Desalination 206 (2007) 322332

Assessment of tap water resources quality and its potential of

scale formation and corrosivity in Tafila Province, South Jordan
Aiman E. Al-Rawajfeha*, Ehab M. Al-Shamailehb
a

Tafila Technical University, Department of Chemical Engineering, P.O. Box 179, 66110 Tafila, Jordan
Tel. +962 (3) 2250326; Fax +962 (3) 2250431; email: aimanr@yahoo.com
b
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, The University of Jordan, 11942 Amman, Jordan

Received 4 January 2006; accepted 20 January 2006

Abstract
This paper discusses the concept of water quality and stability, describes various indices available to assess the
scale formation (protective layer) and corrosivity of water and the methods of their calculation for different tap
water resources in Tafila City, south Jordan. The saturation levels are calculated by Langelier saturation index
(LSI), Ryznar stability index (RSI) and the calcium carbonate precipitation potential (CCPP). LSI values are negative
and range from 0.39 to 1.5 while RSI values range from 8.7 to 9.8. CCPP values are negative and range from
1.77 to 16.76. Although these results indicate corrosion conditions, this image changes upon heating and evaporation
of water with the release of CO2. Water samples exhibit high concentrations of Cl, SO2
and HCO3 as the major
4
2+
2+
anions and Ca and Mg as the major cations. Magnesium has a threshold limit of maximum CaCO3 solubility at
about 0.00424 M. Microbiological tests indicate that three of the water samples (the three springs) are polluted with
total and faecal coliform bacteria. Moreover, high concentration of nitrate has been detected in one of the springs.
Most of the water samples have SO2
/ HCO3 ratio of less than 1. At least 94% of the scale composition is CaCO3
4
(aragonite).
Keywords: Tafila City; Water quality; Coliform; CaCO3; Scale formation; LSI; RSI; CCPP; Corrosion

*Corresponding author.

Presented at EuroMed 2006 conference on Desalination Strategies in South Mediterranean Countries: Cooperation
between Mediterranean Countries of Europe and the Southern Rim of the Mediterranean. Sponsored by the
European Desalination Society and the University of Montpellier II, Montpellier, France, 2125 May 2006.
0011-9164/07/$ See front matter 2007 Published by Elsevier B.V.
doi:10.1016/j.desal.2006.01.039

A.E. Al-Rawajfeh, E.M. Al-Shamaileh / Desalination 206 (2007) 322332

1. Introduction
Safe drinking water is a human birthright. It
must fall among the highest priorities for every
nation on earth. It is vitally important that water
is free of disease-causing germs and toxic chemicals and pollutants [1]. Coliform, nitrate and boron
indicate pollution in water. The main sources of
nitrate in drinking water are in rainfall, sewage or
animal excreta, biological fixation in the soil and
various agricultural practices. Tarawneh et al [2]
conducted a hydrochemical and bacteriological
study on the springs in Tafila region. Their study
indicates that some springs are highly polluted
due to surface pollution. Shatanawi and Fayyad
[3] reported that faecal coliform bacteria, in Zarka
River, was higher than World Health Organization
(WHO) [4] drinking water guidelines because the
river receives part of its water from a wastewater
treatment plant.
Tap water sources range over a broad spectrum
of chemical quality which reflects the history of
water and the region from which it originates. The
effect of this water on the piping system appears
in three forms: fouling, aggression and corrosion.
Fouling, a complex phenomenon, is the accumulation of undesirable deposits on industrial equipment surfaces. Aggression is the dissolution of
cement material comprising the conduits and retaining structure which destructs the integrity of
the material. Corrosion is the end result of the
electro-chemical reactions between water and the
metal components [5]. The occurrence of scale
deposition and corrosion in natural and processed
waters can cause serious operational and cost
problems. Scale is the crystallization of sparingly
soluble calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide,
and calcium sulphate. The formation of the alkaline scales CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 strongly depends on temperature, pH, desorption rate of CO2
as well as on the concentrations of HCO3, CO2
,
3
Ca2+, and Mg2+ ions [6]. Factors causing corrosion
in water distribution systems include acidity (very
low), hardness, bimetallic contact, high chloride

323

concentration, dissolved oxygen and biological

action.
Calcium carbonate precipitates into three
polymorphic forms: aragonite, calcite and vaterite.
Aragonite (needle-shaped), calcite (cubic) and
vaterite (spherically-shaped) have different
solubility properties. Vaterite being the most and
calcite the least soluble phase over a temperature
range between 0C and 90C [7]. CaCO3 precipitates spontaneously when the temperature rises,
reducing solubility of CaCO3 and upon the desorption of CO2 resulting in pH increase and therefore
causes concentration gradient [6].
The temperature sensitivity of the various constants of the CaCO3CO2H2O system results in
the following net reaction being driven to the right
with increasing temperature:

2HCO3 CO2 + CO32 + H 2 O

(1)

When one mole of CO2 is released, one mole

is formed. In the presence of metal ions,
of CO2
3
such as Fe3+, Al3+, Fe2+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions, CO2
3
reacts to form metal carbonate. In supersaturated
reacts with Ca2+ to form CaCO3
solutions, CO2
3
crystals or deposits:
kr
Ca 2+ + CO32
CaCO3 (s)

(2)

Silica, in such solutions, forms thermodynamically stable silicate compounds. The general
equation for kaolinite [Al2Si2O5(OH)4] formation
is:
2Al(OH) 4 + 2H 4SiO 4 + 2H +
Al 2Si 2 O5 (OH) 4 + 7H 2 O

(3)

Scale formation involves three basic stages [8]:

1. Ions start to cluster as proto-nuclei of up to 1000
atoms as the ion concentration increases;
2. The proto-nuclei grow as concentration increases and the ions start ordering themselves
into a regular shape;

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A.E. Al-Rawajfeh, E.M. Al-Shamaileh / Desalination 206 (2007) 322332

3. Finally, crystals are formed from the nuclei.

Once formed, the crystals continue to grow indefinitely as long as the respective salt solubility limit is exceeded.
Langelier saturation index (LSI) [9] and Ryznar
stability index (RSI) [10] are the most famous
CaCO3 saturation indices despite the fact that they
are considered to be very conservative. LSI and
RSI determine whether water has tendency to precipitate CaCO3 (i.e. supersaturated) or to dissolve
it (under-saturated) and the second estimates the
quantity of the precipitated or dissolved amount
of CaCO3. It is believed that supersaturated waters
are scale forming waters and under-saturated are
not. However this is not always the case as exceptions may occur. For example, scale formation is
inhibited by the presence of polyphosphates, some
naturally occurring organics, magnesium [1114]
and zinc [15,16]. Conversely, CaCO3 deposits
have been found in pipes conveying under-saturated water. The calcium carbonate precipitation
potential (CCPC) [17] is a parameter that predicts
tendency to precipitate or to dissolve CaCO3 in
addition to its quantity as well. CCPP can be calculated with computerised water chemistry models
[5,18]. CCPP is not widely used because of its
calculation complexity. In 1996 the American
Water Works Association (AWWA) [19] released
a PC-based spreadsheet program, which allows
speedy calculation of a number of indices including CCPP. Another method of determining the
CCPP values is by graphical procedures which
was originally developed by Caldwell and Lawrence [20] and later on has been modified by
Loewenthal and Marias [21].
In the present study, the quality, potential of
scale formation and corrosivity of 9 different tap
water resources in Tafila City, south Jordan, were
studied and the results were fully interpreted.
2. Experiments
Samples were collected from selected sites for
analysis as describe below.

2.1. Study sites description

Tafila City (189 km south of the Capital Amman) is located in the eastern plateau of Jordan
(Fig. 1). It is locking over rift valley permitted to
springs overflow from the upper cretaceous limestone aquifer. Tafila (sites on the map are 1, 2, 6,
8 and 9) located in a semi-desert region and the
rain falls only in winter season that extends from
October through March. The average precipitation
is around 250 mm in Abour Station (sites 5 and
7). The area is dry in July through September and
wet the rest of the year, snow occasionally falls.
Seasonal mean temperatures at Tafila vary from a
maximum of around 38.5C in summer and a
minimum of 4C in winter. Tafila area is characterized by its rocky nature, the formation of the
Tafila Mountains and the surrounding areas related
to the formation of the rift valley that extends from
Turkey in the north to the Dead Sea in the south.
Weathering conditions have played a major role
in the formation and exposure of Tafila rocks,
limestone and sandstone. Tafila town is mainly
supplied by water originated from the Al-Hasa
wells (site 3) delivered to Tafila Reservoir (site 2)
which supplies the town and the surrounding villages. In Tafila City, most buildings are connected
to the public sewer system.
2.2. Analytical methods
Turbidity was measured photometrically by
determining the percentage of light of a given intensity that is either absorbed or scattered. The
measuring apparatus, called a turbidimeter field
instrument was based on light absorption. The
term nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) is often
used to indicate that the test was run according to
the principle of scattering of light from particles.
Drinking water standards specify a maximum of
1 NTU but the risk range is 5 NTU. The temperature, pH and electrical conductivity (EC) were
measured in the field. Chlorine residual was determined by a commercial visual comparator using
N, N-diethyl-p-phenylenediamine (DPD) as a
reagent.

A.E. Al-Rawajfeh, E.M. Al-Shamaileh / Desalination 206 (2007) 322332

325

Fig. 1. Water sources location map of the study area (modified from Europa Technologies 2005).

The samples were analyzed for major components, cations: K+ and Na+ (flame photometry,
ATS 200 MKI, Advanced Technical Service), Ca2+
and Mg2+ (titration with 0.1 N EDTA), and anions:
, NO3, F and PO3
(ion chromatography,
Cl, SO2
4
4
Dionex-100). The samples were collected in polyethylene bottles and for microbiological analysis
in sterilized glass bottles.
A multiple tube test method was used to determine the presence of total and faecal coliform
bacteria. 10 ml of water sample were added to ten
test tubes containing Lauryl Tryptose Broth (LTB)
media (Himedia Laboratories Limited, Mumbai,
India). The tubes were then incubated at 35C for
24 h. Gas bubbles were noticed inside the tubes
indicated the presence of coliform bacteria (positive test). The tubes that showed negative results
were incubated for an extra 24 h. Total and faecal
coliform were tested by inoculation the positive
samples into two tubes containing Brilliant Green
Lactose Bille Broth medium (BGLB) at 35C and
45C, the first to ascertain the positive results and
the second to check for faecal coliform [4].

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of the

scale was collected using LEITZ AMR 1000A
SEM. The composition of the scale samples were
analyzed in Jordan Cement Factory using ARN
9800 X-ray fluorescence.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Physical, chemical and microbiological characteristics
Table 1 presents the temperature, pH, total
hardness (TH), turbidity, electrical conductance
(EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), and free chlorine of the nine sites samples. The pH of the
samples ranged from 6.67 to 7.89. TH ranged from
20 to 90 mg/L. Water with TH less than 60 mg/L
is considered to be corrosive which also depends
on the pH and TDS value. The highest TDS value
(516.48 mg/L) was found in Shalha Spring.
The major ionic composition of the water samples is summarized in Tables 2 and 3. Water samples
investigated in this study exhibit high concentra-

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A.E. Al-Rawajfeh, E.M. Al-Shamaileh / Desalination 206 (2007) 322332

Table 1
Temperature, pH, total hardness (TH), turbidity, electrical conductance (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), and free
chlorine for the water samples
Site No.

Temperature
(C)

pH

TH
(mg/L)

Turbidity
(NTU)

EC
(S/cm)

TDS
(mg/L)

Free Cl2
(mg/L)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
JDWS(*)

21.9
21.6
22.1
21.8
21.2
21.4
21.7
21.8
21.7

7.89
7.73
7.44
7.54
7.58
6.67
7.57
7.63
7.80
6.508.5

35
90
55
20
40
40
75
25
40
300

0.7
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.4
0.6
0.7
1

564
499
607
418
491
807

360.96
319.36
388.48
267.52
314.24
516.48

500

0.0
0.8
0.0
0.0
0.6
0.0
0.8
0.0
1.0

(*) Allowable limits according to the Jordanian Drinking Water Standards (286/2001).

Table 2
Anions and cations in the water samples

Site No.

Cl
(ppm)

F
(ppm)

NO3
(ppm)

SO2
4
(ppm)

Na+
(ppm)

K+
(ppm)

Ca2+
(ppm)

Mg2+
(ppm)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
JDWS(*)

45.575
38.721
48.526
48.431
48.402
32.182
39.283
91.074

200

0.801
0.446
0.526
0.431
0.432
1.021
0.251
0.771

1.5

19.598
12.880
71.750
17.720
17.720
17.599
14.670
105.270

50

36.712
17.974
60.496
34.978
34.978
31.009
16.321
63.414

200

122.2
11.11
13.33
6.66
44.44
15.55
66.66
18.88

200

2.397
1.370
1.095
1.164
1.301
24.52
1.027
3.014

105
123
107
103
102
119
103
115

75

93
107
97
91
93
105
91
107

30

(*) Allowable limits according to the Jordanian Drinking Water Standards (286/2001).

tion of Cl, NO3, SO2

and HCO3 as the major
4
2+
anions and Ca and Mg2+ as the major cations.
Calcium, bicarbonate, chloride and sulphate are
attributed to the dissolution of lime, gypsum and
halite in the investigated area. The Mg:Ca ratio
(i.e. from 0.86 to 0.93) indicates dolomite aquifer
[22]. High nitrate concentration was found in AlMordeh Spring. This may be attributed to the local
percolation of wastewater from cesspool in the
nearby area. Tarawneh et al. [2] reported that trace

metal concentrations (Pb, Zn, Cu and Fe) were

significantly lower than the WHO drinking guidelines. High pH values enhance precipitation and
retard mobility of these metals if exist in nature.
The lower concentration may be also attributed
to the lower industrial activities in the investigated
area.
If pH and TA (TA = [HCO3] + 2 [CO32] +
[OH] [H+]) are known, the concentrations of
species can be calculated
HCO3, CO2, and CO2
3

A.E. Al-Rawajfeh, E.M. Al-Shamaileh / Desalination 206 (2007) 322332

327

Table 3
CO2 species: HCO3, CO2
, CO2 and TC the water samples
3

Site No.

TA
(mol/kg) 104

TC
(mol/kg) 104

HCO3
(mol/kg) 104

CO2
3
(mol/kg) 106

CO2
(mol/kg) 105

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

5.869
6.874
5.980
5.757
5.701
6.651
5.757
6.428
5.813

5.733
6.819
6.127
5.837
5.758
8.142
5.819
6.446
5.734

5.463
6.522
5.826
5.576
5.507
6.623
5.564
6.168
5.483

19.470
16.980
7.482
8.779
9.251
1.468
9.350
12.490
15.700

0.7562
0.1277
2.2560
1.7370
1.5880
15.0400
1.6210
1.5330
0.9393

as follows with the results are shown in Table 3:

[H + ] = 10 pH
[HCO3 ] =

[CO 2 ] =

(4)

[H + ]2 + TA[H + ] KW

(1 + 2K

/[H + ])

[H + ]2 + TA[H + ] KW

K1 /[H + ] (1 + 2 K 2 /[H + ])

[CO32 ] =

[H + ]2 + TA[H + ] KW
2 (1 + [H + ]/ 2 K 2 )

TC = [HCO3 ] + [CO32 ] + [CO2 ]

(5)

springs are polluted (see Table 4). This may be

attributed to the presence of public sewer because
not all the buildings and villages are connected to
the sanitation system. Tarawneh et al. [2] reported
that some springs in Tafila region are polluted with
coliform, nitrate and boron and they attributed it
to surface pollution.
3.2. Potential of scale formation and corrosion

(6)

(7)

(8)

When a certain total carbon dioxide content

(TC) is dissolved in seawater, it is important to
know which fraction thereof is present as CO2,
ions. The
which as HCO3 ions and which as CO2
3
distribution of the species depends on the pH value,
temperature and the ionic strength.
Water samples have been tested microbiologically for total and faecal coliform bacteria.
The results indicate that water resources are not
polluted, while Hasda, Shalha and Al-Mordeh

3.2.1. Scaling and corrosion tendency

While Langelier saturation index (LSI) [9] is
a qualitative index only indicating if the solution
is under-saturated or supersaturated with CaCO3,
Table 4
Microbiological characterization of the water samples

Site
No.

Positive tubes at
35C

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

10
0
0
0
0
10
0
10
0

44C

Total coliform
MPN/100 mL

Faecal
coliform

10
0
0
0
0
10
0
10
0

>23

>23

>23

Positive

Positive

Positive

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A.E. Al-Rawajfeh, E.M. Al-Shamaileh / Desalination 206 (2007) 322332

Ryznar stability index (RSI) [10] is a practical extension of the LSI based on experience. It attempts
to quantify the relation between CaCO3 saturation
and alkaline scale formation. RSI is a correlation
of an empirical data base of scale thickness observed in water systems to the water chemistry. If
water has a negative LSI value, it is under-saturated with respect to calcium carbonate and is
potentially corrosive. Conversely, for waters with
a positive LSI, a protective layer of calcium carbonate can form as the water is supersaturated with
CaCO3 and the water is scaling. Saturated water
has a LSI of zero. If water has an RSI value between 6 and 7, the water has the potential of light
scale or corrosion. Less than 6, water is scale forming, and greater than 7, water is corrosive.
Unlike the other indexes such as LSI and RSI,
the calcium carbonate precipitation potential
(CCPP) quantifies the amount of CaCO3 that may
dissolve or precipitate. Table 5 presents the interpretation of the calcium carbonate precipitation
potential. The CCPP is the only calcium carbonate
saturation index that is proportional to the reaction
kinetics [23]:
d[Ca 2+ ]
= 105 kr A(CCPP) 2
dt

(9)

Table 5
Interpretation of the calcium carbonate precipitation potential

Description

CCPP value as mg/L CaCO3

Scaling (protective)
Passive
Mildly corrosive
Corrosive (aggressive)

>0
5 to 0
10 to 5
< 10

where kr is the rate constant of reaction (2), kr =

9.496 1019 exp(4800/T) [24], and A is the surface area available for precipitation.
To highlight the limitations of LSI in determining the maximum allowable recovery and
scale inhibitor dose for a reverse osmosis (RO)
system, Seacord and Zander [25] compared the
values of LSI vs. CCPP of Utah groundwater and
South Carolina groundwater. The CCPP of byproduct water from the RO system in Utah was
1235 mg/L (as CaCO3) and in South Carolina was
24 mg/L, while the LSI values for these two systems were approximately the same; 2.3 and 2.1,
respectively.
Table 6 presents the Langelier saturation index,
Ryznar stability index, the calcium carbonate
precipitation potential and the molar ratio of

Table 6
LSI, RSI, CCPP and ion ratio values of the water samples
Site No.

Ca2+
(mol/kg) 103

LSI (*)

RSI (**)

CCPP (***)
(mg/kg)

SO4/HCO3
(mM)

Cl + SO4
(ppm)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

2.625
3.075
2.675
2.575
2.550
2.975
2.575
2.875
2.600

0.39
0.46
0.82
0.75
0.73
1.55
0.72
0.60
0.49

8.7
8.7
9.1
9.0
9.0
9.8
9.0
8.8
8.8

1.77
3.18
4.38
3.81
3.64
16.76
3.64
3.12
2.34

0.7
0.3
1.1
0.7
0.7
0.5
0.3
1.1

82
57
109
83
83
63
56
154

(*)
LSI = pHpHS, where pHS = p[Ca2+] + pTA + pK2 pKSP,
(**) RSI = 2 pHS pH.
(***) CCPP = 50 000 (TAi TAeq), modeled using a C++ computer code.

A.E. Al-Rawajfeh, E.M. Al-Shamaileh / Desalination 206 (2007) 322332

sulphate/bicarbonate (SO2
/HCO3) values of the
4
water samples. LSI values were negative and
ranged from 0.39 (i.e. slightly corrosive but nonscale forming) in Hasda Spring to 1.55 (i.e. serious corrosive) in Shalha Spring. RSI values ranged
from 8.7 (i.e. heavy corrosion) to 9.8 (i.e. corrosion intolerable). Both LSI and RSI values indicate
corrosion conditions. CCPP values are negative
and ranged from 1.77 (i.e. passive) to 16.76 (i.e.
corrosive). This means that the water is undersaturated with calcium carbonate at ambient temperature but it is corrosive. This image changes
upon heating and evaporation of water and with
the release of CO2.
Fig. 2 shows the amount of CaCO3 precipitates
or dissolves from the different 9 samples expressed as mg CaCO3 per kg solution. The inset shows
the first 8 samples at their ambient conditions (i.e.
temperature, pH, and ionic strength or salinity).
The solid circles show the effect of raising temperature on the CCPP value of sample number 9.
The amount of CaCO3 precipitates increases with
increasing temperature.

329

Inhibition of incrustation and corrosion is

ideally characterized by the following conditions
[26]:
water should be supersaturated by 410 mg/L
with calcium carbonate;
calcium and alkalinity values, expressed as
calcium carbonate, should each be greater than
40 mg/L;
alkalinity: (chloride plus sulphate) ratio should
be at least 5:1;
a certain Mg : Ca ratio is necessary to retard
the transformation of aragonite to calcite [13];
pH should be in the range of 6.87.3.
The participation of cations and anions should
be accounted for since they may have either
inhibitory or stabilization effect [16]. The effect
of magnesium on the CaCO3 scale formation has
been investigated [1114]. An initial molar concentration ratio greater than 3 causes calcium carbonate to precipitate as aragonite [27]. The
precipitation of calcium carbonate initiated by a
sudden change in partial pressure has been mark-

Calcium Carbonate Precipitation Potential

(CCPP) [mg/kg]

18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4

pH = 7.80
[Ca2+] = 104 ppm

2
0
-2
-4
0

20

40

60

Temperature [oC]
Fig. 2. Effect of temperature on calcium carbonate precipitation potential (CCPP).

80

100

330

A.E. Al-Rawajfeh, E.M. Al-Shamaileh / Desalination 206 (2007) 322332

edly reduced in the presence of a narrow range of

Mg2+ concentration [14]. Koutsoukos [28] reported that 0.0533 M of magnesium ions is a threshold
limit of CaCO3 scale formation in calcite-seeded
supersaturated solutions. The water samples investigated in this work were not seeded with calcite. The threshold limit of magnesium ions for
maximum solubility is at 0.00424 M (see Fig. 3).
Zn2+ has similar effect on CaCO3 scale. Recently,
Lisitsin et al. [15] reported that a substantial potential for suppressing CaCO3 scale formation is
caused by trace concentrations of Zn ions. A Zn2+
concentration of the order of 2 ppm was able to
exert a marked suppression effect on the bulk precipitation of CaCO3.
Chloride ion is the most aggressive among the
salt ions present in water (for all water samples
investigated in this work, Cl + SO4 > 50 ppm). It
increases in electrical conductivity of water, facilitates the flow of corrosion current, and simultaneously, hinders the creation of protection layers. It
contributes to nucleation and propagation of corrosion pits. Additionally, Cl ion creates dissolving
salts with most of metals and therefore protection
layers made of corrosion products are not created.
CO2 (due to its acidic character) in water may
influence corrosion directly and indirectly by

creating protection layers of calcium carbonate.

Since the presence of aggressive CO2 in water
counteracts its role in the protective scale layers
formation, particularly in water with low hardness,
it is not desired.
3.2.2. Scale morphology and composition
Fig. 4 shows the scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) of a scale sample produced from the evaporation of tap water sample from Tafila Water Network. Aragonite, the needle-shaped CaCO3 polymorph, normally formed at high temperatures
[29]. Turner and Smith [30] reported that calcite
crystals were observed when the supersaturation
ratio (SR) at the temperature of the heat transfer
surface was relatively moderate (i.e., 0.90 < LSI
< 1.00), whereas aragonite was observed when
the supersaturation was relatively high (i.e., 0.95
< LSI < 1.34). There was no sharp boundary between the regimes where calcite and aragonite
were the dominant crystalline phases. The composition of the scale is mainly CaCO3 as presented
in Table 7. It is known that the solubility of carbonate and bicarbonate ions increases in the presence of excess chloride ions. Thus, the molar ratio
of SO4/HCO3 is a predictive ratio to the type of

0
-2
R2 = 0.989

-4
CCPP [mg/kg]

-6
-8
-10
-12
-14
-16
-18
-20
90

92

94

96

98

100

[Mg2+] [ppm]

Fig. 3. Calcium carbonate precipitation potential (CCPP) vs. [Mg2+].

102

104

106

108

A.E. Al-Rawajfeh, E.M. Al-Shamaileh / Desalination 206 (2007) 322332

331

Table 7
The average composition of the scale formed from tap water distillation

Element as

Expected form

Average % wt

Calcium as CaO
Magnesium as mgO
Silicate as SiO2
Aluminum as Al2O3
Iron as Fe2O3

55.20
1.35
2.19
0.23
0.32

CaCO3, aragonite
CaCO3.MgCO3, dolomite
SiO2, silica
Al2Si2O5(OH)4, kaolinite
Fe2O3, hematite

94
1.8
2.2
0.7
1.3

tions and scale formation upon heating. The scale

composition was mainly CaCO 3 (aragonite).
Water samples have high concentration of Cl,
SO2
and HCO3 as the major anions and Ca2+ and
4
Mg2+ as the major cations. Mg has an inhibition
effect on scaling up to a certain threshold limit.
Microbiological tests indicate that water of Hasda,
Shalha and Al-Mordeh springs are polluted with
total and faecal coliform bacteria.
Acknowledgement

Fig. 4. SEM (1040) of the scale formed from tap water

evaporation.

the scale, if it is either SO4 or CO3 scale [31]. A

value less than 1 indicates high CO3 scale (i.e. >80%)
and low SO4 scale while a value between 1 to 10
indicates medium to high CO3 scale and medium
SO4 scale. The SO4/HCO3 ratios of the water samples ranged from 0.3 in Tafila Reservoir to 1.1 in
Abour Well 6 (see Table 6). The (Na + K)/(Ca +
Mg) ratio is a mirror image of the SO4/HCO3 ratio.
4. Conclusion
Nine different tap water sources in Tafila City,
south Jordan have been investigated toward the
potential of scale formation and corrosion. Langelier saturation index (LSI), Ryznar stability index
(RSI) and the calcium carbonate precipitation
potential (CCPP) values confirm corrosion condi-

The authors would like to greatly acknowledge

the following for offering an access to use their
laboratories: Mutah University, for ion chromatography, The General Directory of Health of Tafila
Governate, for microbiological tests, The University of Jordan, for SEM, and finally, Jordan Cement Factory in Al-Rashadiyah, for X-ray fluorescence.
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