.

Publication

4%?3

SPE

September

425

2973

ROCK CUTTING BY JETS:

A PROMISING METHOD OF OIL WELL 13RILLZXG
by
R.

Feenstra,

A. C. Pols

& J, van Steveninck

103rJ AIM

Paper to be offered for presentation

at the
Annual hkcting
in Dallas, Texas, 24- 2S Februq-

2974.

KONIXKLIJKE/SH12LL
EXPLORATIE

EN PRODUKTH2 L.-U30RAT03MR-M

RIJSWIJK,
..

THE 2?13THERLAF?DS

.
-L

.
m

-II-

CONTENTS
Abstract

Ew2
In

.-

Introduction
Laboratory
Field

.,

experiments
.

experiments

10

Looking ahead

13

Conclusions

13

Acknowledgement

14

References

15

Tables

I - W

I?igwes

1-12

:-, _i

.?

.
.

ABSTRACT
This paper
laboratory

deals with the results

of experimental

and In the field on high-pressure

found to be five times

properties

have a major

pressure.

drilling.

and laboratory

These

results

criteria

to simuiate

5000 psi pressure

abnormal

de~tiation tendency,

ID) required
to effective

service.

for acceptable
straining

These

Further

phenomena

fluids

in

drilling

Following
laboratory

bcIow 1700 ft depth,

fluids
single-

bits

using conventional

that jet bits cut to-gmgc

hydraulic power demand

bits.

The small

holes,

nozzles

have shown to be practical,

with no
(2-3 mm
thanks

fluid.

It can be concluded. that the method

and promising.

shales

than conventional

of the drilling

fluid

runs indicate

faster

have been

and drilling

with conventional

for constructing
.,

in the

of drilling

down-hole pressures.

Field bits have been run in Tertiaxy

pressures

pressures

to the hold-down

have been established

(1, 4 in) and fieIcl bits (9 5/8 in).

Threshold

bottom-hoIe

similar

work performed

irrespective

have been obtained

ecluipment designed

nozzle exq)eriments,

strength,

However,

effect on bit performance,

conventional

jet drilling.

the rockfs true tensile

and bottom-hole

research

evaluation

of jet drilling

rock in oil wells

of this method in the near future

.
.

seems

looks feasible
justified.

L.

.
.

.
.

ROCK CUTTING BY JETS:

A PROMISIN-G METHOD OF OIL WELL DRILLING

INTRODUCTION
In the course

of time,

an increasing
number of investigations
on jet cutting
45 , and wood6 have been re~_ted
1,2,3
, metals
such as rocks

kinds of material,
serve

various

viz cleep-well
.

drilling

have been published

containing

abrasives,

fluid handling

considerably

A large

part

laboratory-type

and do not appear

has been taken

to simulate

drilling

imp?.oved further

is encouraging

hydrostatic

.-

tests

pressures

necessary

for making

fluids.
with the aid of three

on both micro-bits

(Ii

in) and

of jets in deep wells,

they exist

care

in the field on the

rate

with single

:~ozzles,

for fieid. use.

and pumps,

served

?.aborato~

Field

to verify

bits have been cles ignecl,

runs on 9 5/$ in bits ~ using

the feasibility

of the jet drilling

efforts

are evidently needed to evaluate the jet drilling method. It

10
is supported by a number
that one of these
, I a field test pm gramme,
jointly.

and develop
of time.

of jets,

fluids.
and developed

of oil companies
period

application

have been found to have a m-ajor effect on the bit-penetration

equipment

Further

eva hate

drilling

has been performed

which permit

machines,

1?ollowing experiments

concept.

to conventional

of our investigation

These

conventional

to be absolutely

(6+ - 9 5/8 in). In view of the application

bits

for various

ourselves

drilling

hcle bottom.

deals with one particular

to

for hydrocarbon
exploration and production. A number of papers
7,8,9
on this subject
, , some of which refer to jets purposely
,7
complicate
termed jetted particll? drilling
. Since such abrasives

hole we have restricted

full-scale

This paper

applications.

all

Such a combined

this new method

This paper aims

. .

effort

of drilling

to contribute

is of paramount

importance

to its full potential

to that ultimate

to

in a reasonable

goal.

LABORilTC)RY EXPER13iE NTS

~uipment

used

Three
experiments.
modified

laboratory
Their

machines

ratings

for high-pressure

All machines
performed
with plastic

sheet),

except

1-3) have been used for jet drilling

are given in Table 1. The largest

service ; its new ratings

are equipped

on rock samples.

(Figs.

with a pressure

The rock samples

for one circular

machine

was recently

are given in parentheses.

vessel

in which experiments

are jacketed

(e, g. painted

are

or covered

spot within an O ring at the bottom

of the

-2-

.
pressure

which serves

vessel,

atmospheric
simulate

pressure

pressure

the hole and the pore pressure

pressure

that affects

maintained

between

flow through

inside

rates

the pressure

at depth.

depth.

The pressure

the mud flow downstream

.

vessel

at

is set to

head of the mud column in

the hydrostatic

in the rock at drilling

the rock pores

It is this differential
in the pressure

of the pressure

is

vessel

~essel.

procedure

Test

Threshold
mounted
jetted

pressures

with roughly

threshold.

(Fig,

1070 higher

rate

approach

pressure

o~*mud is

of 50 bar.

is inspected.

drop until a groove

drop is considered

of lowering

as a result

bit is measured

the circulation
of lowering

the rock will *be removed

After

The test is
is cut in the

to be the

the bit exceeds

leading

pressures
rate

be detected

and bit-rotary

cutting

speed

cutting

because

capacity,

capacity

torque

but as

the bit will

the bit pressure

by the hole bottom,

to some rotary

nto

the bit

as the bit is lowered,

its potential

of choking the nozzles

the bit will touch the rock,

by lowering

is below the potential

at the same

This can easily

the hole bottQm.

increases

after

rate,

As long as the rate

soon as the rate

pressure

of a laboratory

the rock at an increasing

of the jets,

nozzle

Water

pressure

the rock surface

(I?ig. 4)

The penetration
have been set.

drop and an ambient

5), The last nozzle

pressure.

with a 3 mm nozzle

10 mm above the rock sample.

(= 10 seconds),

at 30 fim

rock surface

from tests

nozzIe pressure

with a certain

repeated

are derived

by 40 mm,

eccentrically

five rotations
*

drilling

by throttling

the filtrate

4). The fluid pressure

(Fig.

the differential

to discharge

drop

and a moment

atid an increase

lab=!

in bit-load

reading, The rate of lowering at the moment of increasing bit-pressure

drop, bit
lozd, or torque is recorded ~~sthe bits penetration rate in the rods drilled at the
prevailing

bit-pressure

rotary

drop,

speed,

back pressure

and fluid properties.

.
pressures

Threshold
The nozzle

pressure

drop has to exceed

by the jet.

This pressure

surface

is damaged

various

rocks

before.

It has been found that the threshold

and test conditions,

strength,

the ratio

being roughly

threshold

pressures

for Indiana

the tensile
These

strengths

measurements

that differences

in ambient

threshold

has been determined

using the single

nozzle

pressure

limestone

as measured

to atmospheric
pressure

and Berea

test

before

the rock

(Table 119 for

set-up

discussed

is related

5:1 (Table II). McClain

of the rocks
refer

a certain

to the rocks tensile

11
have also found
& Cristy

that are five times

by C!heatham & Gnirli 12 (TabIe 111).

conditions.

sandstone

l?ol*tunately,

we have found

(betxveen O and 100 bar) have no effect on a

-3-

rocks

threshold

do not affect

threshold

a prediction

Consequently,

pressure.

pressures,

strength

minimum

If these findings

can be made of the. minimum

type of rock at any depth.

tensile

both cavitation

pump-pressure

determined

in advance

without

required

to penetrate

a particular
if the rocks

with some kind of existing

for jet drj.lling

apparently

types of rock*,

it would be. very convenient

correlated

recpi~e,ments

il.so hold for other

pressure

In this respect,

could be reasonably

and chip hold-down

log,

so that

in a given field might b,e

taking cores.

Practical
------ ------consequences
------ ---In order
the tensile

to estimate

strengths

of a number

of rocks

IV and V)12 13. The strongest

(TabIes
a nozzle

pressure

for excess

nozzle pressure

drop for fast drilling

say 15000 psi pump-pressure

commercially

available

may present

problems,

Particular

of 1S50 bar (27 000 psi),

find that jet drilling
I?or such exceptional

basalts

may requir~

will be clifficult,

(diamonds

cutting means

figure

recluire

Making allowances

pressure

losses,

of loose pebbles
of chert,

of chalk bearing
veins

of.

a minimum

this rock
of

so as to cope with short

is

Challi,

as experienced

nozzle

prcssute

drop

In conclusion,

in some particular

jet bits can be equipped

when

Conventional

flintstone

for the near future.

if not impossible,

however,

or rollers)

piece

boulders

up along weaker

an unrealistic

rocks,

the handling

of large

If a large

it may also be broken

in the laboratol~.

penetration.

tables

which is within the rating

rating,
e.g.

or the destruction

may then be necessary.

cncounte red,

from the literature

rock shown in these

and string

of jet drilling,

frac pumps.

conglomerates,

clrilling

for field application

have been collected

sedimentary

would require

jetting

rating

drop of 680 bar (3 900 psi) to initiate

Some rocks

the pump-pressure

we

formations.

with a set of conventional

intervals

of these

formations.
Drilling
fluids
---.------Threshold
compositions

pressure

values. appear

(Table VI}. However,

to be the same

on exceeding

destruction
which occurs during five revolutions
~~,ater and muds. These observations
on groove
happens

during

drilling.

for water

the threshold,

and muds of various

the amount of rock

has been observed to be different for

depth may provide an inciication Of Vfhat

tensile strength of Solcnhofen limestone is

w Table 11 shows that the Brazilian
considerably lower than its uniaxial tensile strength and that threshold pressure
3?ail*hul*st~~ has shown that,
correlates
better with the unia.xinl tensile strength,
for @rticulal* rock types, the Brazilian test will always gik+e too low values.

-4-

.
At elevated

ambient

water

jets under the same

rocks

is ascribed

be overcome

conditions.

to a phenomenon

by closing
(bore-hole)

encountered

under identical

At atmospheric

conditions
cliameters2)
occur

pressure,

after

The effective

hold-clown,

with jet bits,

grooves

to the emergence

because

it could

to rise

to

effect is

instead

of cutting

the drilling

expansion

at the nozzle

almost

unsubmerged

length of a free jet (approx.

100 nozzles

pronounced

During

five revolutions.

are cut by mud jets

during

which creates

than that of a submerged

is therefore

enough all the time,

depth in the permeable

that the same

much deeper

in the mud (not in water),

observed

see later

than by

five revolutions.

is much greater

The effect

cut by mud jets

in groove

to static

when drilling

This is attributed

for the jet.

are

valve to allow the pore pressure

We shall

conditions

ambient

jets.

of air entrained

very similar

pressure.

a groove with one jet during

grooves

The reduction

the pore drain

the ambient

than by water

shallower

pressure,

for large

drilling,

rate

jet (4-8 nozzle

nozzle

when nozzle

at atmospheric

Cliameters14).

stand-off,

stand-off

ambient

as could

is kept small

pressure

is not higher

for mud than for, water.

The

rock-destruction

mechanism

One would expect

shear

resulting

forces,

Further

that compressive

forces,

resulting

emerging
,15
might play an important role
.

cavitation

from the radially

from

the jet impact,

or

flow would cause. rock destruction.

Since the compressive

strength of most rocks is more than five times their
t~nsi~e strength,
and their average threshold pressul*e equal to five times their tensile
strength,

a rock is unlikely

has been drawn by Powell

to fail because of compressive

forces.
The same concision
17
16
, who talc ulated that
and Forman & Secor
& Simpson

failure

of a semi-infinite
elastic solid can be expected when the maximum
16
17
the tensile strength,
or .between 14 and 25 times
pressure
is 20 times

much higher

than the pressures

compressive

forces

Leach

resulting

from jet impact

& V7alker2 indicated

Cavitation
drop as occurs

stresses

rock destruction.

are negligible.

in deep wells.

Rock destruction

by a water

jet has been found to be

and high ambient

pressures.

From

The most probable

cracks.

shear

to cause

that

pressure

that cavitation

high-pressure

It can thus be concluded

are unlikely

that surface

which is

cannot occur when the ambient

the same at near-atmospheric

concluded

found experimentally.

impact

fluid causes

It is well-known

le~ds to a reduction

is of no, importance
explanation
that,

for jet drilling

for the me clxmism

local extension
in permeable

in rock compression.=

&xceeds the nozzle

this,

it ,can be

at any depth.

of rock destruction

of the rock by penetration

rocks,

an increase

One can visualise

pressure

is that

into pores

in p~qe-fluid

and

pressure

this by considering

the

-5-

reverse

of consolidation

become

tensile

strength,

and, as the tensile

tensile

pore-fluid

faiIure

pressure

can be expected
threshoid

has found theoretical

of permeable

rock,

It is more

threshold

difficult

grain

fluid pressurq.

by calculations

by l?orman

of 2.5 to 3.5 times

pressures

contains

pores

the tensile

These

the tensile

strength

in impermeable

rock,

will be filled with high-

which is an ideal situation

fluicl when the jet is above them,

strength.

values,

mechanism

and cracks.

will

The effect of
17
& tSecor , wfho

of 4 to 6.2 times

the same failure

stress

to compressive

at moderate

very well with the experimental

to visualise

rock

the effective

of rock is low relative

pressures

which agrees

but even very dense

-pressure

strength

has been confirmed

have found theoretical

Earle8

Locally,

(soil mechanics).

for crack

propagation.
Bits
A proper
examples
equipped

are

fluid-jet

in fact,

bit is,

shown in Figs.

wit h 8 nozzles
a few particular

than a nozzle holder.

6 and 7; one is a typical

laboratory

bit,

Two

O. D. 36 mm,

of 1 mm ID, as has been used for most experiments;

other is a 9 5/8 in bit equipped

discuss

nothing more

features

with 16 nozzles

of 3 mm ID afte~* field use.

the
We shall

of these bits.
t

Raclial
nozzle-----spacing
-------- ------Groove experiments
cliameters

wide.

have shown that one nozzle

The nozzles

by them touch each other

McClain

the ridges

kerfing).

However,

pressure

does not break

denlonst~ated

the grooves

they experimented

because

hold-down).

and smooth

break

such that the grooves

Drilling

distance

strengt\lened

hole bottoms

tests

dian~ters

between

as a drilling

are obtained,

fluid,

indicating

differential

fluid have

the ~ooves

would be left at the hole bottom

by a pressure

(hydraulic

rock at high ambient

with mud as a drilling

than 3 nozzle

then high ridges*

With water

Submerged

cut

can be greater,

away owing to the jet action

in the open air.

up so easily.

riclges are appxrentty

cake (static
occur

between

that .a 10% larger

is not advisable,
These

in a bit will have to be placed

about 3 nozzle

to avoid rock crushing by the bit body.

11
that the distance bet~~-een two grooves
report

and Cristy

because

cuts a groove

across

(Fig.

8).

the mud

such a mud cake does not

that some

%ydraulic

Iierfingr

may then occur.

* ft is remarkable
that only three ridges appem* where one would expect seven. There
is apparently some keriing,
but M soon as one of tile two ~*idges bordering a groove
Consequent ly, the
disammnrs.
there is sufficient room for the jet to emerge.
pre~~urc distribution
on the remaining ridge ~vill change-and become insufficient fox
removal of that ridge. Misalignment
of the bit may also cause a ridge pattern as
shown in Fig. 8, but it has been checked that this was not the case here.

.
,

-6-

Spacer
- ---A spacer

serves

to keep the nozzles

them from being damaged.

In the field,
been obtained
- A spacer

a spacer

experiments

- A spacer

spots

- A spacer

the entire

radius

in non-homogeneous

cutting

a smaller

A conventional

bit,

too close

groove

provided

to jets

before.

through

the penetration

1 nozzle

drop,

cliameter

as mentioned

cutting by a spacer,
measurements

in

rocks

these

too strong

rate

may adhere

to it,

stand-off

by a device

would

open the possibility

to be purely

jetted,

bit.

liave been perforined

on the drilling

machine

excludes

as

has been kept in excess

This arrangement

before.

of nozzles,

bit to a roller

expc riments

which has been found to improve

of bit penetration

the

and leaves

a diamond

bits (I?ig. 6), while the nozzle

bit pressure

in particular

it is not known where

arrangement

requirements

So far we have preferred

In the laboratory,

since

with tlm required

exceptional

conventionally

of roughly

shock

at a wrong location.

of drilling

limit

rough and irregular,

rock are encountered.

these

spaceless

by field experience:

of the hole since

seem to be t~e best way to meet

concluded

have

not only wear but also appreciable

are frequently

should not be located

thereby

design

rock.

must cover

, strongest

thus preventing

leads for spacer

and confirmed

to withstand

hole bottoms

non-homogeneous

The following

is required.

from laboratory

Jetted

off bottom,

should be designed

loading,

a safe distance

with
of a lower

actuated

by the

any mechanical

the reproducibility

of the

rate.

Nozzle
size
------- ----The nozzles

in the hits

hence it is essential
straining

menns,

2 mm or less
fe~sible

6 and 7 are all needed

that none of them becomes

since for reasonable

to 3, perhaps

4 mm,

line.

muds (12 lb/gal),

A. similar

with 2. and 3 mm nozzles.

straining

plugged.

circulation

rates

have to be used.

to use bits with only 1 mm nozzles

use of weighted
-pressure

shown in Figs.

thanks
system

(Fig.

.This requires
small

nozzles,

In the laboratory,

6) without problems,

to the straining

effective
ranging

nludfrom

it has proved
despite

the

of the mud in the high-

has been used successfully

/

to ctlt the hole,

in the fieId

Penetration

rates

The penetration
the: way described
clown), rotary

rate

of the laboratory bit shown in Fig. 6 has been measured in

The effect on penetration
rate of differential
pressure
(hold-

before.

bit pressure

speed,

drop,

rock type and drilling-fluid

composition

has

been investigated.
Differential
yressure
----- ----- --------

(hold-down~
----------

The cliffe rential

pressure

between

the static

head of the mud and the poro

pressure
is known to cause reduction of conventional drilling rates by chip hold-down
19
effects
. A similar effect has been found for jet drilling as is shown in Fig. 9. The
ma=gnituck ~f

reduction

Lhis

with conventional

pressure)

(55% at 50 bar ambient

drilling,

probably

compares

bottom balling2021

because

favorably

does not Occ!ul.

Bit
------rotary
----- syeed
--Bit rotary
sufficiently

speed has no effect

This follows

high.

~evolution

is inversely

to penetration

from Fig.

proportional

be rec~uired to achieve
very -much in excess

to rotary

the limit

is poor.

pressure

drop slightly

revolution
clistance

in excess

should be limited
the fluid velocity

decreases

(turbines)
speeds

in excess

are

Bit
messure
-----------------

seven

rotary

at a bit pressure

lleproducibility

of very low rotary

pressure,

speeds
drop

has been found

of the value of

speed and a bit

the penetration

per :

nozzle diameters,

because beyond this

14
in the nozzle
.

size of the test bit and of the nozzles,

is no urgent

In jet drilling,

speed because

need for extremely

high rotaly

we

speed

the torque

with modern rotary drive. Slow rotary

it is pose Me o run the rotary drive at its

is low.

dro~
-.-e-

The penetration
over the rocks
effect

rate

increases

thrc s11oM pressure,

proportionally

to the excess

differential

with bit pr~ssure

pressure

bit pressure

as is shown in 1?ig. 11. From

of a low rotar~r speed at high bit pressul*e

The rate of increase

hold-down

there

and bit design.

per

of what can be obtained

to be avoided.

very maximum

negative

bits

may ehmted

particularly

below the velocity

the small

speed is

is an upper limit

The value of. this limit

of the threshold

to roughly

When taking into account

rates,

at a combination

Theoretically,

feel that for full-size

of this limit,

pressure.

to clepend on rock type, fluid properties

the rotary

and that there

speed,

mzcsimurn penetration
of the threshold

provided

10, which shows that the penetration

Only because

per revolution,

rate,

on penetration

clro~ depends

and, hit design.

this fi=~re,

d~op
the

drop can also be noted.

on rock type,

fluid composition,

.
.

-8-

Rock
------ t~c-The rock determines
(the threshold
penetration
water,

pressure)

rate

pressure

as dis~ussed

with the excess

the penetration

bit pressure

the nozzle pressure

rate

before.

drop at which penetration

will commence
It also affects the rate of increase in
drop.

bit pressure

was founclto increase

drop in Obernkirchen,

clrop. in a quartzitic

sandstone

For

instance,

1100 mzn/min

and 180mm/min

when circulating
per 100bar

excess

per 100 bar excess

bit

sandstone.

Drilling-fluid
-- --- - - - - - - ---conl~osition
- -- -- - -- .The highest
irrespective

penetration

rates

of bottom-hole

the same high penetration

the penetration

This is attributed

rate

as a jetting

fluid,

sandstone,

result

u%en using

when using a barytesfor insv.:lce,

is h~lved.

upon the jets impact,

resulting in prcssurti build-up in the pores being harnpcrecl, With [he lighter mud,
22
, which is apparent l:i- sufficient to
the rc is a spurt 10ss at a rate ecpal to water
achieve

to bridging

in Gildenhausen

rates

but,

muci (say s. g, 1.2 01 10 lb/@,

unweightecl clay water

mud,

when using water

pressure.

At zero holcl-down pressure,

lden

are obtained

the same penetration

At elevated

below the jet immediately

rate

differential

as with water.

pressure

vary with mud compositions

and

(5O bar),

roclis.

penetration

The results

rates

obtained

v;ere measured

in Oke r::!iirchen

to

sat:dstone

are as follows:
Unwei~#~ed clav water
300

li~

LimburSfia

clay to simulate

llexamet~i]llos~]llate
of l-OUghly 45%
Addition

mud was used as a standard

ancl some

Of th:lt

of bar-

clrillecl solids,

soclium hydroxide).

60 li~ bentonite, 2 kg sodium

This mucl yielch?d ~ penetration

with lvater , one of the best

to the clay mud to raise

fluid (pe~* 1000 kg tap watc?r:

rates

of all muds tested.

from 1.2 to 1.4

caused the penetration
rate to drop to 1490 of the rate ~~ith water. Subsec~uent clil~:ting
back with tap vmtcr until the s, g. was 1.2 again did not fully restcz.e the penetration
.
late; it became 23% of the rate with water.
.
.
While thinning
affect penetration
The barytes
Upon addition
considerably
yield from

the lighter

rate

the specific

rate

muds (s. g. S 1, 2) the vhosphate

in that the higher

contents

mud (s. g. 1.4) has originally

of 20 g/1 cluebracho
(Marsh

and stii~un

funnel 53 to 32 s, plastic

35 to 9 lb/100

gravity

ft) but no effect

yielded

higher

cement

was founci to

pens: ration .,ratcs.

only been thinned \vi:il phosphates.

hydroxide,
viscosity

on penetration

. the ~isco~i~~ droPped

from 8 to 7 CP and Bingham
rate was noticed.

A mud very-similar
Limburgia
reducer

to the standard

instead

(5 kg in 1000 kg tap whte.;),

rate

of 25% (instead

might mean that bentonite

adding 2% w bentonite
This caused

is favorable

to a slurry

a 25?G increase

A knolin mud,
penetration

of 220 kg Limburgia

of the water

in penetration

rate.

This result

We checked

this by

clay per 1000 kg tap water.

rate.

of kaolin,

and Calgcm (s. g. 1. 2), caused

water

10Ss (M ml/30 m n).

despi~~ the high API water

to 14 ml/30 min by tidding bentonite

loss

loss

(60 kg in 1000 kg water),

for the penetration

of 40% the rate with water,

Reduction

of bentonite

of 300 kg

and filtrate

of 45%) of that with water.

in penetration

consisting

330 kg instead

but with CMC as ~-iscosifier

clay in 1000 kg tap water),

showed a penetration

fluid (containing

prod uc ecl no change

rote,

13iscussion
.. **,*.** s
The most harmful
This even caused
\
1

between

bore

immediately

being present.

The barytes

the pressure

partiClcs

build-up

of bentonite

prevailing

disperse,

not plugging

in the area

is,

of course,

pressure

difference

a. pressure

difference

of the fluid awl the pressure

the~~by

in the pores.

-takes place,

particles

lhere

a pressure

will bric~gc thC?Se pL)~Le~

immediately,

we found that bentonite

rvc!<. fracture

rate without

the stagnfition

This may be clLv2to bentonite

where
rates

of the penetration

below the jet between

lurther,
rate.

reduction

rate was due to the adclition of barytes.

on penetration

hole and pores

in the pores.
reducing

effect

near

may sometimes

particles

plugging

thus reducing
the initial
.
jet action,

and thus obtain a very small

bp beneficial
pews

for the penetration

far aheacl cf the area

eflecti~e hold-down

pressure.

The C:.USC

pores is prcc:lbl~ ihat at the high shear

the bentonite particles
cleilocculate and

effecti~:e particle

size,

whereas

in pores

~viil be low, thus allowing the

bentonite p~rticles to flocculate or aggregate anti hence plug the pores. This process
is not feasible with inert solids, which may explain the ;~erformance of tile kaolin mud,
relatively

despite

the shenr

fnr ahead of the j~t action,

the small
Phosphates

size of the kaolin

promote

causing

a reduction

particles

becomes

weighted

mucl, the Mrytes

suited

particles.

cletlocculation

of the effectire

and dis~?ersion

particle

to migration
particles

size.

towards
prevent

rates

01 the active

clnys,

In this \vay, a greater

cleeper pores.
inliltration

thereby
amount of

In the case of the

01 the pores.

-1o-

FIELD EXPERIIIENTS
The step from the laboratory
satisfactorily

which have to be solved

of fielcl runs have therefore

overcoming

to the field usually

before

economic

been made to locate

introduces

a number

evaluation

is feasible.

possible

barriers

of problems,

and find means

.
,.

ar

prep

at ions

,It was expected

the formations
available

of

these.
,

rest

A number

that conventional

selected

pumps.

NAMs Groningen

talien to prevent

Denver

PZ 9 pumps

purely
a suitable

are discussed

that

section

of Tertiary
pressure

and

could be made available,

have been jetted

one of which is shown in Fig.

problems

provided

with the aid of the

for 5000 psi surface

300-700 ft thick,

of .Tertiary,

wells with 9 5/8 in bits,

gas field offered

A IfAIU rig suitable

ecluipped with two Gardner

sections

would be adec!uate,

were weak enough to be jetted

shales below 1700 ft depth.

Three

rig equipment

in three

different

7. Some of the precautions

below.

)?luicl
circulation
---------------In :iew

of the small

nozzles

straining

system

was provided,

strainers

in t?lc pumps suction

(2 and 3 mm ID), used in the bits,

Apart

from

ch~cking

and discharge

shale

for proper

shakers

ati effective

and

functioning,

conv~iltlod

hvo additional

strainers
(l?ig. i2) fvexe also usccl ; one in the tool joint below the kelly and one
in~idb a collar close to the bit. On every connection made, the upper str~liner was
~eplaced

by a clean one,

served

to pick up pieces

already

placed

into the single

of iwbbe~* {worn packing),

to be added.

etc.

This strainer

and any material

that had

served to catch dirt,

bypassed any screen in some way. The down-hole strainer
scale etc from added drill pipe. The holes of bbth thick-walled
strainers
were
mm smaller

0.2 -0,5

in diameter

than the nozzle,.~.

Tripp~n~
...
While running
instance
solids

into the hole,

while mnning
inside

plugged from

into a lbridger,

the bit bridge

the outside

pumped out of the nozzles

installed
precautions

to prevent

extruded

across

the nozzles

while scraping

the nozzle

opening.

dirt

from the hole wall or when

the nozzles

were

the ri~ets have been pumped out. These

since

laborato~~

is pushed into soft shale,

again when circulation

for

rivets. These iivets can be

lIoreovcr,
a float valve was

with about 100 psi pressure.

unnecessary

and plug them,

To avoid this,

of the bit with rubber-covered

back flow also after

are perhaps

bit with open nozzles

di@ might miter

is stm*ted.

tests

the shale

have shown that when a

indeed enters

the bit but is

-11.

Drilling
----.-

$ilince thin streaks

clesigned to diamond
collars
bit -

drill,

stat)

short

collar

rock might be encountered,

Therefore,

if necessary.
were

(8 in OD), 30 ft length),

Test

(strainer)

between

used and stabiIised

- stab - collar

the bits used were

six and twenty drill
assembly:

by a stiff-bottom

- stab - collars

etc.

results
All bits reached

appeared
load.

of stronger

bottom without

and on starting

open,

No significant

are discussed

troubles.

rotation,

On starting

circulation

the bits appearc?cl to drill

ecluipment troubles

were

encountered,

the nozzles

r.t little

or ilo bit

Some observations

made

below.

.
Bit
-------Ioad-Al though,

no bit load is recluirerl

in principle,

. an ins$,rurnent .is ncecled which can tell the driller

hole bottom.
tolerated
order

to make sure

maximum
i.,

lowering

nozzle

lower penetration

stal~d-off,

rates

were

was

low bit Ior.d [0-3000 lb)

experienced,

The same R: .lLes for i rrcguIar

occurrence

and
-------bits--

cot:ditions,.

might also be obtained

penetration

conventionally;

of clay balls.

Clay balls

rates

Probably,

shaIe shakel

the greater

part

were

For instance,

since

normal

the penetration

the latter

rate

~vailable

fortunately,

bit pressure

is proportional

10000

Mes
of the

but tk.e watery

of the iiue so Iicis u-ith the

xcovered
:~ig~ltly

perhaps

at the
sni:illel.

drop will cause more

to excess

in a rock with a threshold

intensifiers,
. :

was,

mixing

size cuttings,

four times as high ~vhe~l bit pressure

With commercially

These

only Io~* some time because

effective

It should be notecl that cloubling the available

rate

5-6 ft/nlim

not experie need whiie je:zing,

of the cuttings

in the form of almost

twice the penetration

averaged

however,

clriHing fluid mudded up quic!<ly, indicating

maintainer.
.

At very

in

of the bit by the driIIe~*.

At optimum

becomes

so that the penctr:.:.on rate

that the bit was on bottom,

Penetration
------- ------ rate
------ cuttings
-----

mud.

by dm ~ of CO1lJXS ancl

lb bil load on the 9 5/8 in Mts was useci !or jet drilltr.g

owing to minimum

significantly

load on bit can M

part of slackecl--off weight may be absorbed

A 10-15000

in practice

~vhere the bit is v:ith .re.spect to the

The weight indic~.to~ can do this when sufficient

because

stabilisers.

to jet the forrnntion,

drop is r:lised

bit pressure

pressure

than
clrop.

of 3000 psi

from. 4500 to 9000 psi.

psi bit pressure

drop can be

-12-

Several

times thin streaks

diamond-drilled.
30-35000

Then the bit load increased

well.

It is particularly
.
the high penetration

where

importance
test runs.

reciuirwl
rate

to about

and the nozzles

Although

rather

than roller

Torque
-------

and r.~. ---m.

------

were

it is too early

of the drill

observed.

medium

to very

strong

hardly

damaged

to ci.raw firm

(Fig.

conclusions,

life comparable

7) during

these

it seems

feasible

with that of diamond

bits

bits.

At the low bit loads

to friction

in non-homogeneous

and sands.

to develop jet bits with a very favorable

were

but could be restricted

and the long bit life of jet bits will be of much

than in soft shales

Both the diamonds

short

suddenly

which had to be

or so until the streak hmlbcen fully penetrated.

This
of jet bit and diamond bit, one of which is really cutting at a given time,

performed
greater

rock were encountered,

lb for a minute

combination
rocks,

of stronger

very low torque was measured,

applied,

string

In general,

and being governed

elevated

120-180 rpm ~~as most freclucntly

rotary

being large ly due

by r. p. m. NO signs

speeds

favoured

of vibrations

bit penetration,

so that

applied.

~Iud
------ strainers
------ The use of strainers

was found to kc essential.

far more

than requirecl,

possible.

On one occasion,

material

from

compatible

the drill

so that much longer

the down-hcle

pipe,

with jet drilling.

indicating

The top-strr.inersf

periods

strainer

of circulation

could haye been

was filled with plastic

that plastic-coated

JIithout the strainers,

cap~~city was

drill

coating

pipe may not be

nozzle plug~ting could not Imye been

avoided.
IIole
and hole
------ deviation
------ ---------- gauge
-- From

the test,

it was inferred

that the way of drilling

size and the course

of the hole.

size,

hole deviation

and dog leg severity

latter

case the hole usually

the deviation
effective

Jetting

hardly

than jetting

of the jet bit and the drilling

at reasonable

over gauge,

It is evident

in a hole which is cut reasonably

by the design

very much the

at very low bit load produced

appeared

chan=md insignificantly.

affected

bit load.

no dog legs occurred

that string

to gauge.

a larger

This,

st:lbilisation
in turn,

can

hole

In the
and
~i~~y be

is gre~~tl~ affected

practices.

,,
.

.-

t ...

-13-

LOOKING AHEAD so far jet drilling

investigations
encouraging
and jointly

are needed
support

experiences

with recent

some indication

than have hitherto

at pump pressures
bit designs

to improve

much better

many rigs

suited,

cause
rate

increase

and long., r bit life,

of jet bits,

of the jet,-dril]ing

of the field rcsuIts

in the laboratory

cliamoncl bits

their

pe rforrnance
for which

operations.

into the jet-d rillinc

and the furtj:er

process,

bit iicvelop-

we have so far experiet}cecl

Since jet drilling

seems

tl]:~t bit

will umioubtedly

and this is to be offset by hig?:er penetration

in rig cost,

method,

raise

pressures

aci.clitional laboratory-research

to spcncl many future

Only with the best bits and operational,

performance.

of

in the 5000 psi range,

and to gain insight

it is justified

turbine-driven

costs

in expensive

ctepends very much on bit design.

n significant

the performance

which shouki

in particular

interpretation

In the bit development

for LJ1 industries

v~-hen high-fluid

I?or instance,

than at present,

to the performance
..
to develop design criteria

for the correct

It is

pumping v(ill extend the f.eld of

is valid for pump pressures

are

and thus provide

by jets in the future.

but also the bits,

of drilling.

With respect

performance

It is

They will yield

eclu;pment

opportunity

can be supplied at reasonable

This already

considerably.

mcnt.

extensive

of the method.

methods

service

can be powered

an excellent

gained with high-pressure

for existing

for continuous

required

more

worlci-wicle.

10 000 psi.

of. drilling

not only the hardware

The experience

imperative

been performed

exceeding

viability

provides

which clete~*mines the success

pressures

therefore

and high-pressure

of the economic

that such an effort

application

and promising;

eight oil companies are aware of the potential of the method

10
. These field runs should disclose what
a field test programme

feasible

involved

feasible

that at least

is currentIy

evident

appears

effo~ts on improving

teckr~ques

also
in small hole size,

be clisclosed

bit

can the full potential

and u!ilised.

CONC LusIONS
-

1.

The threshold
strength,

pressure

irrespective

2. The bit penetration

excess
3. Elevated

4. Chip hold-down
5. No abnormal

rock is rough~y fi(e times

of drilling-fluid
rate

of the threshold
rotary

for cutting

is roughly

deviation

proportional

ar.d do~vn-hok

to the nozzle

pressures.

pressure

drop
in
.

pressure.

table speed
pressure

composition

the ro~.ks tensile

is required

reduces
problems

jet-bit

for maximum
performance

have been experienced

jet bit performance.

significantly.
in the field.

.
,
,

-14-

6. The hole jetted

7. Cutting

correctly

recovery

8. Laboratory

in the field was ~ood.

testing

instance,

is- to gauge.

of a variety

the radial

of bits has yielded useful design criteria;

for
must not exceed three nozz~e
between nozzles

distance

diameters.

9. A spacer

must be resistant
to wear and shock loading, it must cover the entire
of the hole, and be located at some distance from the jets. The spacer

radius
function

can be performed

that are too strong

10. Inert

solids

1~, Weigilted

by conventional,

cutting means

that also cope with rocks

to be jetted..

in mud are much more

harmful

muds may yield a reduction

to the penetration

in penetration

rate

than active

clays.

even if hold-clown pressule

rate

is absent,
12. Rock failure
cracks

is due to the penetration

of the rock.

13. Hydraulic

kerfing

14. In the laboratory,

problems.

cannot
nozzles

used were

15. In the field,

fluid into the pores

a]~d

.
occur

under

as small

clown-hole conditions

muds.

insurmountable

has been gained with 2 and 3 mm nozzles.

adecluate to prevent

9 5/S in holes

with plastering

as 1 mm could be used without

In the field good experience

The strainers

rates

of high-pressure

could be jetted

pluggin:; of the nczzlcs.

in weak, formations

at very satisfacto~y

using 5000 psi equipment.

AU< hON~
LEDGE ME IJT
The authors
Maatschnppij,

wish to think

. .
the Management

The Ha~me, the Netherlands,

The help given by many colleagues

of .Shell Internationmle

for permission

is gratefully

to publish

acknowledged.

Research
this paper.

,.

.( ,

.
.

-15REFE13ENCES
I.W. , Penetration

1. I?armer,
7

University

of Sheffield,

of rocks

April

jet impact;.

Ph.D. Thesis,

1965.

G, L. , Some aspects of rock cutting by hig$ speed water

Phil. Trans. Rov, Sot. London, Series A 260, July 1966,

2. Leach,

S. J.

jets,
3, Brook,

& Walker,

D.A. , ~JThe penetration

N. & Summers,

Int. J. Rock hlcch.

4. Imanaka,
Cutting

\Vater jets.
,.;;

et al. , Experimental

0.
Techn,

study of machining characteristics

by liquid
-2,,
. Paper G3, 1st Int. Swnp. On Jet
uP to 198 Wcrn

Coventry,

April

1972.

M.C. , Tlevclopment of a jet cutting maciline system.

G5, 1st Tnt. SunP. on Jet Cutting Techn. , Coventry, APril 1972s

W.R.

Papep

of ~tock by high-speed

31in. Sci.., Q, pp. 249-258.

jets of high power density

5. Kee,

by water

6. Bryan,

& Kurko,

E.L. , High energy

170rest Products
7, Wyllie,

jets

as a new concept

Jouri~al 8, Aug. 1963,

M.R. J. , Jetted

particle

in wood machining.

8, pp. 305-312.

drilling.

_ploc,

8th World Petroleum

Congress,

..

~IOSCOw 1972.
8. hIaurer,

W. C. & Hcilhccl<el,

J. K* > Hyclraulic

jet clrilling.

~PE pa~~er ~434,

19G9.
9. fiIaurer,

~;. C.,

sPE Paper

.-

J.K.

~ Lovet

W=W. s

ltHigh ~ressurc

jet drilling;.

S988, 1972.

10, [<cnnecly, J. L.,

23 July,

Heilhecker,

Oil firms

join for high-pressure

-d~i.lling test.

Oil & Gas~,

1973.

of high pressure
water jets for
G.A. , Examination
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
report ORXL-HL~ 1/
use in rock tunnel excavation.

11. lIcClain,
UC-38,
12, Gnirk,

W. C. & Cristy,

Jan.

1970.

P. F.

& Cheatham,

penetration

J. B. , llAn experimental

into dry rock at confining

pressures

study of single bit-tooth

O to 5,000 psi.

SPl? Jn.

(June 1965) , pp. 117-130.

13. Riffault,
quelques
February
14. Hinze,

gtolo~ques
et m6caniques de
R. , Catalogue des caract6ristiques
Laboratoire
Central des Ponts et Cha-uss6es, Paris,
roches fran~aises.
1969.
J. O. ; Nonisotropic

free turbulence.

Turbulence,

llcGraw-Hill,

1959.

-1615. Kohl, R.Es , ~tRock tunneling

Technical

report

16. Powell,

713-1. Hydronautics

jets utilizing

impinging on a semi-infinite

elastic

study of the mechanical

Int.

solid.

& Secor, G. A., fThe mechanics

SPE -paper 4247, January 1973.

S.E.

impingement.
IS.

Earle,

E. N.,

19.

Gamier,
Trans.

A.J.

R.

impermeable
21. Van Lingen,

22. l?airhurst,

Shell Development

Jour.

N. H. , Bottom

sca~:enging

~f. C.H. , Designing

J[ining

Pet.

Min. Sci. ,.-._,

jet

driIling

experiments

Tech. , hIarch
- A major

February

fast drilling

C, , Cln the validity

Int. J. Rock .31ech.

Company.

affecting

J. J.hl. , Full-scale

I>et. recht,

Of

rates

at depth.

2.32.

rock drilling.

Jour.

effects

.
due to water

of rock failure

N.H. , Phenomena

& Van I.eeuwen,

at depth.

22. Darley,

results.

& Van Lingen,

AIME 216, 1959,

20. Feenstra,

rates

Unpublishecl

damage.

J. Rock Mech.

~, 1969, pp. 353-364.

17, I?orman,

Cavitation

Inc. , June 1968.

S.P. , theoretical

J. II. & Simpson,

water-jets

with high speed water

on jets in

1964,

factor

governing

penetration

1962*

fluids.

of tile Brazilian

Jour.

Pet.

.re@&., April

test for brittle

Sci. 1, ~~~~, PP. 535-5469

materials.

1W5.

-17-

Ratings

of the drilling

15 tons

Machine
Max,
Max

machines

pump pressure
ambient

pressure,

, bar

400

, psi

5800

bar .
, psi

200
2900

- TABLE I
high pressure
1000
14600
500
7250

50 tons
200

( 1 000)

2900

(14500)

200
2900

30 - 3000

30-300

Stroke

, cm

25

23

75

Pump power

, HHP

550

1600

10

3.5

50

speed

Max. bit size

31zx. bit load

. , in
, tons

120
5
15

350)

( 5 075)

11-1120

, rpm

Rotary

67)
(
( 3 000)
.

-, .

#)

-18-

/
Threshold

pressures

and tensile

as measured

strentihs

at KSEPL

of some test rocks,

- TABLE II

rhreshokl

Tensile

strength,

Ratio

pressure

pressure,
Rock

of threshold

bar

bar

tensile

and
strength
Uniaxial

100

25

4,0

220. .

49

4,5

230

52

4.4

uville limestone
b
Vaurion limestone

160

28

5.7

360

~Carrara

280

55

5.1

300

63

4.8

425

91

100

Solenhofen limestone

800

100

190

~Basalt

785

200
1~~

Gildenhausen

sandstone

Oberrkirchen

sandstone

lGreywacke

sandstone

marble

Bo.varian
Belgian

(oIc1llot)

granite

limestone

~Belgian cplartzitic

~ The ter.sile

sanc!stone~ ~

5.3

~ 4.7
8.0

4.1

4.2
4.2

3.9
5.4
...

have beer. measurecl with a simple Brazilian

te,st,
It should be noted that the
with solid cylinders of equal length and dimne:er.
from its
Brazilian tens le strength of Solenhofe n 1 nms:one differs considerably
uniaxial

strengths

770

87

tensile

of most rocks

i%e latter

strength.

the better

gives

correlation

with threshold

pressure.
1
1
)
\
I

.,

. .

. ..
.

-19-

Threshold

11

pressures

as measured

by Oak Ridge National

I.ahoratory

- TABLE III
.

Threshold
Rock

pressure

==++-R]erea

strenah

after
12
Gnirk & Cheatham
psi
*

sandstone

138

2000

granite

414

6000

%orgia

Tensile

26

Ratio

of threshold

pressure
tensile

and

strength

635

5.5

380

5.25

... ..

Some tensile

strengths,

by Gnirk & Cheatl~am

12

- TABLE IV

Tensile

strengths

+==
10s0

74.3

Rock
Indiana

limestone

Carthage

marble

Danby white marble

I
865 \

Berea

38C

Virginia

sandstone
greenstone

26.2

280 I

19.4

. .

59.7

...-

-.

-20-

Tensile

strength

>!3

of some I?rench

rocks

13

- TABLE V
..

Rock type

Tensile

Origin

strength,
barx
..

Igneous

rocks
.-.

Granite

Ligron

Granite

St. Germain

Granite

Senoncs

Granocliorite

Plouclalmezeau

Granoc.liorite

I?lamanville

Granocliorite

Cap de Long

114

Microgranite

Corbigny

212

13asalt

St. Jean le Ccnteilier

180

Basalt

Raon llltape

370

Andesit

Volvic

O!Ai te

Salies

131
de Modeon

90
134
128
~34

77
du Salat

Metamorphic

218

rocks

r
Quartzite

TiSmes

110-282

Quartzite

Cherbourg

158-254

Crystalline

limestone

lIosset

89

Crystalline

limestone

VilIette

101

Crystalline

limestone

Montcenis

Zone H

74-128

Calcareous

schist

Montcenis

Zone I

34-105

Calcareous

schist

Montcenis

Zone 111

27-97

Porphyrorde

Genis

76-134

Sedimentary

rocks

Gypsum

CormeiHes

Chalk

Guerville

Limestone

HmltevilIe

Limestone

Marquise

Limestone

MontaIieu

Limestone

Pagny

89

Limestone

EuvilIe

50

Limestone

St. Maximin

Limestone

St. Vaast

Sanclstone

en Parisis
.

12.1
2.67
136
90
100

Ie Mello

7.5-13.3
6

111-169
-1ehel
* For anisotropic
rocks, both the lowest and highest values are c@oted.
It has been assumed that the lowest value determines
the threshold
..

-21Drilli ng-mucl compositions

Composition

and properties

Tap water

Bentonite
clay

? kg

Calgon

s kg

1000 .

60

1000

60

52
260

, kg

Ba~yies

1000

, kg
, kg

Limburgia

- TABLE VI

415

-.,

1.5

2*7

1.04

1.42

Properties
Specific
hlarsh

funnel

l?ann plastic

vise.

17ann Bingham

API filtrate

,s

93

34

74

, cP

12

11

55

47

16

12

yield, lb/100

loss

pH

~ Sodium hydroxide

. .

10 (),$

, kg/1

gravity

, ml/30

ft2

9.1
added to ofi:e.in a reasonable

8.8
pH value.

6
9.2

o
z
I

-1

FIG.I-2

.
*

a.

DRILL NG MACHINE

FIG, 3. HIGH-PRESSURE

.,

....

..!

FIG. 5. TYPICAL GROOVE IN ROCK SURFACE

.

Fluid in
.

Ro:atable
.

shaft

.=

Seal

---2$
re

.:. -:...

/tzi

I2.=

</////1

Pressure vessel

y&TQst

rOCk

O-ring<

.
%

Pore drain va~w

FIG. 4

.-c

E
E
w
m

i=

td
(5
.IL

.,

FIG. 8. THREE RIDGES ON HOLE BWTOM INDICATE

OVERLAP

INSUFFICIENT

Penetmtion mte
mm/min
6kI
Bit asin fig. 6
Bit rotary speed 358rpm
Clay-water mud, s.g. 1.2
Gildenhausen sandstone
Bit pressure
dmp 200 bar

500

400
I
300

200

bb

100
c
O

20

40

60

80

Iw

120

140

160
1[ ) bar
Difktential pssure

flG. 9. PENETRATION RATE DECREASES WITH INCREASING STATIC HOLD-DOWN

PRESSURE

4.0

f-- Fknetrction rate

~ limited to approx.
4.5mm/w.

2.0

\+

*.

I.c

+%,,
\

mmaiiiizxx--l

50

lg@

200

400

.!300 rpm

F&tory speed

FiG.10.THE PENHRATKN H?

I%NXJJTZI?4IS INVERSELYPROFCRTIONALTOROTARY
SPEED ANO HAS AN UFPER LIMIT OF ROUGHLY4.5 mm/rev.

rixmc!lmscnw-c

pm

1 153
2
3
4
5

.80C

215
275

358
505
6 660

Goc
5

40[
/

20(

F
x
.::
.
..

ii:

. 250

300

..
;0 bar
Bit pn?ssumdrop

FIG.11.PENETRA1-IGNRATE INCREASES PR12F12RTIONALLYWITH EXCESS B! T PRESSURE DROP

EXCEPT AT A COhli3!NATlGN . OF i-ii~i-i SIT-PRESSURECROPANI) LOW ROTARY SPEED
~

FIG, 12. STRAINER USED DURIJJGFIELD EXPERIMENTS

,.FIG. 12