University of Technology, Jamaica

LECTURE 5

METALS
2015

Presented by: Milton McIntyre

Introduction
2

Prepared by: Mrs. Barbara A. Cooke

Aug.13, 2010

Introduction
3

More than 45 metals of industrial importance are found

within the earths crust. (Iron, Aluminum, Magnesium and
Titanium)
Hence, most metals occur in the form of ore, from which
the metal has to be extracted.
An ore is usually referred to as a mineral, which is a
chemical compound or mechanical mixture.

Introduction
4

Classifications of ore:
Native metals - copper and precious metals
Oxides - most important ore source for aluminum, iron and copper
extraction

Sulfides - includes ores of copper, lead, zinc and nickel

Carbonates - includes ores of iron, copper and zinc
Chlorides - includes ores of magnesium
Silicates - includes ores of copper, zinc and beryllium

Production of Metal
5

Four operations are required for the production of most

metals:
Mining the ore open-pit borrowing or underground mining
Preparing the ore involve crushing the ore and removal of
large gangue. May involve roasting (sulfides) and calcining
(carbonates)

Extracting the metal from the ore chemical processess are

employed to remove metals. (Pyrometallurgy, Electrometallurgy or
Hydrometallurgy)

Refining the metal remove impurities

Metal
6

Metal is an element, compound or alloy that is a

good conductor of both electricity and heat
A metals crystal structure and specific metal
properties are determined by metallic bonding,
which is the force holding together the atoms of the
metal
The ability of the valence free electrons to travel
throughout the solid explains both the high electrical
conductivity and thermal conductivity of metals.

Metal
7

Other specific metal features are: luster or shine

of their surface (when polished), their
malleability (ability to be hammered) and
ductility (ability to be drawn).
These properties are also associated with the
metallic bonding and presence of free
electrons in the crystal lattice.

Types of Metal
8

There are two general types of metal: Ferrous and non ferrous.
Ferrous metals are those metals which contain iron. They may
have small amounts of other metals or other elements added,
to give the required properties. All ferrous metals are magnetic
and give little resistance to corrosion.
Non ferrous metals are those metals which does not contain
iron. They are not magnetic and are usually more resistant to
corrosion than ferrous metals. Most commonly used non
ferrous metals are Aluminum, Copper, Brass, Lead, Tin, Gilding
Metal and Zinc.

Ferrous Metals
9

Ferrous metals comprise of three general classes of

materials :
Cast iron
Wrought iron
Steel Mild, high tensile, carbon (medium & high),
stainless
All produced by the reduction of iron ores (Hematite,
limonite and magnetite ) to pig iron and the subsequent
treatment of the pig iron to various metallurgical processes.

Ferrous Metals Cast Iron

10

Cast Iron
carbon 2 6% and Iron at 94 to 98%.
It is hard, brittle, strong, cheap, and self-lubricating
ferrous metal.
It is normally used in the manufacturing of heavy
crushing machinery, car cylinder blocks, vices,
machine tool parts, brake drums, machine handle
and gear wheels, manhole covers, plumbing
fitments etc.

Ferrous Metals Wrought Iron

11

Wrought Iron
Composed of almost 100% iron.
Used to make items such as ornamental gates and
fencing.
Has fallen out of use somewhat.

Ferrous Metal - Steel

Steel is an iron-carbon alloy that is cast from a molten mass
whose composition is such that it is malleable in some
temperature range.
Steel has three principal uses:

Structural
reinforcing
forms and pans

Ferrous Metal - Steel

13

There are a number of different types of steel,

these include:
1. Mild Steel:
Carbon content of 0.1 to 0.3% and Iron content of 99.7
99.9%.
It is the most commonly used ferrous metal.
Its major properties are Toughness, high tensile strength and
ductility.
It is normally used in manufacturing of girders, plates, nuts
and bolts and other general purposes.

Ferrous Metal - Steel

14

2. High Tensile
It is very strong and very tough ferrous metal and is
exclusively used for manufacturing of Gears, shafts,
engine parts etc.
This is one of the most frequently used ferrous
metals in industries because of its strength,
hardness and toughness.

Ferrous Metal - Steel

15

3. Carbon steel Carbon content of 0.6 to 1.4% and

Iron content of 98.6 to 99.4 %. Used to make
cutting tools such as drill bits.

Types of carbon steel includes:

Medium Carbon Steel
High Speed Steel
High Carbon Steel

Ferrous Metal - Steel

16

4. Stainless Steel
Its another very important ferrous metal. It comprises of
18% chromium, and 8% nickel.
Its special characteristic is its strong resistance to
corrosion.
Its common uses are Kitchen draining boards, Pipes,
cutlery and aircraft.

Production of Steel

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9l7JqonyoKA
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vb79CSQaQv4
http://videos.howstuffworks.com/electronics/blast-furnace-videos-

Cold or Hot rolled coils

18

Seamless pipes

Wire rod

Sheet piles

Ferrous Metal - Steel

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon:

Higher carbon concentration makes the steel more brittle
and harder.
Carbon steel is steel that has a CC of less 2% but more
than 0.5%, higher CC is considered cast iron.
Heating Iron from room temperature up to 3000 F will
change the crystal structure of steel.

Heat Treatment
The term which refers to metalworking processes used to alter
the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a
material.
It used to refine the grain structure, removes internal stresses,
removes gases, changes electrical and magnetic properties of
steel.
Types of heat treatment techniques are:

Annealing
Normalizing
Precipitation hardening
Case Hardening
Tempering

Annealing

This is a process that produces conditions by heating metal

to above the critical temperature, maintaining a suitable
temperature, and then slowly cooling to room temperature.
It is used to induce ductility, soften material, relieve
internal stresses, refine the structure by making it
homogeneous and improve cold working properties.
It results in softer & more ductile steel with increased
toughness.

Annealing
22

Types of annealing:
Full annealing
Process annealing
Stress relief annealing
Spheroidization
Soft annealing

Normalizing

This process is similar to annealing, but it is done at a higher

temperature & air cooled (but faster than annealing).
It produces a uniform, fine-grained microstructure
It results in steel with high fracture toughness
More corrective rather than strengthening or hardening

Precipitation hardening

This is the process used to increase the yield strength

of malleable materials, including most structural alloys of
Al, Mg, Ni, Ti, and some stainless steels.
In superalloys (high-performance- good resistance to creep), it is known
to cause yield strength anomaly (increases with
temperature) providing excellent high temperature strength.
It relies on changes in solid solubility with temperature to
produce fine particles of an impurity phase, which impede
the movement of dislocations, or defects in a crystal's lattice.

Case (surface) Hardening

This is the process of hardening the surface of a metal, often

a low carbon steel, by infusing elements into the material's
surface, forming a thin layer of a harder alloy.
It is usually done after the part in question has been formed
into its final shape, but can also be done to increase the
hardening element content of bars to be used in a pattern
welding or similar process.
It involves heating at higher temp., then rapid cooling by
quenching in water/brine/oil.
It results in steel being harder & more brittle & must be
followed by tempering

Case (surface) Hardening

26

Processes used to case harden steel:

Flame and induction hardening
Carburizing
Nitriding
Cyaniding
Carbonitriding
Ferritic nitrocarburizing

Tempering

This is used to increase the toughness of iron-based alloys.

It is also a technique used to increase the toughness of glass.
For metals, tempering is usually performed after hardening, to
reduce some of the excess hardness, and is done by heating the
metal to a much lower temperature than was used for
hardening.
The exact temperature determines the amount of hardness
removed, and depends on both the specific composition of the
alloy and on the desired properties in the finished product.
For instance, very hard tools are often tempered at low
temperatures, while springs are tempered to much higher
temperatures.

Steel Alloys

Alloy metals can be used to alter the characteristics of

steel.
250,000 different types of steel alloys
Approx. 200 may be used in civil engineering
applications.
Construction steels are low and medium carbon plain
steels
Stainless steel for highly corrosive uses; add chromium,
nickel, etc.

Steel Alloys
Steel alloy is steel + alloying metal to change properties such as:
Hardenability refers to the depth to which a material is hardened after
putting through a heat treatment process. It is an indication of how deep into
the material a certain hardness can be achieved. It is not a measure of
resistance to indentation or scratching (hardness).

Corrosion resistance

Machinability refers to the ease with which a metal can be machined to

an acceptable surface finish. Materials with good machinability require
little power to cut, can be cut quickly, easily obtain a good finish

Ductility
Strength

Structural Steel
Cold formed
cladding

Hot rolled
structural
shapes

Hot Rolled Structural Section Shapes

Wide flange
W A992
HP A572 G50
M A36

I beam
S A36

Equal leg angle

L A36

Channel
C, MC A36

Unequal leg angle

L A36

Sheet piling

Tee

Rail
31

Cold Formed Steel Shapes

Structural design requires special considerations due to

buckling
corrosion

33

The most important properties of steel are:

Youngs Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity), E
Yield Strength, fy
Ultimate Strength, fu
Steel grade designation

Tensile test
Engineering stress/strain vs. True stress/strain26

Typical stress-strain relationships

35

When a solid material

experience a stress, it produces a
strain, but how much strain is
produced depends on the solid
properties. Therefore they are
characterized by their elastic
moduli.
Curve A shows brittle material
Curve B is a strong material
which is not ductile
Curve C is a ductile material
Curve D is a plastic material

Stress-strain curves for Hot rolled steel bars

36

Increasing the carbon

content in steel will
increase the yield stress
and reduce the ductility.
However, increasing the
carbon content does not
change E for steel.

Stress-Strain Curve for Steel

Limit of proportionality Load is proportional to

extension up to this point (Hookes Law-linear).
Elastic limit Load is no longer prop. to extension but is
still elastic up to this point.
Yield point Material have exceeded its elastic limit
and is permanently damaged at this point.
Ultimate Stress maximum tensile stress the material
can take before absolute failure.
Fracture material has complete failed.
38

Corrosion of metals
39

ASTM terminology (G 15) defines corrosion as the chemical

or electrochemical reaction between a material, usually a
metal, and its environment that produces a deterioration of
the material and its properties.

Corrosion of metals
40

Wet corrosion generally occurs when there is water

present or when the humidity levels exceed about 60
percent. This type of corrosion is highly common,
especially when the metal is exposed to a water solution
carrying salts.
Dry corrosion generally takes place in high temperatures.
Electro-chemical reactions on the surface of the metal
cause the corrosion. As a reaction to the environment
metals become decayed and lose reliability and safety.

What cause wet and dry corrosion

41

Dry corrosion occurs when

there is no water or
moisture to aid the
corrosion, and the metal
oxidises with the
atmosphere alone.
Wet corrosion of metals
occurs through electron
transfer, involving two
processes, oxidation and
reduction.

Tests done of steel

42

Tensile
Bending (Flexure)
Hardness
Brinell
Rockwell
Portable

Impact
Chemical analysis (XRF, EDS or EDX, GDS)
Failure analysis (SEM)
Metallographic (examines the microstructure)
Spark (method used to determine the classification of ferrous metals
usually scrap)

Wear
Corrosion

Questions
43

For practice. Please complete and come prepared to

present answers in next class.
1.
What are the various types of non ferrous metals used
in the construction Industry and how are they used.
2.
Explain three processes used to case hardened steel.
3.
Explain three types of annealing.
4.
What are the properties of steel that are of
importance to engineers? Define them.
5.
Show two pictures/diagrams each of steel being used
structurally, as reinforcement, and as forms.