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3.1Wastewatertreatmenttechnologies
Relativelysimplewastewatertreatmenttechnologiescanbedesignedtoprovidelow
costsanitationandenvironmentalprotectionwhileprovidingadditionalbenefitsfrom
thereuseofwater.Thesetechnologiesusenaturalaquaticandterrestrialsystems.
TheyareinuseinanumberoflocationsthroughoutLatinAmericaandthe
Caribbean.
Thesesystemsmaybeclassifiedintothreeprincipaltypes,asshowninFigure28.
Mechanicaltreatmentsystems,whichusenaturalprocesseswithinaconstructed
environment,tendtobeusedwhensuitablelandsareunavailableforthe
implementationofnaturalsystemtechnologies.Aquaticsystemsarerepresentedby
lagoonsfacultative,aerated,andhydrographcontrolledrelease(HCR)lagoonsare
variationsofthistechnology.Further,thelagoonbasedtreatmentsystemscanbe
supplementedbyadditionalpreorposttreatmentsusingconstructedwetlands,
aquaculturalproductionsystems,and/orsandfiltration.Theyareusedtotreata
varietyofwastewatersandfunctionunderawiderangeofweatherconditions.
Terrestrialsystemsmakeuseofthenutrientscontainedinwastewatersplantgrowth
andsoiladsorptionconvertbiologicallyavailablenutrientsintolessavailableformsof
biomass,whichisthenharvestedforavarietyofuses,includingmethanegas
production,alcoholproduction,orcattlefeedsupplements.
Figure28:SummaryofWastewaterTreatmentTechnologies.

Source:ErnestoPrez,P.E.,TechnologyTransferChief,Water
ManagementDivision,USEPARegionIV,Atlanta,Georgia.
TechnicalDescription
MechanicalTreatmentTechnologies
Mechanicalsystemsutilizeacombinationofphysical,biological,andchemical
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processestoachievethetreatmentobjectives.Usingessentiallynaturalprocesses
withinanartificialenvironment,mechanicaltreatmenttechnologiesuseaseriesof
tanks,alongwithpumps,blowers,screens,grinders,andothermechanical
components,totreatwastewaters.Flowofwastewaterinthesystemiscontrolledby
varioustypesofinstrumentation.Sequencingbatchreactors(SBR),oxidation
ditches,andextendedaerationsystemsareallvariationsoftheactivatedsludge
process,whichisasuspendedgrowthsystem.Thetricklingfiltersolidscontact
process(TFSCP),incontrast,isanattachedgrowthsystem.Thesetreatment
systemsareeffectivewherelandisatapremium.
AquaticTreatmentTechnologies
Facultativelagoonsarethemostcommonformofaquatictreatmentlagoon
technologycurrentlyinuse.Thewaterlayernearthesurfaceisaerobicwhilethe
bottomlayer,whichincludessludgedeposits,isanaerobic.Theintermediatelayeris
aerobicnearthetopandanaerobicnearthebottom,andconstitutesthefacultative
zone.Aeratedlagoonsaresmalleranddeeperthanfacultativelagoons.These
systemsevolvedfromstabilizationpondswhenaerationdeviceswereaddedto
counteractodorsarisingfromsepticconditions.Theaerationdevicescanbe
mechanicalordiffusedairsystems.Thechiefdisadvantageoflagoonsishigh
effluentsolidscontent,whichcanexceed100mg/l.Tocounteractthis,hydrograph
controlledrelease(HCR)lagoonsarearecentinnovation.Inthissystem,
wastewaterisdischargedonlyduringperiodswhenthestreamflowisadequateto
preventwaterqualitydegradation.Whenstreamconditionsprohibitdischarge,
wastewaterisaccumulatedinastoragelagoon.Typicaldesignparametersare
summarizedinTable13.
Constructedwetlands,aquaculturaloperations,andsandfiltersaregenerallythe
mostsuccessfulmethodsofpolishingthetreatedwastewatereffluentfromthe
lagoons.Thesesystemshavealsobeenusedwithmoretraditional,engineered
primarytreatmenttechnologiessuchasImhofftanks,septictanks,andprimary
clarifiers.Theirmainadvantageistoprovideadditionaltreatmentbeyondsecondary
treatmentwhererequired.Inrecentyears,constructedwetlandshavebeenutilized
intwodesigns:systemsusingsurfacewaterflowsandsystemsusingsubsurface
flows.Bothsystemsutilizetherootsofplantstoprovidesubstrateforthegrowthof
attachedbacteriawhichutilizethenutrientspresentintheeffluentsandforthe
transferofoxygen.Bacteriadothebulkoftheworkinthesesystems,althoughthere
issomenitrogenuptakebytheplants.Thesurfacewatersystemmostclosely
approximatesanaturalwetland.Typically,thesesystemsarelong,narrowbasins,
withdepthsoflessthan2feet,thatareplantedwithaquaticvegetationsuchas
bulrush(Scirpusspp.)orcattails(Typhaspp.).Theshallowgroundwatersystems
useagravelorsandmedium,approximatelyeighteeninchesdeep,whichprovidesa
rootingmediumfortheaquaticplantsandthroughwhichthewastewaterflows.
Table13TypicalDesignFeaturesAquaticTreatmentUnits
Technology

Treatmentgoal

Detention
Time(days)

Depth
(feet)

OrganicLoading
(lb/ac/day)

Oxidationpond

Secondary

1040

34.5

36110

Facultativepond

Secondary

25180

4.57.5

2060

Aeratedpond

Secondary,
polishing

720

618

45180

Storagepond,HCR
pond

Secondary,
storage,polishing

100200

915

2060

RootzoneTreatment,
Hyacinthpond

Secondary

3050

<4.5

<45

Source:S.C.Reed,etal.,NaturalSystemsforWasteManagementand
Treatment,NewYork,McGrawHill,1988.
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Aquaculturesystemsaredistinguishedbythetypeofplantsgrowninthewastewater
holdingbasins.Theseplantsarecommonlywaterhyacinth(Eichhorniacrassipes)or
duckweed(Lemnaspp.).Thesesystemsarebasicallyshallowpondscoveredwith
floatingplantsthatdetainwastewateratleastoneweek.Themainpurposeofthe
plantsinthesesystemsistoprovideasuitablehabitatforbacteriawhichremovethe
vastmajorityofdissolvednutrients.Thedesignfeaturesofsuchsystemsare
summarizedinTable14.(Seealsosection2.3,inChapter2,foradiscussionofthe
roleoftheplantsthemselves.)
Table14TypicalDesignFeaturesforConstructedWetlands
DesignFactor

Surfacewaterflow

Subsurfacewaterflow

Minimumsurfacearea

23115ac/mgd

2.346ac/mgd

Maximumwaterdepth

Relativelyshallow

Waterlevelbelowground
surface

Notapplicable

12.30m

7days

7days

0.21.0gpd/sqft

0.510gpd/sqft

Primary(secondary
optional)

Primary

918lb/ac/d

1.8140lb/ac/d

Beddepth
Minimumhydraulicresidence
time
Maximumhydraulicloading
rate
Minimumpretreatment
Rangeoforganicloadingas
BOD

Source:USEPA,WastewaterTreatment/DisposalforSmall
Communities.Cincinnati,Ohio,1992.(EPAReportNo.EPA625/R92
005)
Sandfiltershavebeenusedforwastewatertreatmentpurposesforatleasta
centuryinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean.Twotypesofsandfiltersarecommonly
used:intermittentandrecirculating.Theydiffermainlyinthemethodofapplicationof
thewastewater.Intermittentfiltersarefloodedwithwastewaterandthenallowedto
draincompletelybeforethenextapplicationofwastewater.Incontrast,recirculating
filtersuseapumptorecirculatetheeffluenttothefilterinaratioof3to5partsfilter
effluentto1partrawwastewater.Bothtypesoffiltersuseasandlayer,2to3feet
thick,underlainbyacollectionsystemofperforatedoropenjointpipesenclosed
withingradedgravel.Wateristreatedbiologicallybytheepiphyticfloraassociated
withthesandandgravelparticles,althoughsomephysicalfiltrationofsuspended
solidsbythesandgrainsandsomechemicaladsorptionontothesurfaceofthesand
grainsplayaroleinthetreatmentprocess.(Seealsosection2.5,inChapter2.)
TerrestrialTreatmentTechnologies
Terrestrialtreatmentsystemsincludeslowrateoverlandflow,slowratesubsurface
infiltration,andrapidinfiltrationmethods.Inadditiontowastewatertreatmentand
lowmaintenancecosts,thesesystemsmayyieldadditionalbenefitsbyproviding
waterforgroundwaterrecharge,reforestation,agriculture,and/orlivestock
pasturage.Theydependuponphysical,chemical,andbiologicalreactionsonand
withinthesoil.Slowrateoverlandflowsystemsrequirevegetation,bothtotakeup
nutrientsandothercontaminantsandtoslowthepassageoftheeffluentacrossthe
landsurfacetoensuremaximumcontacttimesbetweentheeffluentsandthe
plants/soils.Slowratesubsurfaceinfiltrationsystemsandrapidinfiltrationsystems
are"zerodischarge"systemsthatrarelydischargeeffluentsdirectlytostreamsor
othersurfacewaters.Eachsystemhasdifferentconstraintsregardingsoil
permeability.
Althoughslowrateoverlandflowsystemsarethemostcostlyofthenaturalsystems
toimplement,theiradvantageistheirpositiveimpactonsustainabledevelopment
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practices.Inadditiontotreatingwastewater,theyprovideaneconomicreturnfrom
thereuseofwaterandnutrientstoproducemarketablecropsorotheragriculture
productsand/orwaterandfodderforlivestock.Thewatermayalsobeusedto
supportreforestationprojectsinwaterpoorareas.Inslowratesystems,either
primaryorsecondarywastewaterisappliedatacontrolledrate,eitherbysprinklers
orbyfloodingoffurrows,toavegetatedlandsurfaceofmoderatetolow
permeability.Thewastewateristreatedasitpassesthroughthesoilbyfiltration,
adsorption,ionexchange,precipitation,microbialaction,andplantuptake.
Vegetationisacriticalcomponentoftheprocessandservestoextractnutrients,
reduceerosion,andmaintainsoilpermeability.
Overlandflowsystemsarealandapplicationtreatmentmethodinwhichtreated
effluentsareeventuallydischargedtosurfacewater.Themainbenefitsofthese
systemsaretheirlowmaintenanceandlowtechnicalmanpowerrequirements.
Wastewaterisappliedintermittentlyacrossthetopsofterracesconstructedonsoils
ofverylowpermeabilityandallowedtosheetflowacrossthevegetatedsurfaceto
therunoffcollectionchannel.Treatment,includingnitrogenremoval,isachieved
primarilythroughsedimentation,filtration,andbiochemicalactivityasthewastewater
flowsacrossthevegetatedsurfaceoftheterracedslope.Loadingratesand
applicationcyclesaredesignedtomaintainactivemicroorganismgrowthinthesoil.
Therateandlengthofapplicationarecontrolledtominimizetheoccurrenceof
severeanaerobicconditions,andarestperiodbetweenapplicationsisneeded.The
restperiodshouldbelongenoughtopreventsurfaceponding,yetshortenoughto
keepthemicroorganismsactive.Siteconstraintsrelatingtolandapplication
technologiesareshowninTable15.
Table15SiteConstraintsforLandApplicationTechnologies
SlowRate

Rapid
Infiltration

Subsurface
Infiltration

OverlandFlow

Soiltexture

Sandyloamto
clayloam

Sandand
sandyloam

Sandtoclayey
loam

Siltyloamand
clayeyloam

Depthto
groundwater

3ft

3ft

3ft

Notcritical

Vegetation

Required

Optional

Notapplicable

Required

Climatic
restrictions

Growingseason

None

None

Growingseason

Slope

<20%,cultivated
land
<40%,
uncultivatedland

Notcritical

Notapplicable

2%8%finished
slopes

Feature

Source:USEPA,WastewaterTreatment/DisposalforSmall
Communities.Cincinnati,Ohio,1992.(EPAReportNo.EPA625/R92
005)
Inrapidinfiltrationsystems,mostoftheappliedwastewaterpercolatesthroughthe
soil,andthetreatedeffluentdrainsnaturallytosurfacewatersorrechargesthe
groundwater.Theircostandmanpowerrequirementsarelow.Wastewaterisapplied
tosoilsthataremoderatelyorhighlypermeablebyspreadinginbasinsorby
sprinkling.Vegetationisnotnecessary,butitdoesnotcauseaproblemifpresent.
Themajortreatmentgoalistoconvertammonianitrogeninthewatertonitrate
nitrogenbeforedischargingtothereceivingwater.
Subsurfaceinfiltrationsystemsaredesignedformunicipalitiesoflessthan2,500
people.Theyareusuallydesignedforindividualhomes(septictanks),buttheycan
bedesignedforclustersofhomes.Althoughtheydorequirespecificsiteconditions,
theycanbelowcostmethodsofwastewaterdisposal.
ExtentofUse
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ThesetreatmenttechnologiesarewidelyusedinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean.
Combinationsofsomeofthemwithwastewaterreusetechnologieshavebeen
testedinseveralcountries.Colombiahasextensivelytestedaerobicandanaerobic
mechanicaltreatmentsystems.Chile,Colombia,andBarbadoshaveusedactivated
sludgeplants,whileBrazilhasutilizedverticalreactorplants.Argentina,Bolivia,
Colombia,Guatemala,Brazil,Chile,Curaao,Mexico,Jamaica,andSaintLucia
havesuccessfullyexperimentedwithdifferentkindsofterrestrialandaquatic
treatmentsystemsforthetreatmentofwastewaters.Curaao,Mexico,andJamaica
haveusedstabilizationorfacultativelagoonsandoxidationpondstheirexperience
hasbeenthataquatictreatmenttechnologiesrequireextensivelandareasand
relativelylongretentiontimes,ontheorderof7to10days,toadequatelytreat
wastewater.Anemergingtechnology,beingtestedinanumberofdifferent
countries,isahybridaquaticterrestrialtreatmentsystemthatuseswastewatersfor
hydroponiccultivation.However,mostoftheapplicationsofthishybridtechnologyto
datehavebeenlimitedtotheexperimentaltreatmentofsmallvolumesof
wastewater.
OperationandMaintenance
Operationandmaintenancerequirementsvarydependingontheparticular
technologyused.Inmechanicalactivatedsludgeplants,maintenancerequirements
consistofperiodicallyactivatingthesludgepumps,inspectingthesystemtoensure
thatarenoblockagesorleakagesinthesystem,andcheckingBODandsuspended
solidsconcentrationsintheplanteffluenttoensureefficientoperation.
Inthecaseofaquatictreatmentsystemsusinganaerobicreactorsandfacultative
lagoonsforprimarywastewatertreatment,thefollowingoperationalguidelines
shouldbefollowed:
Periodicallycleanthesandremovalsystem(usuallyevery5daysin
dryweather,andevery2to3daysinwetweather).
Dailyremoveanyoilymaterialthataccumulatesintheanaerobic
reactor.
Dailyremoveaccumulatedalgaeinthefacultativelagoons.
Openthesludgevalvestosendthesludgetothedryingbeds.
Establishanexoticaquaticplantremovalprogram(aquaticplant
growthcanhamperthetreatmentcapacityofthelagoons).
Properlydisposeofthematerialsremoved,includingdriedsludge.
Apreventivemaintenanceprogramshouldalsobeestablishedtoincreasethe
efficiencyofthetreatmentsystemsandprolongtheirlifespan.
Whenusingterrestrialtreatmentsystemsorhybridhydroponiccultivationsystems
forwastewatertreatment,itisadvisabletohavetwoparallelsystems,andto
alternateapplicationsofwastewatertothesesystemsevery12hoursinorderto
facilitateaerationandtoavoiddamagetothesystem.Careisrequiredtoavoid
hydraulicoverloadinthesesystems,astheirrigatedplantcommunitiescouldbe
damagedandthedegreeoftreatmentprovidednegated.Periodicremovalof
sedimentsaccumulatedinthesoilisalsorequiredtoimprovethesoilplant
interactionandtoavoidsoilcompaction/subsidence.
Figure29:ComparativeOperationandMaintenanceCostofWastewater
TreatmentTechnologies.
Source:ErnestoPrez,P.E.,TechnologyTransferChief,Water
ManagementDivision,USEPARegionIV,Atlanta,Georgia.
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Figure30:ComparativeCapitalCostofWastewaterTreatmentTechnologies.
Source:ErnestoPrez,P.E.,TechnologyTransferChief,Water
ManagementDivision,USEPARegionIV,Atlanta,Georgia.
LevelofInvolvement
Governmentinvolvementisessentialintheimplementationofmostofthe
wastewatertreatmenttechnologies.Theprivatesector,particularlythetourism
industry,hassuccessfullyinstalled"packaged"orsmallscale,selfcontainedsewage
treatmentplantsatindividualsites.Insomecases,theinstallationoftheseplantshas
beencombinedwiththereuseoftheeffluentforwateringgolfcourses,lawns,and
similarareas.Theselectionandconstructionoftheappropriatewastewater
treatmenttechnologyisgenerallyinitiatedandfinanced,atleastpartially,bythe
government,withthesubsequentoperationandmaintenanceofthefacilitybeinga
responsibilityofthelocalcommunity.Nevertheless,despitethelargenumberofwell
knownandwelltestedmethodsforwastewatertreatment,therestillexista
significantnumberoflocalcommunitiesinLatinAmericawhichdischarge
wastewaterdirectlyintolakes,rivers,estuaries,andoceanswithouttreatment.Asa
result,surfacewaterdegradation,whichalsoaffectstheavailabilityoffreshwater
resources,ismorewidespreadthanisdesirablewithinthisregion.
Costs
Constructioncostsandoperationandmaintenancecostsforwastewatertreatment
systemswithacapacityof0.1to1milliongallonsperdayaresummarizedinFigures
29and30.MostofthecostdatacomefromsystemsimplementedintheUnited
States.SimilarsystemsinLatinAmericamightbelessexpensive,insomecases,
owingtolowerlaborcostsandpricedifferentialsinconstructionmaterials.
Nevertheless,therelativecostcomparisonamongtechnologiesislikelytobe
applicabletoallcountries.
Figure29comparestheoperatingandmaintenancecosts(labor,energy,chemicals,
andmaterialssuchasreplacementequipmentandparts)ofthevarioussystemsof
0.1to1mgdtreatmentcapacity.AllcostswereobtainedfromtheUSEPAInnovative
andAlternativeTechnologyAssessmentManual.Theyhavebeenindexedtothe
USEPAOperation,Maintenance,andRepairIndexofDirectCostsforthefirst
quarterof1993(4.3).Allcostsarepresentedindollarspermilliongallonsof
wastewatertreated.Thecostformechanicalsystemsissignificantlylargerthanfor
anyoftheothersystems,particularlyatsmallerflows.Thecostofharvestingplants
fromaquaculturesystemsisnotincludedthiscouldbeasignificantamountforsome
systems.
Figure30comparesofthecapitalcostofthewastewatertreatmentprocesses.The
costdataarealsofromtheInnovativeandAlternativeTechnologyAssessment
Manual,withtheexceptionofwetlandandaquaculturedata,whichwereobtained
frommorerecentsources.Allnaturalsystemsareassumedtohaveafacultative
lagoonastheprimarytreatmentunit.Thecostofchlorination/disinfectionisincluded
forallsystemsexcepttheslowrateandrapidinfiltrationsystems.Thecostoflandis
excludedinallcases,asisthecostoflinersfortheaquatictreatmentsystems.The
mechanicaltreatmentplantcostwasderivedasthecostofanoxidationditch
treatmentsystem,andincludesthecostofaclarifier,oxidationditch,pumps,
building,laboratory,andsludgedryingbeds.Thesecostsalsoincludethecostof
engineeringandconstructionmanagement,inadditiontothecostsforpiping,
electricalsystems,instrumentation,andsitepreparation.AllcostsareinMarch1993
dollars.
EffectivenessoftheTechnology
Naturaltreatmentsystemsarecapableofproducinganeffluentqualityequaltothat
ofmechanicaltreatmentsystems.Figure31summarizesthetreatmentperformance
ofeachofthesystems.Allcanmeetthelimitsgenerallyestablishedforsecondary
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treatment,definedasbiologicaloxygendemand(BOD)andtotalsuspendedsolids
(TSS)concentrationsoflessthan30mg/l.Allexceptthelagoonsystemscanalso
produceeffluentsthatmeetthecriteriagenerallycategorizedasadvanced
treatment,definedasBODandTSSconcentrationsoflessthan20mg/l.Theresults
ofaprojectconductedinBogota,Colombia,tocomparetheperformanceofdifferent
sewagetreatmentprocessesaresummarizedinTable16.
Figure31:TreatmentPerformanceofWastewaterTreatmentTechnologies.
*2ND=secondarylimitsoftreatmentforBODandsuspendedsolids<
30mg/l.
*ADV=advancedtreatmentlimitsforBODandtotalsuspendedsolids
<20mg/l.
*NH3=2mg/l,TP<2mg/l,TN<2mg/l.
Source:ErnestoPrez,P.E.,TechnologyTransferChief,Water
ManagementDivision,USEPARegionIV,Atlanta,Georgia.
Suitability
Mechanicalsystemsaremoresuitableforplaceswherelandavailabilityisaconcern,
suchashotelsandresidentialareas.Mechanicalplantsaretheleastlandintensive
ofthewastewatertreatmentmethodsbasedonnaturalprocesses.
Lagoonandoxidationpondtechnologiesaresuitablewherethereisplentyofland
available.Slowratesystemsrequireasmuchas760acres.Hybridhydroponic
cultivationtechniques,usingaquaticandterrestrialplantsforthetreatmentfor
wastewater,alsorequirerelativelylargeamountsofland,andarebestsuitedto
regionswheresuitableaquaticplantscangrownaturally.
Advantages
Table17summarizestheadvantagesofthevariouswastewatertreatment
technologies.Ingeneral,theadvantagesofusingnaturalbiologicalprocessesrelate
totheir"lowtech/notech"nature,whichmeansthatthesesystemsarerelatively
easytoconstructandoperate,andtotheirlowcost,whichmakesthemattractiveto
communitieswithlimitedbudgets.However,theirsimplicityandlowcostmaybe
deceptiveinthatthesystemsrequirefrequentinspectionsandconstantmaintenance
toensuresmoothoperation.Concernsincludehydraulicoverloading,excessiveplant
growth,andlossofexoticplantstonaturalwatercourses.Forthisreason,andalso
becauseofthelandrequirementsforbiologicallybasedtechnologies,many
communitiesprefermechanicallybasedtechnologies,whichtendtorequirelessland
andpermitbettercontroloftheoperation.However,thesesystemsgenerallyhavea
highcostandrequiremoreskilledpersonneltooperatethem.
Table16ComparativePerformanceofSewageTreatmentSystems
Process
Activated
sludge

OxygenSupply
Pressurizedair

Reactor Retention
Volume
Time

RemovalEfficiency

10m3

46hr

90%95%organicmatter
90%95%suspendedsolids

Biologicrotary Air
discs

1m3

13hr

90%95%organicmatter

Ascendant
flow

Anaerobic

2m3

24hr

50%60%organicmatter57%
suspendedsolids

Anaerobic
filtration

Anaerobic

2m3

36hr

40%50%organicmatter52%
suspendedsolids

Septictank

Anaerobic

2m3

36hr

25%organicmatter

Hydroponic

Aerobic/anaerobic

6m3

12hr

65%75%organicmatter

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3.1Wastewatertreatmenttechnologies

cultivation

Source:ErnestoPrez,P.E.,TechnologyTransferChief,Water
ManagementDivision,USEPARegionIV,Atlanta,Georgia.
Disadvantages
Table17alsosummarizesthedisadvantagesofthevariouswastewatertreatment
technologies.Thesegenerallyrelatetothecostofconstructionandeaseof
operation.Mechanicalsystemscanbecostlytobuildandoperateastheyrequire
specializedpersonnel.Nevertheless,theydoofferamorecontrolledenvironment
whichproducesamoreconsistentqualityofeffluent.Naturalbiologicalsystems,on
theotherhand,aremorelandintensive,requirelessskilledoperators,andcan
produceeffluentsofvariablequalitydependingontimeofyear,typeofplants,and
volumeofwastewaterloading.Generally,thecomplexityandcostofwastewater
treatmenttechnologiesincreasewiththequalityoftheeffluentproduced.
CulturalAcceptability
GovernmentsandtheprivatesectorinmanyLatinAmericancountriesfailtofully
recognizethenecessityofwastewatertreatmentandtheimportanceofwaterquality
inimprovingthequalityoflifeofexistingandfuturegenerations.Thecontamination
ofnaturalresourcesisamajorimpedimenttoachievingthestatedobjectiveof
Agenda21ofenvironmentallysustainableeconomicgrowthanddevelopment.
FurtherDevelopmentoftheTechnology
Thecosteffectivenessofallwastewatertreatmenttechnologiesneedstobe
improved.Newdesignsofmechanicalsystemswhichaddressthisconcernare
beingintroducedbythetreatmentplantmanufacturingindustry.Theuseofvertical
reactorswithanactivatedsludgesystem,beingtestedinBrazilinordertoacquire
dataforfutureimprovementofthistechnology,isoneexampleoftheinnovation
goingonintheindustry.Similarproductdevelopmentisoccurringintheuseof
aquaticandterrestrialplantsandhybridhydroponicsystems,asameansof
wastewatertreatmenthowever,thesetechnologiesarestillinanexperimental
phaseandwillrequiremoretestingandresearchpriortobeingacceptedas
standardtreatmenttechnologies.Inaddition,educationtocreateanawarenessof
theneedforwastewatertreatmentremainsacriticalneedatalllevelsofgovernment
and
Table17AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofConventionalandNon
conventionalWastewaterTreatmentTechnologies
Treatment
Type

Advantages

Disadvantages

AquaticSystems
Stabilization Lowcapitalcost
lagoons
Lowoperationandmaintenancecosts
Lowtechnicalmanpowerrequirement

Requiresalargeareaofland
Mayproduceundesirable
odors

Aerated
lagoons

Requiresmechanicaldevices
toaeratethebasins
Produceseffluentswithahigh
suspendedsolids
concentration

Requiresrelativelylittlelandarea
Producesfewundesirableodors

TerrestrialSystems
Septic
tanks

Canbeusedbyindividualhouseholds
Easytooperateandmaintain
Canbebuiltinruralareas

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Providesalowtreatment
efficiency
Mustbepumpedoccasionally
Requiresalandfillforperiodic
disposalofsludgeandseptage
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3.1Wastewatertreatmenttechnologies

Constructed Removesupto70%ofsolidsandbacteria
wetlands
Minimalcapitalcost
Lowoperationandmaintenancerequirements
andcosts

Remainslargelyexperimental
Requiresperiodicremovalof
excessplantmaterial
Bestusedinareaswhere
suitablenativeplantsare
available

MechanicalSystems
Filtration
systems

Minimallandrequirementscanbeusedfor
householdscaletreatment
Relativelylowcost
Easytooperate

Requiresmechanicaldevices

Vertical
biological
reactors

Highlyefficienttreatmentmethod
Requireslittlelandarea
Applicabletosmallcommunitiesforlocal
scaletreatmentandtobigcitiesforregional
scaletreatment

Highcost
Complextechnology
Requirestechnicallyskilled
manpowerforoperationand
maintenance
Needssparepartsavailability
Hasahighenergyrequirement

Activated
sludge

Highlyefficienttreatmentmethod
Requireslittlelandarea
Applicabletosmallcommunitiesforlocal
scaletreatmentandtobigcitiesforregional
scaletreatment

Highcost
Requiressludgedisposalarea
(sludgeisusuallylandspread)
Requirestechnicallyskilled
manpowerforoperationand
maintenance

InformationSources
Contacts
BasilP.Fernandez,ManagingDirector,WaterResourcesAuthority,Hope
Gardens,PostOfficeBox91,Kingston7,Jamaica.Tel.(809)9271878.Fax
(809)9770179.
AlbertoCceresValencia,GerentedeIngeniera,EmpresadeServicios
SanitariosdeAntofagastaS.A.,ManuelVerbal1545,Santiago,Chile.Tel.(56
55)267979.Fax(5655)224547.
FreddyCamachoVillegas,Director,InstitutodeHidrulicaeHidrologa(IHH),
UniversidadMayordeSanAndrs(UMSA),CasillaPostal699,LaPaz,Bolivia.Tel.
(5912)795724.Fax(5912)792622.
ArmandoLlopandGracielaFasciolo,InstitutoNacionaldeCienciayTcnica
Hdrica(INCYTH/CELAA),Belgrano210Oeste,5500Mendoza,Argentina.Tel.(54
61)287921.Fax(5491)285416.
JulioMoscoso,Asesor,ProgramadereusodeAguasResiduales,Divisinde
SaludyAmbiente,CentroPanamericanodeIngenieraSanitariayCienciasdel
Ambiente(CEPIS),OrganizacinPanamericanadelaSalud(OPS),CalleLosPinos
259,Urb.Camacho,Lima12,PerCasillaPostal4337,Lima100,Peru.Tel.(51
1)4371077.Fax(511)4378289.Email:moscoso@cepis.org.pe.
GuillermoNavasBrule,CodelcoChile,Div.Chuquicamata,Calama,Chile.Tel.
(5656)322207.Fax(5656)322207.
GuillermoSarmiento,Asesor,DireccindeAguaPotableySaneamientoBsico,
ViceministeriodeDesarrolloUrbano,ViviendayAguaPotable,Ministeriode
DesarrolloEconmico,Bogot,Colombia.Tel.(571)2879743.Fax(571)245
7256/2126520.
CarlosSolsMorelos,CentroInteramericanodeRecursosdeAguadela
UniversidadAutnomadelEstadodeMxico(UAEM),FacultaddeIngeniera,
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CdigoPostal50110,CerrodeCoatepec,Toluca,Mexico.Tel.(5272)201582.Fax
(5272)144512.
VincentSweeney,CaribbeanEnvironmentHealthInstitute(CEHI),PostOfficeBox
1111,Castries,SaintLucia.Tel.(809)4522501.Fax(809)4532721.Email:
cehi@isis.org.lc.
ErnestoPerez,Chief,TechnologyTransferUnit,WaterManagementDivision,
USEPARegionIV,345CourtlandSt.N.E,Atlanta,Georgia30365,U.S.A.Tel.
(404)3479280ext.28285.Fax(404)3471798.
OscarVlez,IngenieroSanitarioSubinterventor,OSMSE,Belgrano920Oeste,
5500Mendoza,Argentina.Tel.(5461)259326.Fax(5461)259326.
PedroMancuso,FaculdadedeSadePblicadaUniversidadedeSoPaulo,
DepartamentodeSadeAmbiental,01255090SoPaulo,SoPaulo,Brasil.Tel.
(5511)8723464.Fax(5511)8530681.
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