370

High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

"0

0)
.... ::::
0)"E
u)
o

a.@

0)':::

> ....
:+::0)

roo

a. 2

-0
0 ....
0"0

:+::0)
ro=
a: a.

a.
::J
U)

--

--

.,.

200

400
600
Length of line (mi)

800

1000

Figure 7-9. Reactive Power Requirements of Long Overhead ac and dc L i nes

at Full Load as a Function of the Length of Li ne.

A dc line itself does not require reactive power. The converters at both
ends of the line draw reactive power from the ac system connected. This is
independent of the line length, in contrast with ac where reactive power
consumption varies almost linearly with distance, as shown in Figure 7 -9.
The voltage at an open end of a long line is considerably higher than
rated. This phenomenon is called the Ferranti effect and is a limiting factor
for ac lines. The voltage at an open end of a long line presents a special
problem when the line is put in service by first connecting it to the main ac
system. It is not feasible to close both ends at exactly the same instant.
Clearly this difficulty is avoided in dc lines.

7.6

SOME ECONOMIC
CONSIDERATIONS

The result of Example 7-3 indicates that a saving (reduction) in line

losses results in an increase in the required voltage (insulation level). This is
clear by inspection of Figure 7-8 showing the variation of dc insulation level
with the losses, assuming PL and the ac insulation levels as the reference.
a
A compromise choice can be ade based on the economic trade-offs.

7.6 Some Economic Considerations

The annual variable cost of operating a dc line can be assumed to be

the sum of two parts. The first is cost of power lost in transmission, and the
second is the annual amortized capital cost of line and terminal stations
(converters). The cost of dc losses can be expressed in terms of y (the loss
ratio) as
Cost of dc losses = By
(7.6)
where we define B as the annual cost of losses in the ac case. The line and
terminal costs vary directly with the required insulation level, which in tum
is voltage-dependent. In terms of the loss ratio y, we thus write in the light
of Eq. (7.5),
Voltage dependent 0.87A
dc capital costs
(7.7)
amortized annually IY
The constant A is expressed as
q

A= A

Here we take the voltage-dependent ac capital cost as the basis for compari
son:
A = Voltage-dependent ac equipment capital
cost amortized annually
The factor q is introduced to account for the cost of terminal stations in
relation to line costs. As a result of the foregoing assumptions, the total
annual costs of operating the dc line are
c

= 0.87A
IY +B

(7.8)

Cac =A+B

(7.9)

de

The variation of the costs Cdc with loss ratio y is shown in Figure 7-10. The
corresponding ac costs are
ratio.

The following example gives the basis for economic choice of y, the loss

Example 7-4

Show that for minimum total annual cost of the dc line,

Cost of l = 0.5(cost of voltage-dependent equipment)
osses

Solution

For minimum cost,

acdc
-=0
ay

371

372

High- Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

-0

Figure 7-10.

Variation of de Costs with Loss Ratio y.

This requires, in view of Eq. (7.8),

B-

or

0.87..4 = 0
2( y)3/2

(7.10)

which implies that at the optimum

Cost of losses 0.5(cost of voltage-dependent equipment) (7.11)
To get a feeling for the numerical implications of the above, we have
the following example.
=

1.6 Some Economic Considerations

Example 75

The annual cost of losses for a dc line is $4X 106 Assuming that the
design is optimal, find the corresponding capital cost of voltage-dependent
equipment amortized annually. Calculate the ratio of losses in the dc case to
that of the equivalent ac option. Assume that annual cost of the latter is
$5X 106

Solution

But

From the previous example, we have by Eq. (7.11),

Annual capital cost of voltage-dependent equipment =2By

Thus the required cost

We are also given

By=4X 106
=2X 4X 106 =8X 106

Thus the required ratio is

dollars per year.

B=5X 106
y(5X 106) =4X 106
y=0.8

Breakeven Between ae and de

From Example 7-4, at the optimum we have by Eq. (7.10):

By'

Ho.s/ :. ) .4

Thus the minimum cost of the dc line in operation is according to Eq. (7.8),
Gmin =By*

But we have from Eq. (7.10),

0.5.4

:
*

=3By*

Thus Eq. (7.12) is rewritten as

(7.12)

3 3.42
(y*) =
16B2

3
3.42 1/
.
Gmin =3B (
)
16B2
=1.72{.42B)I/3

(7.13)

313

374

High- Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

The capital cost of the ac transmission option is given according to

Example
definition of Eq. (7.9) as

7-4's

Cac=A +B

(7.14)

In order to compare the two options available, we take the difference in

costs as the measure. We thus define the savings as

(7.13) and (7.14)

S=A + B- 1.72B1/A3 2 /3

(7.16)

P=1.72 ( i )2/3
z= ( r /3

(7.17)
(7.18)

to

This reduces on using Eqs.

Defining the constants,

Then Eq.

(7.15)

(7.16) can be written as

S=B(I-pz2 + Z)3

(7.19)

Clearly can take on negative values, indicating a cutoff value where the dc
option is no longer more economic than the corresponding ac alternative.
For illustration purposes it is more convenient to deal with the ratio
denoted here by 8:

(SIB),

- S
S=
B

(7.20)

This has a minimum with respect to the variable

derivative equal to zero. Thus

This occurs at a value of

zm:

z, obtained by setting the

aazs -2pz+3z2
-=
=0

(7.21)

(7.21) into Eq. (7.20). Thus,

-Smin -1- 3
(7.22)
The variation of &run with the ratio (AlA) is obtained by substituting in
Eq. (7.22) from Eq. (7.17):
(7.23)
Here the minimum is given by substituting Eq.
_

2'tP

...._--A/A=1.
..
2

--AlA =1.4

","-A/A= 1.6

Smin

-0 .114

1
1
1

Smin=-0.478 ------

1
1

. =-0 . 930 --- - --- ----1 S min

I
I
Zm= 12951
1
I
I
Zm= 14351
Zm=

Figure 7 1 1 .

Variation of

S with

z for Different

I
I
1
1

1.5691

A/A Ratios.

316

316

High- Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

TABLE 7-2

Relevant Points on the S versus z Characteristics

A/A

Zl

1.072
0.8810
0.8033
0.7454
0.7021

1.942
2.153
2.353
2.545
2.730

1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0

Z2

Zm

1.495
1.865
2.133
2.367
2.580

8m

1.295
1.435
1.569
1.697
1.820

-0.114
-0.478
-0.930
-1.442
-2.015

Inspection of Eqs. (7.22) and (7.23) shows that for positive values of p:
A
1 .1547
(7.24)
Smin 0, for po;;;; 1 .8899 or
A
A
n 0 for p 1 .8899 or
1 . 1547
(7.25)
A
The implication of Eq. (7.24) is that S (and consequently S) is positive for
all values of long as (A/A) is less than 1 .1547. From Eq. (7.15), we can
conclude that Cae> Cdc for all values of defined by Eq. (7.18) if A/A
1 .1547.
For values of A/A> 1.1547, Smin and hence a range of S are negative.
The value of S will be zero for two values
of denoted by and and will
be a minimum at Table 7-2 lists a few values of the ratio (A/A) and the
corresponding values of
and Smin' The general shape of the S
versus variation is shown in Figure 7-1 1 .
;;;;.

<

0;;;;

>

as

>

<

zm'

Zl

Z2

Zl' Z , Zm.
2

7.7

CONVERTER CIRCUITS:
CONFIGURATIONS AND PROPERTIES

Groups of valves can be connected in various ways to form a converter.

In this section we examine some possible configurations of converter circuits
and study the basic properties that are useful in the design of HYDe
converter circuits. It is instructive to begin with a study of the case of a
single-phase ac power supply. The full-wave rectifier circuit is studied first.
Single-Phase FUll-Wave Rectifier

A single-phase, full-wave rectifier circuit is shown in Figure 7-12. A

transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding and two valves 1 and 2
are used. The cathodes of the valves are connected through a large smooth
ing reactor to the dc load.

Some Solved Problems

where Xc is the commutating reactance of the rectifier's ac source. The

active poer balance between the ac and dc sides gives
Vd/d, = VJp ,cos q,i
(7.165)
Using Eqs. (7.160) and (7.161) in Eq. (7.165), we get
(7.166)
Vd - K1 a .v: cosq,. = 0
The rectifier voltage and inverter voltage on the dc part of the system
related by
(7.167)
Vd - Vd . = R dJd
The model of the inverter is similar to that of the rectifier. Thus the
following equations apply:
(7.168)
(7.169)
Vdj - K I a .v:cos.l. = 0
The model developed so far consists of five independent equations-Eqs.
(7.162), (7.166), (7.167), (7.168), and (7.169)-in terms of the following nine
variables:
Vd" Vdj , ai' aj , cos a i' cos Yj' q,i' q,j ' and Id
To solve for nine variables, four equations giving the control specifications
needed. Thus,
VJ',P - Vd, = 0
cosa1P - cosa i = 0
cos yjP - cos Yj = 0
Vd . Id - PdP = 0
Problem 7-A-18 illustrates the per unit system and provides an analy
sis of a system in its terms.
"

are

y}

are

SOME SOLVED PROBLEMS

Problem 7A1

Consider an existing three-phase, double-circuit, ac line in relation to

its conversion to dc with three circuits. Assume the same insulation level.
Show that the ratio of power transmitted by dc to that by ac is given by
Power by dc = 12
Power by ac

421

428

High- Voltage Direct-Current TransmissiOn

Show also that the percentage loss ratio is

Percentage losses by dc = _1_ = 0 .707
Percentage losses by ac [2
Solution

Power transmitted by ac = (2)(3) v" h IL ' The ac line is converted to

three dc circuits, each having two conductors at plus and minus ( Vd/2) to
ground.
Power transmitted by dc 6Vd 1d
For
with the same insulation level of
=

Vd =

[2 v" h '

The first required ratio is

Power by dc 6Vd1d
Power by ac - 6 v"h IL
_

Vd
v" h

[2

We also have
Percentage
losses by-"-dc Losses by dc . Power by --,,losses by ac Power by dc Losses by ac
Percentage
_ Power by ac Losses by dc
Power by dc . Losses by
---

--

ac

- -

ac

[2

= 0 .707

Problem 7-A-2

Assume a particular design criterion specifies that the ratio of insula

tion level for a dc bipolar line to the insulation level for the equivalent ac
three-phase line (equal power transfer) is Show that the corresponding
losses are related by
x.

Assume that the insulation level varies directly with the peak value of the
voltage.

Some Solved Problems

Solution

The insulation level ratio assumed is

X = Vd l2 h
__

For equal power transfer,

Therefore,

3h IL = 2 Vd 1d

Eliminating the voltages from both sides using the insulation ratio, we get
The loss ratio is

Problem 7 A 3
-

The losses for a proposed ac line are 60 MW. Find the corresponding
losses if a dc line is designed such that the ratio of insulation level for the dc
line that for the equivalent ac three-phase line is 0.87.
to

Solution

We have from Problem 7-A-2,

x = 0.87
It has been shown earlier that
Thus,
3 ( 60)
4 ( 0.87 ) 2
= 59.45 MW

429

430

High- Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

Problem 7 A 4
-

The annual savings to the utility due to insulation and loss reduction
by using the dc option over the ac option depend on the choice of the ratio x
defined in Problem 7-A-2.
Sketch the variation of the total annual savings with x. Obtain the
optimum value of x for maximum total annual savings.
Solution

The total savings are given by the sum of the reduction in annual cost
of l and the reduction in the capital cost of insulation calculated on a
yearly basis.
Cost of the ac insulation-related equipment = A .
Cost of the dc insulation-related equipment = xA where A is as
defined in text.
Thus,
Savings in insulation cost = A - xA
)
Annual savings in loss cost = B ( 1 LdC
Lac
osses

=B -
4x2

Thus we have the total annual savings given by

S = A - Ax + B l -
4x 2

A sketch of the annual savings is shown in Figure 7-38. To maximize the

savings,
Thus,

as

=0

ax

-2
- 3
-A - - B - = 0
4
x3

The optimum value of x is thus

x =

The maximum savings are thus

( : r

/3

3B + 4Ax3
4x 2
= A + B - 1.72 B l/3A 2 / 3

Smo = A + B

Some Solved Problems

Savings

Annual Savings Variation with x.

Figure 7-38.

Problem 7 A 5
-

High-voltage dc is used for the transmission of

BOO-MW

power from

remote generating site to the load center. Assume that transmission losses
are

percent of total using the ac alternative and that this loss costs

mils kWh.

loss load factor of

0.56 is commonly

is such that the losses using dc are

80

35

assumed. The line design

percent of their ac counterpart.

431

432

High- Voltage Direct-Current Transmission

Assuming that this ratio is the optimal choice such that total annual cost of
losses and insulation are a minimum, calculate:
A. The annual cost of the losses using the ac alternative.
B. The annual cost of the losses using dc.
C. The annual cost of insulation amortized annually.
Hint:

Loss 1

power loss
oad factor = average
peak power loss

----"'-..:..
-

Solution

A. For the ac alternative, we calculate as follows:

Peak power loss = (0.04)(800) = 32 MW
Average power loss = (0.56)(32 ) = 17.92 MW
Annual energy loss = (17.92)(8760)(10 3 )
= 1 .569792 108 kWh
Annual cost of losses = (1 .569792 108)( 35 10- 3 )
= 5.49427 10 6 $/year
B. For the cost of l we have
X

osses

Thus,
C.

p
pLdC

La c

= 0.8

Annual cost of dc loss = (0.8)(5.49427

10 6 )

= 4.39542 X 10 6 $/year
For optimal design we have from example 7-4 that

Cost of dc insulation = 2 ( annual cost of dc loss)

amortized annually
= 2(4.39542 10 6 )
= 8.79084 10 6 $/year
X

Problem 7 A 6
-

Consider the cascade of two three-phase, one-way rectifiers shown in

Figure 7-39. Show that
A. Average valve current is 0.333Id
B. Peak inverse voltage on a valve is 1.047Vd
C. Direct-current voltage ripple, peak to peak, is 0.14Vd