7
Reflected temperature - is the apparent temperature value reported by a radiometer that corresponds
to the infrared energy incident upon, and reflected from the measured surface of an object.
3
3.8
Thermal imager - a camera-like device which converts infrared energy emitted by an object into a realtime, visible light image.
3.9
Thermographer - see Infrared thermographer.
4.0
4.1
Three methods are given for determining the Distance/Target Size Value for an infrared imaging
radiometer.
4.2
One method is given for determining Distance/Target Size Value using an aperture device with a
horizontal opening and an infrared imaging radiometer positioned in a normal upright orientation.
4.3
One method is given for determining Distance/Target Size Value using an aperture device with a vertical
opening and an infrared imaging radiometer positioned in a normal upright orientation.
4.4
One method is given for determining Distance/Target Size Value using an aperture device with a
circular opening and an infrared imaging radiometer positioned in a normal upright orientation.
4.5
One procedure is given for calculating the measurement area of an infrared imaging radiometer at a
given distance.
4.6
One procedure is given for calculating the minimum target size at a given distance when measuring with
an infrared imaging radiometer.
5.0
5.1
6.0

This standard encompasses test procedures for determining Distance/Target Size Values for infrared
imaging radiometers.
Equipment Required
6.1
A calibrated imaging radiometer with standard measurement functions and a tripod.
6.2
A temperature-controllable blackbody simulator with a surface of a known emittance greater than or

equal to 0.97. The blackbody simulator surface should have a minimum width of 7.5 cm and should
maintain the desired temperature within +/- 0.5 C or 1% of the desired temperature, whichever is
larger.
6.3
An adjustable aperture device with a maximum width greater than or equal to the width of the blackbody
simulator surface. One side of the aperture device should have an emittance of greater than 0.95. The
other side should be highly reflective. Should aperture device opening have walls greater than 1 mm
thick, walls of opening shall have emittance greater than 0.95.
6.4
A mounting apparatus to hold the aperture device directly in front of the blackbody simulator. The
mounting apparatus must allow for quick and easy removal and replacement of the aperture device.
6.5
Calipers with a measurement accuracy of +/- 0.01 mm.
6.6
A distance measuring device with a measurement accuracy of +/- 1.0 mm.
6.7
A test room that can maintain a stable ambient air temperature of 18 to 24C, +/- 0.5 C. The room
should be free of any intense sources of radiation that might affect the test results. The room should be
free of drafts.
4
7.0
Procedure
7.1
Prepare the test room by eliminating or shielding any intense sources of thermal radiation from striking
the surface of the blackbody simulator or aperture device.
7.2
Record the ambient air temperature, Tamb, at the start of the test and at 30-minute intervals during the
test. The air must maintain a stable temperature within the specifications stated in 5.7.
7.3
Set the blackbody simulator to 60C or to the desired temperature. Wait until it maintains a stable
temperature within the specifications stated in 5.2.
7.4
Place the imaging radiometer at the desired location and distance from the object to be measured. The
use of a tripod or other support device is recommended.
7.5
Place the imager one meter from the blackbody simulator, positioned so that it views the face of the
blackbody simulator at a right angle. Note: This distance may be increased if using a telephoto lens
with a minimum focus greater than one meter. Aim and focus the imaging radiometer on the portion of
the object where emittance is to be measured.
7.6
Measure and compensate for the objects reflected temperature. Refer to the Infraspection Institute
Radiometers.
7.7
Enter the known emittance value of the blackbody simulator face in the imagers computer.
7.8
Focus the imager directly on the face of the blackbody simulator. Using high thermal sensitivity, adjust
the imagers controls to produce a middle-gray image of the surface. Using the imaging radiometers
appropriate measurement function (i.e. cross-hair, spot or isotherm) measure the temperature of the
center of the blackbody simulator surface, (Tbb), with the thermal imager. The imaging radiometers
reported temperature should be within +/- 1 C of the temperature indicated by the blackbody
simulators thermometer. Check equipment for errors if the temperatures are beyond specifications.
7.9
Operate the aperture device so that the opening is one-half the width of the blackbody simulator face
width. Place the aperture device directly in front of the blackbody simulator face with the high-emittance
surface facing the imaging radiometer (see Figure 1).
Aperture Device
Blackbody Simulator
IR
D
Figure 1
5
7.10 Focus the imager on the aperture device and place the measurement function at the center of the
aperture device. Move the imager away from the aperture until the imagers reported temperature is
less than temperature Tbb, taken in 7.8. Then move the imager closer to the aperture until the reported
temperature Tbb is re-established. Be sure to focus the imaging radiometers lens at each new position.
Measure and record the distance (D) from the imager lens face to the aperture device. Remove the
aperture device from its holder when not required for measurement to prevent it from heating up.
7.11 Using the following formulae, calculate the temperature that will be required for each level of accuracy,
i.e., 98% (T1), 95% (T2), 90% (T3) and 50% (T4):
(Tbb-Tamb) x .98 + Tamb = T1
7.12 With the imager still placed at distance (D) from the aperture, close the aperture device, place it again in
front of the simulator face. Slowly increase the width of the aperture until the imager reports
temperature T1.
7.13 Remove the aperture device from its holder and use the calipers to measure the aperture opening and
note the result. Ensure that the opening is not changed during removal or measurement.
7.14 While the aperture device is removed, re-measure the temperature of the blackbody simulator with the
imager to ensure that the reported temperature is within the temperature specifications stated in 6.2.
7.15 Conduct procedures 7.6 through 7.14 a minimum of three times for each desired level of temperature
accuracy. Average the results of the tests.
7.16 Conduct procedures 7.6 through 7.15 to determine the aperture widths necessary to produce
temperatures T2, T3 and T4.
8.0
8.1
Calculations
Calculate and record the Distance/Target Size Value for each of the percentage of temperature test
measurements as follows:
Value = Distance (mm from lens to target)
Aperture Width (mm)
8.2
The Distance/Target Size Value can be used to calculate the minimum target size needed to achieve a
desired percentage of accuracy at a specified Distance from the target. Distance is measured from
imager lens to target.
Minimum Target Size = Distance Value
8.3
The Distance/Target Size Value can be used to calculate the maximum distance from a target to
achieve a desired percentage of measurement accuracy. Distance is measured from imager lens to
target.
Maximum Distance = Target Size x Value

6
9.0
9.1
Documentation
The following information will be included in a written report for the subject radiometer.
9.1.1
Thermal imager manufacturer, model number, serial number, lens field-of-view and the
waveband sensed.
9.1.2
Blackbody simulator manufacturer, model number, serial number and the emittance of its
surface.
9.1.3
Caliper manufacturer and model number.
9.1.4
Ambient room temperatures noted during the test.
9.1.5
Temperatures of the blackbody simulator noted during the test.
9.1.6
Value for each percentage of temperature calculated and for each differently-shaped aperture
tested.
10.0 Notes
10.1 The calculated Values may change when viewing different temperature targets. These procedures may
be conducted using blackbody simulators set to different temperatures. Take appropriate safety
precautions when working with high-temperature blackbody simulators.
10.2 Differently-shaped apertures may produce different Values. These procedures may be conducted using
aperture devices of different shapes, such as circular and rectangular. Following are some
representative shapes that may be tested:
Circular
Vertical Slit
Horizontal Slit
Figure 2
10.3 The corresponding Distance/Target Size Value is specific to the temperature of the target measured
and the imager and lens used.

7
Standard for Infrared Inspection of

Electrical Systems & Rotating Equipment
2008 Edition
425 Ellis Street

of Electrical Systems & Rotating Equipment
Foreword
inspections of electrical systems and rotating equipment. This standard covers an application which is
both art and science. This document assumes that the reader is generally familiar with the science of
infrared thermography. It is not intended to be an absolute step-by-step formula for conducting an
infrared inspection.
standard.


1
Standard for Infrared Inspection of

Electrical Systems & Rotating Equipment
2008 Edition
Table of Contents
1.0
Scope
Page 3
2.0
Page 3
3.0
Terminology
Page 4
4.0
Page 5
5.0
Page 5
6.0
Page 6
7.0
Page 6
8.0
Page 7
9.0
Documentation
Page 8
10.0
Delta T Criteria for Electrical Systems
Page 10
11.0
Absolute Temperature Criteria for Electrical Systems
Page 11
12.0
Delta T Criteria for Mechanical Systems
Page 13
13.0
Absolute Temperature Criteria for Mechanical Systems
Page 13
14.0
Documents Referenced by Footnotes
Page 16
include all of the copyright and address information listed above. Failure to include this information with
any reproduction is an infringement of the copyright and is subject to legal action and consequences.
2
1.0
Scope
1.1
This standard covers procedures for conducting infrared inspections of electrical systems and rotating
equipment.
1.2
1.3
carried out, will result in the safest and highest quality inspection for both.
1.4
This standard outlines specific content for documenting qualitative and quantitative infrared inspections.
1.5
This standard may involve use of equipment in hazardous or remote locations or in close proximity to
energized electrical equipment.
1.6
sensitivity.
1.7
performed.
1.8
1.9
This standard addresses verification of infrared data.
1.10 This standard provides temperature limits for electrical and mechanical components and lubricants.
1.11 This standard provides several means for prioritizing exceptions based on temperature.
2.0
2.1
Standard for Measuring and Compensating for Emittance Using Infrared Imaging Radiometers.
Infraspection Institute, 425 Ellis Street, Burlington, NJ 08016.
2.2
Radiometers. Infraspection Institute, 425 Ellis Street, Burlington, NJ 08016.
2.3
Standard for Measuring and Compensating for Transmittance of an Attenuating Medium Using Infrared
Imaging Radiometers. Infraspection Institute, 425 Ellis Street, Burlington, NJ 08016.
2.4
NFPA 70B Recommended Practice for Electrical Equipment Maintenance. National Fire Protection
Association, 1 Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02169.
2.5
NFPA 70E Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace. National Fire Protection Association,
1 Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02169.
2.6

3
2.7
2.8
2.9
Level-ll Certified Infrared Thermographer Reference Manual. Infraspection Institute, Burlington, NJ.
3.0
Terminology

3.1
End user - the person requesting an infrared thermographic inspection.
3.2
Exception - an abnormally warm or cool connector, conductor or component that may be a potential
problem for the end user.
3.3

temperature.
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Non-imaging radiometer (infrared thermometer) - an instrument that measures the average apparent
surface temperature of an object based upon the objects radiance.
3.8
Qualified assistant - a person provided and authorized by the end user to perform the tasks required to
assist the infrared thermographer. He/she is knowledgeable of the operation and history of equipment
to be inspected and is trained in all the safety practices and rules of the end user.
3.9
Qualitative infrared thermography - the practice of gathering information about a structure, system,
object or process by observing images of infrared radiation, and recording and presenting that
information.
3.10 Quantitative infrared thermography - the practice of measuring temperatures of the observed
patterns of infrared radiation.
3.11 Rotating equipment - Stationary machinery or electro-mechanical devices that have rotating
components.
3.13 Thermal imager - see Infrared thermal imager.

4
4.0
4.1
4.2
5.0

The purpose of an infrared inspection is to identify and document exceptions in the end users electrical
system and/or rotating equipment.
4.1.1
In electrical systems, exceptions are usually caused by loose or deteriorated connections,

short circuits, overloads, load imbalances or faulty, mismatched or improperly-installed
components.
4.1.2
For rotating equipment, exceptions are usually caused by friction due to improper lubrication,
misalignment, worn components or mechanical loading anomalies.
Providing opinions about the causes of exceptions, the integrity of the system, or recommendations for
corrective actions requires knowledge and skills beyond those of infrared thermography.
4.2.1
Infrared thermography will be presented as an inspection technique to gather and present

information about the system at a specific time.
4.2.2
Infrared thermography will not be promoted as a remedial measure.
4.2.3
An infrared inspection of an electrical system or rotating equipment does not assure proper
operation of such equipment. Other tests and proper maintenance are necessary to assure
their reliable performance.
5.1
5.2
The infrared thermographer will have sufficient knowledge of the components, construction and theory
of electrical systems and/or rotating equipment to understand the observed patterns of radiation.
5.3
The infrared thermographer will use thermal imaging and/or measurement equipment with capabilities
sufficient to meet the inspection requirements.
5.4
The infrared thermographer will be accompanied by a qualified assistant who is knowledgeable of the
equipment being inspected.
5.5
Unless he/she is a licensed electrician, professional engineer, or has other equivalent qualifications, the
infrared thermographer will not perform any tasks that are normally done by these personnel. Unless
so qualified and authorized by the end user, the infrared thermographer:
5.5.1
Will not remove or replace covers or open or close cabinets containing electrical equipment.
5.5.2
Will not measure electric loads of the equipment.
5.5.3
Will not touch any inspected equipment and will maintain a safe distance from such
equipment.
5.5.4
Will comply with the safety practices and rules of the end user and applicable safety
standards.
5.6
When performing quantitative infrared inspections, the infrared thermographer will assure that all
temperature-measuring equipment meets the manufacturers standard specifications for accuracy.
5.7
After repair, and when requested by the end user, the thermographer will reinspect each exception to
assure that the problem has been corrected.
5
6.0 Responsibilities of the End User

6.1
The end user will provide or help develop an inventory list of the equipment to be inspected in a logical
and efficient route through the facility.
6.2
The end user will provide a qualified assistant(s) who is knowledgeable of the operation and history of
the equipment to be inspected. This person(s) will accompany the infrared thermographer during the
infrared inspection and, unless specified otherwise, will be qualified and authorized by the end user to:
6.2.1
Obtain authorization necessary to gain access to the equipment to be inspected and will notify
operations personnel of the inspection activities.
6.2.2
Open and/or remove all necessary covers immediately before inspection by the infrared
thermographer.
6.2.3
Close and/or replace these cabinet and enclosure covers immediately after inspection by the
infrared thermographer.
6.2.4
Assure that the equipment to be inspected is under adequate load, create satisfactory loads
when necessary, and allow sufficient time for recently-energized equipment to produce stable
thermal patterns.
6.2.5
Measure electric loads when requested by the infrared thermographer.
6.3
The end user takes full responsibility for consequences resulting from actions taken, or not taken, as a
result of information provided by an infrared inspection.
6.4
After repair, the end user will authorize reinspection of each exception to assure that the problem has
been corrected.
7.0
7.1
General
7.1.1
7.1.2
7.1.3
7.1.4
Infrared equipment may be man portable or vehicle mounted.
7.1.4.1
For vehicle mounted equipment, care should be taken to ensure that equipment is mounted
securely, will not interfere with the safe operation of the vehicle, and meets all applicable
regulatory requirements.

6
8.0
8.1
Equipment to be inspected shall be energized and under adequate load; ideally this is normal operating
load. For acceptance testing, higher loads may be warranted.
8.2
Subject equipment shall be externally examined before opening or removing any protective covers to
determine the possible presence of unsafe conditions. If abnormal heating and/or unsafe conditions are
found, the end user or qualified assistant shall take appropriate remedial action prior to commencing the
8.3
Electrical and mechanical equipment enclosures shall be opened to provide line-of-sight access to
components contained therein. In some cases, further disassembly may be required to allow for a
complete infrared inspection. Examples include dielectric barriers, clear plastic guards, and other
materials that are opaque to infrared energy.
8.4
In some cases, the infrared inspection may be conducted through permanently installed view ports or
infrared transparent windows. Care must be taken to ensure that all subject equipment can be
adequately and completely imaged. In some cases, special lenses may be required for the thermal
imager.
8.5
Infrared inspections may be qualitative or quantitative in nature. Qualitative thermographic inspections

may be conducted using a thermal imager or an imaging radiometer. Quantitative inspections may be
conducted using an imaging radiometer or a thermal imager in combination with a non-imaging
radiometer.
8.5.1
When performing qualitative inspections, the thermographer shall utilize a thermal imager with
resolution sufficient to provide clear imagery of the inspected components.
8.5.2
When performing quantitative inspections, the thermographer shall utilize an imaging

radiometer with resolution sufficient to provide clear imagery and accurate temperature
measurement of the inspected components.
8.5.2.1
When performing a quantitative inspection, the thermographer shall make every effort to
ensure the accuracy of non-contact temperature measurements. In particular, consideration
should be given to target emittance, reflected temperature, weather conditions, and target
size.
8.6
Using inventory lists provided by the end user, the thermographer shall inspect electrical components
and/or rotating equipment utilizing a thermal imager or imaging radiometer. Inspection shall be
conducted in a manner so as to ensure complete coverage of all components.
8.7
Whenever possible, similar components under similar load shall be compared to each other.
Components exhibiting unusual thermal patterns or operating temperatures shall be deemed as
exceptions and documented with a thermogram and visible light image.
8.7.1
Thermal images shall be stored on electronic media or videotape. Every effort shall be made
to ensure the thermal image is in sharp focus.
8.7.2
Visible light images may be recorded with a daylight camera integral to the infrared imager or
with a separate daylight or video camera.
8.7.2.1
Visible light images shall be properly exposed to ensure adequate detail. Particular attention
should be given to perspective, focus, contrast, resolution, and lighting. Visible light images
should align with the thermal image as closely as possible.

7
8.7.3
8.8
In certain cases, one may elect to capture thermograms and visible light images for all inspected
components. This practice may be useful for providing quality assurance information or baseline data;
however, it can be time and labor intensive for large inventories.
8.8.1
8.9
Thermograms and visible light images shall be included in a written report along with the
information required in section 9.
When capturing imagery for all inspected components, thermal and visible light images shall
be included in a written report along with the information required in section 9.
As an option, the criteria listed in sections 10 and 11 may be used to help prioritize repair actions;
however, use of these criteria is not an exact science and involves risking an unplanned failure. For
best results, it is recommended that each exception be inspected for cause and appropriate corrective
action taken as soon as possible.
8.10 In some cases, imaging from a motor vehicle or aircraft can provide greater mobility, a superior vantage
point, and allow for rapid inspection of large or remote areas.
8.10.1
9.0
9.1
9.2
When imaging from a motor vehicle or aircraft, precautions should be taken to ensure safe
operation of the vehicle and imaging equipment, as well as the safety of all occupants.
Documentation
The thermographer will provide documentation for all infrared inspections. The following information will
be included in a written report to the end user:
9.1.1
The name and any valid certification level(s) and number(s) of the infrared thermographer.
9.1.2
9.1.3
inspection.
9.1.4
9.1.5
A list of all the equipment inspected and notations of the equipment not inspected on the
inventory list.
9.1.6
When performing a qualitative infrared inspection, the infrared thermographer will provide the following
information for each exception identified:
9.2.1
The exact location of the exception.
9.2.2
A description of the exception such as its significant nameplate data, phase or circuit number,
rated voltage, amperage rating and/or rotation speed.
9.2.3
When significant, the environmental conditions surrounding the exception including the air
temperature, wind speed and direction, and the sky conditions.
9.2.4
Hardcopies of a thermal image (thermogram) and corresponding visible-light image of the

exception.
9.2.5
The field-of-view of the infrared imager lens.

8
9.3
9.2.6
Notation of any windows, filters or external optics used.
9.2.7
If desired, a subjective evaluation rating provided by the qualified assistant and/or end user
representative, of the importance of the exception to the safe and continuous operation of the
system.
9.2.8
Any other information or special conditions that may affect the results, repeatability or
When performing a quantitative infrared inspection, the infrared thermographer will provide the following
additional information for each exception documented:
9.3.1
The distance from the infrared imager to the exception.
9.3.2
Whenever possible, the maximum rated load of the exception and its measured load at the
time of the inspection.
9.3.2.1
The percentage load on the exception, calculated by dividing its measured load by the rated
load.
9.3.3
The emittance, reflected temperature and transmittance values used to calculate the
temperature of the exception.
9.3.4
When using Delta T criteria, the surface temperature of the exception and of a defined
reference and their temperature difference.
9.3.5
When using absolute temperature criteria, the surface temperature of the exception and the
standard and the standard temperature(s) referenced.
9.3.6
If desired, an evaluation of the temperature severity of the exception.
9.3.7
If desired, a repair priority rating for the exception based on its subjective rating, temperature
severity rating or an average of both.

9
10.0
Delta T Criteria for Electrical Systems
10.1 The infrared thermographer may use the following Delta T (temperature difference) criteria to evaluate the
temperature severity of an exception. These Delta T criteria are reported as the temperature rise of the
exception above the temperature of a defined reference, which is typically the ambient air temperature, a
similar component under the same conditions or the maximum allowable temperature of the component:
1
NETA Maintenance Testing Specifications, for electrical equipment
Priority
Delta T between
similar components
under similar load
Delta T over ambient

air temperature
Recommended Action
1 to 3C
1C to 10C
Possible deficiency; warrants investigation
4 to 15C
11C to 20C
21C to 40C
>15C
>40C
Indicates probable deficiency; repair as

time permits
Monitor until corrective measures can be
accomplished
Major discrepancy; repair immediately
Military Standard, for electrical equipment

Priority
Delta T
Recommended Action
10 to 25C
Component failure unlikely but corrective measure required at next

scheduled routine maintenance period or as scheduling permits
25 to 40C
Component failure probable unless corrected
40 to 70C
Component failure almost certain unless corrected
70C and above
Component failure imminent. Stop survey. Inform cognizant

officers
Experience-Based, for electrical and/or mechanical equipment. Any Delta T classification system
3
based on experience, such as the following
Priority
Delta T
Recommended Action
1 to 10C
>10 to 20C
Corrective measures required as scheduling permits
>20 to 40C
Corrective measures required ASAP
>40C
Corrective measures should be taken at the next maintenance

period
Corrective measures required immediately
Motor Cores, (on test bench, not in service)

Priority
Delta T
Recommended Action
1 to 10C
>10 to 20C
>20C
No exception likely
Possible exception, consult motor core test data
Exception likely
10
11.0
Absolute Temperature Criteria for Electrical Systems
11.1 The infrared thermographer may use absolute temperature criteria based on the following ANSI, IEEE
and NEMA or other standards to identify electrical system exceptions.
11.2 All temperatures of the following standards are specified in Celsius as follows:
Ambient / Rated Rise / Maximum Allowable
Note:
Ambient = rated ambient temperature

Rated Ambient + Rated Rise = Maximum Allowable Temperature
11.3 When the exception is heating several adjacent components, the lowest temperature component
specification should be used.
Example: You are inspecting a heating terminal that connects an insulated conductor to a circuit
breaker. The component with the lowest temperature specification should be used.
11.4 When several different temperatures for similar equipment are given in the referenced standards, the
lowest temperatures (most conservative) are listed. If an exception temperature exceeds the listed
maximum allowable temperature limit, it could be operating at a temperature lower than a higher (less
conservative) specification. Consult the referenced standard(s).
11.5 When the infrared thermographer is unable to determine the class of insulation or equipment being
inspected, he/she should use the lowest temperature (most conservative) specification within the
component grouping.
Example: You are inspecting an insulated wire that has no visible markings. Use the lowest
temperature specification for any conductor insulation.
11.6 Unless noted otherwise, these absolute temperature criteria are based on equipment operating at the
5
stated ambient temperature and at 100% of their rated load. The following formula can be applied to
these absolute temperature criteria to give a corrected maximum allowable temperature (Tmaxcorr) for
the reduced operating load and actual ambient temperature of the exception:
Tmaxcorr
{(Ameas Arated)2 (Trated rise)} + Tambmeas
Tmaxcorr
corrected maximum allowable temperature
Ameas
measured load, in amperes
Arated
rated load, in amperes
Trated rise
rated temperature rise (from standard)
Tambmeas
measured ambient temperature
Example: A fuse is found to be operating at a temperature of 68C. The measured ambient

temperature (Tambmeas) = 35C. The fuse is rated at 100 amps (Arated) but its actual load is measured at
only 50 amps (Ameas).
1.
2.
What is the Tmaxcorr for the fuse?

Is the temperature of the fuse an exception?
Tmaxcorr
{(Ameas Arated)2 (Trated rise)} + Tambmeas
Tmaxcorr
=
=
=
=
=
{(50 100)2 (30)} + 35

{(.5)2 (30)} + 35
{(.25)(30)} + 35
Tmaxcorr
7.5 + 35
42.5C
The actual operating temperature of the fuse (68C) is greater than the Tmaxcorr of 42.5C.
This is an exception!
11
11.7 Absolute Temperature Criteria:

Ambient / Rated Rise / Maximum
Conductors (lowest temperature criteria)
6
Bare conductors , in free air

Bare conductors, in enclosure
Bare conductors, enclosure surface
55/25/80
40/30/70
40/20/60
Insulated conductors , in free air

Insulated conductors, in enclosure
Insulated conductors, enclosure surface
Insulated conductors, in sun
Conductor Insulations
30/30/60
30/30/60
30/20/50
50/10/60
T, TW, R, RW, RU
THW, Polyethylene, XHHW, RH-RW
Varnished Cambric
Paper Lead
Varnished Polyester
THH, Cross Linked Polyethylene, Ethylene-Propylene
Silicone Rubber
30/30/60
30/45/75
30/47/77
30/50/80
30/55/85
30/60/90
30/95/125
Connectors and Terminations (lowest temperature criteria)

10
Metals , silver or silver alloy

Metals, copper, copper alloy or aluminum
Metals, aluminum alloy
Overcurrent Devices
8,9
40/40/80
40/50/90
52/53/105
(lowest temperature criteria)
Circuit breakers, molded case

Circuit breakers, all others
Fuses
40/20/60
40/30/70
40/30/70
Disconnects and Switches Including Insulators and Supports

Bushings
11
10
40/30/70
Transformer, lower end

Circuit breaker, lower end
External terminal
Coils and Relays
40/55/95
40/40/80
40/30/70
8,12
Class 90
Class 105
Class 130
Class 155
Class 180
Class 220
40/50/90
40/65/105
40/90/130
40/115/155
40/140/180
40/180/220
13
AC Motors, Field Windings

1.00 SF, class A
1.00 SF, class B
1.00 SF, class F
1.00 SF, class H
40/60/100
40/80/120
40/105/145
40/125/165
1.15 SF, class B

1.15 SF, class F
40/90/130
40/115/155
Note: Casing temperatures may be lower than these specified windings temperatures.
12
DC Motors and Generators, Windings
13
1.00 SF, class A

1.00 SF, class B
1.00 SF, class F
1.00 SF, class H
40/70/110
40/100/140
40/130/170
40/155/195
1.25 SF, (2hr), class B

1.25 SF, (2hr), class F
40/80/120
40/110/150
Note: Casing temperatures may be lower than these specified windings temperatures.
Cylindrical Rotor Synchronous Generators, Air Cooled, Casing
13
Class B
Class F
Class H
40/70/110
40/90/130
40/110/150
Transformers, Distribution and Power
14,15,16
Dry type, class 105, windings

30/55/85
30/80/110
30/115/145
30/150/180
Oil cooled, 55C rise, casing

Oil cooled, 65C rise, casing
Note:
12.0
30/55/85
30/65/95
1. Oil-cooled casing temperatures measured near top of liquid in main tank.

2. Most 55C rise transformers built before 1962.
3. For specialty transformers (other than power and distribution) or other liquid-cooled
equipment, such as specified on the nameplate.
Delta T Criteria for Mechanical Systems
12.1 The infrared Thermographer may use Delta T (temperature difference) criteria to rate the temperature
severity of mechanical system exceptions. These Delta T criteria are usually reported as the
temperature rise of the exception above the temperature of a defined reference. Use the Delta T criteria
listed in section 10.1.
12.2 By taking multiple measurements over time of similar components under similar operating and
environmental conditions, statistical analysis can be used to set operational limits for trending and
predicting the temperature performance of these components.
13.0
Absolute Temperature Criteria for Mechanical Systems
13.1 The infrared thermographer may use absolute maximum allowable temperature criteria based on
published standards to identify mechanical system exceptions.
13.2 When an exception is heating several adjacent system components, the component having the lowest
temperature specification should be referenced.
Example: You are inspecting a bearing of a motor. The applicable adjacent system components
are the seals and the lubricant. The component (bearing, seals or lubricant) having the lowest
temperature specification should be referenced.
Note: In most cases, the lubricant will have the lowest temperature specification.
13
13.3 When unable to determine the type of bearing, lubricant or seal, the infrared thermographer should use
the lowest component temperature specification within the applicable group.
Example: You are inspecting a bearing. You identify the bearing and lubricant types and
temperature limits, but you do not know the type of seal. From the list, select the lowest
applicable temperature specification for any seal. Compare your measured bearing temperature
to the lowest of the three component temperatures (the bearing, lubricant and seal).
13.4 The infrared thermographer often cannot directly measure the surfaces of the components in these
specification lists. Care and good judgment must be used when applying these specifications to actual
field temperature measurements.
13.5 Unless noted, temperature specifications are based on equipment operating at 100% of their rated
load/speed. All temperatures are in Celsius.
13.6 Maximum Allowable Temperature Criteria:
Bearings, Rolling Element Types
17
Races (for metallurgical stability)

Rolling elements
Plastic retainer (cage)
Steel retainer (cage)
Brass retainer (cage)
Steel shield (closure)
Nitrile rubber lip seal
Acrylic lip seal
Silicone lip seal
Fluoric lip seal
PTFE lip seal
Felt seal
Aluminum labyrinth seal
Bearings, Plain Types Material
125
125
120
300
300
300
100
130
180
180
220
100
300
18
Tin base babbitt

Lead base babbitt
Cadmium base
Copper lead
Tin bronze
Lead bronze
Aluminum
149
149
260
177
260
232
121
19
Bearings, Plain Types, Factory Produced

Rulon, filled PTFE
Graphite bronze
DU
PTFE lined fiberglass
Nylon
Polyurethane
Polyacetyl
Wood
Metalized graphite
Pure carbon
Polyolefin, UHMPW
204
204
288
177
149
82
104
71
593
399
82
14
Delrin
Zytel
Teflon
Rubber
149
107
288
49
20
Lubricants
(when used with polyamide plastic bearing retainer)
Mineral oils without EP additives, i.e., machine oils, hydraulic fluid

EP oils, i.e., industrial, automotive, gearbox oils
EP oils, i.e., rear axle, differential, hypoid gear oils
120
110
100
Synthetic oils
Polyglycols, poly-olefins
Diesters, silicones
Phosphate diesters
Greases (mineral oil lubricant), lithium, polyurea, bentonite,
calcium complex
120
110
100
120
Lubricants, Greases (mineral oil), when used with steel or brass bearing retainer
Lithium base
Lithium complex
Sodium base
Sodium complex
Calcium (lime) base
Calcium complex
Barium complex
Aluminum complex
Inorganic thickeners
Polyurea
110
140
80
140
60
130
130
110
130
140
Lubricants, Solid lubricant materials

Graphite
Molybdenum disulfide
Tungsten disulfide
Polytetrafluoroethylene
427
450
510
300
21,22
Seals and Gaskets, elastomers

O-rings and gaskets
Butyl rubber
Hypalon
Epichlorohydrin rubber
Ethylene acrylic
EPDM
Fluorocarbon (viton, kalrez)
Fluorosilicone
Neoprene
Nitrile
Polyacrylate rubber
Polysulfide rubber
Polyurethane
Silicone rubber
107
121
135
177
149
204
177
149
135
177
107
93
232

15
Lip Seals
Nitrile
Polyacrylate rubber
Silicone rubber
Fluorocarbon (viton, kalrez)
Leather
121
149
163
204
93
23
Mechanical Seal Material , (see above for elastomers)

Stellite
Tungsten carbide
Stainless steel
Ni-resist
Bronze, leaded
Ceramic
Carbon
Silicon carbide
Glass-filled teflon
177
232
316
177
177
177
275
1,650
177
24
Power Transmission Components
V-belts
Chain drives: limited by maximum lube temperature.
Gear drives: limited by maximum lube temperature.
14.0
60
Documents Referenced by Footnotes
1.
Maintenance Testing Specifications for Electric Power Distribution Equipment and Systems.
International Electric Testing Association, 2700 W. Centre Ave., Suite A, Portage, Michigan 49024
2.
Infrared Thermal Imaging Survey Procedure for Electrical Equipment ML-STD-2194 (SH). Naval
Publications and Printing Service, 700 Robbins Ave., Bldg. 4D, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19111
3.
Level-II Certified Infrared Thermographer Reference Manual. Infraspection Institute, 425 Ellis Street,
Burlington, New Jersey 08016
4.
Infrared Inspection of Motor Cores, by Michael Dreher, 1992. Available from Infraspection Institute
5.
ANSI/IEEE C37.010-4.4.3. IEEE Application Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a
Symmetrical Current Basis
6.
ANSI/IEEE C37.20.1-1987 Standard for Metal-Enclosed Low-Voltage Power Circuit Breaker Switchgear
ANSI/IEEE C37.20.2-1987 Standard for Metal-Clad and Station-Type Cubicle Switchgear
ANSI/IEEE C37.20.3-1987 Standard for Metal-Enclosed Interrupter Switchgear
7.
ANSI/IEEE Standard 242-1986, IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
8.
NEMA AB-1, Molded Case Circuit Breakers
9.
ANSI/IEEE C37.40-1981, Service Conditions and Definitions for High-Voltage Fuses, Distribution
Enclosed Single-Pole Air Switches, Fuse Disconnecting Switches and Accessories
10.
ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.30-1971, Definitions and Requirements for High-Voltage Air Switches,
Insulators and Supports
16
11.
IEEE C37-1991, Guides and Standards for Circuit Breakers, Switchgear, Relays, Substations and
Fuses
12.
ANSI/IEEE C37.63-1984 Standard Requirement for Overhead, Pad-Mounted, Dry-Vault, and

Submersible Automatic Line Sectionalizers for AC Systems
13.
NEMA MG1-1987, Motor and Generators
14.
ANSI/IEEE Standard 141-1986, Power Switching, Transformation, and Motor-Control Apparatus
15.
ANSI/IEEE C57.94-1982 IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation, Application, Operation and
Maintenance of Dry-Type General Purpose Distribution and Power Transformers
16.
ANSI/IEEE C57.92-1981 IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Power Transformers Up to and
Including 100MVA with 55 and 65 Average Winding Rise
17.
SKF General Catalogue 4000 US, 1991, SKF
18.
Machinerys Handbook, 22nd Edition, Industrial Press
19.
The Plane Bearing Handbook, 1989, Bearings Inc
20.
Steyr Bearings Technical Manual 281E, 1981, Steyr
21.
Parker O-Ring Handbook, Parker Seals
22.
CR Handbook of Seals, CR Industries
23.
Duraseal Manual, Durametallic
24.
Eaton Power Transmission Catalogue, Eaton

17
Standard for Measuring and Compensating

for Emittance Using Infrared
Imaging Radiometers
2008 Edition
425 Ellis Street
Standard for Measuring and Compensating for Emittance

Using Infrared Imaging Radiometers
Foreword
This standard outlines the procedures and documentation requirements for measuring and
compensating for emittance using an infrared imaging radiometer. This standard covers a technique
which is both art and science. This document assumes that the reader is generally familiar with the
science of infrared thermography.
standard.


1
Standard for Measuring and Compensating for Emittance

2008 Edition
Table of Contents
1.0
Scope
Page 3
2.0
Page 3
3.0
Terminology
Page 3
4.0
Page 3
5.0
Page 4
6.0
Precautions and Error Sources
Page 4
7.0
How to Measure the Emittance of an Object
Page 5
8.0
How to Compensate for the Emittance of an Object
Page 6
consequences.

2
1.0
Scope
1.1
This test method covers procedures for measuring and compensating for emittance when measuring the
surface temperature of an object with an imaging radiometer.
1.2
This test method may involve use of equipment and materials in the presence of heated or electrically
energized equipment, or both.
1.3
2.0
2.1
Radiometers. Infraspection Institute, Burlington, NJ.
2.2
3.0
Terminology
3.1
Contact radiometer - an infrared thermometer designed for contact temperature measurements.

Contact radiometers are usually constructed with a mirrored cavity around their lens.
3.2
3.3

temperature.
3.4
3.5
Non-imaging radiometer - an instrument that measures the average apparent surface temperature of
an object based upon the objects radiance.
3.6
Reflected temperature - the apparent temperature value reported by a radiometer that corresponds to
the infrared energy incident upon, and reflected from the measured surface of an object.
3.7
Surface-modifying material - any tape, spray, or paint that is used to change the emittance of an
object.
3.8
4.0
Summary of Test Methods
4.1
Two methods are given for measuring the emittance of an object: Contact Method and Non-Contact
Method.
4.2
A procedure is also given for compensating for errors due to object emittance by using the computer
built into an imaging radiometer.

3
5.0
5.1
The emittance of an object can cause significant error when measuring temperature with an imaging
radiometer. Two methods are provided for measuring emittance.
5.2
These methods can be used in the field or laboratory using commonly available materials.
5.3
These methods may also be used with non-imaging radiometers that have the required computer
capabilities.
6.0
6.1

Contact Method
6.1.1
6.2
Contact thermometers can act as heat sinks and change the temperature of an object.
Non-Contact Method
6.2.1
The use of surface-modifying materials can change the heat transfer properties and
temperature of an object. Such errors can be minimized by applying surface-modifying
materials to the smallest area that satisfies the measurement accuracy requirements of the
imaging radiometer.
6.2.2
Prior to applying surface-modifying material to an object as directed in 7.3.3, make certain

that area to be modified and adjacent area are at the same temperature.
6.2.3
When removing a surface-modifying material as directed in 7.3.6, errors can be minimized by

ensuring that the surface is returned to its original condition.
6.3
Both Contact and Non-Contact test methods require the object temperature be at least 10C warmer or
cooler than the ambient temperature. Potential errors can be minimized by ensuring the stability of the
temperature difference between the object and the ambient temperature during the test. Additionally,
the accuracy of the emittance measurement can be increased by increasing this temperature difference.
6.4
The emittance of an object may be specific to the temperature of the object and the spectral waveband
of the imaging radiometer used. Therefore, the temperature of the object and the spectral waveband of
the imaging radiometer should be noted along with the measured emittance value.
6.5
These methods are valid only for objects that are opaque in the waveband of the imaging radiometer
utilized.
6.6
Some imaging radiometers do not have inputs for reflected temperature. Emittance values determined
with such instruments may be exaggerated. The amount of exaggeration will depend upon the
emittance of the object and the amount of infrared energy reflected from it.
6.7
As the emittance of an object decreases, its reflectivity increases. Careful consideration and avoidance
of potential error sources, including the precise determination of reflected temperature, is required to
accurately determine the emittance value of an object. For materials with emittance values of less than
0.5, emittance measurements and radiometric temperature measurements have a high likelihood of
error.
6.8
Both methods of measuring emittance require contact with the target surface. Do not touch any
energized or potentially dangerous surfaces unless you are qualified to do so and have taken the
necessary safety precautions.

4
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.3
How to Measure the Emittance of an Object

Equipment Required
7.1.1
A calibrated imaging radiometer with a computer that allows the infrared thermographer to
input reflected temperature (R) and emittance (E) values.
7.1.2
A natural or induced means of heating or cooling the target at least 10C (18F) above or below
ambient temperature. The target temperature should be stable and close to the temperature
of the target(s) you will be measuring in the field.
7.1.3
The Contact Method requires a calibrated contact thermometer such as a thermocouple and
thermocouple reader or a contact radiometer.
7.1.4
The Non-Contact Method requires a surface-modifying material such as paint or tape with a
known high emittance in the waveband of the subject imaging radiometer.
Contact Method
7.2.1
Place the imaging radiometer at the desired location and distance from the object to be
measured. The use of a tripod or other support device is recommended. Aim and focus the
imaging radiometer on the portion of the object where emittance is to be measured.
7.2.2
Measure and compensate for the objects reflected temperature. Refer to the Infraspection
Institute Standard for Measuring and Compensating for Reflected Temperature Using Infrared
Imaging Radiometers.
7.2.3
With the imaging radiometers emittance control set to 1.00, use an appropriate imager
measurement function, such as spot temperature, cross hairs, or isotherms to define a
measurement point or area where emittance is to be measured.
7.2.4
Use a contact thermometer or contact radiometer to measure the temperature of the point or
area just defined by the imaging radiometers measurement function. Record this
temperature.
7.2.5
Without moving the imaging radiometer, adjust its emittance control until the indicated
temperature matches the temperature recorded in 7.2.4. The indicated emittance value is the
measured emittance value of this object at this temperature and waveband.
7.2.6
Conduct procedures 7.2.1 through 7.2.5 a minimum of three times to obtain an average
emittance value.
Non-Contact Method
7.3.1
imaging radiometer on the portion of the object where emittance is to be measured.
7.3.2
7.3.3
Apply a surface-modifying material on, or immediately adjacent to, the area of the object
where emittance is to be measured. Make sure the surface-modifying material is dry and in
good contact with the object. Allow sufficient time for modifying-material to achieve thermal
equilibrium with object.
5
8.0
7.3.4
Enter the known emittance value of the surface-modifying material into the imaging
radiometer under the E input (commonly referred to as E, Emissivity or Emittance).
7.3.5
Use the imaging radiometer to measure the temperature of the surface-modifying material.
Record this temperature.
7.3.6
Use the imaging radiometer to measure the temperature of the area immediately adjacent to
the surface-modifying material.
7.3.6.1
As an alternative, remove the surface-modifying material and use the imaging radiometer to
measure the temperature of the previously modified surface. When removing the surfacemodifying material, be sure to completely remove material and any residue, and allow enough
time for the objects temperature to stabilize.
7.3.7
Without moving the imaging radiometer, adjust its E control until the radiometer indicates the
same temperature recorded in 7.3.5. The indicated emittance value is the measured
emittance value of this object at this temperature and waveband.
7.3.8
emittance value.
How to Compensate for the Emittance of an Object
8.1
Determine object emittance utilizing either Contact Method described in 7.2 or Non-Contact Method
described in 7.3.
8.2
Compensate for object emittance by entering the average emittance value of the object in the imaging
radiometer under the E input (commonly referred to as E, Emissivity or Emittance).

6
Standard for Infrared Inspections

to Detect Pests and Pest Related Damage
2008 Edition
425 Ellis Street

Foreword
inspections to detect pests and pest related damage. This standard covers an application which is
both art and science. This document assumes that the reader is generally familiar with the science of
infrared thermography. It is not intended to be an absolute step-by-step formula for conducting an
standard.


1

2008 Edition
Table of Contents
1.0
Scope
Page 3
2.0
Page 3
3.0
Terminology
Page 3
4.0
Page 4
5.0
Page 5
6.0
Page 5
7.0
Equipment Requirements
Page 5
8.0
Page 6
9.0
Data Interpretation
Page 8
10.0
Verification
Page 9
11.0
Documentation
Page 10
consequences.
2
1.0
Scope
1.1
This standard covers procedures for conducting an infrared inspection to locate and document patterns
of infrared radiation associated with pest presence or pest related damage.
1.2
1.3
carried out, will result in the safest and highest quality inspection for both.
1.4
1.5
This standard may involve use of equipment in hazardous or remote locations or in close proximity to
animals or insects.
1.6
sensitivity.
1.7
performed.
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
Standard for Infrared Inspection of Insulated Roofs. Infraspection Institute, Burlington, NJ.
2.2
Standard for Infrared Inspection of Building Envelopes. Infraspection Institute, Burlington, NJ.
3.0
Terminology

3.1
Critter - a living creature.
3.2
Critter Control Professional - a person who is Licensed and/or Certified to perform animal control
and/or removal by the State(s) or region(s) in which they operate.
3.3
Delta-T - refers to the temperature differential between two objects.
3.4
End user - the person requesting an infrared inspection.
3.5
Exception - an abnormally warm or cool portion of a building or structure that may be indicative of pest
presence or pest damage.
3.6
related documentation about a structure, system, object, or process.
3
3.7
Infrared thermographer - a person who performs and documents an infrared inspection.
3.8
Integrated Pest Management Professional - a person who is Licensed and/or Certified to perform
pest inspections by the State(s) or region(s) in which they operate.
3.9
Pest - an animal, critter, insect, or organism whose presence is unwanted.
3.10 Pest damage - the resulting destruction of property or structure or the construction of unwanted nests
or structures by pests.
object, or process by observing images of different patterns of infrared radiation, and recording and
3.12 Standard - a set of specifications that define the purposes, scope, and content of a procedure.
3.13 Thermal imager - a camera-like device which converts infrared energy emitted by an object into a realtime, visible light image.
3.16 Wood destroying organism - an insect or fungus that damages structures by feeding on, or nesting in,
construction materials made of wood.
4.0
4.1
4.2

The purpose of an infrared inspection is to locate and document patterns of infrared radiation
associated with pest presence or pest related damage. In some cases, pests and pest damage may be
detected directly by thermal imaging. In other cases, evidence of pests and pest damage may be
detected indirectly by observing thermal patterns across the surface of structures.
4.1.1
Conductive exceptions are thermal anomalies that may be the result of past or present or pest
activity. For structures, conductive exceptions may also be caused by missing or damaged
insulation; structural components; and/or water-saturated insulation that may be attractive to
or supportive of pests.
4.1.2
Convective exceptions are usually caused by cracks and holes that permit the uncontrolled
movement of air across, through, or within a structure. Convective exceptions may provide
clues to pest entry points within a given structure.
Providing opinions about the causes of thermal patterns, exceptions, the integrity of structures, or
recommendations for corrective actions, pest management and/or critter control requires skills beyond
those of infrared thermography.
4.2.1
Infrared thermography will be presented as an inspection technique to gather and present

thermal information at a specific time.
4.2.2
Providing destructive testing of any structures for verification of suspected problems is beyond
the scope of infrared thermography.
4.2.3
An infrared inspection of a structure that detects no exceptions does not assure that the
subject structure is free of pests or pest related damage.
4
5.0
5.1
5.2
The infrared thermographer will have knowledge of the materials and construction of building envelopes
and/or structures sufficient to understand the observed patterns of radiation. The infrared
thermographer will also have knowledge of the biology, morphology, and habits of the anticipated
pest(s). When performing infrared inspections to indirectly detect pests or pest damage, the infrared
thermographer shall also be qualified as a licensed or certified Integrated Pest Management or Critter
Control Professional.
5.3
The infrared thermographer will be accompanied by a person who is responsible for the infrared
thermographers safety when accessing crawl spaces, attics, roofs, limited access areas, or confined
spaces.
5.4
Unless so qualified, the infrared thermographer will not perform any tasks that are normally performed
by an Integrated Pest Management or Critter Control Professional or other tradesperson.
5.5
The infrared thermographer will comply with the security and safety rules of the end user.
5.6
The infrared thermographer will use thermal imaging and/or other measurement or inspection
equipment with capabilities sufficient to meet the inspection requirements.
6.0
6.1
Prior to the inspection, the end user will inform the infrared thermographer of any past and current pest
problems with the facility or areas to be inspected and the reasons for conducting the inspection.
6.2
Prior to inspections of buildings, the end user will heat or cool the building to be inspected to a uniform
air temperature throughout when requested by the infrared thermographer.
6.3
During the inspection, the end user will provide a qualified assistant familiar with the construction and
history of the facility. This person will be responsible for gaining access to, and maintaining the security
of, the end users facilities and premises. If performing air leakage inspections to locate potential pest
entry points, this person may need to be qualified to operate and control the buildings HVAC systems.
6.4
When performing inspections from the inside of a building, it is the end users responsibility to remove
furniture, wall hangings and other objects that prevent the infrared thermographer from inspecting the
interior wall surfaces.
6.5
6.6
7.0
7.1
General
7.1.1

5
8.0
7.1.2
7.1.3
7.1.4
Infrared equipment may be man portable or vehicle mounted.
7.1.4.1
For vehicle mounted equipment, care should be taken to ensure that equipment is mounted
securely, will not interfere with the safe operation of the vehicle, and meets all applicable
regulatory requirements.
8.1
Prior to conducting an infrared inspection, the end user or the qualified assistant will help the
thermographer identify the areas to be inspected..
8.2
Prior to inspecting a building, the thermographer should perform a walk-through of the areas to be
inspected with the end user or the qualified assistant.
8.3
8.2.1
In the absence of accurate blueprints or structural drawings, the thermographer will create a
graphic representation of the premises showing wall structures and areas included in the
inspection.
8.2.1.1
The thermographer should consult any available structural drawings to locate wall voids and
other structural areas not readily noticed in a walk-through.
8.2.2
After identifying all the elements of the structure to be inspected, the thermographer should
schedule/allow sufficient time for a proper inspection to be made.
Direct Detection
8.3.1
Certain pests may be directly detected with a thermal imager. These pests are typically
warm-blooded animals such as rodents, fowl, bats, deer, or marsupials. In some cases, coldblooded organisms may be directly detected due to heat associated with their presence;
examples include, but are not limited to: bees, wasps and hornets.
8.3.2
In order to detect pests directly, a direct line-of-sight is required between the imager and the
subject pest.
8.3.2.1
Line-of-sight must be free of any obstructions, including glass or plastic.
8.3.3
The ability to directly detect pests is influenced by an interdependent set of circumstances,

including, but not limited to: size of pest, distance to pest, surface temperature of pest,
environmental conditions, and spatial resolution and thermal sensitivity of the thermal imager
utilized.
8.3.3.1
Prior to imaging, the infrared thermographer should select imaging equipment sufficient to
detect subject pest(s). For large pests such as deer, direct detection may be possible at
considerable distances.
8.3.4
Prior to imaging, consideration should be given to pest behavior and habits, time of day, and
environmental conditions to ensure that imaging is conducted when subject pest is likely to be
present. Imaging should be performed in a manner sufficiently covert to prevent the infrared
thermographer from scaring subject pests away from area(s) being imaged or provoking pests
into attacking.
6
8.4
8.3.5
In some cases, imaging from a motor vehicle or aircraft can provide greater mobility, a
superior vantage point, and allow for rapid inspection of large areas.
8.3.5.1
When imaging from a motor vehicle or aircraft, precautions should be taken to ensure safe
operation of the vehicle and imaging equipment, as well as the safety of all occupants.
8.3.6
Visual confirmation of subject pest may be required unless pest morphology or behavior are
adequate for identification.
8.3.6.1
False positives may be encountered when imaging in wooded areas, populated areas, or
rough terrain. False positives may be caused by domestic animals, rocks, or other structures.
8.3.7
When performing infrared inspections for animal counts such as deer, care should be taken to
avoid double counting subject animals.
8.3.7.1
For animal counts, multiple inspections over a period of time may be necessary for accurate
statistical analysis.
8.3.8
An infrared inspection is valid only for the time and date that the inspection is performed.
8.3.8.1
Negative findings do not ensure that pests have not been or will not be present at other times.
Indirect Detection
8.4.1
Evidence of pest presence or pest damage may be indirectly detected with a thermal imager.
Examples include rodents nesting within walls or structures; or the presence of insect activity
sufficient to cause a detectable temperature differential such as a beehive within a wall cavity
or other structural area.
8.4.1.1
Evidence of conditions attractive to pests such as latent moisture may also be detected with a
thermal imager. Detection of such conditions may or may not be associated with past or
present pest activity or conditions conducive to mold or microbial growth.
8.4.2
In order to detect pests or pest damage indirectly, a direct line-of-sight is required between
the imager and the surface of the area being imaged.
8.4.2.1
Line-of-sight must be free of any obstructions, including glass or plastic.
8.4.3
The ability to indirectly detect pests or pest damage is influenced by an interdependent set of
circumstances including, but not limited to: size of thermal pattern; distance to subject
surface; emittance, thermal conductivity and temperature of subject surface; environmental
conditions; and spatial resolution and thermal sensitivity of the thermal imager utilized.
8.4.3.1
Prior to imaging, the infrared thermographer should select imaging equipment sufficient to
detect anticipated thermal patterns associated with subject pest(s) or pest damage.
8.4.4
Prior to imaging, consideration should be given to thermal patterns associated with subject
pest(s) and/or pest damage. In particular, consideration should be given to time of day,
structural characteristics such as emittance and environmental conditions to ensure that
imaging is conducted under optimal conditions. Imaging should be performed in a manner
sufficiently covert to prevent the infrared thermographer from scaring subject pests away from
area(s) being imaged or provoking pests into attacking.
8.4.4.1
In order to indirectly detect pests or pest damage, a detectable temperature differential must
be present across the imaged surface. In the absence of a detectable Delta-T, one may be
created by actively heating or cooling the subject areas by one of the following methods:
7
8.4.4.1.1 Active heating of subject surface. A quartz light or hot air gun may be used to create a
necessary Delta-T for small areas; for large structures, inspections may be performed during
evening hours following a sunny day.
8.4.4.1.2 Active cooling of subject surface. Compressed air or other non-hazardous gases may be
temporarily injected into subject structures to create a necessary Delta-T.
9.0
9.1
8.4.4.2
When employing active heating or cooling techniques, care should be taken to avoid
damaging subject structure or creating safety or fire hazards.
8.4.5
For infrared inspections of building sidewalls, ceilings, and floors, an alternate for achieving a
desired temperature differential is to conduct the infrared inspection when there is a Delta-T of
at least 10 C (18 F) across the building envelope between:
8.4.5.1
The conditioned and unconditioned surfaces for at least three hours before performing
conduction inspections.
8.4.5.2
The buildings inside air temperature and its outside surface temperature when inspecting for
air leakage from the outside of a building that is under positive pressure.
8.4.5.3
The buildings outside air temperature and its inside surface temperature when inspecting for
air leakage from the inside of a building that is under negative pressure.
8.4.6
Temperature differences for air leakage inspections may be lowered as higher pressure
differences are created across a building envelope.
8.4.7
If a building is inspected for air leakage under existing pressure conditions, the infrared
thermographer will determine which portions of the building envelope are under positive,
negative and neutral pressures.
8.4.8
If inspecting a building for air leakage, the infrared thermographer may use artificial means of
creating uniform pressure differences across the building envelope by using a blower door
or by asking the qualified assistant to temporarily modify operation of the buildings HVAC
system to create the desired pressures.
8.4.8.1
The infrared thermographer should be qualified in the safe use and operation of blower
doors since heating systems and their exhaust gases can be affected by such equipment. If
not so qualified, the infrared thermographer should work with another person who is.
8.4.9
An infrared inspection is valid only for the time and date that the inspection is performed.
8.4.9.1
Negative findings do not ensure that pests have not been or will not be present at other times.
Data Interpretation
Exceptions associated with pests or pest damage may show as inexplicably warm or cold areas.
Temperature of exceptions will be determined by an interdependent set of circumstances including, but
not limited to: presence or absence of pest; type of damage; environmental conditions; imaging
vantage point; and the use of active heating/cooling techniques.
9.1.1
Warm exceptions are usually caused by:
9.1.1.1
The presence of warm blooded pests or sizeable insect infestation.
9.1.1.2
Pest damage to building insulation when heat flow through damaged areas is toward imager.
8
9.2
10.0
9.1.1.3
Pest damage when inspecting under active heating conditions.
9.1.2
Cold exceptions are usually caused by:
9.1.2.1
Latent moisture within materials or structural components.
9.1.2.2
Pest damage to building insulation when heat flow through damaged areas is away from
imager.
9.1.2.3
Pest damage when inspecting under active cooling conditions.
Exceptions associated with latent moisture are typically amorphously shaped or may follow the
geometric shape associated with wet materials. Depending upon conditions, exceptions may appear
hot or cold.
9.2.1
Cold exceptions caused by latent moisture are generally caused by evaporation of moisture
from the wet areas. These types of exceptions are commonly associated with wet carpet,
furniture, or drywall.
9.2.2
Warm exceptions associated with latent moisture are possible due to increased thermal
conductivity through wet materials or when materials are being actively wetted by a hot liquid.
An example of the latter would be a hot water leak occurring behind drywall.
Verification
10.1 All infrared data must be verified by independent means.

10.1.1
False positives and false negatives may be caused by construction details; structural
characteristics; missing or damaged insulation; or air movement within wall cavities of
structures.
10.1.2
The infrared thermographer should employ the appropriate verification equipment/tools for
each inspection. The infrared thermographer should be certified and/or skilled in the use of
such equipment. Verification equipment should include the following as appropriate:
10.1.2.1 Visual Inspection

10.1.2.2 Moisture Meter(s)
10.1.2.3 Digital Camera
10.1.2.4 Video Camera
10.1.2.5 Boroscope
10.1.2.6 Acoustic Emissions Detector
10.1.2.7 Microwave Movement Detector
10.1.2.8 CO2 Detector
10.2 Materials found to be wet should be tested for mold presence or other microbial growth as appropriate.

9
11.0
Documentation
11.1 The infrared thermographer will provide documentation for all infrared inspections. The following
information will be included in a written report to the end user:
11.1.1
11.1.2
11.1.3
inspection.
11.1.4
11.1.5
The address and a description of the location and construction of the facilities that were
inspected and notations of any portions that could not be inspected.
11.1.6
When performing air leakage inspections, notations of which parts of a building are under
positive, negative or neutral pressures.
11.1.7
11.1.8
A list of all other test equipment utilized in the inspection, including make, model and serial
number for each piece of equipment.
11.2 The infrared thermographer will provide the following information for each exception identified:
11.2.1
A description of each exception including its exact location and the direction it faces.
11.2.2
The time the exception was documented.
11.2.3
The weather conditions surrounding the exception including the inside and outside air
temperatures, wind speed and direction, and the sky conditions.
11.2.4
Hard copies of a thermal image (thermogram) and corresponding visible-light image of the
exception.
11.2.5
The field-of-view of the infrared camera lens.
11.2.6
11.2.7
Any other information or special conditions that may affect the results, repeatability, or
interpretation of the data.
11.2.8
Results of tests performed with other inspection equipment to confirm infrared data.
11.2.9
As an option, thermal data may be recorded to videotape or movie file in order to provide a
permanent historical record of the inspection.

10
Standard for Measuring and

Compensating for Reflected Temperature
2008 Edition
425 Ellis Street
Standard for Measuring and Compensating for

Reflected Temperature Using Infrared Imaging Radiometers
Foreword
compensating for reflected temperature using an infrared imaging radiometer. This standard covers a
technique which is both art and science. This document assumes that the reader is generally familiar
with the science of infrared thermography.
standard.


1
Standard for Measuring and Compensating for

Reflected Temperature Using Infrared Imaging Radiometers
2008 Edition
Table of Contents
1.0
Scope
Page 3
2.0
Page 3
3.0
Terminology
Page 3
4.0
Page 3
5.0
Page 4
6.0
Page 4
7.0
How to Measure Reflected Temperature
Page 4
8.0
How to Compensate for Reflected Temperature
Page 6
consequences.

2
1.0
Scope
1.1
This test method covers procedures for measuring and compensating for reflected temperature when
measuring the surface temperature of an object with an imaging radiometer.
1.2
1.3
2.0
2.1
3.0
Terminology
3.1
Diffuse reflector - a surface that produces a diffuse image of a reflected source.
3.2
3.3

temperature.
3.4
Infrared reflector - a material with a reflectance as close as possible to 1.00.
3.5
3.6
Infrared thermometer - see Non-imaging radiometer.
3.7
3.8
Reflected temperature - the apparent temperature value reported by a radiometer that corresponds to
the infrared energy incident upon, and reflected from the measured surface of an object.
3.9
Specular reflector - a surface that produces a direct image of a reflected source.
3.10 Thermal imager - a camera-like device which converts infrared energy emitted by an object into a realtime, visible light image.
4.0
4.1
Two methods are given for measuring the reflected temperature of an object: the Reflector Method and
the Direct Method.
4.2
A procedure is also given for compensating for the error produced by reflected temperature using the
computer built into an imaging radiometer.

3
5.0
5.1
The reflectivity of an object can cause significant error when measuring temperature with an imaging
radiometer. Two methods are provided for measuring reflected temperature.
5.2
5.3
capabilities.
6.0
6.1
6.2

Reflector Method
6.1.1
This method uses an infrared reflector with an assumed reflectance of 1.0, which is an ideal
property. Errors can be minimized by using a reflector having a reflectance as close as
possible to 1.0.
6.1.2
Objects vary in that they can be diffuse or spectral reflectors, or both. Use of an infrared
reflector with reflectance properties as close as possible to those of the object will reduce
errors.
Direct Method
6.2.1
The Direct Method usually does not account for heat from the infrared thermographers body
as a source of reflected temperature. In some cases, this omission can create a significant
error. To minimize this error, the thermographer should use the reflector method whenever
possible.
6.3
The measured reflected temperature of an object is specific to the imaging radiometer utilized.
6.4
The measured reflected temperature is specific to individual objects at the time of measurement.
Reflected temperature should be recalculated whenever reflected sources or environmental conditions
change significantly.
6.5
The significance of error due to reflected temperature can be estimated by shielding the object from
various angles and observing any changes in the thermal image.
6.6
The error caused by reflected temperature can be reduced by shielding the object from the source of
the reflection.
6.7
Reflected temperature errors produced by a point source such as the sun are difficult to measure
accurately. These error sources can often be avoided by moving the imaging radiometers position and
angle relative to the object.
6.8
Reflected temperature can be lower than ambient temperature.
7.0
7.1
How to Measure Reflected Temperature

Equipment Required
7.1.1
A calibrated imaging radiometer with a computer that allows the infrared thermographer to
input reflected temperature (R) and emittance (E) values.

4
7.1.2
7.2
An infrared reflector made from a piece of metal whose reflectance is as close as possible to
1.00. Examples are a crumpled and reflattened piece of aluminum foil placed shiny side up
on a piece of cardboard, or a flat piece of metal with diffuse or spectral reflective
characteristics similar to those of the object being measured.
Reflector Method
7.2.1
Set the imaging radiometers emittance control to 1.00.
7.2.2
imaging radiometer on the portion of the object where temperature is to be measured.
7.2.3
Place the reflector in the field of view of the imaging radiometer. The reflector must be placed
in front of, and in the same plane as the objects surface (see Figure 1). Maintain a safe
working distance from any energized or potentially dangerous objects.
Reflection Source
Reflector Parallel to Target
IR
Figure 1
7.3
7.2.4
Without moving the imaging radiometer, use an appropriate measurement function, such as
spot temperature, cross hairs, or isotherms to measure the apparent surface temperature of
the reflector. Imager should be clearly focused on reflector during this measurement. This is
the reflected temperature (R) of the target when viewed from the position indicated in 7.2.2.
7.2.5
reflected temperature value.
Direct Method
7.3.1
Set the imaging radiometers emittance control to 1.00.
7.3.2
imaging radiometer on the portion of the object where temperature is to be measured.
Estimate the angle of reflection and the angle of incidence when viewing the object with the
imaging radiometer from this location (see Figure 2).
Reflection Source
Line A
Perpendicular to target
A
B
IR
A = Angle of reflection
B = Angle of incidence
Angle A = Angle B
Figure 2

5
Target
7.3.3
Position the imaging radiometer so that it is pointing away from the object and in the same
direction as the angle of reflection (see Figure 3, line A). Maintain a safe working distance
from any energized or potentially dangerous objects.
Reflection Source
(Line A)
Perpendicular to target
A
B
IR
Target
A = Angle of reflection
B = Angle of incidence
Angle A = Angle B
Figure 3
8.0
7.3.4
Measure the apparent temperature of objects within the imaging radiometers field of view.
Use a measurement feature such as area averaging to obtain an average apparent
temperature of objects within the imaging radiometers field of view. Imager should be clearly
focused during this measurement. This is the reflected temperature (R) of the target when
viewed from the position indicated in 7.3.2.
7.3.5
reflected temperature value.
How to Compensate for Reflected Temperature
8.1
Determine reflected temperature by utilizing either Reflector Method described in 7.2 or Direct Method
described in 7.3.
8.2
Compensate for reflected temperature by entering the average reflected temperature value of the object
in the imaging radiometer under the R input (commonly referred to as TAM, Amb Temp, Reflected
Background or T Reflected).

6

of Insulated Roofs
2008 Edition
425 Ellis Street
Standard for Infrared Inspection of Insulated Roofs

Foreword
inspections of insulated roofs. This standard covers an application which is both art and science. This
document assumes that the reader is generally familiar with the science of infrared thermography. It is
not intended to be an absolute step-by-step formula for conducting an infrared inspection.
standard.


1
Standard for Infrared Inspection of Insulated Roofs

2008 Edition
Table of Contents
1.0
Scope
Page 3
2.0
Page 3
3.0
Terminology
Page 3
4.0
Page 4
5.0
Page 5
6.0
Page 5
7.0
Page 6
8.0
Page 6
9.0
Page 6
10.0
Required Conditions
Page 7
11.0
Inspection Techniques & Procedures
Page 8
12.0
Data Interpretation
Page 9
13.0
Verification
Page 10
14.0
Documentation
Page 10
consequences.
2
1.0
Scope
1.1
This standard covers procedures for conducting an infrared inspection at night to determine the location
of wet insulation in roofing systems that have insulation above the deck and in contact with the
underside of the waterproofing membrane. Inspections may be ground-based or conducted from an
aircraft.
1.2
1.3
carried out, will result in the safest and highest-quality inspection for both.
1.4
1.5
This standard may involve use of equipment in hazardous or remote locations.
1.6
sensitivity.
1.7
performed.
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.0
Terminology

2
3.1
Core sample - A small sample encompassing at least 13 cm (2 in ) of the roof surface area taken by
cutting through the roof membrane and insulation and removing the insulation to determine its
composition, condition, and moisture content.
3.2
Exception - an abnormally warm or cool portion of a roof that may be a potential problem for the end
user.

3
3.3
Expansion joint - a structural separation or flexible connection between two building elements that
allows free movement between the elements without damage to the roof or waterproofing system.
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Inspection window - the time period during which infrared inspections of insulated roofs can be
successfully conducted.
3.8
Insulated roof - a roof whose insulation is between the deck and the membrane and is in direct contact
with the underside of the membrane.
3.9
Membrane - a flexible or semiflexible roof covering or waterproofing material whose primary function is
the exclusion of water.
3.10 Moisture meter probe - an invasive (electrical resistance or galvanometric type) test that entails the
insertion of a meter probe(s) through the roof membrane to indicate the presence of moisture within the
insulated roof.
3.11 Qualified assistant - a person provided and authorized by the end user to perform the tasks required to
assist the infrared thermographer. He/she is knowledgeable of the operation and history of the roof(s)
to be inspected and is trained in all the safety practices and rules of the end user.
object or process by observing images of different patterns of infrared radiation, and recording and
3.13 Roof section - a portion of a roof that is separated from adjacent portions by walls or expansion joints.
3.14 Roofing system - see Insulated roof.
4.0
4.1

The purpose of an infrared inspection of an insulated roof is to locate and document patterns of infrared
radiation (exceptions) on the roof surface that are caused by wet insulation beneath the membrane.
4.1.1
4.2
Invasive testing is necessary to verify the presence of water in the insulation.
Providing opinions about the causes of exceptions, the integrity of the roofing system, or
recommendations for corrective actions requires skills beyond those of infrared thermography.
4.2.1
Infrared thermography will be presented as a visual inspection technique to gather and

present information about the roofing system at a specific time.
4
4.3
5.0
4.2.2
Performing invasive testing is beyond the scope of infrared thermography.
4.2.3
Data from infrared inspections of insulated roofs may be used for assessing the condition of a
roofing system or for quality assurance inspections of new installations, repairs, or retrofits.
This standard does not provide methods to determine the cause of latent moisture within an insulated
roof or its point of entry. It does not address the suitability of any particular material or system to
function satisfactorily as waterproofing or insulation.
5.1
5.2
The infrared thermographer will have knowledge of the materials and construction of insulated roofs
sufficient to understand the observed patterns of radiation.
5.3
The infrared thermographer will be accompanied by a person who is responsible for the
thermographers safety when accessing roofs.
5.4
Unless so qualified, the infrared thermographer will not perform any tasks that are normally performed
by a construction tradesperson.
5.5
The infrared thermographer will comply with the security and safety rules of the end user and applicable
safety standards.
5.6
The infrared thermographer will use thermal imaging and/or measurement equipment with capabilities
sufficient to meet the inspection requirements.
6.0
6.1
Prior to the inspection, the end user will inform the infrared thermographer of any past and current
problems with the roof(s) to be inspected and the reasons for conducting the inspection.
6.2
Prior to the inspection, the end user will heat or cool the building to be inspected to a uniform air
temperature throughout when requested by the infrared thermographer.
6.3
When requested, the end user will provide a qualified assistant familiar with the construction and history
of the roof(s). This person will be responsible for gaining access to, and maintaining the security of, the
end users facilities and premises.
6.4
The end user will ensure that the subject roof surfaces are dry and free of debris or construction
materials for a period of at least 24 hours prior to the infrared inspection.
6.5
6.6

5
7.0
7.1
7.2
General
7.1.1
7.1.2
7.1.3
Ground-based Inspections
7.2.1
7.3
Aerial Inspections
7.3.1
8.0
For walk-over inspections or inspections performed from an elevated vantage point, the
infrared imaging system shall have sufficient resolution to permit recognition of exceptions as
small as 0.15 m (6 inches) on a side from the chosen vantage point.
For aerial inspections, the infrared imaging system shall have sufficient resolution to permit
recognition of exceptions as small as 0.3 m (12 inches) on a side from the chosen altitude.
8.1
Applicable constructions include insulated roofs containing any of the commercially available rigid
insulation boards. This includes boards made of organic fibers, perlite, cork, fibrous glass, cellular
glass, polystyrene, polyurethane, isocyanurate, and phenolic. Composite boards and tapered systems
made from these materials can also be inspected as can roofs insulated with foamed-in-place
polyurethane.
8.2
Wet applied insulations such as lightweight concrete and wet applied decks such as gypsum can be
difficult to inspect since they may retain significant quantities of construction water.
8.3
When moisture sensitive materials are located under pavers, stone ballast, or layers of dry insulation,
thermal anomalies on the surface of the roof are diminished.
8.4
For roofs with highly reflective surfaces (aluminized coatings or foils) in the spectral range of the infrared
thermal imager, infrared inspections are not practical until the surface is naturally or temporarily dulled.
8.5
The wetting rates of roof insulations vary according to the type of insulation and environmental
exposure. New roofs with insulations that wet slowly, such as cellular plastics or cellular glass, usually
should not be inspected until they are at least three months old.
8.6
Infrared inspections are not intended to identify the source of the moisture.
9.0
9.1

Water retained in roofing systems decreases the thermal resistance and increases the heat storage
capacity of such systems. This can lead to thermal anomalies on the surface that can be located using
an infrared thermal imager. These thermal anomalies depend upon the type of roofing system, the
amount of moisture in the insulation, and the weather conditions. For a given roof, there are four
weather related parameters that can cause significant changes in surface temperatures over wetted roof
areas compared to dry areas. These are: inside to outside temperature difference, the rate of change
of temperature in the hours prior to viewing, the amount of solar loading, and the wind speed.
6
9.2
10.0
Acceptable weather conditions for nighttime infrared imaging inspections will be light winds with some
combination of a large inside to outside temperature difference, a rapid decrease in ambient
temperature in the late afternoon and a sunny day prior to the inspection. Typically, an infrared
inspection during cold weather relies on a large inside to outside temperature difference. An infrared
inspection during warm weather relies on solar loading.
9.2.1
Inside to Outside Temperature Difference: exceptions become more distinct as the inside to
outside temperature difference increases.
9.2.2
Rate of Change of Temperature: the surface temperature over a wet roof area responds
more slowly to a change in the air temperature than the surface temperature over a dry roof
area. Thus, when the whole roof is cooling, wet areas will cool more slowly. The greater the
rate of outside temperature change, the greater the difference in surface temperature
between wet and dry areas.
9.2.3
Solar Loading: during the course of a sunny day, areas of the roof containing wet insulation
will store more solar energy than dry areas causing these areas to cool more slowly during
the evening. This effect increases as solar loading increases. Thus, the effect is greater in
the summer than in the winter and greater on a clear day than on a cloudy day. Shaded
areas receive less solar loading than unshaded areas.
9.2.4
Wind: air flow over a roof surface increases the convective heat transfer to the surrounding
air significantly. This causes all surface temperatures to approach the ambient air
temperature reducing the intensity of exceptions or making them undetectable.
Required Conditions
10.1 No appreciable precipitation shall have fallen on the roof during the 24 hours prior to the infrared
inspection.
10.2 At the time of the infrared inspection, the surface of the roof shall be free of ponded water, snow, ice,
debris, and piles of aggregate except that these conditions may exist in a few areas provided that those
areas are delineated as being uninspected in the report.
10.3 At the time of the infrared inspection, winds in the area shall be less than 25 km/h (15 mph).
10.4 After a day of heavy overcast, infrared inspections shall not be conducted unless the outside
temperature is at least 10C (18F) colder than the temperature of the space under the roof deck at the
time of the inspection and for most of the prior 24 hours. In other weather, the indoor to outdoor
temperature difference is not an issue except as indicated in 10.7 and 12.2.
10.5 Most infrared inspections can be conducted from one hour after sunset until sunrise. However, the
inspection window will be dependent upon roof construction, amount of moisture in the roof, and local
weather conditions both before and during the infrared inspection. It may be necessary to delay the
start of inspections after warm cloudy days since cloud cover reduces both solar loading and nighttime
radiational cooling. To check that a sufficient delay has been allowed after such days, the first portion of
the infrared inspection shall be repeated before leaving the roof.
10.6 The formation of dew or frost on the roof will reduce the intensity of exceptions. It may not be possible
to conduct infrared inspections under these conditions.
10.7 Infrared inspections of roofing systems ballasted with stone or pavers should only be conducted when
the outside temperature at the time of the inspection and for most of the prior 24 hours has been at least
18C (32F) colder than the temperature of the space under the roof deck.

7
11.0
Inspection Techniques & Procedures
11.1 Infrared inspections may be conducted from a ground-based vantage point or from an aircraft.
11.1.1
Ground-based inspections may be conducted as follows:
11.1.1.1 Walk-over: maneuvering a man-portable infrared thermal imager while walking on the surface
of a roof. The system may be hand carried or mounted on a cart. Thermograms are taken of
areas of interest. Exceptions are outlined on the surface of the roof using spray paint or other
semi-permanent means. Invasive verification is used to confirm the presence of moisture
within the outlined areas.
11.1.1.2 Elevated vantage point: Use of a man-portable infrared thermal imager from an elevated
vantage point may provide an improved view of the roof.
11.1.2
Aerial inspections may be conducted using an infrared imaging system from an aircraft.
Thermograms are obtained for the entire roof and subsequently analyzed.
11.2 Prior to performing an infrared inspection, the infrared thermographer will ascertain, whenever possible,
the construction of the roof system including the types and thicknesses of the membranes and
insulations for each roof section of different construction.
11.2.1
Ideally, this should be accomplished via core sampling of the subject roofs prior to the infrared
inspection.
11.3 The infrared thermographer will inform the end user of any limitations of the roof system design,
weather, inspection techniques and/or the infrared inspection equipment, and will provide or
recommend inspection techniques as necessary to perform a complete and accurate inspection.
11.4 Ground-based inspections
11.4.1
Prior to the infrared inspection, the infrared thermographer will visually inspect the roof system
during daylight to locate means of access, identify possible safety hazards, identify heat
sources beneath the roof, and determine the most effective procedure for inspecting the roof.
11.4.2
The infrared thermographer will exercise reasonable care while on the roof and will avoid
damaging the roof membrane and other components of the roof.
11.4.3
Whenever possible, the underside of the roof should be visually examined to note conditions
that may affect inspection results such as, room temperature, equipment, air movement, and
changes in construction.
11.4.4
An infrared imaging system shall be maneuvered over the roof in an organized manner to
ensure complete inspection viewing at an angle greater than 0.35 rad (20) from the surface
of the roof.
11.4.5
Exceptions shall be delineated on the surface of the roof in a semipermanent manner such as
with spray paint.
11.4.6
Infrared data shall be verified in accordance with Section 13.
11.4.7
The location of all invasive test sites shall be marked on the surface of the roof.

8
11.5 Aerial inspections
12.0
11.5.1
Compliance: before aerial infrared inspections are conducted, the requirements of regulatory
bodies such as the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) must be met with regard to installed
equipment, flight safety, security, and noise.
11.5.2
Execution: the infrared inspection shall be conducted so as to meet the conditions in 7.3.
The findings of infrared imaging systems shall be viewed on a monitor in the aircraft during
the flight to ensure that the roof has been inspected properly. The findings are also recorded
for detailed study after the flight. The information required in Section 14 shall be obtained.
11.5.3
Visual: subject roofs shall be inspected visually during daylight hours within two days of when
the aerial infrared inspection is conducted in order to provide a visual record of roof surface
conditions which may affect the infrared inspection. The visual inspection can be
accomplished by taking air photographs or by walking the roof. The condition of the roof
surface shall not have changed appreciably in the period between the infrared inspection and
the visual inspection.
11.5.4
Verification: infrared data shall be verified according to Section 13.
11.5.5
The location of all invasive test sites shall be marked on the surface of the roof.
Data Interpretation
12.1 The interpretation of infrared data from a roof is a process of pattern recognition for the purpose of
differentiating exceptions caused by wet insulation from those caused by the following:
12.1.1
Variations in the type, thickness, density, or continuity of roof insulation.
12.1.2
Variations in membrane thickness, moisture content, or continuity.
12.1.3
Variations in the type or thickness of aggregate surfacing or ballast.
12.1.4
Variations within the roof deck or supporting structure.
12.1.5
Inconsistencies in the roofing system due to damage, repairs, coatings, or overlays.
12.1.6
Variations in temperature beneath the roofing system.
12.1.7
Fasteners, flashings, flanges, or projections from the roofing system or discontinuities within it.
12.1.8
Variations in roof surface emittance.
12.1.9
Infrared radiation from nearby sources.
12.1.10
Moisture or debris on the surface of the roof.
12.2 Most exceptions associated with wet insulation observed at night will be warmer than adjacent areas of
the roof that contain dry insulation. However, the reverse may be true for roofs over refrigerated areas.
12.3 Exceptions associated with wet insulation generally fall into one of the following categories: boardstock, picture-framed, or amorphous.

9
12.3.1
Board-stock patterns are comprised of solid rectangular patterns generally associated with
board by board wetting of perlite, cork, wood fiber, and glass fiber insulation.
12.3.2
Picture-framed patterns are comprised of rectangular outlined patterns generally associated

with slow-wetting insulation boards such as cellular plastic and cellular glass. However,
insulation boards that do not abut adjacent boards may give similar patterns even though the
insulation is not wet.
12.3.3
Amorphous patterns are irregular in shape. They are generally associated with monolithic
insulations such as lightweight concrete, gypsum, or foamed-in-place polyurethane. Such
patterns can also be associated with layers of water above or below any insulation.
12.4 Accurate interpretation of infrared data requires verification.
13.0
Verification
13.1 Verification of infrared data must be carried out by the following invasive test methods: cores, or cores
and moisture meter probes.
13.1.1
Cores shall be used to determine the composition and condition of the roofing system, and
the quantity of moisture in the insulation.
13.1.2
Moisture meter probes may be used to indicate the presence of moisture in roofing systems
provided that they are correlated with core moisture contents (see 13.4.2).
13.2 The penetrated roofing system at invasive verification sites must be repaired in a manner that will not
impair its waterproof integrity.
13.3 Minimum verification shall meet these requirements:
13.3.1
One core in each roof section (see 3.1.13) to determine the composition of that section. This
core can be of either wet or dry insulation so as to verify with the minimum number of cores.
13.3.2
One core or correlated moisture meter probe reading in an area of dry insulation for each roof
section. However, at least one core in an area of dry insulation is required for each roofing
system of different composition.
13.3.3
One core in each type of thermal pattern associated with wet insulation (see 12.3) for each
roofing system of different composition.
13.4 Noninvasive testing equipment such as nuclear and capacitance meters may be used to compliment,
but not replace invasive verification.
14.0
Documentation
14.1 The thermographer will provide documentation for all infrared inspections. The following information
will be included in a written report to the end user:
14.1.1
14.1.2
14.1.3
inspection.
14.1.4
10
14.1.5
A description of the location and construction of the roof(s) that were inspected and notations
of any portions that could not be inspected.
14.1.6
14.1.7
The time the exception was documented.
14.1.8
The weather conditions surrounding the exception including the inside and outside air
temperatures, wind speed and direction and the sky conditions.
14.1.9
Hard copies of a thermal image (thermogram) and corresponding visible-light image of the
exception. When approved by the end user, the infrared thermographer may provide
sketches or drawings in place of, or in addition to, thermograms and photographs.
14.1.10
The field-of-view of the infrared camera lens.
14.1.11
14.1.12
Any other information or special conditions that may affect the results, repeatability or
14.1.13
A written narrative that summarizes:
14.1.13.1 The roof construction and materials including the insulation type and thickness, if known.
14.1.13.2 The results of any destructive or other nondestructive tests performed.
14.1.13.3 The inspection procedures and findings.
14.1.14
Painted outlines on the roof surface of areas suspected to contain wet insulation beneath the
membrane.
14.1.15
An accurate drawing of the roof with appropriate scale, direction orientation and showing the
roof areas that have been outlined with paint on the roof surface.

11
Standard for Measuring and Compensating

for Transmittance of an Attenuating Medium
2008 Edition
425 Ellis Street
Standard for Measuring and Compensating for Transmittance

of an Attenuating Medium Using Infrared Imaging Radiometers
Foreword
compensating for transmittance of an attenuating medium using an infrared imaging radiometer. This
standard covers a technique which is both art and science. This document assumes that the reader is
generally familiar with the science of infrared thermography.
standard.


1
Standard for Measuring and Compensating for Transmittance

of an Attenuating Medium Using Infrared Imaging Radiometers
2008 Edition
Table of Contents
1.0
Scope
Page 3
2.0
Page 3
3.0
Terminology
Page 3
4.0
Page 3
5.0
Page 4
6.0
Page 4
7.0
How to Measure the Transmittance of an Attenuating Medium
Page 4
8.0
How to Compensate for the Transmittance of an Attenuating Medium
Page 5
consequences.

2
1.0
Scope
1.1
This test method covers procedures for measuring and compensating for transmittance when using an
imaging radiometer to measure the temperature of an object through an attenuating medium, such as a
window, filter, or atmosphere.
1.2
1.3
2.0
2.1
Radiometers. Infraspection Institute, Burlington, NJ.
2.2
Standard for Measuring and Compensating for Emittance Using Infrared Imaging Radiometers.
Infraspection Institute, Burlington, NJ.
2.3
3.0
Terminology
3.1
Attenuating medium - a semi-transparent solid, liquid or gas, such as a window, filter, external optics
or an atmosphere that attenuates infrared radiation.
3.2
Blackbody simulator - a device with an emittance close to 1.00 that can be heated or cooled to a
known, stable temperature.
3.3
Filter - a semi-transparent material that attenuates certain wavelengths of radiation.
3.4

temperature.
3.5
3.6
3.7
Reflected temperature - is the apparent temperature value reported by a radiometer that corresponds
to the infrared energy incident upon, and reflected from the measured surface of an object.
3.8
3.9
Window - a semi-transparent material that separates conditioned and unconditioned atmospheres.

Windows may also attenuate certain wavelengths of infrared radiation.
4.0
4.1

Using the computer built into an imaging radiometer, methods are given for:
3
5.0
4.1.1
Measuring the transmittance of an attenuating medium.
4.1.2
Compensating for errors when measuring the temperature of an object through an attenuating
medium when the emittance of the object and the transmittance of the attenuating medium
are known.
4.1.3
Measuring and compensating for unknown transmittance and emittance errors when the
object temperature is known.
5.1
The transmittance of an attenuating medium can cause significant error when measuring the
temperature of an object with an imaging radiometer through the medium. Test methods are given for
measuring and compensating for this error source.
5.2
5.3
capabilities.
6.0
6.1

Method for Measuring the Transmittance of an Attenuating Medium
6.1.1
This test method requires a blackbody simulator with an emittance of 0.95 or greater that is at
least 10C warmer than ambient temperature. Potential errors can be minimized by ensuring
the stability of the temperature difference between the source and the ambient temperature
during the test. Also, the transmittance measurement accuracy can be increased by
increasing this temperature difference.
6.1.2
The compositions and thicknesses of attenuating media can vary within the same object.
Errors can be minimized by measuring through the same portion of the object every time.
6.2
The transmittance of an attenuating medium may be specific to the temperature of the medium and the
spectral waveband of the radiometer used to make the measurement. Therefore, the temperature of
the measured object and the spectral waveband of the radiometer used should be noted with the
measured transmittance value.
6.3
These methods are valid only for objects that are opaque in the waveband of the imaging radiometer
utilized.
7.0
7.1
How to Measure the Transmittance of an Attenuating Medium

Equipment Required
7.1.1
A calibrated imaging radiometer with a computer that allows the thermographer to input
reflected temperature (R) and emittance (E) values.
7.1.2
A blackbody simulator or a target with an emittance greater than 0.95 and which is heated
close to the temperature of the target(s) you will be measuring in the field.
7.1.3
A window that is semitransparent in the waveband of the imaging radiometer.

4
7.2
7.3
8.0
8.1
8.2
Method
7.2.1
Heat the blackbody simulator to a temperature close to the temperature(s) of the target(s) that
you will be measuring in the field. Be sure to allow enough time for the blackbody simulator
temperature to stabilize.
7.2.2
Place the imaging radiometer at the desired location and distance from the blackbody
simulator. The use of a tripod or other support device is recommended. Aim and focus the
imaging radiometer on the blackbody simulator.
7.2.3
Measure and compensate for the blackbody simulators reflected temperature. Refer to the
Infraspection Institute Standard for Measuring and Compensating for Reflected Temperature
Using Infrared Imaging Radiometers.
7.2.4
measurement point or area in the center of the blackbody simulator. Measure and note the
apparent temperature of the blackbody simulator.
7.2.5
Place the window directly in front of, and in contact with, the imaging radiometers lens.
7.2.6
Without moving the imager, adjust its emittance control until the indicated temperature is the
same as the apparent temperature just taken in 7.2.4. The indicated emittance value is the
transmittance percentage, T, of this window when measuring this temperature target with this
waveband imaging radiometer.
7.2.7
Conduct procedures 7.2.1 through 7.2.6 a minimum of three times and average the
transmittance percentage values.
Notes
7.3.1
Maintain a safe working distance from any high temperature blackbody simulators or targets.
7.3.2
Window thickness can vary. Be sure to sight through the same area each time you use the
window.
How to Compensate for the Transmittance of an Attenuating Medium

Equipment Required
8.1.1
A calibrated imaging radiometer with a computer that allows the thermographer to input
reflected temperature (R) and emittance (E) values.
8.1.2
Procedure 8.2 requires an attenuating medium with a known transmittance value and a target
with known emittance. Both E and T values should be calculated with the subject imaging
radiometer at a temperature close to that of the target to be measured.
8.1.3
Procedure 8.3 requires an attenuating medium with an unknown transmittance value and a
target having an unknown emittance value and a known surface temperature.
Measuring Object Temperature Through an Attenuating Medium with Known E and T Values
8.2.1
Position the imaging radiometer so that its lens views the target to be measured through the
attenuating medium. When measuring through a window, the window should be in contact
with the imaging radiometers lens. Aim and focus the imaging radiometer on target to be
measured.
5
8.3
8.4
8.2.2
Measure and compensate for the targets reflected temperature (R). Refer to the
Infraspection Institute Standard for Measuring and Compensating for Reflected Temperature
Using Infrared Imaging Radiometers but input the transmittance percentage (T) of the
attenuating medium (instead of 1.00) in the imaging radiometers computer under the E input
when measuring the reflected temperature.
8.2.3
Calculate the combined transmittance and emittance correction value by multiplying the
known attenuating medium transmittance percentage times the known target emittance (T x
E). Note this combined correction value.
8.2.4
Compensate for transmittance and emittance by entering the combined correction value from
8.2.3 in the imaging radiometers computer under the E input.
8.2.5
With attenuating medium or window in place, measure the temperature of the object with the
imaging radiometer. Use an appropriate imager measurement function, such as spot
temperature, cross hairs, or isotherms to define a measurement point or area on the target.
Measuring Object Temperature Through an Attenuating Medium with Unknown E and T Values
8.3.1
Position the imaging radiometer so that its lens views the target to be measured through the
attenuating medium. When measuring through a window, the window should be in contact
with the imaging radiometers lens. Aim and focus the imaging radiometer on target to be
measured.
8.3.2
8.3.3
measurement point or area on the target.
8.3.4
Without moving the imaging radiometer, adjust its emittance control until the indicated
temperature matches the targets known temperature. The indicated emittance value is the
combined correction value for viewing this object at this temperature and waveband through
the subject attenuating medium or window.
8.3.5
correction value.
8.3.6
With attenuating medium or window in place, this combined correction value may be used to
measure other areas of the target having similar emittance values and operating at similar
temperatures.
Notes
8.4.1
Some imaging radiometers have an input for transmittance of a window commonly called
external optics or optics. When conducting procedure 8.2, enter the percentage
transmittance value under the external optics input and measure reflected temperature with
the imaging radiometers E control set to 1.0. After compensating for reflected temperature,
enter the known E value of target into the imaging radiometers computer.
8.4.2
Errors can occur if the temperature of the attenuating medium is different from the reflected
temperature of the target whose temperature you are measuring.

6

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Infraspection Institute

Standard for Infrared Inspection

Standard for Infrared Inspection of Building Envelopes

Other Infraspection Institute Standards

Copyright 2008, Infraspection Institute

Standard for Infrared Inspection of Building Envelopes

Significance and Use

Responsibilities of the Infrared Thermographer

Responsibilities of the End User

Limitations (Applicability of Constructions)

Significant Environmental Parameters

Copyright 2008, Infraspection Institute 425 Ellis Street Burlington, NJ 08016

This standard may involve use of equipment in hazardous or remote locations.

This standard addresses operating procedures and operator qualifications.

For the purpose of this standard,

End user - the person requesting infrared thermographic inspections.

Copyright 2008, Infraspection Institute

Significance and Use

Conductive exceptions are usually caused by insufficient, improperly installed, damaged or

Destructive testing is necessary to verify the presence of water in the insulation.

Infrared thermography will be presented as a visual inspection technique to gather and

Copyright 2008, Infraspection Institute

Responsibilities of the Infrared Thermographer

Responsibilities of the End User

Copyright 2008, Infraspection Institute

Limitations (Applicability of Constructions)

The infrared inspection shall be conducted in an organized fashion to ensure complete

Copyright 2008, Infraspection Institute

The infrared inspection shall be conducted in an organized fashion to ensure complete

Detected exceptions should be documented with a thermogram and daylight photograph.

Copyright 2008, Infraspection Institute

The infrared inspection shall be conducted in an organized fashion to ensure complete

Detected exceptions should be documented with a thermogram and daylight photograph.

Significant Environmental Parameters

Copyright 2008, Infraspection Institute

Variations in the type, thickness, density, or continuity of insulation.

Variations in wall thickness, moisture content, or continuity.

Variations in the type or thickness of wall surfacing.

Variations within the building walls.

Inconsistencies in walls due to damage, repairs, coatings, or overlays.

Variations in temperature behind walls.

Fasteners, flashings, flanges, or projections from walls or discontinuities within them.

Variations in surface emittance.

Infrared radiation from nearby sources.

Hot or cold air from nearby sources.

Moisture or debris on inspected surfaces.

Variations in shape or geometry of inspected surfaces.

12.2 Accurate interpretation of infrared data requires verification.

The name and address of the end user.

Copyright 2008, Infraspection Institute

14.1.9.1 The distance from the infrared camera to the exception.

Copyright 2008, Infraspection Institute

Standard for Measuring

Standard for Measuring Distance/Target Size Values

Other Infraspection Institute Standards

Copyright 2008, Infraspection Institute

Standard for Measuring Distance/Target Size Values

Summary of Test Method

Significance and Use

Copyright 2008, Infraspection Institute 425 Ellis Street Burlington, NJ 08016

Level-II Certified Infrared Thermographer Reference Manual, Infraspection Institute.

Infrared imaging radiometer (imaging radiometer) - a thermal imager capable of measuring

Thermographer - see Infrared thermographer.