Thermoacoustic Refrigeration

Jonathan Newman, Bob Cariste, Alejandro Queiruga, Isaac Davis, Ben Plotnick, Michael Gordon, and Sidney
San Martn
We explored the basic principles of thermoacoustic refrigeration, replicating the work of Russell and Weibull to
produce a small thermoacoustic refrigerator out of readily available parts. Combined with an understanding of
the underlying thermodynamics, the model enables us to spread awareness of the viability of thermoacoustic
devices as refrigerators and heat pumps.

Introduction
From creating comfortable home environments
to manufacturing fast and efficient electronic devices,
air conditioning and refrigeration remain expensive,
yet essential, services for both homes and industries.
However, in an age of impending energy and
environmental crises, current cooling technologies
continue to generate greenhouse gases with highenergy costs.
Thermoacoustic refrigeration is an innovative
alternative for cooling that is both clean and
inexpensive. Through the construction of a functional
model, we will demonstrate the effectiveness of
thermoacoustics for modern cooling.
Refrigeration
relies
on
two
major
thermodynamic principles.
First, a fluids
temperature rises when compressed and falls when
expanded. Second, when two substances are placed in
direct contact, heat will flow from the hotter
substance to the cooler one. While conventional
refrigerators use pumps to transfer heat on a
macroscopic scale, thermoacoustic refrigerators rely
on sound to generate waves of pressure that
alternately compress and relax the gas particles
within the tube.
The model constructed for this research project
employed
inexpensive,
household
materials.
Although the model did not achieve the original goal
of refrigeration, the experiment suggests that
thermoacoustic refrigerators could one day be viable
replacements for conventional refrigerators.

Sound Waves and Pressure

Thermoacoustics is based on the principle that
sound waves are pressure waves. These sound waves
propagate through the air via molecular collisions.
The molecular collisions cause a disturbance in the
air, which in turn creates constructive and destructive
interference. The constructive interference makes the
molecules compress, and the destructive interference
makes the molecules expand. This principle is the
basis behind the thermoacoustic refrigerator.
One method to control these pressure
disturbances is with standing waves. Standing waves
are natural phenomena exhibited by any wave, such

as light, sound, or water waves. In a closed tube,

columns of air demonstrate these patterns as sound
waves reflect back on themselves after colliding with
the end of the tube. When the incident and reflected
waves overlap, they interfere constructively,
producing a single waveform. This wave appears to
cause the medium to vibrate in isolated sections as
the traveling waves are masked by the interference.1
Therefore, these standing waves seem to vibrate in
constant position and orientation around stationary
nodes. These nodes are located where the two
component sound waves interfere to create areas of
zero net displacement. The areas of maximum
displacement are located halfway between two nodes
and are called antinodes. The maximum compression
of the air also occurs at the antinodes. Due to these
node and antinode properties, standing waves are
useful because only a small input of power is needed
to create a large amplitude wave. This large
amplitude wave then has enough energy to cause
visible thermoacoustic effects.
All sound waves oscillate a specific amount of
times per second, called the waves frequency, and is
measured in Hertz. For our thermoacoustic
refrigerator we had to calculate the optimal resonant
frequency in order to get the maximum heat transfer
rate. The equation for the frequency of a wave
traveling through a closed tube is given by:

v
4L

where f is frequency, v is velocity of the wave, and L

is the length of the tube.

Figure 1: Shows the relationship between the phase of the wave, the
pressure, and the actual arrangement of the molecules. The black line
shows the phase of the sound wave, the red shows the pressure and the
dots below represent the actual molecules. From Reference 2

GSET Research Journal 2006

Thermodynamics, Heat Cycles,

and Heat Pumps
The second fundamental science behind
thermoacoustics is thermodynamics, the study of heat
transfer. The Ideal Gas Law states that the pressure
on a gas is directly proportional to absolute
temperature, or, as the pressure on a gas increases,
the temperature increases. On a microscopic scale,
the gas particles in a system will collide more
frequently if the temperature is increases or if the
volume is reduced. The basic thermodynamic cycles
rely on this relationship between temperature and
pressure. In any heat cycle, gases will expand and
contract, circulating heat throughout the system.
These movements of kinetic energy can be used to do
work. Depending on how the heat oscillations are
controlled, different heat cycles become more efficient,
involving less loss of heat from the system.
Thermoacoustic refrigerators use variations of these
cycles to pump heat.
The Carnot Cycle
The most efficient cycle of thermodynamics, the
Carnot cycle, takes advantage of this principle of gas
expansion. The Carnot cycle uses gas in a closed
chamber to extract work from the system. In engines,
pistons are used to output work. The cycle begins
with the piston in its rest position. Heat from an outside
source is transferred to the gas via an isothermal
process where the temperature does not change. By
the ideal gas law, the gas expands, pushing the
piston to its extended position. This is an
adiabatic process where no heat is transferred into or
out of the cylinder. The heated gas then transfers the
heat to a low temperature container doing work on
the surroundings. This is also an isothermal process.

The surroundings now do work on the system,

adiabatically compressing the gas and allowing the
piston to fall back to its rest position. However, because
it is easier to compress the cooler gas than to add heat
to the warm gas, net work is done on the surroundings.
To determine the efficiency of the cycle, the total
useful work done is compared to the total heat
transferred. In Figure 3, the total heat transferred equals
the red area plus the white area. The work extracted
from the system is represented by the white area. Even
the Carnot cycle, the ideal thermodynamic process
where each step is reversible and involves no
2

change in entropy, transfers more heat than it does

work. However, the Carnot cycle has the best work
output with the given temperature difference and
entropy difference, so it is defined to be 100% efficient.
The Stirling Cycle
The Stirling cycle is a variation of the Carnot cycle,
but unlike the Carnot cycle, an engine can actually be
constructed that effectively utilizes the Stirling
method of heat transfer. In a Stirling engine, an external
heat source (often external combustion) transfers heat
into the gas in the chamber. As in the Carnot cycle, the
gas expands, pushing the piston to its extended
position. The chamber into which the gas expands,
however, has a heat sink, usually consisting of metal
fins, through which the heat in the expanded gas can
dissipate into a cooler chamber. The gas then
compresses, and the piston returns to its rest position. A
Stirling engine is useful because it can be powered by
almost any external heat source, such as solar
3

power, nuclear power, or conventional combustion.

Both the Stirling cycle and Carnot cycle involve
the following basic thermodynamic cycle: heat enters
from a hot container, work comes out of the engine (i.e.
moving a piston), and, as a result, the heat is dissipated
into a cooler container.

Figure 2: P-V diagram of the Carnot cycle. From Reference 3.

Figure 3: T-S diagram showing the four stages in the Carnot
cycle. From reference 4.

GSET Research Journal 2006

thermoacoustic refrigerator cycle. The left end is towards the

closed end of the resonator tube. From Reference 5.

Figure 4: Shows the cylinder positions of the four steps of the

Carnot cycle. From reference 3.

A heat pump, or refrigerator, operates on the

same basic cycle as a heat engine, only in reverse. A
heat pump requires an input of work to transfer heat
from a cooler container to a hotter one. This heatpump cycle is the basic mechanism by which our
refrigerators will work.

Thermoacoustics
Thermoacoustics combines the branches of
acoustics and thermodynamics together to move heat
by using sound. While acoustics is primarily
concerned with the macroscopic effects of sound
transfer like coupled pressure and motion
oscillations, thermoacoustics focuses on the
microscopic temperature oscillations that accompany
these pressure changes. Thermoacoustics takes
advantage of these pressure oscillations to move heat
on a macroscopic level. This results in a large
temperature difference between the hot and cold sides
of the device and causes refrigeration.
The most important piece of a thermoacoustic
device is the stack. The stack consists of a large
number of closely spaced surfaces that are aligned
parallel to the to the resonator tube. The purpose of
the stack is to provide a medium for heat transfer as
the sound wave oscillates through the resonator tube.
A functional cross section of the stack we used is
shown in figure 6. In typical standing wave devices,
the temperature differences occur over too small of
an area to be noticeable. In a usual resonator tube,
back towards the right, the sound wave expands the
gas. Although some work is expended to return the
gas to the initial state, the heat released on the top of
the stack is greater than the work expended to return
the gas to the initial state. This process results in a net
transfer of heat to the left side of the stack. Finally, in

heat transfer occurs between the walls of cylinder and

the gas. However, since the vast majority of the
molecules are far from the walls of the chamber, the
gas particles cannot exchange heat with the wall and
just oscillate in place, causing no net temperature
difference. In a typical column, 99% of the air
molecules are not near enough to the wall for the
temperature effects to be noticeable. The purpose of
the stack is to provide a medium where the walls are
close enough so that each time a packet of gas moves,
the temperature differential is transferred to the wall
of the stack.
Most stacks consist of honeycombed plastic
spacers that do not conduct heat throughout the stack
but rather absorb heat locally. With this property, the
stack can temporarily absorb the heat transferred by
the sound waves. The spacing of these designs is
crucial: if the holes are too narrow, the stack will be
difficult to fabricate, and the viscous properties of the
air will make it difficult to transmit sound through the
stack. If the walls are too far apart, then less air will
be able to transfer heat to the walls of the stack,
resulting in lower efficiency.
Thermoacoustic Cycle
The cycle by which heat transfer occurs is
similar to the Stirling cycle. Figure 55 traces the basic
thermoacoustic cycle for a packet of gas, a collection
of gas molecules that act and move together. Starting
from point 1, the packet of gas is compressed and
moves to the left. As the packet is compressed, the
sound wave does work on the packet of gas,
providing the power for the refrigerator. When the
gas packet is at maximum compression, the gas ejects
the heat back into the stack since the temperature of
the gas is now higher than the temperature of the
stack. This phase is the refrigeration part of the cycle,
moving the heat farther from the bottom of the tube.
In the second phase of the cycle, the gas is
returned to the initial state. As the gas packet moves
step 4, the packets of gas reabsorb heat from the cold
reservoir to repeat the heat transfer process.
Penetration Depth
An
essential
variable
in
building
a
thermoacoustic refrigerator is the spacing between

the walls of the stack. If the walls of the stack are too
close, the sound cannot pass through the stack
efficiently since the viscous properties of air prevent
the air from vibrating. If the walls are too far apart,
the process described above cannot occur, since gas
packets are too far away from the wall to effectively
transfer heat. According to G.W. Swift, the ideal
spacing in a stack is 4 thermal penetration depths.6
The thermal penetration depth is the distance heat can
diffuse in a gas over a certain amount of time. For
example, if a block of aluminum is at a constant low
temperature and suddenly one side is exposed to a
high temperature, the distance that the heat penetrates
Figure 6: The basic design of our thermoacoustic refrigerator. The
design of the stack is shown on the left, which consists of closely
spaced film walls. The design on the right shows the entire setup,
with the loudspeaker, stack, and plug. The thermocouples (not
shown) were inserted one above the stack and one below the stack.

T crit

p
cp

where p is the acoustic pressure and

is the
acoustic displacement amplitude. The variation in
the metal in 1 second is the heat penetration. As time
passes, the heat penetrates farther into the material,
increasing the temperature of the interior sections.
However, since sound waves are constantly
oscillating between the roles of heat source and heat
sink, the thermal penetration depth is roughly
constant. The thermal penetration depth for an
oscillating heat source is a function of the frequency
of the standing wave, f , the thermal conductivity,
, and density,
, of the gas, as well as the isobaric
specific heat per unit mass of the gas, c p , according
to the equation: 5
k

f cp

Critical Temperature
The critical temperature is the temperature at
which no heat will be transferred through the stack. If
the temperature difference induced by the sound
wave is greater than this critical temperature, the
stack will function as a refrigerator, transferring heat
from the cold end of the tube to the warm end. If the
temperature is less than the critical temperature then
the stack will function as an acoustic engine, moving
heat from the warm region to the colder region and
creating sound waves. The function for the critical
longitudinal temperature gradient is5
loom wound with fishing wire and the film were both
sprayed with spray adhesive. The line was then
applied to film with an even distribution of weight in
order to insure optimal strength. After 10 minutes the
glue was cured enough to cut the line from loom.

local wall temperature is represented by 2 Tcrit

over the maximum displacement of the gas
molecules. The maximum temperature variation
caused by the sound waves is

2 p / c p . If these two

quantities are equal, the critical temperature is

reached and no heat is transferred. This temperature
is important in determining the properties of a
thermoacoustic device, since efficiency depends on a
temperature differential caused by the sound waves
that is larger than the critical temperature so that a
large cooling effect is created.

Procedure
To create the thermoacoustic refrigerator we
followed a plan similar to one designed by Russell et
al.5 We began by creating the stack, which we
constructed with film and fishing wire. The design
specified an optimal thermal penetration depth of 4;
however, we were restricted by material constraints
and achieved an acceptable penetration depth of 2.5.
This was achieved with 15-lb nylon fishing wire with
a diameter of 0.34 millimeters. The design called for
the fishing line to be placed in 5 mm separations, so
we each created looms as templates for stack. The
looms were created from 5 cm wide cardboard
roughly 33 cm in length with slits placed every 5 mm
on each side. This allowed for a straight application
of the fishing line to the film. The film was then cut
to a meter in length and taped to a flat surface. The
However, while removing the line from the loom, we
had to take care not to remove it from the film. This
process was repeated approximately 3 times until the
entire meter of film was covered with fishing line.
We allowed the stack to cure for several more days in
order to ensure the best quality.

We then machined 8 by 8 inch squares of

Plexiglas with a 2.5 cm whole in the center. This
would later serve as the base. We then cut 2 cm
diameter Plexiglas tube into lengths of roughly 25
cm. The edges of the tubes where then beveled to
allow for proper sealing. The tube was then inserted
and glued into the hole in the center of the Plexiglas
squares. After the glue dried we then attached the
Plexiglas square to a 6-inch, low-range speaker. The
hole in the square was centered over the speaker and
silicon caulk was used to properly seal the
connection.
After the glue dried we took the completed stack
and coiled the film tightly enough to fit into the 2.5
cm diameter tube. We then pushed the stack down 4
cm as specified from the top of tube using a
machined 2.5 cm tool designed not to destroy the
stack. We then created the two thermocouples
required for determining the temperature gradient. To
accomplish this, we took a length of 0.015 cm
chromel and a length of 0.015 cm alumel and welded
them together to create each thermocouple. We then
drilled holes 1 cm below and 1 cm above the stack
where the thermocouples were inserted into the
center of the tube. We then used the thermocouple
calibration device to ensure that the thermocouples
were working. We then sealed the tube by plugging
the end with an aluminum cap.

Possible Modifications
One of the major problems that we had was the
heat build up at the top of the tube. Most of the
possible modifications we thought of involved of
dissipating the heat from the top of the tube. In the

Figure 7: The final modified thermoacoustic device with heat sink.

Next, we connected a frequency generator to a

40w amplifier and connected this to the speaker via a
BNC to RCA connector. We then determined the
impedance of the speakers and used this knowledge
to properly connect the speaker to the amplifier with
8-gauge wire. After, we inserted the machined
aluminum stoppers, roughly 2.5 cm in diameter,
which were needed to create the closed tube
necessary for standing waves.
Next, we determined the proper frequency
needed to achieve a standing wave. This is supposed
to be at the first harmonic, or, when the wavelength is
4 times the length of the tube. We measured the
length of the tube to the bottom of the aluminum cap
and multiplied by 4 and divided the speed of sound at
room temperatures, or roughly 349 m/s, by the length
of tube. We determined the frequency to be around
340 Hz.
Once we found the optimal resonant frequency
for our refrigerator, we used a tone generator, which
outputs a sound at a specific frequency. Basically, the
generator vibrates the speaker cone at that frequency,
which subsequently vibrates the air and causes the
heat transfer to occur. We listened to verify for the
sound of the harmonic, and when verified, we
increased the intensity of the frequency and then
recorded the temperatures of the two thermocouples.

original design the aluminum plug was responsible

for conducting heat from of the top end of the tube
into the surrounding air. However, the aluminum
proved to be unable to dissipate enough heat, because
as we ran the experiment the temperature of the
bottom section soon reached room temperature. This

is because heat will only be transferred from the cold

region of the bottom end to the hot region of the top
when the temperature gradient created by the sound
waves is greater than the temperature difference
between these two regions. When too much heat is in
the system the bottom temperature stays at the
surrounding temperature, while the area on the top of
the tube becomes very hot.
One possible way to dissipate more heat is to
increase the surface area of the cap by cutting
grooves into each end of the aluminum plug. The
increased surface area gives air particles a larger area
to collide into the aluminum plug and transfer heat,
allowing for there to be more collisions at a single
time, thus increasing the rate of heat conduction of
the aluminum plug from the top end of the tube into
the surrounding air. The grooved aluminum plug will
decrease the temperature in the top end of the tube by
dissipating heat faster than the flat aluminum plug
could. This will decrease the temperature difference
between the top end and the bottom end, allowing the
bottom end to become colder than with the flat plug
before the temperature difference reaches the point
that it exceeds the temperature gradient created by
the sound waves and heat can no longer be
transferred. Unfortunately, we were unable to test this
modification since we did not have the appropriate
machine tools.
Another possible method of dissipating the heat
from the refrigerator would involve heat absorption
by water. Thin pipes could be run across the top end
of the stack. Liquid could flow through the stack,
effectively transferring the excess heat from the
system. Water, with a relatively high heat capacity,
would absorb the heat quickly. The hot water could
then be used for other applications, such as spinning
a turbine in a generator or an engine. This would be
using the device as a heat pump to power a device.
Unfortunately we did not have the tools to try this
modification as well.
Instead, in our experiment we tried to create a
heat sink around the top end of the tube, to try and
create effective refrigeration on the bottom of the
tube. We wrapped copper around the top of the pipe

to increase the surface area of the pipe and dissipate

more heat. However, as described in the results
below, this was largely ineffective, probably because
the acrylic pipe was unable to effectively transfer
heat.
Another method for improving the heat transfer
within the tube would be to use helium as the sound
medium. Of all gases, helium behaves the most like
an ideal gas in that diatomic helium molecules
exhibit weak electrostatic attractions upon each other.
Due to low dispersion forces and a low atomic mass,
helium molecules have a greater thermal conductivity
than any other gas except for hydrogen. Hydrogen
gas, however, is reactive, whereas helium is
relatively inert. Using helium as a sound medium,
though beyond the reach of this study, would only
require an evacuated airtight tube that would then be
pressurized with the helium gas. This process is used
in
many
professional-grade
thermoacoustic
refrigerators where helium gas has led to increased
efficiency and heat transfer across the stack.7
Unfortunately we could not try this modification
because of a lack of materials.

Results
We successfully created a thermoacoustic heat
pump. The problem with this, however, is that we
were attempting to create a thermoacoustic
refrigerator. Our results showed that we were able to
create a high temperature gradient above room
temperature, but were unable to significantly cool the
air. We tested three thermoacoustic refrigerators that
we built. Two of these devices were created from the
instructions in the procedure section without any
modifications. The third had the heat sink
modification that was described in the modifications
section.
We collected the data for these results by
sampling the temperatures at the top and bottom
thermocouples of the refrigerators as they ran every
ten seconds, stopping when it became apparent that
there would be no more significant change.
In the three tests performed on the devices, the
temperature difference between the hot end and cold
end of the stack increased rapidly for the first thirty
seconds and reached the final value after around
ninety seconds of operation. The unmodified models
exhibited temperature differences of 11C and 14C
after thirty seconds with final temperature differences
of 19C and 20C. The model with the heat sink
created a larger temperature difference, reaching a
temperature gradient of 22C after thirty seconds with
a final temperature difference of 28C.
The three tests also showed similar trends in the
absolute temperatures of the top and bottom of the
30
20
10

50

0
0

40

20

60

Temperature (C)

Temperature of unmodified model

Time (s)

Figure 8: The unmodified model data. The top red bar shows the
readings of the warm thermocouple. The bottom blue bar shows
the readings for the cooler thermocouple.

allowing the excess heat to dissipate to the

surroundings. However, our device did demonstrate
that thermoacoustic device have the ability to create
and maintain a large temperature gradient, more than
20 degrees Centigrade, which would be useful as a
heat pump.

Applications
Thermal management has always been a concern
for computer systems and other electronics.
Computational speeds will always be limited by the
amount of noise produced by computer chips. Since
most noise is generated by waster heat, computer
components and other semiconductor devices operate

Conclusion
Our device worked as a proof of concept device
showing that a thermoacoustic device is possible and
is able to cool air, abet for only a short period of
time. If we were able to build the device with better
materials, such has a more insulating tube, we might
have been able to get better results. In order to create
a working refrigerator we probably would have to
attach a heat sink to the top of the device, thus,
Although this project was specifically
designed to test the effectiveness of thermoacoustic
refrigeration for electronic devices, low-cost, highefficiency cooling devices have broad applications in
commercial industries and households. Research
conducted by Professor Steven Garrett at

Temperature of Second Unmodified Model

Temperature (C)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Time (s)

Figure 9: The unmodified model data for the second refrigerator.

The top red bar shows the readings of the warm thermocouple. The
bottom blue bar shows the readings for the cooler thermocouple.

faster and more efficiently at lower temperatures.8 If

thermoacoustic cooling devices could be scaled for
computer applications, the electronic industry would
realize longer lifetimes for microchips, increased
speed and capacity for telecommunications, as well
as reduced energy costs.9
Modified Model Temperature
70
Temperature (C)

stack. The bottom of the stack, the cold end, became

colder during the initial rapid rate of temperature
change. When the rate of change of the temperature
difference began to decrease, and the hotter end
started transferring heat back to the cooler one, the
temperature of the bottom end of the stack began to
increase. For the unmodified models, the maximum
temperature gradient was 15C. For the modified
model with the heat sink, the temperature difference
was 22C. For the two unmodified models, the
temperature of the bottom of the stack gradually
increased until it reached room temperature. The
model with the heat sink actually exceeded room
temperature by 3C.
Based on this data, the refrigerator was able to
generate a large temperature gradient. However, as
time went on, the refrigerator returned to room
temperature, or even slightly above it. This can be
attributed primarily to unwanted heat diffusion of the
top end of the stack to the outside of the tube and to
the cooler end of the tube. Heat may have also
diffused through the acrylic which would have
brought the cool section back up to room
temperature. Additionally, the vibration of the
speakers could have added heat to the cool part of the
device, thus adding enough heat to result in no long
term cooling effect. Therefore, over the long term, we
were unable to cool the air significantly, and instead
created a 20 degree centigrade heat pump.

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Time (s)

Figure 10: The modified model data. The top red bar shows the
readings of the warm thermocouple. The bottom blue bar shows
the readings for the cooler thermocouple. As shown in the diagram,
the actual temperature difference was slightly greater in this
design, but not significantly different.

Pennsylvania State University has yielded reliable air

conditioning devices used in submarines and space
shuttles.10 However, future applications of
thermoacoustic air conditioners would not be
restricted to industrial uses but could offer
inexpensive heating and cooling for homes.

Additionally, since current air conditioners use HFCs

and
other
potentially
harmful
chemicals,
thermoacoustic cooling systems that employ inert
gases would have long-term benefits on the
environment.10 One thermoacoustic device could
potentially operate an entire households air
conditioner, water heater, and furnace, eliminating
the need for natural gases and oils.

Ben and Jerrys Ice Cream, in collaboration with

Professor Garretts research team, has begun
production of thermoacoustic freezers to keep its ice
cream cold. Investing over $600,000 in Garretts
program, Ben and Jerrys has already placed the
freezers in many of its New York stores.11 The ice
cream companys experiment has successfully
demonstrated the viability of thermoacoustic
refrigeration.

Acknowledgments
The Governors School of Engineering and
Technology for providing this opportunity to be
exposed to conducting small scale research
Professor Stephen Tse, Advisor
Dr Galiang Sun, Graduate student
Megan Smith, Graduate student
Stephanie Chen, GSET counselor
Mr. Anthony Welch, Program director GSET
All the Governors School counselors and staff

Standing Waves. Rod Nave, Georgia State University. Available: http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/waves/standw.html. 17 July 2006.
2
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/carnot.html
3
http://www.howstuffworks.com/stirling-engine.htm
4
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_cycle
5
Daniel A. Russell and Pontus Weibull, Tabletop thermoacoustic refrigerator for demonstrations, Am. J. Phys. 70 (12),
December 2002.
6
G. W. Swift, Thermoacoustic engines and refrigerators, Phys. Today 48, 22-28 (1995)
7
http://www.rolexawards.com/laureates/laureate-36-lurie_garrett.html
8
Thermal Management of Computer Systems Using Active Cooling of Pulse Tube Refrigerators. H.H. Jung and S.W.K
Yuan. Available: http://www.yutopian.net/Yuan/papers/Intel.PDF. 17 July 2006.
9
Thermoacoustic Refrigeration for Electronic Devices: Project Outline. Stephen Tse, 2006 Governors School of
Engineering and Technology.
10
Frequently Asked Questions about Thermoacoustics. Penn State Graduate Program in Acoustics. Available:
http://www.acs.psu.edu/users/sinclair/thermal/tafaq.html. 17 July 2006.
11
Chilling at Ben & Jerrys: Cleaner, Greener. Ken Brown. Available:
http://www.thermoacousticscorp.com/news/index.cfm/ID/4.htm. 17 July 2006.