343

Tectonophysics, 199 (1991) 343-314

Elsevier Science publishers B.V., Amsterdam

A two-level concept of plate tectonics: application to geod~a~cs

L.I. Lobkovsky a and V.I. Kerchman b
yInstitute of Oceanology

The U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences,Moscow ii 7238, USSR

h The Interuniversity Computer Center, Kishinev 279003, USSR

(Received August 15.1989; revised version accepted July 15.1990)

ABSTRACT
Lobkovsky, L.I. and Kerchman, V.I., 1991. A two-level concept of plate tectonics: application to geodynamics. In: L.P.
Zonenshain (Editor), The Achievements of Plate Tectonics in the U.S.S.R. Tectonophysics, 199: 343-374.
A twolevel plate tectonics concept is developed on the basis of data on lithosphere rbeological stratification. This
approach differentiates between crust and subcrust plate ensembles separated by a lower-crust viscoplastic asthenolayer.
Similarly to classical plate tectonics, three types of boundaries are distinguished in the lower layer which do not always
coincide with crust-plate boundaries (especially for continents). Applications of this concept to geodynamics are considered,
and a corresponding quantitative analysis for several important processes is carried out. A quantitative mode1 of mountain
formation and collision-plateau origins is proposed. Also, a geodynamic model of the evolution of passive margins, taking into
account a lower-crust viscous flow, is considered and its geological consequences are discussed. A mechanism of rifting, taking
into consideration rheological lithospheric layering and its vertical movements caused by extension, is developed. Both a
qualitative scheme and quantitative analysis of the slow evolution of intracraton structures of shield-basin type, taking into
account erosion and sedimentation processes, are worked through. Also, historical aspects of plate tectonics are discussed from
the point of view of the proposed concept.

Intmduetion
The orthodox theory of plate tectonics seems to
have certain restrictions on its application. Thus,
tectonic processes of a regional scale, that is of
several hundreds of kilometres, cannot be described sufficiently well by standard plate-tectonic
models. This is of special concern for the continents (Molar, 1988; Lobkovsky, 1988a) because,
when one analyses regional processes, those inhomogeneities (both horizontal and vertical) and distributions of intraplate strains which have not
been considered on a global scale (since they have
virtually been averaged) become the main objects
of the research. Since many researchers have been
guided by the idea of scale restrictions imposed on
the plate-tectonic processes, they have put this
above the quantitative study of plate non-rigidity
and patterns of intraplate strains and stresses
(Molnar and Tapponier, 1978; England and McKenzie, 1982; Vilotte et al., 1982; Cloetingh et al.,
~-1951/91/$03.50

1984; England et al., 1985; Khain, 1986; Bruhn,

1987; Kirby and Kronenberg, 1987).
As for geomechanics, the analysis of the problem mentioned is reduced to the description of the
rheological behaviour of lithospheric rocks under
the real P-T conditions and for the various regimes of tectonic strain.
In geodynamics, an effective strength)* is usually used as a generalized rheological characteristic
of the lithosphere (Ranalli and Murphy, 1987;
Kirby and Kronenberg, 1987); this may be interpreted in different ways, depending upon the P-T
conditions and mechanisms of rock strain. For the
domain of quasi-elastic strains and brittle fracturing, this characteristic coincides with the definition of a material strength as used in mechanics
(Byerlie, 1968; Sibson, 1974; Brace and Kohlstedt,
1980). For the ductile (non-linear viscous) flow of
the medium, the notion of creep strength has
been introduced (Ranalli and Murphy, 1987;
Kirby, 1983).

6 1991 - Elsevier Scienw Publishers B.V. All rights reserved

344

L..l. LOBKOVSKY

Temperature

Strength

Temperature

Fig. 1. Model strength profiles (solid lines): (a) for normal

continental lithosphere with a 15 km thick granitic upper crust
and a 25 km thick mafic lower crust; (b) for normal oceanic
lithosphere with a 5 km thick basaltic upper crust and a 2 km
thick serpentinitic lower crust. Rashed lines denote the geotherms for the two cases. The dotted line denotes the strength
envelope. The strain fate is lO_ s-.

Ahhough each particular profile of an effective strength compiled from the data of laboratory tests, depends upon the assumed composition
of the Earths crust and upper mantle, and upon
temperature distributions, deformation rate, water
saturation of the media, and so on, all these profiles plainly indicate the main feature of the rheological s~at~~ca~on of the exosphere; th8t is, the
occurrence of an extremely low strength (viscosity)
of the medium in the lower crust in contrast to the
stronger and more brittle layers of the upper crust
and the subcrustal part of the lithosphere.
As an example, in Fig. la we illustrate a typical
profile of the generalized strength of the lithosphere, which is composed of an upper granitic

AND

4.1. KtRtHMAN

crust (Z) - 15 km thick, a lower mafic crust

(II) - 25 km thick and an underlying olivine
mantle (III). This plot has been drawn from a
typical continental geotherm that corresponds to
the average heat flow on the surface; that is, about
50 mW/m* {Morgan and Sass, 1984), in accordance with experimental rheological data (Byerlie,
1968; Brace and Kohlstedt, 1980; Kirby, 1983;
Ranalli and Murphy, 1987), the deformation rate
being constant at C?- 1O-5 s-j. The envelope line
shows the resistance of the medium to brittle
fracturing (Byerlie, 1968), and corresponds to the
generalized strength of almost the entire upper
crustal layer (I), a small part of a cold lower
crust (II) and a quasi-rigid core of the subcrustal
mantle (III ). The main part of the lower crust
(II) - that is, the crustal asthenolayer - shows
ductile properties which may be described by a
creep law (Kriby, 1983). The lower quasi-viscous
lithosphere (III) is a tradition
to the mantle
asthenosphere.
The profile of the generalized strength for a
normal oceanic lithosphere has a similar character
(Fig. lb). Here, the lower serpentinite layer of the
oceanic crust is analogous
to the crustal
asthenolayer
(Raleigh
and Paterson,
1965;
Lobkovsky et al., 1986). Note that each particular
profile of a generalized strength (limiting shear
stress) varies considerably from region to region as
the heat regime and tectonic strain of the media
vary (for instance, as the rates of various processes
change in different layers).
The present-day concepts described concerning
the rheological stratification of geological media,
distinguishing quasi-rigid and ductile layers in the
crust, are analogous to the traditional geophysical
concept of the existence of the lithosphere and
asthenosphere in the upper mantle, the concept on
which the orthodox theory of plate tectonics rests.
The understanding of the geodynamic essence of
this analogue has resulted in the fo~ula~on
by
Lobkovsky (1987a,b; 1988a,b) of the pfincipaily
new concept
of two-level plate tectonics. The main
idea of this concept lies in the recognition of two
main levels (crustal and subcrustal) and in the
introduction of different scales in the conventional
theory of plate tectonics. When global horizontal
motions of several thousands of kilometres (a typi-

345

A TWO-LEVEL CONCEPT OF PLATE TECTONICS

cal scale) are described, it is the lower subcnustal

(upper-mantle) level of the system that works,
whereas the processes in the upper-crustal level
are subordinate. However, to describe adequately
the majority of the regiond te&m.ic processes, the
typical scales of which are only some hundreds of
kilometres and even less, it is necessary to turn to
the upper-crustal level of the geodynamic model
considered. Within this level, the upper brittle
crustal sublayer is dissected into individual microplates and geoblocks, their dimensions being from
several hundreds to several tens of kilometres.
Such crustal blocks are capable of horizontal displacements over the underlying crustal asthenolayer relative to the mantle part of the lithosphere.
If one ignores these displacements - in the case
of relatively strong coupling of crustal blocks with
the mantle and at lesser differential stresses - it
is possible to hold to the standard plate-tectonic
constructions. If differential stresses are sufficiently great, as in the case of collision and con~nent~-~ft~g
zones? the upper-crnstal layer may
move and be deformed independently, to a considerable extent, on the subcrustal layer of the
system due to the developed ductile flow of the
lower crust. One such situation is illustrated in

Fig. 2: the continental collision of India and

Eurasia (Lobkovsky, 1988a,b). This shows the
mosaic of the upper-crustal microplates, the relative displacements of which are determined both
by the indentation of the Hindustan to Eurasia
boundary (at crustal level) and by the dragging of
crustal blocks by the mantle part of the lithosphere7 which is slipping beneath the crust. It is
also determined by the flow of the lower crust
caused by the above-mentioned process. As a result of the viscous flow of the lower crust, its
material may be forced (injected) into the vicinity
of the suture zone, thus causing thickening of the
lower crust and formation of the roots of the
mount~s
and isostatic uplifts of the territory.
The present paper not only gives a quantitative
analysis of the collision process (according to the
scheme mentioned above) (Lobkovsky, 1988a,b;
1990; Khain and Lobkovsky, 3990), but also considers how a two-level concept of plate tectonics
can be applied to some geodynarnic problems. It
describes the evolution of passive continental
margins and the formation of rift zones at their
rear (Lobkovsky, 1989; Lobkovsky and Khain,
1989); it gives the general scheme of continental
rifting at two levels and analyses the geodynamic
behaviour of the crust within cratons with regard
to the ~erosion-sedimen~tion-rnet~o~~srnflow in the lower crust rnate~~-circula~on cycle
(Lobkovsky, 1989); finally, it considers some historical aspects of two-level evolution of the lithosphere.
Geological-geophysical grounds and general ideas
of a two-level,plate-tectonic concept

Fig. 2. A general two-level scheme for the continental c&&ion

of India and Eurasia (after Lobkovsky, 19%8a; see text for
explanation). I - Upper brittle crust; 2 = lower ductile crust;
3 = subcrustal

Lithosphere;

4 = mantle

asthenosphere;

5=

thrust-type (convergent) crusti boundaries; 6 = strikaslip-type

(transform) txustal bounties;

7 = she-ax-velo@ity distributio+x

ill a cross-section of lowex crust; 8 = direetioll of sllbcrustal

lithosphere movement; 9 = subduction zone.

First, we briefly consider the factual data that

provide evidence for a two-layered (in first approximation) rheological structure of the Earths
crust. The results of deep seismic studies, by projects such as COCORP (Allmendinger et al., 1987),
ECDRS (Choukroune and Garridq 1989) and
EUGENO-S (h4eissner et al., 1987), have allowed
their authors to determine a fine-layered structure
of the lower continental crust. We believe that
such a stratification probabIy originates from the
horizontal flow of ductile mater&I in the Iowercrustal asthenolayer.

346

Considerable progress has been achieved in instrumental seismology in the past decade. As a
result, the accuracy with earthquake hypocentres
can be determined has increased by one order of
magnitude (Chen and Molnar, 1983). From the
studies that have been carried out, it turns out that
the hypocentres of continental earthquakes are
predominantly concentrated in the uppermost 20
km of the crust. The lower layer of the continental
crust, which is 15-20 km thick, is virtually
aseismic; earthquake foci appear again only in the
subcrustal horizons of the upper mantle in active
tectonic regions of the Earth. Thus, the lower
Continental crust can be considered to be an
aseismic layer (Chen and Molnar, 1983; Meissner,
1985; Jackson, 1987) and this verifies its asthenospheric nature.
A comparison of the observed distribution patterns of earthquake hypocentres in the lithosphere
and the temperature field in the crust and upper
mantle, made for various regions of the Earth, has
shown that seismicity within the continental crust
is limited by about the 3SO C isotherm, whereas
seismicity in the upper mantle is controlled by the
700 o C isotherm (Chen and Molnar, 1983; Wiens
and Stein, 1983). The temperatures mentioned
correspond to the transition from a quasi-brittle to
ductile deformation regime for the geomaterial of
the crust (at - 350 o C) and mantle (at - 700 0 C)
obtained in laboratory tests (DeRito et al., 1986;
Jackson, 1987).
The observed pattern of the distribution of
seismicity serves as independent evidence for the
rheological stratification of the Earths crust into
the lithosphere and asthenosphere. Note that the
correlation between the heat regime of the lithosphere and the character of seismicity in one region or another allows us to draw conclusions on
the lateral variability of the properties of the
crustal asthenosphere; and on the changes in its
thickness, effective viscosity, etc. in particular.
It follows from a proposed pattern of plate
tectonics (Lobkovsky, 1988a) that the process of
isostatic equilibrium should occur at two levels at
least; namely, at the crustal and hthosphe~c levels.
As for the lateral scales of isostatic compensation
of several tens (or perhaps hundreds) of kilometres, the main role is played by the crustal

L 1. LOBKOVSKY

AND

V.I. KEKCHMAN

asthenosphere, this being verified by analysis of

local isostasy on the continents (McAdoo, 1985).
When the scale is increased to several hundreds of
kilometres, the mantle asthenosphere acquires an
important meaning. The given supposition of a
two-level isostatic compensation is verified by
analysing the isostasy of each particular region.
On the basis of such an analysis, it is possible to
show which part of the isostatic compensation is
taken up by the crust (it is usually 70%) and how
much remains in the mantle lithosphere and
asthenosphere (Artemjev and Kaban, 1987).
The rheologieal statification of the crust and
lithosphere is verified by numerous geological data
concerning their tectonic layering in each particular region &nipper and Ruzhentsev, 1977; Peive
et al., 1983; Ranalli and Murphy, 1987). Extensive
granite-gneiss allochthons with displacement amplitudes of hundreds of kilometres, in the Alpine
belt, Appalachian Mountains and other fold belts,
are the direct geological evidence for the occurrence of the lower-crustal asthenolayer (Cook et
al., 1979; Hsii, 1979; Peive et al., 1983).
We shall now formulate some general statements initially proposed by Lobkovsky (1987a,
1988a) which complement the plate-tectonic approach to a two-level pattern. At each level we
distinguish a geodynamic system with its own
ensemble of plates (~croplates)
which, generally
speaking, do not coincide. This is the principal
difference in the proposed model from the orthodox plate-tectonic concept. The system of plates
and microplates of the upper-crustal deck coincides with the orthodox plate-tectonic concept (Le
Pichon et al., 1973; Zonenshain and Savostin,
1979). The tectonic system of the lower (mantle>
floor of the lithosphere can be explained by the
occurrence of a quasi-rigid subcrustal layer III
(Fig. la) dissected into large plates, the size of
which is on the scale of thousands of kilometres.
They are dissected by boundaries of three types, in
a similar manner to the orthodox concept, namely
divergent, convergent and transform.
If these plates and the boundaries between
them coincide (the character of motion included),
the plates may be considered as a monolith and
their boundaries as a common one. In this case,
we can use constructions of conventional plate

A TWO-LEVEL

CONCEPT

OF PLATE

TECTONICS

tectonics: this is true for the most part of the

oceanic lithosphere, since in the oceans, the
governing behaviour is that of the lower subcrustal
lithosphere with a quasi-rigid core III (- 2040 km thick), which is considerably thicker and
stronger compared to the brittle overlying basalt
crust (3-5 km).
If the plates (and their boundaries) of the upper
and lower floors do not ocincide, a more complex
two-level model of tectonics originates, where
various motions of crustal plates (blocks) are possible relative to each other and relative to the
mantle part of the lithosphere (due to the flow of
a ductile lower-crustal layer). The collision scheme
for such motions is shown in Fig. 2.
A two-level tectonic structure is most distinct
in the continental regions where, in contrast to
oceans, the total strength and thickness of the
upper-crustal brittle layer and the quasi-rigid subcrustal core of the lithosphere are comparable. In
this connection, a problem arises as to how to
single out individual plates of the lower level
under the continents, the boundaries of which do
not coincide with the traditional ones.
As for the divergent plate boundaries of the
lower level, it seems most logical to attribute them
to the extensive linear zones of basaltic (alkaline
and tholeiitic) magmatism (Milanovsky, 1975),
which usually occurs long before the rifting in the
system at the upper level and which produces a
complete splitting up of the plates in the traditional sense. So, for instance, it is known
(Razvalyaev, 1984) that during the past 800 Ma
intrusions of alkaline basalts happened many times
(at around 770-450, 290, 185, 120 and 80 Ma)
along the East African rift system. The periods of
basaltic magmatism alternated with the periods of
secondary alkaline-granitic magmatism (570-450,
185 and 50 Ma) (Razvalyaev, 1984). In addition to
the East African rift system, a spatial coincidence
of the linear zones of alkaline magmatism with rift
structures has been revealed in the Gardar province (Greenland), the St. Lawrence rift, the Baikal
rift zone and a number of others. In many cases,
such magmatism occurred before not only the
Cenozoic but also the Mesozoic rifting.
In the framework of a two-level plate-tectonic
concept, it is natural to consider such prolonged

341

linear zones of alkaline magmatism as divergent

plate boundaries in the lower level. It is difficult
to trace these boundaries through the entire area
of the continents, as the magmatism attributed to
them is not always exposed on the Earths surface;
for example, due to the compression regime in the
upper level of the system. As an example of a
divergent plate boundary in the lower level, we
can draw a linear belt extending from the North
Sea to the Lower and Upper Rhine grabens, to the
grabens of the Seine and Rh&e, then continuing
through the Mediterranean (Tunisia strait, grabens
in Pantelleria and Malta), further on into Africa
to the Gulf of Guinea, and along the Cameroon
line into the South Atlantic. The East African rift
system and the East Asian system from Anadyr
Bay to Tungting Hu Lake in Southern China may
be attributed to the same category of divergent
plate boundaries (Lobkovsky and Khain, 1989).
As in orthodox plate tectonics, the divergent segments of plate boundaries in the lower level might
be connected by lower-layer transform segments,
although there is little direct evidence of this.
The convergent plate boundaries of the lower
level usually occur in collision belts where intracontinental subduction processes develop. Examples are the Alpine-Himalayas
zone of subcrustal subduction (Fig. 2) and possible intracontinental
subduction beneath the Rocky
Mountains during the Laramide orogeny. As a
rule, lower-level subduction is not marked by middle- and deep-foci earthquakes, although rare exceptions occur in individual segments with a narrow frontal part (Calabria, Hindu Kush, etc.). The
aseismic behaviour of such subduction zones can
be explained first by the fact that cold hydrated
crust is not subducted, as in the case of the
oceanic plates and, second, by the considerable
frictional heating of the subducted lithosphere (this
mechanism will be considered in detail below).
The aseismic regions of convergent plate
boundaries in the lower level can be revealed using
seismic tomography data. The inclined high-velocity layers and the Q-factor correspond to such
zones (Spakman, 1986). Post-collisional granitic
magmatism generated by frictional heating may
serve as a geological indicator of collisional subduction (Debon et al., 1986; Lobkovsky, 1988a;

34x

Khain and Lobkovsky, 1990; Kerchman and

Lobkovsky, 1990b).
The two-level concept of plate tectonics poses a
general problem, how to recognize the plate
boundaries of the lower layer using the mass of
complex geological and geophysical data available, including gravity field, heat flow and geochemical information (in particular, the zones of
mantle helium).
The possible structure of divergent plate
boundaries in the lower layer may be predicted by
analogy with the central parts of slowly expanding
mid-oceanic ridges (Lobkovsky, 1989). Thus, they
should show a bilaterally symmetrical inhomogeneity of the subcrustal Lithosphere thickness. An
example of a divergent plate boundary in the
lower level may be the asthenospheric bulge under
the Sayan-Baikal arch uplift and its northeast and
southwest extensions (Rogozhina and Kozhevnikov, 1979; Logachev and Zorin, 1988). Another
example of a divergent boundary in the subcrustal
layer is an extension of an anomalous mantle
bulge from the Rio-Grande rift into the inner
parts of the North American continent. In contrast to the oceanic divergent boundaries, which
are characterized by extension only, crustal structures of both extension (Baikal rift) and compression (the Mongolian Altai, Han-hai, the Gobi AItai and Eastern Sayan) can be located over the
divergent boundaries of the lower level. Within the
African continent, the latter may be represented
by a considerably thinner subcrustal lithosphere
(Fairhead and Reeves, 1977; Kazmin, 1987).
As has been noted above, the divergent
boundaries of the lithospheric lower layer are part
of the global system of plate boundaries. In particular, they continue from the continental to the
oceanic regions and vice versa. The continuation
of the East Pacific Rise under the crustal layer of
North America in the Basin and Range Province
and the Cameroon line that continues the islands of the South Atlantic into the lower-level
extension boundary under West Africa are typical
of this feature (Lobkovsky, 1989).
Plate bound~es of the subcrustal layer seem to
be as stable in time as the principal boundaries of
large oceanic plates, i.e. mid-oceanic ridges and

1, I. LOBKOVSKY

AND

V.I. KEKCHMAN

subduction zones. They can change due to changes

in the mantle convection regime, and also due to
large-scale geodynamie processes which occur at
both levels of the lithosphere (collision, for instance).
A two-level plate-tectonic model allows us to
incorporate the principal mechanisms of rift propagation (Co~tillot, 1982; Martin, 1984). In particular, the propagation of rifts from oceanic basins
to the upper-crustal layer of continents may be
due to a pre-existing divergent boundary in their
lower layer.
This new view of the plate tectonics of the
lithosphe~c lower layer allows us to consider hot
spots within the continents as zones where magmatic activity is localized at triple junctions of
divergent and transform lower-level boundaries,
where the quasi-rigid layer of subcrustal lithosphere is completely absent. Examples of such
isolated points are Yellowstone Park in the U.S.A.,
and the volcanic areas of Tibesti, Darfur and
Achaggar in Central and Western Africa (Lobkovsky, 1989). The tectonic evolution of the Earth in
the earliest historical stages (Archean and Proterozoic) is of great interest. At present, the majotity of researchers believe that plate-tectonic
processes began on the Earth as late as in the
Proterozoic (Khain and Mikhailov, 1985; Khain
and Bozhko, 1988). According to the concept described above, the plate-tectonic regime may begin
when a general cooling of the Earth occurs, the
intensity of mantle convection decreases and, as a
result, a continuous subcrustal layer is formed in
the lithosphere. The quasi-rigid core of the lower
lithospheric layer prevents chaotic motion and
decouples the previously formed massifs of sialic
protocrust from the unsteady convective flow of
the mantle. Such capturing of individual protocrustal blocks by the lithospheric lower layer may
explain the formation of stable cratons and continental cores. The mosaic pattern of Archean
permobile tectonics may be explained by the lack
of a quasi-rigid frame in the lower level. Similar
conclusions can be reached about the oceanic
proto-crust. This concept of the evolution of the
Earths tectonic regime from a hot chaotic state to
an organized plate-tectonic one by the formation

A TWO-LEVEL

CONCEPr

OF PLATE

TECTONKS

of a continuous lower-level skeleton (frame)

may be applied to the evolution of all terrestrial
planets.
We note that in a two-level plate-tectonic model
the main driving forces are applied to the plates of
the lower level, either by coupling of subcrustal
plates with convective mantle flows or by a pulling effect that works on the subducted mantle
parts of these plates or, finally, by spreading of
anomalous mantle and ridge push (Forsyth and
Uyeda, 1975; Cloetingh and Wortel, 1985; Sekiguchi, 1985). The forces driving the upper-crustal
layer are determined by their coupling with the
plates of the lower level; they also may be connected with inhomogeneities of crustal thickness
and density. One other special aspect of the twolevel model is that plate interactions at the crustal
level play a greater role in the geodynamics of
crustal blocks and microplates than the corresponding plate interactions at the lower level.

Strmgth

60

80

Mechanical aspects of the two-level plate-tectonic

model
To analyse the mechanical problems which arise
in two-level tectonic processes, we first consider
briefly some aspects of the rheological behaviour
of the continental lithosphere under various conditions and strain regimes. The ductile flow law
derived experimentally for crustal and upper-mantle rocks at high temperature is:
t=Arexp[-Q/R(T+273)]

(1)
where P is the strain rate, 7 = u1 - a3 is twice the
shear stress, T is the temperature in *C; and A, n
and Q are material constants depending upon the
composition, structure and water content of the
rocks (Kirby, 1983).
In Figs. 3a and b are presented (a) the modified
curves of generalized strength (limiting stress) for
different temperature regimes and (b) the non-homogeneous strain-rate dist~bution in sublayers of
viscous flow that correspond to real tectonic regimes; for instance, to the slip of a lithospheric
subcrusml layer during intr~ntinental
subduction. This difference from the idealized curves
(solid lines, Figs. 1 and 3) should be taken into
account when analysing each particular geodynamic situation qu~titatively.

strain

rote

Fig. 3. Model strength profiles of continental lithosphere with

a 15 km thick granitic upper crust and a 25 km thick mafic
lower crust: (a) for different temperature regimes corresponding to g-therms with heat flows of 45 mW/m (solid line) and
60 mW/m* (dashed line); (b) for ho~~~us
(solid line) and
non-homogeneous (dashed line) strain-rate distribution in the
lithosphere (dotted line).

We now consider some mathemati~l models in

which the main role is played by ductile flow of
the material in the lower crust due to changes in
its thickness.
Consider
a two-dimensional
mathematical
model in which the x axis is oriented along the
dominantly horizontal motion and the z axis is
oriented vertically upwards (Fig, 4). We assume
that there is a viscous deformable asthenolayer
(II) of the lower crust, with varying thickness,
which is overlain by an elastic-brittle upper crust
(I) and underlain by a horizontally moving
quasi-rigid plate (III) of the lower level. For
simplicity, we ignore the bending rigidity of the
upper layer (I) and assume it to be non-deforma-

350

L.I. LOBKOVSKY

AND V.I. KERCHMAN

In the following sections we shall consider

mathematical models of particular geodynamic
processes, using eqns. (2) and (3).
A two-layer collision model at an intrawutiuental
subduction zone

Fig. 4. Main layers interacting with each other within the

framework of the two-level plate-tectonic concept (see text for
explanation). I = upper brittle crust; 2 = lower ductile crust;
3 = subcrustal quasi-rigid lithosphere.

ble in a horizontal direction. If we assume a

Newtonian viscosity of layer (II) and local isostatic compensation of the crust (due to a rather
rapid response of the subcrustal lithosphere), the
equation for the evolution of the lower-crustal
thickness h is (Lobkovsky, 1988a):
- ;&(Uh)

where K = (pM - &~cg/lh.m;

P,,.,
ad
pc
are
the densities of the mantle and crust, respectively,
g is the acceleration due to gravity, q, is an
effective mean viscosity of the crustal lower layer,
and U is the horizontal velocity of the subcrustal
part of the lithosphere relative to the upper-crustal
layer. We consider this in greater detail in the
Appendix.
When the behaviour of the lower crust follows
a more realistic rheological law (1) with index
n = 3, the equation of the evolution of the layer in
an isothermic approximation for a fixed subcrustal basement is (see Appendix):
(3)
Here:
/3=bB

Pc(Ph4 - Pc)g
PM

(4)

where B = &I exp[ - Q/R(T + 273)] and b is a

normalizing factor that depends on the behaviour
of the upper crust: when this layer is horizontally
rigid (flow under a cap), b = l/80; when the
upper layer is fractured and blocks of the upper
crust can move freely in a hotintal
direction,
b = l/S (Kerchman, 1990).

According to orthodox plate-tectonic theory,

the mountain fold belts of the Earth are formed
by the collision of large continental plates and by
the accretion of smaller crustal blocks (terranes) in
zones of lithospheric convergence (Dewey and
Bird, 1970; Ben-Avraham et al., 1981; Zonenshain,
1986). Various mechanisms for crustal thickening
and uplift of mountain areas have been proposed:
namely, frontal compression,
shortening and
warping of the crust and lithosphere (Dewey et al.,
1988); partial subhorizontal subduction of one
continental
plate under another to cause a
mechanical doubling of the crust (Powell and
Conaghan, 1973); penetration of rigid continental
indentors (Adria, Arabia and Hindustan) into
the elastoplastic (Molnar and Tapponnier, 1978)
or viscoplastic (England and McKenzie, 1982;
England and Houseman, 1986) body of an adjacent plate (Eurasian lithcsphere); and various
types of piling up and delamination of the crust
(Oxburgh, 1972; Bird, 1978; Hsti, 1979).
Although the above-mentioned
models each
have their own merits and may accurately describe
certain aspects of collision belts, they do not explain some important special features of their
structure and evolution. For example, they do not
explain the data on thickening of the continental
crust due to accretion of its lower layer (Giese,
1980; Choukroune and Garrido, 1989), the high
geothermal gradient of collision belts (Artyushkov, 1979; Morgan and Sass, 1984), post-collision
granitic magmatism (Debon et al., 1986), or the
lower convergence rate of continental blocks in
the collision zone in comparison with that of the
lithosphere plates which carry them (collision of
Hindustan with Eurasia; Trifonov, 1987). As yet,
there is no explanation for phenomena such as the
absence of mid- and deep-focal earthquakes in the
greater part of the Alpine-Himalayas
collision
belt, although the entire geological history of the
Tethys closure (Sborschikov, 1988; Kazmin et al.,

A TWO-LEVEL CONCEFT OF PLATE TECTONICS

1986) and the recent data from seismic tomogra-

phy (Spakrnan, 1986) provide evidence for subduction of the lithosphere under Eurasia.
A new model of continental collision was
worked out by Lobkovsky (1988a,b). It arises from
the assumption of two-level plate tectonics, by
which the above aspects of the structure and
evolution of collision belts are explained (Fig 2).
The traditional analysis of the plate-tectonic
evolution of the Alpine-Himalayas
belt is based
on the assumption of a mosaic pattern of lithospheric microplates (- 100-200 km thick) and on
the standard kinematic models (McKenzie, 1972,
Zonenshain and Savostin, 1979). In contrast to
this approach, the two-level plate-tectonic model
(Fig. 2) supposes that the microplates that we
observe at the surface are of crustal origin and
may move relative to the mantle part of the lithosphere, undergoing large rotations and non-elastic
deformations. Palaeomagnetic data actually give
evidence of remarkable rotations of microplates
and blocks in the process of collision (Klootwijk
et al., 1986).
In accordance with this new approach (Bird,
1978; Lobkovsky, 1988a,b), at an early stage in
the collision between continental plates (preceded
by subduction of the oceanic part of the plate,
which carries a climbing continent; Hindustan,
for instance), a sharp reduction in the convergence
velocity of the upper brittle layer of the crust
occurs. The mantle part of the lithosphere continues to move and to subduct under the forces of
convective dragging and pulling of the sinking edge of the plate (Figs. 2 and 5).
At the same time, an intensive shear flow
evolves in the lower plastic layer of the crust. This

Fig. 5. Two-lewl model of mountain formation in the wmsse of

continental collision (after Lobkovsky, 1988a; see text for
explanation).

351

flow embraces one area after another (squeezed

between the upper crust and mantle part of the
lithosphere) as the front of deceleration of the
upper crust advances toward the inner parts of the
overriding subcontinent. This propagation of the
deformation front in the crust can be described by
Elsassers equation (Lobkovsky, 1988a). Non-elastic compression of the upper crust in the vicinity
of a suture zone is manifested as a system of
thrusts that form the front of the developing
orogen. The principal agent of crustal thickening
and regional uplift is the pumping of the plastic
material of the lower crustal layer into the vicinity
of the subduction zone by the movement of the
underlying mantle part of the lithosphere (Figs. 2
and 5). A similar model of the detachment of
subducted lithosphere from the crust in a collisional orogen, but with a different crustal thickening mechanism, is considered in papers by Mattauer (1986) and Dewey et al. (1988).
Consider a quantitative analysis of this approach (Lobkovsky,
1988a; Kerchman
and
Lobkovsky, 1990b). Changes in thickness h of the
lower-crustal layer in the approximation of Newton quasi-isomers
rheology are described by
eqn. (2). The co-ordinate system moves with the
conventional non-deformed upper crust of the colliding continent (India, for instance) (Figs. 2 and
5). The slip rate U = U, of the subcrustal lithosphere relative to the upper crust increases from
zero, starting from the moment of detachment
after the first collision phase (which is manifested
by frontal compression thrusts and a slight thickening of the crust), as shown in Fig. 6b.
The following parameter values were assumed
in order to solve eqn. (2) numerically: pc = 2.8-2.9
g/cm3 (for the lower crust), PM = 3.3-3.35 g/cm3
and nc = (0.3-1.5) X lo* Pa s; therefore K=
(0.5-3) X lo- km- yr-. Time variations in the
rate of slip have been adopted to correspond with
the conditions of the intracontinental subduction
of the lower layer of the Indian plate (Fig. 6b).
In Fig. 6a are shown calculated curves for the
subsequent thickening of the lower-crustal layer
from the moment when the shear flow started.
Thus, the total crustal thickness (its brittle upper
layer is 18-25 km thick) increases to about 70 km
after a time of 40 Ma in the collision zone, which

352

L..I. LOBKOVSKY

IO

20
time

30

40

AND

V.I. KERCHMAN

t , Ma

Fig. 6. (a) The curves of succe.ssivethickeningof the lower ductile crust in the wurse of continentaJcolIisionobtained by numerical
simulation; values near the curves denote post-collision time in Ma. (b) Time dependence of subduction velocity of subcrustal
litbosphererelativeto the upper crust since the beginningof the collision.(See text for explanation.)

agrees well with data on the crustal thickness in

the Himalayas. The typical lateral dimension of
such an area with thickened crust (formation of
the Himalayas and Tibet roots) is 600-700 km,
corresponding well with the actual area of isostatic
uplift of the territory.
The calculated asymmetry of relief about the
suture zone, which implies a steeper topography of
the frontal erogenic area, a considerably more
gradual slope at its rear, and the existence of a
collisional plateau, is more pronounced in the
calculations when the non-linear viscous rheological model of eqn. (1) and the evolutionary equation (3) are used. In Fig. 7 is shown the evolution
of a collisional plateau due to the northward propagation of the material pumped under the orogeny.
We should mention that the model described
above is based on the principle of local isostasy
(see eqn. (Al) in the Appendix). In reality, the

bending rigidity of the lithospheric lower layer

(III) should be included in estimates of the
isostatic subsidence of the subcrustal part of the
lithosphere under the load of a thick crust (Karner

h. km

1W

200
dlstonce

300
from

400
orogen

ml

600

X.km

ax,s

Fig. 7. Succe&on of the cakzuiatedcurves showiiq the evolution of a collision rdateaa values near the curves denotina

post-colliSiontimein Ma.

A TWO-LEVEL

CONCEPT

OF PL4TE

353

TECTONICS

lead to the following non-stations

heat conduction:

a+fi

aT
37

=I

+ Q,=P(-z/M

ax2

equation of

ar2

wP)1

O<Z<hl(X)

g+u(,,&,

a2T
s+s

a2T

1
(5)

Fig. 8. Thermal scheme of a three-layered lithosphere witbin an

intracontinental subduction zone, based on the model of continental collision (see text for explanation). 1 = Granite upper
crust; 2 = basalt lower crust, 3 = olivine subcrusti lithosphere; 4 = direction of subduction; 5 = horizontal velocity
distribution in the layered lithosphere; 6 = frontal thrusts.

and Watts, 1983; Lyon-Caen and Mohmr, 1985).

Therefore, the above dynamic model of a collisional orogeny should be generalized to include
quasi-elastic bending of the hthospheric lower
layer (III) under the influence of a thickening
crust. With such a model it would be possible to
study the dynamics of the formation of foredeep
basins, and to have a more realistic view of the
theoretical history of uplift.
We shah now analyse the thermal regime of the
crust and subcrustal lithospheric layer in the zone
of a continental collision, using the above geodynamic model and considering the additional factor
of dissipative heating of the media. Assuming that
all displacements are horizontal, we consider a
tw~~~ion~
thermal model of a three-layered
lithosphere that includes a granite upper layer
of the crust (I), 0 G z B h,(x), a basalt lower
crustal layer (II),
kl(x)gz
G k2(x),
and an
olivine subcrustal part of the lithosphere (Fii. 8;
Taylor and McLennan, 1985). Taking into account
the motion of the lower layers (the upper layer of
the crust is assumed to be locked and therefore
stable), dissipation in the ductile layer of the lower
crust and radioactive heat generation in the crust

h2(x)<z6H

where T is the temperature, u(z) is a horizontal

velocity of the media relative to a co-ordinate
system related to the upper stable crustal layer.
K = A/PC,,
is the thermal diffusivity of the rocks,
where X is the thermal ~nducti~ty,
p is the
density and C, is the specific heat capacity. ti =
1kh/llz 1 is the shear strain rate in layer (II); T is
the corresponding shear stress calculated from eqn.
(1); Qs is the specific heat generation due to
radioactive decay in the crustal upper layer (I);
and q,, is the radiogenie heat in a basalt lower
layer (ZZ).
We suppose that the ductile strain is predominantly localized in a sublayer of the custal lower
layer (II), k,(x) < k,(x) G z d k*(x), and is expressed by a simple shear flow; that is, U, = &[zkl(x)]/[k2(x)
- k,(x)]. The shear-strain rate in
this sublayer, d(x) = U&k,(x)
- k,(x)], is connected with the stress T by the rheological law
given in eqn. (1).
Each individual computation of the non-stationary thermal regime of the lithosphere has been
carried out along a submeridional cross-section of
Hindustan at approximately 80 OE. A study area
km, OdzdZZ=120
km) has
(0 gxdL=2400
been selected, where x = 0 corresponds to the
sourthem termination of Hindustan in the region
of 10N (Fig. 8). Numerical experiments were
performed, starting at the time of the effective
collisional deceleration
of Hindustan,
approximately 40-35 Ma ago (t = 0). The relative
slip rate of the subcrustal lithosphere was derived
from the function shown in Fig. 6b. The crustal
thickness was assumed to increase from 35 km in
the south to 45-50 km in the north (and up to 70

354

lL.l. LOBKOVSKY

km further beneath the Himalayas and Tibet; Fig.

8). The thickness of the granite layer was assumed to increase from 12.5 km in the south to 20
km in the north.
The rheological parameters of the rocks composing the deformable basalt crustal layer were
taken from experimental data on diabase (Kirby
and Kronenberg, 1987): n = 3.4; A = 3 x lo6
GPa- s- and Q = 260 kJ/mol in the temperature range from 400 to 800C and at strain rates
from 10-4-10-3 s-i.
The temperature distribution in a normal
continental lithosphere (Morgan and Sass, 1984;
Taylor and McLennan, 1985) was taken as the
initial state. These temperatures were held constant for the entire period of the modelling process
at the boundary of the study area. Numerical
estimates were made using an explicit finite-difference scheme with steps of Ax = 6 km; AZ = 2.5
km, At = 0.05 Ma. The numerical analysis described here used the following parameter values:
X, = 2.5 W/mK,
X, = 2 W/mK,

(pc,,), = 3 x lo6 J/m3K,

(PC,), = 3 x lo6 J/m3K,

X, = 3.5 W/mK,
Q,=2X10e6
qb = 0.5

(PC,), = 4 x lo6 J/m3K,

W/m3;

x 1O-6 W/m3.

In Fig. 9 is shown the evolution of the calculated geotherms (for 30 Ma) of the plastic flow
developed in the lower crust, with the relative
velocity of the subcrustal lithosphere given by Fig.
6b. It can be seen that the temperature in the
lower-crustal layer increases to 680-700 o C as a
result of dissipative heating. The mantle heat flow
is screened by the anomalously hot lower crust,
leading to temperature increases in the mantle: in
the adjacent 10 km thick layer of the subcrustal
lithosphere, for t = 15-20 Ma, the increase is 80150 C (up to 700-750 C) and, below that, it is
40-80 C (up to 750-800 C). Thus, the lithosphere subducted under the Himalayas is already
heated to 700-800 C in its upper part, and so
brittle rupture does not occur in the zone of high
shear strain (Molnar and Chen, 1983; Jackson,
1987). This may explain the aseismic behaviour of
this entire intracontinental subduction zone. Mid-

AND

V.I. KERCHMAN

km

Fig. 9. Calculated lithosphere gmtherrns for different times

since the beginning of the collision. I = Initial geotherm; 2 =
geotherm for 10 Ma; 3 = geotherm for 20 Ma; 4 = geotherm
for 35 Ma.

depth and deep-focal seismicity may occur in some

regions of a subducted lithosphere due to some
local underheating (for instance, because of the
sensitivity of the dissipation process to rheological
properties of the media, or because of the existence of more brittle lithosphere as a result of
water release during deserpentinization of the subsiding parts of the oceanic crust (Lobkovsky et al.,
1986).
The estimated dissipative heating of the lower
crust is sufficient to generate collisional and postcollisional magmatism, since the melt temperature
for damp (hydrous) granites at depths of 15-25
km is 650-700C
(S&mid and Wood, 1976;
Dobretsov, 1980; Reverdatto and Kalinin, 1980;
Taylor and McLerqmn, 1985).
We note that for a period typical of a continental collision, i.e. 30-50 Ma, the thermal disturbance in the lower crust has only a slight effect
on the surface heat flow. Nevertheless, the high
mean heat flow of Hinchrstan (especiaRy in the
north; !&I&, 1985) may he a result of dieraipative
heating of the media; local variations caused by
various types of radiogenic heat release in the
surface crystal layer and by other factors are not
considered in this paper.

A TWO-LEVEL CONCEPT OF PLATE TECTONICS

Geodynaniics

,of

passive

tlwghw

taking

into

account te49onic flow of the lower crust and sub-

lithospheret3nombm mantle
The general features of the genesis of passive
margins have been explained within the framework of the classical theory of plate tectonics (Le
Pichon et al., 1973; Burke and Drake, 1974). However, certain details of their structure and evolution cannot, as yet, be explained sufficiently well.
In particular, these phenomena are (1) the formation of elongated uplifts on the continents, parallel
to passive margins (Ollier, 1985); (2) the existence
and evolution of a system of rift zones at the rear
of passive margins (Milanovsky, 1976; Ziegler,
1982); (3) the process of tearing away of crustal
blocks (such as microcontinents and terranes) from
large continental massifs - a process which, in
fact, is the opposite of accretion tectonics (Sengor,
1984; Vink et al., 1984; Kazmin, 1989); and (4)
the occurrence of a belt of crystalline basement
(100-200 km wide) with an anomalous P-wave
velocity of about 7 km/s between the ~ntinent~
slope and normal oceanic crust (Emery and
Uchupi, 1984).
The two-level geodynamic model of the evolution of passive continental margins proposed by
Lobkovsky (1989) and Lobkovsky and Khain
(1989) explains the features listed above qualitatively. We shall consider this model briefly and
then describe the evolution of passive margins
within its framework quantitatively. To a first
appro~mation,
the spreading of the ~thosphere
subsequent to the process of continental rifting
leads to the formation of passive margins. This
spreading is determined by the interaction of the
four main layers of the crust and upper mantle,
namely (I + II), (II), (111) and (M), which
were described in the Introduction
(Fig. la;
Lobkovsky, 1989).
An accumulation of anomalous mantle first
occurs under the pre-rift uplift during the extension of the ~thosph~e. This accusation
results
in the breaking through of a portion of partially
melted mantle into the crustal level of the geodynamic system. Thus, a typical continental rift
structure develops that includes upper subcrustal
(IV) and lower sub~~osphe~c
(V) lenses of

mf

@2

@j-j@

m4

loo;;lS

/36

B7

Fig. 10. Successive stages of rifting and spreading processes:

(a) continental rifting; (b) initial stage of ocean spreading; (c)
mature stage of ocean spreading (after Lobkovsky, 1989).
I = Upper brittle crust; 2 = lower ductile crust; 3 = subcrusti
lithosphere; 4 = anomalous mantle; 5 = normal mantle; 6 =
owau crust; 7 = sediments (see text for explanation).

anomalous mantle (Fig. lOa). The size of the

former lens is several tens or hundreds of kilometres, whereas that of the latter is, at first, several
hundreds of kilometres; later, in the stage of active spreading, becoming thousands of kilometres.
The appearances of a subcrustal diapir of anomalous mantle and related additional local extension
and heating of the crust lead to thinning of the
lower plastic layer of the crust due to the outflow
of its material off the rift axis, resulting in an
&static near-axial subsidence. The development
of extensional fissures and normal faults in the
brittle upper layer of the crust that forms the

356

structure of the rift graben can be observed (the

lower crust and anomalous mantle propagating
under the peripheral zones of the rift lift their
shoulders simultaneously (Fig. 10a). Thus, the
dynamics of the crustal layer governs this systems
interaction with the subcrustal mantle lens: the
sublithospheric anomalous mantle causes an uplift
of the terrane and acts as a feeding chamber for
the upper subcrustal lens.
Continental rifting is completed by extreme
thinning of the lower crust and rupturing of the
upper brittle layer, which is also considerably
thinned by that time. A final stage of developed
spreading follows this one. In the final stage, the
separated parts of a continental plate move away
from each other and undergo further evolution
(Figs. lob and c).
The previously cited theoretical papers devoted
to the evolution of the continental passive margins
are mainly concerned with the problem of vertical
subsidence due, first, to the cooling and densification of anomalous mantle preserved under the
crust (Artyushkov, 1979; Meissner and Kopnick,
1988) and, second, to accretion of a heavy
oceanic lithosphere brazed onto the continental
lithosphere along the line of the prime rupture
(Sorokhtin, 1979). Note that the subsidence of the
basement of the passive margin is enhanced by the
additional loading of a rapidly accumulating sedimentary cover (Cloetingh et al., 1984), whereas rift
expansion and subsidence of a continental edge is
accompanied by the development of listric faults
(Le Pichon and Sibuet, 1981, Kazmin, 1987).
In addition to the phenomena described above,
within the passive transitional zones from continents to oceans, new processes arise that are induced by horizontal motions in various directions
of the media in the upper and lower levels of the
heterogenous system illustrated in Figs. lob and c.
The main process at the lower level is the propagation of a large lens of sublithospheric mantle
away from the axis of a mid-oceanic ridge, which
is usually accompanied by dragging through
convection. The formation of wide swells along
passive margins seems to be connected with this
process. It occurs about 30-100 Ma after the
onset of relative spreading (Lobkovsky and Khain,
1989).

L.I. LOBKOVSKY

AND

V.I. KERCHMAN

We now consider a quantitative model of this

phenomenon (Figs. lob and c). The equation describing the evolution of a rheologically homogeneous layer of anomalous mantle with variable
thickness h and viscosity na (which is considerably less than that of the over- and underlying
media) reduces to eqn. (2) in view of the observed
isostatic condition (Artyushkov, 1979; Lobkovsky,
1988a).
The coefficient
of eqn. (2), K = ( pM Pa)Pag/12Plvrnla, where pM and p, are the densities of the normal and anomalous sublithospheric
mantle, respectively. Typical values of the parameters are as follows: plLl= 3.4 g/cm3, pM - Pa =
0.1-0.5 g/cm3; and the viscosity qa of anomalous
mantle is - lo* Pa s. For the coefficient K we
thus have an estimate K = (l-5) X lo-
km-
yr-.
First consider the simplest model problem,
which ignores the convective motion of the sublithospheric mantle (this motion seems to be important only in a narrow belt, several hundreds of
kilometres wide, along the margin). In this case, if
the axis x is oriented horizontally towards the
motion of the anomalous mantle and the reference
point x = 0 is located under the crest of the coastal
slope of the margin, eqn. (2) is valid only if x >, 0.
Using the equation:
-=KK-

(6)

we solve the problem of the propagation of the

anomalous mantle lens beneath the continent, sub
ject to the boundary condition that its thickness is
constant at x = 0.
hl,_,,=H,

hl,=,=O

(7)

We choose an initial condition that represents the

early stage of the under-flow of a localized massif
of anomalous mantle, its width being I, = 100-200
km:

(usually H = 50-80 km, the dimension of a study

area S being 2500-5000 km; see Fig. 1Oc).
The solution of eqn. (6) with such initial conditions is characterized by a finite rate of propa-

351

ATWO-LEVELCONCEI'TOFPLATETECTONICS

A plot of the numerical solution of

boundary-value problem is presented in Fig.
To estimate the time of propagation for
anomalous mantle front at a distance L, from
edge of the continental margin, we use
asymptotic law of propagation of the front:
t=o!%Li/~H~

I?

A4

d6

A8

mc

Fig. 11. Graph of the function f(t) for a self-similar asymptotic law of anomalous mantle lens propagation.

gation of the frontal boundary of the disturbed

area X(t) (Barenblatt, 1980). The boundary conditions (7) permit self-similar intermediate
asymptotics, such as:

h=f!fW,

E= -

Substituting (8) into eqn. (6) we obtain an

ordinary differential equation for the function

f(5):

this
11.
the
the
the

(11)

When H = 70 km (which agrees with an isostatic

uplift of S = 2 km) and uplift width L, = 1200
km, we have (for K = 0.15 km- Ma-) I* = 30
Ma.
The general solution for the full eqn. (2) has
been obtained by an explicit finite-difference
scheme. This method permits us to consider a
non-stationary boundary condition at the left-hand
edge of the study area, reflecting, for instance, a
local thinning of an anomalous mantle lens due to
the subsidence of an oceanic plate margin under
the increasing load of accumulating sediments.
The initial form of the protruding massif of
anomalous mantle under the continental margin is
assumed to be:

ho(x)=

Hew[-0.2(x/H)2],

0,

O~XGI,,

l,<x<S

(12)
the conditions being:

fl +,=l

(10)

and f It_co=O

Here to = lim, _ f0[X(t)/dKH3tl

so that f I(,to
= 0; the function d f 4/dc should be continuous at
the point t = &, to satisfy the flw-continuity condition of anomalous mantle.

80

The convection velocity was allowed to decrease as the mantle flowed under the continent
according to the equation:
tY(x) = U, exp( -x/l,)

03)

As a rule, we assume H = 70-80 km, 1, = 2H

- 3H, and a relative velocity U, of about l-2
cm/yr.

: 70:
z 60;
2
B wI

: zoi
I
km<
0

,
ID0

200

300

400

5DO
600
700
,,cm coos,., ,,C

800

900

?OOR

NUD

1200

1300km

d,stancr

Fig. 12. Succession of calculated curves showing the propagation of an anomalous mantle lens beneath a continent. Values near the
curves denote time in Ma (see text for explanation).

358

The evolution of the anomalous asthenospheric

layer beneath the continent is presented in Fig. 12.
The self-similar law (11) is a good description of
the propagation of the lens for a time t > 10 Ma.
Thus, the flow of anomalous mantle in the
lower level of the system uplifts the edges of
continental passive margins, and lags considerably
behind the primary rifting (Lobkovsky and Khain,
1989; Kerchman and Lobkovsky, 1990a). As flow
beneath the continental passive margin reaches
maturity (Fig. lOc), the margin undergoes various
vertical motions: (1) gradual uplift as a wide
marginal swell is formed as a result of the flow of
asthenospheric
matter under the continent
(another competing uplift mechanism may be connected with thermal erosion of the lithosphere
basement, its thinning and isostatic uplift); and
(2) very sharp, large-amplitude, subsidence which
occurs in a much narrower belt, caused mainly by
the cooling and compaction of the upper lens of
anomalous mantle, probably accompanied by
phase transitions of the basalt-eclogite
type
(Artyushkov, 1979).
The two main mechanisms presented cannot
completely explain the evolution of continental
passive margins within which, in accordance with
a two-level model of plate tectonics (Lobkovsky,
1989; Lobkovsky and Khain, 1989), one more
geodynamic process affecting the development of
its structure should occur. This is the flow in the
lower ductile layer of the crust within a continental margin at the spreading stage (Bott, 1972)
(Figs. lob and c). Such a flow, from the continent
towards the ocean, starts when the continental
crust splits. By that time, as was mentioned earlier,
both layers of the continental crust in the rift zone
are already considerably thinned. When the continents begin to move apart, the ductile lower crust
at the edge of the continental margin tends to be
squeezed out towards the ocean, as it is subjected
to an uncompensated horizontal loading. Taking
into account isostasy on the mantle surface, the
outflow of the non-linear viscous material of the
lower crust towards the ocean can be described by
the evolution equation (3) of the Mechanical
aspects section, derived in the Appendix.
Let us consider the problem of a self-squeezed,
semi-infinite layer of the lower crust when it is

L.I

-42

-60

LOBKOVSKY

-48

-46

AND

-44

-42

V.I. KERCHMAN

-\,

42

44

Fig. 13. Oceanward and continent-ward propagation of a lower

crust thickness inhomogeneity on a continental passive margin.
(a) Numerical solution (values near the curves are time in Ma).
(b) Asymptotic self-similar solution: I, for unfractured upper
crust cap; 2, for dissected upper-crust cover of the tongue.
(See text for explanation.)

able to propagate horizontally after the continents

start to move apart; that is, under conditions such
as:
H,

h&=

x<-1,

h,(x),
0,

I,>x>

-1,

(hl,<O)

(14)

x>i,
hl,,_,=H

h(,=,=O,

A numerical solution of the problem of the

flow for H = 18 km, /I = 10e9 kmP3 yr- and a
small initial wedge or tongue (I, = 5 km, I, = 10
km) is shown in Fig. 13a. For longer times (t 2 20
Ma), the propagation of the tongue towards the
ocean and the depression front towards the continent are well described by the asymptotic self-similar solution (Kerchman and Lobkovsky, 1990a):

h=Hf(E),

E=

-:,a

(BH7f)

(15)

where function f satisfies the equation:

fS

4;r;i[ i

3 ++-J
)I

in the domain <r 2 6 2 t2, where Er = 0.34 and

.$2= - 1.07. For 5 > &, f(5) = 0 and for t < t2,
f(E) = 1 (corresponding to an undisturbed state of
the media into which the depression wave propagates at a finite rate). Moving towards the con-

A TWO-LEVEL

CONCEPT

OF PLATE

359

TECTONICS

tinental interior, such a front captures new portions of the lower crust in accordance with the law
t) /4, from which it is seen that the
L,=W
expansion of the flow of the lower crust decelerates sharply with time. The function f(t) is
given in Fig. 13b. Its construction is described in
Kerchman (1990).
The above analysis of ductile flow in the lower
layer of the crust predicts the appearance of tensional stresses in the more brittle layers of the
overlying granite crust and underlying rigid
lithosphere. These tensional-stress maxima develop in the vicinity of the disturbed wavefront as
it propagates towards the continental interior. The

maximum tensional stress in the upper brittle layer

of the crust is estimated as:
e=-

x2
rdx
dI
x1
1

Pch - P&( If2 -q

%.&

h1= Wx,)

07)

where d is the thickness of the upper, mechanically strong layer of the brittle crust; X, is the
section separating the non-fractured part of the
brittle crust from the frontal, oceanward fractured area, including the zone of listric faults
(Figs. 14a and b); and x2 is the continent-ward

km
b

Fig. 14. Structure and presumable evolution of continental passive margin: (a) North Atlantic passive margin, Flemish Cap bank
(after Emery and Uchupi, 1984); (b) model pattern of passive-margin dynamics (after Lobkovsky, 1989) (see text for explanation).
I = Synrift sediments; 2 = post-rift sediments; 3 - upper granitic crust; 4 = lower mafic crust; 5 = subcrustal lithosphere;
6 - anomalous mantle fens; 7 = normal mantle (asthenosphere.); 8 = fractured zone in subcrustal lithosphere; 9 = lower-crustal flow;
10 = filtration in partially melted astbenosphere. (Values on the upper figure denote P-wave velocities in different layers.)

MO

L 1 LOBKOVSKY

front

of the flow propagation

For d = 8-10

km, H = 15-20

km, the mean

reaches

tensional

u = 20-40

in the lower crust.

tive coefficient

km and

The coefficient

h, = 5-10

stress in the upper

MPa.

this size seems sufficient

tension

of

pendix).

to cause brittle

rupture

of

double

and the formation

removal

of faults

1985)

and effective

of the blocks of the upper crust ocean-

ward (Fig. 14).

The

proposed

through

the lateral

stratification
zone.

rifting

mechanism

inhomogeneity

of the crust

It seems natural

operates

and rheological

within

the

to attribute

transition

to it the ob-

served evolution
of rift structures
that
parallel to continental
passive margins continental
opening,

slope,

fractured,

A long-term

the upper weaker part of the crust (Sawyer,

rifting,

crust

in the

early

stages

are subnear the

of ocean

and at the rear of the transition

zone in

in equations
ratio

becomes

in turn,

acceleration

fractured

/?,//? - 10 for the

tongue

causes

(see the Ap-

an approximately

of the flow under

part of the brittle

transport

V 1. KERCHMAN

of the type (2) or (3).

oceanward-moving
This,

AND

of the corresponding

ocean,

as well as substantial

sected

crust

at the

consequent

formation

(Figs.

14a

and

causes

a discrete

b).

rear

block

of the
scheme

sequence

toward

thinning

and

the

basin there

described

of events:

the

of the dis-

block

of a sedimentary
The

the newly

crust, and the effective

when

thus
the

previous oceanward
block of the upper continental crust is faulted off, a new cycle of preparation
for the subsequent
rifting stage starts within its
continent-ward
part. According to the above analysis, the first stages of marginal

rifting (at an early

the later evolutionary

stages (Fig. 14b). The same
mechanism
acts throughout
the geological history

stage in the ocean opening) often break off small

blocks such as the Blake plateau, the Flemish Cup

of a passive margin, causing the splitting

and
subsequent
break-off of continental
blocks from
the margins of large continents
(Vink et al., 1984;
Lobkovsky and Khain, 1989).

bank, the Rockall plateau, the Vijring plateau, the

San Paulo plateau,
the Exmouth
plateau
and
others. When the squeezing-out
of the lowercrustal layer decelerates (due to the cooling and
blocking of the front of the tongue), the flow wave
propagating
toward the continent
behind decelerates. As the pressure gradients on the roof of the
lower crust decrease, a strain sufficient for rifting

An
model

obvious
result of
of the lower-crustal

the creep-propagation
tongue
is the ap-

pearance of a layer of anomalous

basement rocks
with a P-wave velocity of about 7.0 km/s (typical
of the lowermost continental
crust) in the transition zone between the continental
slope and normal oceanic crust (Lobkovsky
and Khain, 1989).
It is clear from seismic cross-sections
of the continental passive margins that such an anomalous
rock layer does, in fact, underly

sediments

in the

transition
zone, occupying
a belt about 100-200
km wide (Emery and Uchupi, 1984). Geochemical
data also exist which provide evidence for the
continental
origin of the lower crust in the transition zone of passive margins, even in cases where
the upper-crustal
layers are composed of basalts
(Morton and Taylor, 1987). The model presented
also explains the quiet magnetic field in this transition zone (Boillot, 1983).
Once local fracturing
and the formation
of a
fault structure have occurred in the upper crust,
the boundary conditions
on the top of the ductile
lower layer change. In particular,
it shifts to the
regime of a quasi-free horizontal
displacement
of
the top boundary, leading to changes in the effec-

accumulates at considerably
the continental
edge and
greater time of hundreds of
time can, for instance, even

greater distances from

over the considerably
millions of years. This
exceed the duration of

one Wilson cycle in the Atlantic.

The graben
systems of China and the Rhine, the Labrador rift
zone and others may be due to this process of
rifting at large distances
from the ocean. Very
often, such distant rift zones are located in ancient
weak sections of the subcrustal lithosphere (or of
the crust), especially along suture zones (Vink et
al., 1984; Dunbar
and Sawyer, 1988). The additional tension of a quasi-rigid
subcrustal
lithospheric core, caused by the flow of the lower crust,
might reactivate the lower-level plate boundaries
(in particular,
transform
and suture boundaries
might change to divergent).
This might cause complete splitting up of the
lithosphere through formation of a divergent lithospheric boundary
in the lower level. This may
occur long before the rupturing
of the crust. The

A TWO-LEVEL

CONCEPi

OF PLATE

361

TECTONICS

possibility of the complete disintegration of the

continental lithosphere and a jump of an oceanic
spreading axis to a new position at the continental
margin arises when the above rifting rn~h~srn
is
superimposed on the general (background) tension of the lithosphere. Such a background tension
may be created by horizontal flow in the asthenosphere and/or by a pull due to a subduction zone
on the opposite edge of the oceanic part of the
plate (Bott, 1982). This situation may have occurred during the structural evolution (destruction) of Gondwanaland, when a powerful horizontal mantle flow (from the south to the north) and
the pulling of a subducted oceanic part of the
plate under Laurasia, together with the continuously acting mechanism of the marginal continental rifting, caused the onset of new rift zones at
the northern boundary of the Gondw~a supercontinent. This mechanism may even have caused
the subsequent break-off of blocks of microcontinents, lithosphere terranes and corresponding
jumps of the spreading axes to a new southward
position (Sengiir, 1984; Kazmin, 1989; Lobkovsky
and Khain, 1989).
We note that the problem of the structure and
evolution of passive continental margins has been
studied extensively in the past decade. Various
models for passive margins have been developed,
particularly: models of different types of crustal
and lithospheric extension (McKenzie, 1978; Le
Pichon and Sibuet, 1981; Beaumont et al., 1982;
Wernicke, 1985; Lister et al., 1986); models incorporating a different rheology of the upper and
lower parts of the continental crust during the
extension (Bott, 1971, 1982; Meissner, 1985);
volcanic models of the continental margins
(Royden et al., 1980; Mutter et al., 1988; Meissner
and Kiipnick, 1988); models of isostasy of passive
margins (Karner and Watts, 1982); thermomechanical models of the evolution of passive margins,
taking sedimentation into account (Cloetingh et
al., 1984) and others. All of these models consider
various aspects of the structure and evolution of
passive margins, many aspects of which may also
be interpreted within the framework of the proposed two-level scheme.

Modei fur ~~
q~-sy~
extension
of the continental lithosphereand some featuresof
rifting

We now consider several aspects of continental

rifting from the viewpoint of the two-level platetectonic model. A great deal of attention has recently been devoted to the problem of the outcrops of ultramafic mantle rocks on the Earths
surface (oceanic bottom) as a result of the complete tectonic denudation of the continental crust
during rifting. In fact, the data show the existence
of anomalous ophiolitic sequences in which the
basalt layer and dyke complex are completely
missing, where oceanic sediments directly overlie
serpentinized peridotites which are sometimes associated with gabbro. Such incomplete ophiolitic
sequences are typical of the Ligurian segment of
the Mesozoic Tethys and occur, for instance, in
the Alps, Apennines and Corsica (Lemoine et al.,
1987). A similar anomalous structure of the oceanic crust has been seen in a few places on recent
continental passive margins; particularly, on the
Galicia Bank and in the North Atlantin (Boillot et
al., 1987) on Zabargad island in the Red Sea
(Bonatti et al., 1986), and on the Sardinia passive
margin in the Tyrrhenian Sea (Lemoine et al.,
1987), where serpentinites or peridotites have been
found beneath sediments by deep-sea drilling.
These data suggested to some geologists that, at
least in the early stages of ocean opening, a special
geodynamic regime exposed the ultramafic basement between diverging blocks of the continental
lithosphere (Boillot et al., 1987; Lemoine et al.,
1987). A model of the splitting and asymmetrical
divergence of continental lithosphere along a gentle, through-going fault has been proposed to explain the formation of rather extended segments
of oceanic bottom (now composed of se~ent~iz~
peridotites) at divergent plate boundaries. This
model was first introduced by Wernicke (1981) in
an analysis of the tectonic situation in the Basin
and Range Province in the western U.S.A., and it
has subsequently been widely used for various
schemes of rifting (Wemicke, 1985; Lister et al.,
1986).

362

L..l LOBKDVSKY

From the standpoint of mechanics, one cannot

ignore the fact that in the Wemicke scheme the
postulated complete fracture of the lithosphere
along the single, gently dipping fault contradicts
the entire sum of our knowledge of the rheological
stratification of the crust and lithosphere. It seems
more realistic to suppose that the fracture and
deformation of the various layers of the crust and
lithosphere in the course of the rifting occur
according to the particular flow laws acting in
each layer.
Another purely mechanical objection to the
Wernicke scheme arises from the fact that the
lithosphere cannot bend sharply without secondary faulting during the normal slip of the
adjacent walls of the fixed inclined fault. As early
as 1958, Heiskanen and Vening-Meinesz, in their

AND

V.I. KkKCHMAN

fundamental work, showed that during crustal extension, for instance, a second fault appears due
to the elastic bending of the crustal layer and
results in the formation of a graben structure. It
follows from this argument that even if we assume
an initial fracture of the lithosphere in accordance
with the Wemicke model - a single, gently dipping fault - the further development of extension
would follow another course (see below) and would
be determined mainly by the appearance of an
additional fault in the lithosphere and by the
motion of a lithospheric block cut off by it (Ussami et al., 1986).
We now describe a new model of the development of continental rifting, proposed by Lobkovsky (1989). This scheme is guided by the established rheological and tectonic stratification of the

Fig. 15. Two-level model of continental rifting: successive stages (after Lobkovsky, 1989). 1 = Upper brittle crust; 2 = lower ductile
crust; 3 = subcrustd lithosphere; 4 = asthenosphere; 5 = volcanics. (See text for explanation.)

A IWO-LEVEL

CONCEPT

OF PLATE

363

TECTONICS

extension during continental rifting. This permits

us to explain the observed discrepancy between
the degree of extension of the crust, determined
from the system of faults, and the estimates of the
extension of the crustal layer derived from its
thinning and the isostatic subsidence of the surface
(Artyushkov, 1988). In fact, the analysis of the
structure of recent and ancient large depressions
within continents shows that in the majority of
cases crustal rifting involves extensions of only
several percent, whereas the thinning of a consolidated crust determined from seismic data is
50-lOO%, i.e. approximately one order of magnitude greater.
Let us consider the above-described model in
detail, highlighting the principal stages of rifting
(Lobkovsky, 1989). These stages, which are characterized by the occurrence of two inclined fault
planes, dipping from the axis of the future rift,
and formed in the mantle part of the lithosphere
during its extension, are illustrated in Figs. 15a-c.
As extension increases, a trapeziform block of
subcrustal lithosphere, bounded by fault planes,
begins to move upward under the influence of the
non-u~fo~y
applied stresses (Fig. 16). This
movement was verified by physical modelling ex-

lithosphere. Derived from general mechanical considerations and from the results of physical modelling of the extension of an elastic-plastic lithosphere floating on a liquid basement (Shemenda,
1984) this model postulates that the loss of stability and strain localization in the quasi-rigid mantle
core of the lithosphere would cause the formation
of two conjugate inclined shear planes. These shear
planes bound a central subcrustal lithospheric
block of a wedge-like or of a trapeziform geometry, which would rise under the influence of the
applied system of forces and squeeze the viscous
material of the lower-crustal layer away the axis
(Lobkovsky, 1989) (Figs. 15a and b). This, in turn,
would cause thinning of the crust (neck-formation), as well as additional extension and isostatic
subsidence of the upper brittle layer. It is important to stress that in this scheme the material
flow that leads to the thinning of the lower ductile
layer of the crust is induced not so much by the
external tensional force applied to the crust but by
the squeezing effect of the rising mantle block
(Fig. 15b).
Unlike the majority of the proposed schemes
(McKenzie, 1978; Le Pichon and Sibuet, 1981), in
this theory the crust is thus not subject to uniform

II..*....
*

Fig. 16. Rift scheme for cakulation of

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

(a}balanceof forces and (b) uplift amplitudeof the axial sub~~phe~

block {see text for

explanation). I = Weight of the axial block 1rl; 2 = upper brittle crust; 3 = lower ductile crust; 4 = subcrustal lithosphere;
S = asthenosphere.

364

I..1 LOBKOVSKY

perimems, taking similarity criteria into account

(Shemenda, 1984).
The qualitative explanation of this phenomenon is as follows. When the ~thosphere blocks Z
and ZZ move away from the central block ZZZ(see
Fig. 16a), the average pressure on its inclined
planes AB and CD drops and, as a result of the
buoyancy force applied to the base of block ZZZ,it
becomes unbalanced. A subsequent drop in the
pressure, transmitted from the overhanging parts
of blocks I and ZZ, as they move away, occurs due
to their own elasticity.
Let us consider the uplift of block ZZZquantitatively and estimate its ultimate amplitude. We
assume that block ZZZ protrudes into the plastic
layer of the lower crust by an amount Ah. Then
the total hydrostatic pressure on the base of the
block equals:

where ZZ, and H, are the thicknesses of the crust

and of the mechanically strong subcrustal part of
the lithosphere, respectively; p, and p, are their
densities; 1 is the width of the upper surface of the
uplifted block; and a is the inclination of the side
planes of the block (Fig. 16a). The weight of block
ZZZ(per unit of length in the plane, perpendicular
to the figure) is p&Z 4 H, cot cu)ZZ,; the pressure on its upper plane is p,g(ZZ, - Ah)Z. The
vertical component of the pressure of the overhanging lithospheric blocks Z and ZZ on the side
planes of block ZZZcan be calculated as:
[2p,H,H,
i-2

- pc(Ahj2 -t P&Z,,, - Ah)] g cot a

Hm-Ah(r - Ao cot a) dt
J0

where the first term of this expression contains the

pure hydrostatic part of the forces, whereas the
second term reflects the deviation from the hydrostatics on the side planes of block ZZZin the lower
quasi-rigid lithospheric layer due to (a) the drop
Au of pressure transmitted from the overhanging
regions; and (b) the friction r along the inclined
faults. From the balance of forces applied to block
ZZZ and its weight, it is seen that at Ah = 0 (the
initial state after the inclined faults are formed;
see (Fig. 16a) the net force affecting block ZZZ is

AND

V.I. KFKCHMAIU

negative (oriented upward), if the following condition is satisfied:

Aa > 7 tan cy
It should be noted that the magnitude ha is
proportional to the geomaterial strength up to its
fracture, whereas r has the meaning of a residual
shear strength; then from eqn. (19) it follows that
the uplift of the block may start when the angle a
is not very large, i.e. approximately 0 2 60 .
On the other hand, angle LTcannot be too small
(as is assumed in the Wemicke model; Wemicke,
1981); hence, if angles (Y are small, bending of
relatively extended near-fault parts of blocks Z
and ZZof a quasi-rigid lithosphere begins to play a
main role, and this would cause the secondary
faulting of the lithosphere. Such secondary faults
are proposed in the paper by Ussami et al. (1986).
Let us estimate the ultimate amplitude of the
uplift of mantle block ZZZ.First we note that, as
the block uplifts, friction 7 in the faults would
decrease due to the frictional heating of the media
and other factors. Ignoring friction 7 at the mature uplift stage of the block and assuming the
magnitude of Aa being approximately equal to the
mean strength a, of a quasi-rigid subcrustal lithosphere, we would write the condition of the force
balance as:
2u,( ZZ, - Ah) cot IY= Apg[iAh + (Ah)2 cot CY]
(20)
where Ap = pm - pc.
For typical values of the parameters which are
used in eqn. (20) (Ap 5=0.4 g/cm3, g = lo3 cm/s*,
I = 20-30 km, a* = 100-300 MPa, ZZ,,,= 30-50
km), we have the uplift amplitude of block Ah lo-25 km. This means that, in the course of
rifting, a mantle block may be uplifted to the base
of the upper brittle layer of the crust. When a
quasi-rigid mantle block is uplifted, it squeezes
aside plastic matter of the lower crust, the flow of
which - in turn - causes additional extension of
the upper brittle crustal layer (Fig. 15b). Thus,
non-uniform extension of the crust occurs and its
lower ductile layer undergoes almost complete denudation, whereas the upper brittle layer is extended and becomes thinner, although only by
several percent (Lobkovsky, 1989).

A TWO-LEVEL

CONCEPT

OF PLATE

TECTONICS

If the lithospheric extension ceases at this stage,

a structure typical of a continental depression of
rift origin is formed, which has a sharply thinned
consolidated crust and a slight extension on its
surface. Some large aulacogens within continents
seem to have been formed according to this model.
Another situation is possible when much more
extension of the upper brittle layer of the crust
leads to its complete splitting. This may lead to an
exposure of mantle rocks directly on the bottom
surface of the opening oceanic basin (Fig. 1%).
Thus the proposed model may explain the existence of mantle rocks on some parts of the
oceanic bottom which correspond to the initial
stages of the oceans formation (in particular, on
passive continental margins). From this standpoint, the Ligurian ophiolites seem to be attributed to a rather narrow oceanic basin of the type
described.
An important consequence of the described
non-magmatic model of continental rifting is as
follows. Since the uplift amplitude of the mantle
block is proportional to the thickness of the
quasi-rigid core of a subcrustal lithosphere H,,
thinning of this strong core may hinder a rather
considerable uplift of the central block. In such a
case, a further divergence of lithospheric blocks I
and II cannot be compensated by the uplift of
block 111, and their adjacent sides would move
apart. The asthenospheric matter would flow into
the gaps formed as a consequence of this divergence (Fig. 15d). As a result, two large channels
would be formed at the lateral sides of central
block 117, which would provide for the uplift of
the as~enosphe~c matter to the base of the crust
and further onto the Earths surface as alkaline
basalt outflows (Lobkovsky, 1989) (Fig. 15d).
It should be noted that the existence of magmatic channels along the margins of central block
111 may explain a very curious feature of rift
volcanism: the majority of large volcanoes are
usually attributed not to the central, but to the
peripheral parts of the rift zone. Powerful peripheral volcanism is developed west- and eastward of
the Ethiopian rift, for instance. A similar pattern
is also observed in the Kenyan rift: the Kilimanjaro and Kenya volcanoes are located eastward of its axial zone. Tbe same regularity is

365

manifested in the Miocene volcanism within the

eastern periphery of the Red Sea rift (Kazmin,
1987).
Continuous divergence of lithospheric plates I
and II would finally lead to considerable opening
of one of the lateral channels (since no ideal
symmetry exists) in which the main part of the
magmatic activity would be gradually concentrated. With time, this channel would be just a
segment of a classical spreading zone which gives
birth to a normal oceanic crust.
The above scheme allows us to suppose that the
observed segmentation of continental and oceanic
rift zones (the latter debug,
as a rule, the
segmented structure of the former), which is
manifested in an assemblage of rift segments displaced one relative to another along a transform
fault, is most probably conditioned by the origin
of the initial net of inclined slip planes in the
subcrustal quasi-rigid lithosphere which are then
transformed into the system of rift segments of
mid-oceanic ridges (Lobkovsky, 1989).
A two-layer model of intraplate crustal edution,
taking into account erosion and sedimentation:
some aspects of early lithosphere evolution
The above-described geodynamic apportions
of the two-layer concept of plate tectonics mainly
concern the process which occur, first, due to
active horizontal motion of the underlying level of
the lithosphere (orogenesis as a consequence of
the lower-level convergence; continental rifting
and processes within passive margins as a consequence of the lower-level divergence) and, second,
due to considerably sharper variations in strain
conditions for the upper-crustal level (crustal and
lithospheric fracturing in the course of rifting;
collision of crustal microplates and blocks, and
development of overthrusts at the collision). However, we have not considered a wide range of
slower geological processes related to erosion,
sedimentation, regional metamorphism and re-distribution of crustal matter due to the flow of its
lower layer. A two-layer approach allows us to
propose certain mechanical models which can explain some intraplate phenomena of this type.

366

1. I. LOBKOVSKY

One of the most complicated problems in continental tectonics is how to explain facts such as:
(1) the occurrence of highly metamorphic rocks in
the basement of the majority of the Precambrian
platforms (by their P-T conditions, such rocks
correspond to the lower continental crust); (2) the
constant average thickness of the crust of cratons
(35-40 km), despite prolonged intensive erosion
processes (about 10 yr); (3) the prolonged high
position of shields on the platforms relative to
neighbouring areas.
In a paper arising from the concept of a twolevel tectonics (Lobkovsky, 1989), a circulation
mechanism has been proposed for the continental
crust material which may explain the existing
paradoxes. This mechanism is illustrated in Fig.
17, which reflects the evolution of an intracratonic
system comprising two uplifted shields separated
by a basin. We assume that the mean density of
the rocks, pl, comprising the shield crust is a little
less than that of the rocks, p2, comprising the
basin crust (a probable explanation will be given
below). In other words, we may assume that at the
Moho basement Pratts isostatic conditions are
observed. In this case, the denudation process in
highly uplifted shields accompanied by sedimentation in the basin depression would change the
surface loading onto the lower plastic layer of the
crust; namely, it would reduce the lithostatic pressure on the lower-crustal asthenolayer under the
shields and increase this pressure on the lower
crust of the basin. The distribution of surface
loading induces a compensational flow of the
material of the lower crust from the basin area to
the regions of the eroded shields. Thus, a peculiar
material circulation of the continental crust ap-

AND

V.I. KEKCHMAN

pears in which the thickness of the latter remains

approximately unchanged and the rocks of the
lower crust of the shields move gradually upward
until, finally, they reach the surface of the cratons
(Lobkovsky, 1989) (Fig. 17). At that time, the
upper crust of the basin located between the
neighbouring shields turns out to be under an
extensional regime due to the off-centre flow of its
lower-crust material. Thus, the scheme proposed
gives a simple account of the phenomena observed
on the continents, such as a prolonged high position of the shields, uplift to the surface of rocks
from the lowermost layers, preservation of a longterm extensional regime in the basin and a constant thickness of the cratons crust.
A mathematical model of the slow evolution of
the upper crust-lower crust-underlying
lithosphere system, the initial crustal inhomogeneity
being of a shield-basin type, is described below.
The model takes into consideration erosion, sedimentation and changes in the rheological state of
materials caused by isostatic rock sinking or uplifting in the neighbourhood of the actual deep
boundary between the plastic lateral mobile
lower-crust layer and the overlying rocks. In the
first approximation, we will make a rough evaluation of the influence of temperature and determine
the rock transition into a plastic state (or, on the
contrary, from a plastic into a brittle undeformed
state) by pressure conditions only.
For simplicity, let us consider a problem of
plane-parallel
movement of the lower-crustal
material across an elongated (y co-ordinate directed) joint of a shield-basin structure. The equation describing the change of the thickness, h, of
the viscous-plastic lower-crustal layer (the rheo-

L I THOSPHERE

Fig. 17. Scheme of the material circulation within the erosion-sedimentation-lower-crustal

flow cycle (after Lobkovsky,
text for explanation). I = Upper brittle crust; 2 = lower ductile crust; 3 = sediments.

1989; see

367

A TWO-LEVEL CONCEPT OF PLATE TECTONICS

z,km

logical behaviour of the rocks being defined by

eqn. (1), n = 3), is:
+4

(21)

Here P,(x) is the load of the weight of overlying

upper-crustal rocks including sediments (as well as
non-mobile parts of the mid-crustal rocks) on the
roof of the lower-crustal mobile layer; 4 is the
rate of change of thickness of the mobile lower
crust, caused by the rheological transition from a
quasi-brittle to a ductile state of the rocks during
their sinking (or, on the contrary, elimination of
rocks from the mobile ductile state as a consequence of their uplift and their acquisition of
brittle properties), and by the mantle-material input. Both deep ~rnet~o~~srn
of the described
type (rheological) and erosion and sedimentary
processes in particular cause changes in the pressure gradient acting on the top of the lower crust
that, in turn, result in redistribution of horizontal
displa~men~ of mobile crustal material.
In making a quantitative analysis, let us asshield
sume, for simplicity, that half-eroded
material is later accumulated as sediments on the
basin surface. As mentioned above, the rheological
boundary between the lower and middle crust is
open. In our calculations, this rheological transition and the corresponding change in load on
the lower-crustal roof took place with every time
step in the finite-difference scheme according to a
rough evaluation based on the change of lithostatic pressure on the surface of the middle-lower
crust. Let SP/K denote changes of the weight of
upper and middle crustal material due to erosion
(sedimentation) at time steps At, in coordination
nodes xi; &<K- = #K-,At I indicates the
changes in lober-crust;
thickness due to the
material transition over the rheological boundary
at the previous step At,_,. Then the total change
in the lithostatic pressure on the top of the lower
layer is APjK) = SPi(K) + pgdhjK-). Let us assume that the interlayer boundary is displaced
according to the total pressure change with a
certain delay, caused by the medium heat inertia,
which was taken into account by introducing a
corresponding
lowering coefficient,
A, i.e. a

290
I
ko

160

80

80

160

km
240

Fig. 18. Results of numerical simulationsof the evolution of

the main crustal layers for the shield-basin? (a) suazzssive
time positions of the surface, upper-middle crustal boundary
(UMCB), and middle-lower crustal boundary (MLCB), (BSB
= basementof sedimentarybasin at the final state); (b) successive time variations of the lowercrustal thickness.Values denote the densitiesof rocks composing different crustal layers.
Solid arrows denote final displacementsof marked boundaries
in the course of crustal evolution. Dashed arrows denote the
thicknesschange of lower crust beneath the basin caused by
inputof mantle material (see text for explanation).

source-type term appears in the form Q$) =

-XAP,K/(pgAtK),
where h = 0.5-0.8.
Let us proceed from a typical inhomogeneity in
the structured joints in the continental crust
(formed during the Middle and Late Proterozoic):
a highly uplifted shield with a thick (- 17 km)
upper granite layer and a relatively thin (14.5 km)
lower crust (total crustal thickness being about 40
km) and an adjoining basin, with a lowered total
crustal thickness (30-35 km), which is on average
more dense than that of the shield crust due to an
increased proportion of mafic rocks (the lower
plastic crustal thickness is 16 km).
A calculation of cmstal evolution according to
the model described above was carried out for the
initial configuration shown in Fig. 18. In the upper part of the section (a) are shown initial profiles of the Earths surface, the bottom of the

368

L I LOBKOVSKY

upper-crustal layer and the rheological boundary

between the middle and lower crust. Below (b) the
profile of the initial base of the lower crust (Moho
boundary) is shown. The figure shows calculated
evolution profiles and the principal crustal
boundaries for the 1400 Ma period.
Calculations were made for eqn (21) according
to an explicit finite-difference scheme with coefficient p = 10-s-10-7 kmU3 yr-. An average rate
of denudation of shield material was assumed,
equal to 0.03-0.07 km/Ma in the initial calculation, decreasing according to the decrease of the
height and inclination of the Earths surface; it is
exponential in time, a typical time decrement being
about 500 Ma.
In Fig. 18 are shown the results of a calculation
where the initial denudation rate was taken to be
equal to 0.05 mm/yr, and decreasing exponentially over the typical time T = 500 Ma. The total
denudation of the upper crust was then 14 km in
1400 Ma. Correspondingly, a 7 km thick sedimentary layer was formed in the basin. Moreover, it
was assumed that 900-880 Ma ago (the tectonomagmatic activation phase), mantle material entered into the middle part of the basins crust,
resulting in thickening of lower crust by about 5
km and of the upper volcano-sedimentary layer by
about 1 km.
Corresponding illustrations of the evoluation of
layer thickness for different crustal layers are
shown in Figs. 18 and 19. It can be seen that
lower-crustal material is continuously flowing from

CI

//I,

V.I. KERCHMAN

the basin under the shield (Fig. 19): the total

thickness of the shield crust is decreasing very
slowly (Fig. 18) for the whole period, by 4.5-5.5
km, i.e. up to a total thickness of 35 km. At the
same time, separate outcrops of middle-crustal
rocks are possible. As for lower-crustal outcrops,
they appear to be connected with active squeezing
out of lower-crustal substance in the process of
collision. Thus, the proposed model allows us to
explain a very long preservation of inhomogeneities of relief, despite the powerful exogenous factors of its smoothing.
A similar mechanism of compensatory flow of
the lower crust also occurs during post-erogenic
stages of the evolution of collision belts, especially
during Mesozoic and more ancient stages. It is
principally different from the evolution of the
structural
cratonic
inhomogeneity
considered
above, primarily due to the greater mobility of the
lower crust that results from its lower viscosity
and, secondly, due to the greater crustal thickness
by the end of the erogenic stage. A typical total
time for denudation of mountain relief is 20-30
MA, the erogenic root of the lower crust, formed
during the collision state, commonly being preserved. Such incomplete smoothing of the orogenie root is caused by the pressure gradient acting
upon the lower-crustal roof, which is directed from
the foredeep towards the orogen, as the result of
accumulation
of sedimentary material in the
trough (Fig. 20). Partial preservation of mountain
roots can result in thrust formation processes that

Egr

AND

-2

[ml03

m4

a5

Fig. 19. Qualitative scheme of the evolution of the main crustal layers for the shield-basin structure: (a) initial stage; (b) final
I = Sediments; 2 = upper crust; 3 = middle crust; 4 = lower crust; 5 = subcrustal lithosphere. (See text for explana-

stage.

tion.)

A TWO-LEVEL

CONCEPT

OF PLATE

TECTONICS

Fig. 20. Scheme of the crustal evolution for post-erogenic

stage. I = Upper crust; 2 = middie crust; 3 = lower crust; 4 =
subcrustal lithosphere; 5 = sediments. (See text for explanation.)

arise in the same places during the next compression phase (recurrent orogenesis, as in the Urals
and Tien Shan).
As mentioned above, in the scheme of the
evolution of characteristic crustal structures of
cratons (shields and basins) considered, their
long-term occurrence (about 1 Ga) under conditions of powerful denudation and intensive sedimentation is possibly due to the circulation mechanism of the crustal material, which works in the
required direction (Fig. 17) if the mean crustal
density of the shields is lower than the corresponding density of the basins. To substantiate
this assumption, it is necessary to consider the
problem of the tectonic evolution of the Earth
during the early stages of its geological evolution.
It is a common notion that mantle convection
was considerably more intensive in the Archean,
and that thermal regime of the Earth was high (the
Archean is known as a period during which fragments of sialic proto-crust were formed; Khain
and Bozhko, 1988). Thus, in the Archean there
existed at the Earths surface only a crust layer of
the lithosphere, which was a thin basalt cover
(dissected into small blocks, thus forming an intricate mozaic) with inclusions of individual sialic
blocks of the future continental crust. Under the
influence of irregular mantle convection, these
sialic blocks underwent chaotic horizontal displacements accompanied by fracturing, collisions
and inner deformations (the permobile tectonics).

369

As is clear from the geological, geochemical and

petrological data, the greater part of the continental crust (75%) was formed by the late Archean,
the thickness thereof being comparable with that
of the recent crust (25-40 km), whereas the temperature gradient near the Earths surface exceeded the present one considerably (Taylor and
McLennan, 1985). Sialic blocks of the continental
proto-crust were surrounded by the Archean oceanic crust, predominantly of komatiitic composition (Amdt, 1983). From the mechanical point of
view, it follows that the characteristic horizontal
dimensions of solid undisturbed blocks appear to
have been a few hundreds of kilometres; hence the
upper quasi-rigid layer of the proto-continental
crust was not thick (about 10 km). We believe that
the lower subcrustal layer of the lithosphere was
formed after the Proterozoic. The formation of a
global and ~nt~uous
quasi-rigid frame (skeleton) of the lower lithospheric layer seems to mark
the beginning of the plate-tectonic regime in the
Earths history; the development of the former
was obviously irregular in time and space. In the
first stage, thickening of the lower-level, quasi-rigid
core occurred, mainly under the continental massifs, due to the colder regime of the underlying
mantle. Such crustal slabs, with lower-level more
rigid mantle roots, were driven by convective flows,
rather freely in the lateral sense, since the areas of
thin rootless basalt crust separating them did not
show any considerable resistance. These slabs
might easily subside into the mantle, undergo fracturing at the front of sialic blocks, and so on.
When two two-level sialic blocks converged, they
became welded (coupled), firstly along the lower
layer because of its greater plasticity. The oceanic
crust between the welded sialic blocks might
become sealed up. Most probably, this was the
scheme according to which the primary mesocontinents of - 1000 km size, which included ancient
shields separated by basins, originated. In this
case, the mean crustal density of basins (predominantly of mafic composition) was obviously greater
than that of the shields (of more acidic composition) and, as has been noted earlier, this is a
necessary condition for starting the mechanism of
the circulation of crustal material that sustains its
primary inhomogeneity.

370

L I LOBKOVSKY

A subsequent junction of larger sialic blocks,

due to their coupling along the thickening lower
level, caused (in accordance with the proposed
scheme) the formation of super-large continental
massifs such as Pangea. The absence of a continuous, lower quasi-rigid level under the oceanic crust
seemed to facilitate the formation of supercontinents. In the following stage of the evolution, a
continuous quasi-rigid lower layer of the lithosphere was already formed, under both the continents and the oceans; and since that time the
mechansim of plate tectonics has started.

AND

The equation of motion of a thin layer in an

approximation of lubrication theory will be:

ap

kz
---=
aZ

3P
x=-P&

0,

ax

(~42)

where, from the second equation, pressure

coincides with the hydrostatic pressure:
P=Pob)+Pcdffo+Fz)

643)

Equations (A2) are complemented

tinuity equation:

!yL+!&()

by a con-

(Ad)

Acknowledgements

We are very grateful to Professor Sierd Cloetingh and Professor Oleg Sorokhtin for constructive remarks and reviews. We are also greatly
indebted to Professor Jay Melosh for all the trouble he has taken in helping to edit the manuscript.

V.I. KEKCHMAN

and the rheological law (1) from the section

Mechanical aspects.. . which in the quasi-isothermal approximation will be:

av

~=B(7,,y-1*,,
aZ
where

Appendix

B = 2A exp[ -Q/R(T+

From assumptions similar to the principal hypotheses of hydrodynamic

lubrication
theory
(Shlihting, 1974), we obtain an equation which
describes the evolution of a thin subhorizontal
layer of a viscous medium with density pc (lower
crust), which rest on a non-extensible pliable basement of the Winkler type (Fig. 4). The normal
load PO(x), which is the weight of the uppercrustal layer, is applied to the surface of the layer
described, either (a) through the non-extensible
flexible film in case of a horizontally non-deformable upper crust, or (b) under conditions of free
horizontal displacements in the case that the upper crust is dissected into blocks. The layer with
variable thickness h(x, t) = H,(x) + 5 + A (Fig.
4) is isostatically compensated on the compliant
mantle part of the lithosphere with density pM.
Here we ignore the bending rigidity of the sublayer (III) and for simplicity, use the local condition of Airy isostasy; that is, the variation in its
thickness relative to the equilibrium state Z&(x)
leads to the corresponding subsidence A of the
lower boundary:
A=

(AI)

273)]

(A5)

Substituting eqn. (A3) into the first equation of

(A2) we have the first integral as:

ah

Tx,=k~z+Po(x)+C

where
k = P~(PM - p&/p,.

646)

In view of (A5), at PO= constant this results in

an equation for V*(z), which it is convenient to
write as:

av,

,Z,=Bk

ah
ax

ah
+z-qh(-(z-qh)

I I

(A7)

where z = z + A (within the layer 0 G z Q h).

The value of q is determined from the type of
boundary conditions: when it is adherent to the
fixed upper boundary, qa = l/2, whereas qb = 1
in the case of a freely moving surface.
By integrating the continuity equation across
the layer, we have:

ah
y:r::,~~=

--

a
ax

eV,dz

w3)

A IWO-LEVEL

CONCEPT

OF PLATE

371

TECTONICS

Substituting into (AS) the expression for longitudinal velocity:

-)@-ZTI+*]

(A%

we obtain the final equation of evolution for the

thickness of the lower crustal layer (Kerchman,
1990):

Here, the coefficient:

,l3= b,,Bk

VW

where the factor b,, depends upon the type of

boundary conditions on the layer surface: b,, =
qn+l/(n + 2).
In the case of the linear-viscous media, we have
an equation of the type (2) from the section
Mechanical aspects. . . _ The generalization to
the case of horizontal motion of the underlying
mantle is similar.
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